L A S E R Spontaneous Emission: The electron will not

stay in excited state immediately returns to

Interaction of Radiation with matter:
ground (time lag is 10-8s), by the emission of
Atoms are building blocks of matter, the energy that absorbed in the form of
atom consists of positively charged nucleus in a electromagnetic radiation is called as
small space at the centre and electrons are Spontaneous Emission.
revolving around nucleus in specified discrete Therefore we have hυ= E1 – E2,
orbits. When sufficient energy in the form Frequency of radiation emitted= υ= E1 – E2/h.
Electromagnetic radiation incident on an atom
in ground state, it transfer to excited state, afther
immediately returns to ground state (time lag Spontaneous emission
Incident Photon
10-8sec) by the emission electromagnetic
radiation. The energy emitted in this case is
Atom* Atom+ photon
incoherent. Hence there is need of producing
coherent electromagnetic rays for various The probability of spontaneous emission from
applications. It is LASER. E2 to E1, depend only on the properties of states
LASER stands for Light Amplification by and the number of the atoms in excited states
Stimulated Emission of Radiation. This sort i.e., N2.
of light amplification takes place in three P21 (spont) = A21 N2
processes,
A12 is called Einstein’s coefficient for
Induced Absorption: The atom in ground state
spontaneous emission of radiation.
(E1) may excites to higher state (E2) by the
Light from Electric bulb, Sun and Candle are
absorption of photon energy (incident light) is
example for the spontaneous emission
called induced absorption.
Stimulated Emission: If the atom in excited
state is stimulated by a passing photon of
exactly right energy (equivalent to energy
Incident photon
difference between two states), the atom returns
to ground state by the emission of two photons
Therefore we have, hυ= E1 – E2 is the energy
same frequency and both are in phase is called
absorbed by the electron
Stimulated emission.
Atom + photon Atom* (excited atom)
Probability of absorption is P12 = B12 N1 u(υ) The probability of stimulated emission depends
on the energy density of incident

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 1

 of atoms in the excited state i.e., N2 as well as states E1 and E2 in thermal equilibrium at
on the properties of state 1 and 2. temperature T are given by
P21(stim) = B21 N2 u(υ)

lihgt
Coherent
Passing
photon
………(5.6)

Atom* + photon Atom+ two photons

Substituting N1/N2 in Eq (5.5), we get

The stimulation emission takes place when atom 𝐴 𝑁2

u(ν) = 𝐵21 ℎ𝜗
21
𝑒 𝑘𝑇
in excited state is interacted by the passing
photon.
Comparing it with Plank’s Radiation law

In thermal equilibrium at temperature T, with

radiation frequency n and energy
density u(v). Let N1 and N2 be the number of
atoms in energy states E1 and E2 respectively at We get
any instant. The number of atoms in state E1
absorb a photon and give rise to absorption per
(i) ;
unit time

B12 =B21, The probability of spontaneous

For equilibrium P12 = P21
emission is same as that of induced absorption.
N1 B12 u(v) = N2 [A21 + B21 u(v)] This means that if these two processes will
occur at equal rates, so that no population
inversion can be attained in a two-level system.

(ii) The ratio of spontaneous

………(5.5) emission and stimulated emission is
proportional to ν3. This implies that, the
According to Boltzmann distribution law probability of spontaneous emission dominates
number of atoms N1 and N2 in energy over induced emission more and more as the

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 2

energy difference between the two states
PUMPING:
increases.
Pumping is process by which the population
inversion is created by the application of
The spontaneous emission is possible under
external energy to the atoms in ground state in
normal process but not the stimulated emission.
the form of light or electric field etc..
This is because the time (10-8s) for which atom
stays in excited is state too short to interact with There are three types of pumping

passing photon, more over if incase the atom is 1. Optical pumping:

