Lecture Notes_1/ CIVL5269/SEM2/2015

Introduction
CIVL5269
Concrete Structures – Serviceability and Strength

DAMITH MOHOTTI
School of Civil Engineering | Faculty of Engineering & IT
THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

Email: [email protected]

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History
Development of Australian Concrete Design Standards
› First published in part as AS CA2-1934.
› AS A26 first published 1934.
› AS CA2 redated 1937.
› MP 13 first published 1957.
› AS CA2-1937 and AS A26-1934 revised, amalgamated and redesignated
AS CA2-1958.
› Third edition 1963.
› MP 13-1957 revised and redesignated AS CA35-1963.
› Second edition 1973.
› Fourth edition AS CA2-1973.
› AS CA2-1973 revised and redesignated AS 1480-1974.
› AS CA35-1973 revised and redesignated AS 1481-1974.
› Second edition AS 1481-1978.
› Second edition AS 1480-1982.
› AS 1480-1982 and AS 1481-1978 revised, amalgamated and redesignated
AS 3600-1988.
› Second edition 1994.
› Third edition 2001.
› Fourth edition 2009. AS 3600-2009
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Design Procedure

AS 3600-2009 / Clause 2.1

› Design for strength and serviceability

› Design for earthquake action
› Design for robustness
› Design for durability and fire resistance
Design for strength

Design for ultimate limit state shall be carried out by the following procedure.

1. Adopt the importance level for the building or structure and associated
annual probability of exceedance for earthquake, wind and snow in
accordance with AS 3600-2009.
2. Determine the permanent (G) and imposed (Q) loads in accordance with
AS/NZS 1170.1.
3. Determine the ultimate loads for wind (W) in accordance with AS/NZS
1170.2.
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Design Procedure
Design for Strength

4. Determine the ultimate loads for earthquake (Eu) for Australia in accordance
with AS 1170.4.
5. Determine the ultimate loads for snow (Fsn) and ice (Fice) loads in
accordance with AS/NZS 1170.3.
6. If relevant, determine the ultimate loads for liquid pressure, ground water,
rain water ponding and earth pressure loads in accordance with AS/NZS
1170.1.
7. Determine the load combination action according to the Section 4–AS
1170.0 : 2002.
8. Analyse the structure and its components in accordance with Section 5
AS3600-2009.
9. Design and detail the structure in accordance with –
1. Section 6 : AS 1170.0 : 2002 for robustness
2. For Australia AS 1170.5 for earthquake
10. Determine the design resistance using the application standard or other
document.
11. Confirm that the design resistance exceeds the appropriate action effects in
accordance with Section 7: AS 1170.0 : 2002.
5

Design Procedure
Design for Serviceability
Design for serviceability limit state shall be carried out by the following
procedure.

1. Determine for whole structure and for individual elements, the type of design
serviceability conditions to be considered.
2. Determine the design situation including the serviceability load event and
serviceability limits for the design serviceability condition being considered.
3. Determine the permanent (G) and imposed (Q) loads in accordance with
AS/NZS 1170.1.
4. Determine the serviceability loads for wind (W) in accordance with AS/NZS
1170.2.
5. Determine the serviceability loads for snow (Fsn) and ice (Fice) loads in
accordance with AS/NZS 1170.3.
6. If relevant, determine the serviceability loads for liquid pressure, ground
water, rain water ponding and earth pressure loads in accordance with
AS/NZS 1170.1.
7. Determine the load combination action according to the Section 4–AS
1170.0 : 2002.

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Design Procedure
Design for Serviceability

7. Model the serviceability response of the structure and its parts for the
relevant combinations for each serviceability condition using methods of
analysis appropriate for the serviceability limit state in accordance with
Section 5 : AS 3600.
8. Determine the serviceability response using the applicable standard or
other documents. The building code of Australia specifies the documents
to be used.
9. Confirm, in accordance with Section 7: AS3600, that the modelled
serviceability response does not exceed the appropriate limiting values for
each of the serviceability conditions identified.