stimulated the coherent radiations undergo In this method, energy in the form of
induced absorption rather continue to stimulate electromagnetic radiation (E=hν) is applied to
because the number of atoms in ground state active medium to raise (pump) atoms or
larger compared to excited state. molecules from ground state to excited state or
to create population inversion, hence to
POPULATION INVERSION construct the coherent (Laser) beam.
To enhance stimulating process, it is required The sources are Xenon flash lamp, Krypton
create the situation that induced absorption flash lamp, Carbon arc lamp those give the flash
reduce, it is done by, situating the atoms in that last for few milli second.
excited state relatively long time. So that The Optical pumping is used in solid state lasers
number atoms (population) in excited state like Ruby laser and YAG
exceed those of in ground state. This process is 2. Electrical Pumping:
called as population inversion. Hence passing
This method is used in gas lasers. A strong
photon will get enough time to stimulate the
electric field is applied across the two ends of
excited atom.
the active material (gases) filled in a long tube.
Therefore Population inversion is a state of
The electric discharge produced will ionize the
material in which the number of atoms in
active material (gases) and activates the
excited state is greater than number of atoms
pumping. The energetic free electrons are
in the ground state, and stay in the excited
accelerated towards anode, collide with the
relatively long time (i.e 10-3 to 10-2 second).
atoms of active material in their path and raise
Under the condition of Population inversion,
them to excited state, that’s how population
probability of induced absorption decreases and
inversion takes place.
the passing photons can interact with the excited
The Electrical pumping is used in Gas lasers
atoms to emit coherent radiations.
like He-Ne laser and Co2 Laser.
The Population Inversion is achieved by the
process called pumping. 3. Direct conversion of electric energy

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 3

 to coherent radiation used. Hence the direct band gap

It takes place in Semiconductor diode laser. semiconductors like GaAs and compounds of

Forward voltage applied starts the pumping GaAs or AlGaN or InGaN are the better

process and population of inversion achieved materials to produce the semiconductor lasers.

when current goes to the threshold (maximum) Construction: The basic type of Semiconductor

value. Ex. GaAs diode laser, GaAsP diode laser. laser is constructed by the GaAs or InGaN
semiconductor. This is just a common p-n
Laser Cavity: Laser cavity is long tube with junction diode, which is heavily doped. The
perfectly parallel two opposite faces, in which schematic diagram of a homo junction
active material (active medium) which emit semiconductor laser (the p and n type material
LASER is placed. One of its faces is are made of same type of materials) is shown in
completely silvered while other face is partially figure. The diode is extremely small in size with
silvered. sides of the order of of 1 to 10 μm.
the laser produced in such medium travels back +V
and forth repeatedly along the axis of the cavity Silvered
face Metal Coherent
coating radiation
due to reflection at the silvered faces and
p
contributes for stimulated emission, and produce
n Partially
amplified huge pulse of laser. The highly Metal Silvered face
coating
amplified pulse escaped from the semi silvered –V
face. The junction lies in a horizontal plane through
There are different lasers, one among them is the centre. The top and bottom faces are coated
Semiconductor laser. with metal layers and ohmic contact are
Semiconductor Laser: provided to pass the current through diode. The
A semiconductor is a material whose front and rear faces are parallel to each other,
conductivity is lies between conductor and perpendicular to plane of junction and are
insulator above 0k. Silicon (Si) and Germanium polished. The junction or depletion layer is
(Ge) extensively used semiconductors in active reason and is about 1μm thick.
electronics. These type semiconductors are not Working: Under normal condition of p-n
suitable for the construction of laser as they are junction, the Fermi energy level lies between the
indirect band gap semiconductors they are not conduction band and valency band (as shown in
doped suitabally. Hence they emit the energy in fig. a) of the semiconductor, and it is nearer to
the form heat. For production of semiconductor the valency band at p side, and nearer the
laser the direct band gap semiconductors are

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 4

conduction band at n side of the p-n junction potential and diode emits incoherent photons of
respectively. energy lies in infrared or visible reason and the
device is called as light emitting diode.
________

When junction voltage go on increased, the

_ _ _ Ordinary p-n
junction current vary linearly and reaches to its threshold
EF
o o o o (maximum) value, due to maximum energy, the
o
electrons surges into depletion region and large
ooooooooo
_ Ordina
_ _ number of electrons occupy into conduction
_
band and the valance band is occupied with the
large number of holes, this create the situation
________
of population inversion. A small pulse of
oooooooo EF Heavily
o
EF doped p-n photon starts the stimulation emission while the
junction
o o o o atoms return to ground state. Hence with the
o
emission of coherent radiation atoms return to
ground state. The variety of laser diodes those
emit wavelength range from infrared to visible
________
Heavily red depends type of impurities present in the
doped p-n
EF oooooooo
junction with
semi conducting material. For Ex. At room
o
PassingPhoto
saturation temperature GaAs laser emits light of wave
n current
o o o o
length of 9000 Ǻ in IR reason and GaAsP laser
emits light of wave length 6500Ǻ
Dotted line represents electrons are majority
carriers on n-side and minority carriers on p-
Laser diodes find widely used in
side, circle represents holes majority carriers
telecommunication as they can easily modulated
on p-side minority carriers on n-side
and easily couple light sources for fiber optics
When the p and n semiconductors are doped
communication. They are used in various
heavily the thickness of depletion layer
measuring instruments, such as range finders.
decreases and hence Fermi level crosses the
Visible lasers, typically red but later also green,
conduction band in n-type material and valency
are common as laser pointers. Both low and
band in p-type material (in fig. b).
high-power diodes are used extensively in the
On the application of forward voltage, slowly
printing industry both as light sources for
recombination starts at low current (slightly
scanning (input) of images and for very high-
above barrier potential) above the barrier
speed and high-resolution printing plate (output)

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 5

manufacturing. Infrared and red laser diodes are 2. Building size determination, Transport
common in CD players, CD-ROMs and DVD planning, vehicle automation, GPS network
technology. Violet lasers are used in HD-DVD planning etc.
and Blue-Ray technology.
3. Oil and gas exploration, Solar energy

LIDAR: planning. To measure natural disasters etc.

LIDAR, which stands for Light Detection and
4. It also use to measure the environmental
Ranging, is a remote sensing method that
pollution and also identify the pollutant and
uses LASER source to detect and to find
magnitude.
distance of object from source. These light
pulses—combined with other data recorded by Laser (Doppler) Cooling
the airborne system— generate precise, three-
dimensional information about the shape of the
system under observation.

A LIDAR instrument principally consists of a

laser, a scanner, and a specialized GPS receiver.
Airplanes and helicopters are the most
commonly used platforms for acquiring LIDAR Laser cooling was independently proposed by
data over broad areas. Two types of LIDAR Hänsch and Schawlow for the cooling of free
are topographic and bathymetric. Topographic atoms and by Wineland and Dehmelt for the
LIDAR typically uses a near-infrared laser to cooling of trapped ions. In this technique,
map the land, while bathymetric lidar uses momentum absorbed by the photons in a laser
water-penetrating green light to also measure beam to slow down the motion of atomic
seafloor and riverbed elevations. particles.
Laser cooling is achieved by using a laser tuned
To examine the natural and manmade
slightly below the centre frequency of a strong
environments with accuracy, precision, and
(allowed) transition in the atom or ion to be
flexibility LIDERs are used.
cooled. The radiation is therefore Doppler-
1. The LIDARS are useful in the geogrphica shifted into resonance with the transition
mapping, survey of Agricultural land, frequency when the atom is moving towards the
Coatsline mapping, Forest surveys, Under laser beam and out of resonance when it is
water environment Etc. travelling in the opposite direction.

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 6

Therefore when photon and atoms are moving
towards each other, momentum of atoms
reduces, as kinetic absorbed by photons, the net
effect is that the atom is slowed down, which
gives cooling up to sub Kelvin level.
b) Nova: Nova is the name given to second
The atom and photon which are in same generation laser fusion device that employs
direction collides momentum increases. lasers ten times more powerful than the

LASER FUSION: Shiva laser fusion, using 10 lasers focused

We know that, nuclear fusion is a process on 1mm size target area, dumpint 105joules

whereby two or more lighter atomic nuclei of enrgy into the target in a nanosecond.