Design Philosophy
Design for Strength and Serviceability
AS 3600-2009 / Clause 2.2.2
Design capacity ≥ The design action effect

𝑅𝑑 (𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) ≥ 𝐸𝑑 (𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 )

𝑅𝑑 (𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) =∅ 𝑅𝑢 (𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕)

∅ is the capacity reduction factor. AS 3600-2009 / Table 2.2.2

𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∶ ∅ is the capacity reduction factor from Table 2.2.2

Vertical load

Column is under compression ∅= 0.60

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Design Philosophy
Capacity Reduction Factor
Type of action effect Capacity reduction factor, ∅
(a) Axial force without bending

Tension 0.8
Compression 0.6
(b) Bending without axial tension or compression
For members with class N reinforcements only 0.6 ≤ 1.19 − 13 𝑘𝑢𝑜 12 ≤ 0.8

For members with class L reinforcements 0.6 ≤ 1.19 − 13 𝑘𝑢𝑜 12 ≤ 0.8

(c) Bending with axial tension ∅ + [(0.8 − ∅)(𝑁𝑢 𝑁𝑢𝑜𝑡 )]

(d) Bending with axial compression

𝑁𝑢 ≥ 𝑁𝑢𝑏 0.6

𝑁𝑢 < 𝑁𝑢𝑏 0.6 + [(∅ − 0.6)(1 − 𝑁𝑢 𝑁𝑢𝑏 )]

(e) Shear / or torsion 0.7

(h) Bearing , bending, shear and compression in plain concrete or 0.6
bending, shear and tension in plain fixing

AS 3600-2009 / Table 2.2.2

9

Loads and Load Combinations

The purpose of design combination is to obtain the most critical

condition for which the structure must be designed. There may be more
than one live, wind load pattern for the same structure. Therefore, it is difficult
to identify the critical load combination for a particular element of a structure.

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Loads and Load Combinations

Strength Design
AS 1170.0-2002 Section 4 : Clause 4.2.2

1. 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.35 𝐺

2. 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.2 𝐺 + 1.5𝑄

3. 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.2 𝐺 + 1.5ψ𝐿 𝑄

4. 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.2 𝐺 + 1.0 𝑊𝑢 + ψ𝑐 𝑄

5. 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 0.9 𝐺 + 1.0 𝑊𝑢

6. 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.2 𝐺 + 𝑆𝑢 +ψ𝑐 𝑄

7. 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑕𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.0 𝐺 + 1.0 𝐸𝑢 + ψ𝑐 𝑄

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Loads and Load Combinations

Live Load Factors for Strength Design
AS 1170.0-2002 Section 4 Table 4.1

Type of imposed Short-term Long-term factor, Combination Earthquake

action ( live load) factor, 𝝍𝒔 𝝍𝑳 factor, 𝝍𝒄 combination factor,
𝝍𝑬
Distributed Floors
imposed action, Q
Domestic 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.3
Offices 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.3
Parking area 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.3
Storage area 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.6
Other 1.0 0.6 0.6 0.6
Roofs
Roofs used for floor 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.3
type activities
All other roofs 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0
Concentrated Floors 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.3
imposed action, Q
Floors of domestic 1.0 0.4 0.4 0.3
housing
Roof used for floor type 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.3
activities
All other roofs 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Balustrades 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Long-term installed 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.0
machinery, tare weight

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Loads and Load Combinations

Serviceability Design
AS 1170.0-2002 Section 4 : Clause 4.3

1. 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.0 𝐺

2. 𝑆𝑕𝑜𝑟𝑡 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = ψ𝑠 𝑄

3. 𝑆𝑕𝑜𝑟𝑡 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.0 𝐺 + ψ𝑠 𝑄

4. 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.0 𝐺

5. 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.0 𝐺 + ψ𝐿 𝑄

Fire resistance design 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.0 𝐺 + ψ𝑐 𝑄

13

Concrete Cover

Concrete cover in reinforced concrete is the least distance between the surface
of embedded reinforcement and the outer surface of the concrete (ACI 130). It
mainly depends on the concrete strength and exposure condition. The concrete
cover depth can be measured with a cover meter.

The concrete cover must have a minimum thickness

for three main reasons:
› to protect the steel reinforcement bars
(reinforcements) from environmental effects to
prevent their corrosion;
› to provide thermal insulation, which protects the
reinforcement bars from fire, and;
› to give reinforcing bars sufficient embedding to
enable them to be stressed without slipping.