combine together with release of enormous

Engineering applications: Now a days
amount of energy. This reaction is called
the laser is available in wide range of
thermo-nuclear reaction and possible only at
wavelengths, i.e., from infrared to ultraviolet
temperature about more than 10000K.
and with power milli watt to mega watt. Hence
An attempt to bring the Nuclear fusion reaction the laser has wide range of applications and play
on table top or to laboratory is possible by Laser vital role in Research, Engineering and Medical
technology. fields. Some of the industrial applications are
Laser fusion attempts to force nuclear fusion in discussed below.
tiny pellets or micro balloons of deuterium-
Drilling: LASER DRILLING makes it possible
tritium mixture by zapping them with such a
to machine both very small and precise holes in
high energy density those they will fuse before
a variety of shapes and orientations in a wide
they have time to move away from each other.
variety of materials, including difficult-to-
There two fusion devices developed by
machine aerospace alloys. These holes can be
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory.
tapered or shaped to enhance the amount and
a) Shiva: Named after multiarmed Hindu god
direction of air or liquid flowing through them.
shiva. Here collection 20 neodynium laser
The drilling of holes in aerospace/turbine engine
are focused to precise position in a target
parts generally serves to enhance the cooling
chamber containing micro balloons of
characteristics of the part.
deuterium-tritium gas mixture, each of the
0.1mm size balloon give energy equivalent
A high power pulsed Nd: YAG laser is normally
of a barrel of oil.
used, although a CO2 laser can be used with
non-metallic parts.

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 7

With lasers, one can drill holes as small as conductivities between stainless steel and
10μm in diameter. For drilling, the energy must copper, it is done so quickly by the laser that the
be supplied in such a way that rapid thermal conductivities are irrelevant.
evaporations of material take place without
The spot size of the laser can vary between
significant radial diffusion of heat into the work
0.2 mm and 13 mm, though only smaller sizes
piece. The vaporised material is removed with
are used for welding. The depth of penetration is
the help of a gas jet.
proportional to the amount of power supplied,
Pulsed rub and neodymium lasers are commonly but is also dependent on the location of the focal
used for drilling holes of high aspect (l/d) ratio point: penetration is maximized when the focal
(large length to diameter ratio). point is slightly below the surface of the work
piece.
Laser beam welding (LBW): It is a welding
technique used to join multiple pieces of metal LBW is a versatile process, capable of welding
through the use of a laser. The beam provides a carbon steels, HSLA steels, stainless steel,
concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, aluminum, and titanium. Due to high cooling
deep welds and high welding rates. The process rates, cracking is a concern when welding high-
is frequently used in high volume applications, carbon steels. The weld quality is high, similar
such as in the automotive industry. to that of electron beam welding. The speed of
welding is proportional to the amount of power
The highly collimated beam of a laser can be
supplied but also depends on the type and
further focused to a microscopic dot of
thickness of the work pieces.
extremely high energy density for welding and
cutting.

The automobile industry makes extensive use

of carbon dioxide lasers with powers up to
several kilowatts for computer controlled
welding on auto assembly lines.

Garmire points out an interesting application of

CO2 lasers to the welding of stainless steel
handles on copper cooking pots. A nearly
impossible task for conventional welding
because of the great difference in thermal

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 8

 Optical Fibers: 1. Core: This is central part of the optical fiber
Optical fibers are hair-thin strands of ultra made of transparent material, namely pure glass
pure transparent dielectrics, like plastic or or plastic, through which light propagates by the
glass, use to transmit information in the form method of TIR. Thickness of the core varies
of electromagnetic radiation. from 10μm to 100 μm depending upon the type
The optical fiber is working on the principle of of the optical fiber.
total internal reflection. When light travels 2. Cladding: The core is coated with another
from denser medium to rarer medium at an transparent material called Cladding. R.I. of
angle of incidence greater than critical angle, cladding is slightly less than R.I. of Core that
reflects back to denser medium, this helps to achieve TIR. Thickness of the
phenomenon is known as Total Internal cladding varies from 25 μm to 50 μm depends
Reflection (TIR). upon the type of optical fibers.
3. Jacket: It is outermost region of the optical
nr r
fiber. It is an opaque material covers the
cladding and protects the optical fiber from any
ni C
sort of damage. Thickness of the sheath over
i>C
cladding is about 25 μm
Numerical Aperture
To achieve Total Internal Reflection in optical
Conditions: fiber, light incident on a face of optical fiber,
#Angle of incidence is greater than critical only below certain angle of incidence, above
angle (C in figure). which light refracts through cladding.
#Light should travel from denser medium to
rarer medium. The largest angle at which light beam

Construction of Optical Fiber: incident on a face of optical fiber so that it

undergo TIR and prapogatses through it, is
The optical fiber mainly contains three parts.
called as angle of acceptance (θ0),
1. Core. 2. Cladding. 3. Sheath.

In figure, a ray of light AO traveling in a

60 t0 150 μm

50 to 125 μm

h
S h e a t

medium of R.I. no, incident at point O, on the

Cladding
10μm to
100 μm

Core

face of core (R.I. n1) of an optical fiber, at an

angle θa, which refracts along OB in the core at
an angle θ1.

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 9

 B C But the to get total internal reflection angle of
90-C
O C incidence (θi) < θ0
90-C
θa Numerical aperture of the fiber depends only

A on the indices of the core and cladding of the

fiber, provided the surrounding medium is air.
From Snell’s law we have,
Numerical aperture is always positive as n1 is
n0 sin θa = n1 sin (90 – C)
always greater than n2.
n0 sin θ0 = n1 cos C
Fraction change of Refractive Index (Δ):
n0 sin θ0 = n1 [1 - sin2C]1/2 --------------------- 1
Fraction change of Refractive Index is defined
Where, n1 is R.I. of Core.
as the ratio of difference between the R.I. of
The ray travel along BC and incident at an angle
core and cladding to the R.I. of Core.
C on core cladding interface and refracts at an
n1 − n 2
angle of 90o = or n1  = n1 − n 2
n1
n1 sin C = n2 sin 90,
Relation between N.A. and Δ:
Where n2 – R.I. of Cladding
n
N.A. = n1 − n2
2 2
= (n1 + n2 )(n1 − n2 )
Or Sin C = 2 ---------------------------------2
n1 = (n1 + n2 )n1 = (2n1 )n1
n0 sin θ0 = n1 sin (90 - C) or
Therefore, N.A. = n1 2
Substitute eqn. 2 in eqn. 3, n0 sin θ0 = n1

Modes of light Propagation:

n2
2
 n2 2 
1− n1 1 − 2 
2
2
or n0 sin θ0 =  Modes of propagation of light of an optical
n1  n1 
fiber corresponds to those light waves,
n1 − n2
2 2
n0 sin θ0 = continue to propagate in the optical fiber,
among number of waves incident on it, within
n1 − n2
2 2

Sin 0 = the angle of acceptance.

n0
If the incident medium is air then n0 =1, This happens due to destructive interference
because of some modes interfere out of phase
Sin 0 = n1 − n2
2 2

are not continue to prapagate.

This equation is called as numerical aperture.

Therefore N.A. = n1 − n2
2 2 V-number:
The number of modes supported for
The N.A. is always positive as n1 > n2
propagation in the fiber is determined by a
The angle of acceptance,
parameter called as V-number. It is
 o = Sin−1  n12 − n2 2  dependent on diameter (d) Numerical aperture
 
Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 10
 n12 − n22 ) of fiber, wavelength of light guided • Cladding is very thick, including cladding
the diameter of core goes upto 125 μm
and RI of surrounding medium.
• The R.I. of the core and cladding are
d
It is given by, V = n12 − n 22 uniform throughout.

Modes of communication: section of radiations • Carries higher bandwidth give lower signal
those enter optical fiber are guided through it, loss than multimode fiber, but requires a
these are in phase and produce constructing light source with a narrow spectral width
interference, the modes of communication is like laser.
V2 • Single-mode fiber is best designed for
determined by equation, N 
2 longer transmission distances, making it
Types of Optical Fibers: suitable for telecommunications.

The optical fibers Classified on the basis of Single-mode fiber has disadvantages.
1) Index Profile and 2)Modes of propagation
• The smaller core diameter makes coupling
light into the core is more difficult.

Fig • It is also difficult to splice (connect the ends

a of optical fiber) the optical fibers with one
another.
Fig • Single mode fibers lose more power at fiber
b
bends. They lose power because light
radiates into the cladding,
Fig
c Multimode Fibers:
As their name implies, multimode fibers can
Based on Index Profile, There are two types
propagate more than 100 modes of information
a) Step Index: Here RI of core one step and RI bit at a time. The number of modes propagated
of cladding another step. Here we have two depends on the core size and numerical aperture
types of fibers based on number of modes it (NA). As the core size and NA increase, the
allows: i) Single mode ii) Multi mode number of modes increases.
b) Graded Index : Here the RI of core is go on
Step index Multimode fiber:
reduces from axis of fiber to surface of fiber
• It has the core of diameter about 50 μm to
hence the name is graded index optical fiber,
100 μm and Numerical Aperture is about
here only multimode fibers are available.
0.20 to 0.29.
Single Mode Step Index Optical Fiber:
• Core diameter very small, i.e. 8μm to 10μm.

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 11

• It is surrounded by the cladding of thickness
• As the core size and NA increase, the
about 25 μm, which is covered by the
number of modes increases. Typical values
Jacket.
of fiber core size are 50 to 100 and NA vary
• A large core size and a higher NA have from 0.20 to 0.29
several advantages.
• The Grin has also similar applications as
• Light is launched into a multimode fiber that of the Step index multimode optical
with more ease.
fibers.
• The higher NA and the larger core size make The GRIN has few advantageous over the Step
it easier to make fiber connections. Index fiber because, the dispersion and
• During fiber splicing, core-to-core scattering of rays is avoided considerably.
alignment becomes less critical.
• Another advantage is that multimode fibers Fiber losses or Attenuation:
permit the use of light-emitting diodes As the light propagates through the optical fiber,

(LEDs). the intensity of the signal goes on decaying and

• The multimode step index optical fibers are become ineffective before reaching target is

used for the short distance communication called fiber loss or Attenuation.

like, Local Area Network (LAN), sending This may takes place due to impurities present

codes and massages in the defense area. in fiber due to physical damage caused to fiber

Multimode fibers also have disadvantage. or due to glass material itself absorb light.

As the number of modes increases, the effect The expression for the Attenuation:

of modal dispersion increases. Hence fiber As per the Labert’s law rate of decrease in the

loses the strength of signal frequently. intensity of light w.r.t. length traveled through
optical fiber is directly proportional to the
Graded-index Multimode fiber. original intensity of the light.

• This is the fiber in which, RI of core go on

𝑑𝑃
− 𝑑𝐿 𝛼 𝑃
reducing from axis of the fiber to its surface,
and hence the name is Graded Index (GRIN) P- original Intensity, length of optical fiber
𝑑𝑃
fiber. The outermost surface with lowest RI − 𝑑𝐿 = 𝛼 𝑃 Where α is constant called as
behaves as cladding. attenuation coefficient.
• GRIN fibers can also propagate over 100
modes like step index fiber. Rearrange the term and Integrate
𝑃𝑜 𝐿
• The number of modes allowed dependent on 𝑑𝑃
∫ = − ∫ 𝛼𝑑𝐿
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑝 0
the core size and numerical aperture (NA).

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 12

 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 intermediate range communications like
𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 𝑃𝑖𝑛 ) = - αL
intercoms and TV cables etc.
1 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝛼 = − 𝐿 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑃𝑖𝑛 ) bel
The network of the Optical Fiber
1 𝑃𝑖𝑛 communication is explained as follows,
𝛼 = 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝐿 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
Multiply 10 to get answer in dbel BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Above equation gives the attenuation per meter LED or ADL – Analog
LASER Analog to (electrical) Sound
diodes digital Signal
length of optical fiber. converter
The attenuation that takes place in optical fiber
DAL – Digital
is called as fiber loss. The fiber loss or OF
to analog
Digital
Signal
coverter
reduction in the intensity of light is due to,
Photo Sound
Detector
Absorption Loss: Caused by the fiber itself or Amplifier OF

by traces of impurities in the fiber, such as air The Input signal in the form of sound is convert
gap, water vapur or metal traces when light into electrical signal (analog signal). Using
Analog to Digital Converter (DAL) or coder the
absorbed through it.
analog signal is converted into digital signal.
Scattering Loss: Intrinsic loss mechanism
caused by the interaction of light with the glass The laser or LED is converting the digital
electrical signal to the electromagnetic beam of
It diverts the path of the light radiations of
light which is coupled to optical fiber.
different wavelength.
Bending loss: Loss induced by physical stress During its path in the optical fiber light suffers
various losses due to absorption, dispersion,
or strain created externally and internally.
scattering etc., so the intensity may fall below
Physical stress like sharp external bend, internal the threshold in such cases it must be amplified.
crack may divert the path of light so that, it may
To amplify the light is again converted to analog
suffer refraction rather TIR.
signal and is amplified to optimum level and
further it is converted to light signal.
Applications of Optical fiber in
Communication: The amplified light signal again made to
transmit through optical fiber. Between two
Nowadays the optical fibers find applications in
destinations numbers of such amplifiers are
all fields including, Industries, medicals, science
installed depending upon the distance through
and Engineering institutions and entertainments
which signal traverse.
(decorative).
At receiving station a Photo detector used to
Among all the maximum and efficient
converts light pulses into Digital signal and is
usage of optical fiber is in communications,
converted into analog signal using Decoder.
namely, Telephone cables, Local area networks,

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 13

The analog or electrical signal further converted
into sound at telephone receiver.

Applications of optical fibers:

Fibre Optic Sensors
When an optical fibre is subjected to
Fibre optic sensors can also be classified on the
perturbations of different kind, it experiences
basis of their application.
geometrical (size, shape) and optical (refractive
index, mode conversion) changes to a larger or • Physical sensors : used to measure physical
lesser extent depending upon the nature and the proparties like temperature, stress, etc.
magnitude of the perturbation. In fibre optic • Chemical sensors : used for pH
sensing, this response to external influence is measurement, gas analysis, spectroscopic
deliberately enhanced so that the resulting studies, etc.
change in optical radiation can be used as a • Bio-medical sensors : used in bio-medical
measure of the external perturbation. So the application like measurement of blood flow,
optical fibre serves as a transducer and converts glucose content etc.
measurands like temperature, stress, strain,
rotation or electric and magnetic currents into a Fiber optic sensors can again be classified as

corresponding change in the optical radiation. extrinsic or intrinsic sensors. In the former,

Since light is characterized by intensity, phase, sensing takes place in a region outside of the

frequency and polarization, any one or more of fiber and the fiber essentially serves as a conduit

these parameters may undergo a change. The for the to-and-fro transmission of light to the

usefulness of the fibre optic sensor therefore sensing region. On the other hand, in an

depends upon the magnitude of this change and intrinsic sensor one or more of the physical

our ability to measure and quantify the same properties of the fiber undergo a change and this

reliably and accurately. change is measure of the external perturbation.

2. The simplest & the most important use of

optical fibers is their use as flexible light pipes.
It can transmit light to otherwise inaccessible
areas & even provide information about such
regions by returning images. The fiberscope, a
bundle of fibers end-equipped with objective

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 14

lens & eye piece is used by doctors to examine Defense Purpose: Fibre optics are used for data
regions of the stomach, lungs and duodenum. transmission in high level data security fields of
military and aerospace applications. These are used
3. The rods & the cones of the human eye in wirings in aircrafts, hydrophones for SONARs
and Seismic applications.
function as light pipes transmitting light as in
optical fibers.
Industries: These fibers are used for imaging in hard
to reach places such as they are used for safety
4. Voice or video communication & data
measures and lighting purposes in automobiles both
transmission.
in the interior and exterior. They transmit
5. Optical fibers are smaller in size & light in information in lightning speed and are used in
airbags and traction control. They are also used for
weight compared to conventional metallic
research and testing purposes in industries.
cables. Since optical frequencies are much
higher than the conventional electrical signals, Broadcasting: These cables are used to transmit high
replacement of copper coaxial cables by fiber definition television signals which have a greater
optic cables offers greater communication bandwidth and speed. Broadcasting companies use
capacity in smaller space. Their maintenance optical fibers for wiring HDTV,CATV, video-on
cost is much lower. demand and many applications.

6. In contrast with the metallic conduction Lightening and Decorations: It gives an attractive,
techniques, communication by light through economical and easy way to illuminate the area and
optical fibers offers complete electrical that is why, it is widely used in decorations.
isolation, immunity to electromagnetic
Mechanical Inspections: On-site inspection
interference, radio frequency interference &
engineers use optical fibres to detect damages and
voltage surge. Optical fibers are free from
faults which are at hard to reach places.
signal leakage, electric sparks & fire hazards.
They are useful in laying cables near electronic Problems:
hardware in industrial equipment.
1. A step index optical fiber has a core of R.I
6. Communication through optical fibers is 1.46 and the cladding of R.I. 1.409. Determine
especially important & advantageous where the angle of acceptance and numerical aperture.
security of information is vital.
n1= 1.46, n2= 1.409, n0 = 1
Medical industry: Because of the extremely thin and
flexible nature, it used in various instruments to Let Numerical aperture N . A. = n12 − n22
view internal body parts by inserting into hollow
spaces in the body. It is used as lasers during N . A. = (1.462 − 1.4092 ) ,
surgeries, endoscopy, microscopy and biomedical
therefore N.A. = 0.38
research.
We know that
Communication: Telecommunication has major uses
N.A. = sin sin-1 0.38 = θa ⇒ 22o 21’
of optical fibre cables for transmitting and receiving
purposes. Compared to copper wires, fiber optics 2. A single mode step index optical fiber used in
cables are lighter, more flexible and carry more data. communication has a core with R.I. 1.45,

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 15

Fraction index change of 5 x 10-3, Determine the 5. A single mode step index optical fiber used in
R.I. of cladding and numerical aperture. communication has a core with R.I. 1.45,
n1 = 1.45, n2 = ?, Δ = 5 x 10-3 Fraction index change (R.I. change) of 5 x 10-3,
and a core diameter of 6 μm. If the operating
n1 − n2 n1
= or  = 1− wavelength of the communication system is 1.2
n1 n2 μm, determine the V-parameter of the cable.
n1
 = n2  n2 = 1.44 n1= 1.46 ∆ = 5 x 10-3, d = 6 x 10-6 m
1 + 5 x 10- 3
λ =1.2 x10-6 m,
N . A. = n12 − n22 or
d 2 2 d
V= n1 − n 2 = n1 2 = 2.28
N . A. = (1.452 − 1.442 ) = 0.17  

3. The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 6. A step index fiber has core R.I. 1.46 and
0.4. Calculate the refractive index of the core if cladding 1.409, If the diameter of the core is 80
that of the cladding is 1.6. Calculate the new micron, and wavelength of source is 1.2
numerical aperture if the fiber is in the water of micrometer, determine the number of modes
refractive index 1.33. allowed by optical fiber.

N. A. = 0.4, n2 = 1.6 n1= 1.46, n1= 1.409, Radius of the

fiber, d = 80 μm, λ =1.2 x10-6 m, n0 = 1
N . A. = n1 − n2
or (N .A) =
2 2 2

Let ‘V’ number is given by equation,

n1 − n2 or
2 2
(N.A) 2
+ n2 = n
2
1
2

d
V= n0 n12 − n22
n1 = 1.645 
Substitution and calculation, n1 = 1.645 V2
And Number of modes, N=
2
New value of N.A.,
N = 3202 modes
n12 − n2 2 1.6452 − 1.6 2
N . A. =
no = 1.33 7. Find the core radius necessary for single

= 0.3 mode operation at 850 nm in S.I. fibre with n1

= 1.480 and n2 = 1.47. Given that for single
4. A fiber sample 500m long has an input
power of 8.6 μW, and an output power of mode propagation, V-number is 2.405 and lo =
7.5μW. What is the loss specification for the 450 x 10-9m. Find the value of numerical
cable sample?
aperture and maximum acceptance angle of
this fibre.

10  8.6 
 = attenuation = log 10   =
500  7.5 
0.0011887 dB/m

α = 1.1887dB/km.

Engineering physics study materials by Praveen N. Vaidya, SDMCET, Dharwad. 16