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Climate Zones
AS 3600:2009 Classification

15

Exposure Classification AS 3600-2009

Exposure Classification
AS 3600:2009
AS 3600-2009 Section 4 : Table 4.3

Inland (> 50 km from coastline)

A1 non-industrial and arid climatic zone
A2 non-industrial and temperate climatic zone
B1 non-industrial and tropical climatic zone
B1 industrial and any climatic zone
B1 Near-coastal (1 km to 50 km from coastline), any climatic zone
B2 Coastal (< 1 km from coastline but excluding tidal and splash
zones), any climatic zone
In seawater
B2 permanently submerged
C1 in spray zone (1m above wave crest level)
C2 in tidal or splash zones (1m below water level up to 1m above
wave crest level)
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Exposure Classification Zones

17

Minimum Strength Requirement

AS 3600-2009 Section 4 : Table 4.4

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

Exposure classification Minimum Minimum initial curing Minimum average
(MPa) requirement compressive strength at the
( ref. Clause 17.1.5.1) time of stripping of forms or
removal from moulds (MPa)
A1 20 Cure continuously for at 15
least 3 days
A2 25
B1 32 Cure continuously for at 20
least 7 days
B2 40 25
C1 50 32
C2 50

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Concrete Cover
Standard Formwork and Compaction are Used
AS 3600-2009 Section 4 : Table 4.10.3.2

Exposure Required cover, mm

classification
Characteristic strength, 𝑓𝑐′

20 MPa 25 MPa 32 MPa 40 MPa ≥ 50 MPa

A1 20 20 20 20 20

A2 (45) 30 20 20 20

B1 - (45) 30 25 20

B2 - - (50) 35 25

C1 - - - (60) 45

C2 - - - - 60

Bracketed figures are appropriate covers when concession given in clause

4.3.2

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Maximum Centre-to-Centre Spacing

Maximum centre-to-centre spacing of parallel bars and closed ties

Bars beams 300 mm Clause 8.6.1(b)

slabs Lesser of Ds and 300mm Clause 9.4.1 (b)

Ties Shear Lesser of 0.5D and 300 mm or Clause 8.2.12.2

Lesser of 0.75D and 500mm
Torsion Lesser of 0.12ut or 300 mm Clause 8.3.8(b)

Columns Lesser of Dc and 15db for single bars or 0.5Dc Clause 10.7.4.3(b)
and 7.5db for bundled bars
Torsion strips Not exceeding the greater of 300mm and Db or Clause 9.2.6(b)
and spandrel Ds
beams

Dc is the diameter of the circular column or the smaller dimension of a

rectangular column, db is the diameter of the larger bar, Ds overall depth of a
slab or drop panel, D overall cross sectional depth of a section in plane bending

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Minimum Centre-to-Centre Spacing

Bars between which clear Direction Minimum clear spacing ( or pitch)

spacing measured Clause 8.6.1(b)
Horizontal bars in beams Horizontally 25 mm 1 db 1.5a

vertically 25 mm 1 db -

Horizontal bars in slabs, walls Horizontally 50 mm 3 db 1.5a

and footings
vertically 25 mm 1 db -

Vertical bars Horizontally 40 mm 1.5 db 1.5a

Bars in ribs of hollow-block or Horizontally 15 mm 1 db 1.5a

concrete joist slab construction
Helical reinforcement Pitch or helix 40 mm 3 db 1.5a

a is the maximum nominal aggregate size

21

Materials for Concrete

Water

Types of water used in construction

• Conventional city water supply

• Recycled water
• Bore water

The starting point in concrete mix design for a typical

water to cement ratio is 0.50. For most common
concrete grades in the range of 25 MPa – 32 MPa, one
needs approximately 180 L of water to produce 1 m3 of
concrete. ( Beletich et al., 2013). Composition and
performance of concrete shall be in accordance with
AS 3972, AS1379 and AS 3600.

Are all three different water qualities used in manufacturing concrete ?

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Materials for Concrete

Water to Cement Ratio

(Ref: Beletich et al., 2013)

23

Materials for Concrete

Portland cement

Portland cement is the basic ingredient of concrete.

Concrete is formed when Portland cement creates a paste
with water that binds with sand and rock to harden. Cement
is manufactured through a closely controlled chemical
combination of calcium, silicon, aluminium, iron and other
ingredients.
Common materials used to manufacture cement include
limestone, shells, and chalk or marl combined with shale,
clay, slate, blast furnace slag, silica sand, and iron ore.
These ingredients, when heated at high temperatures form
a rock-like substance that is ground into the fine powder
that we commonly think of as cement.
Further reading :
http://www.cement.org/cement-concrete-basics/how-
cement-is-made

What are the standard types of cement available in Australia ?

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Materials for Concrete

Aggregates

Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone
that, along with water and portland cement, are an essential ingredient in
concrete.
Aggregates strongly influence concrete's freshly mixed and hardened properties,
mixture proportions, and economy. Consequently, selection of aggregates is an
important process. Although some variation in aggregate properties is expected,
characteristics that are considered include:
• grading
• durability
• particle shape and surface texture
• abrasion and skid resistance
• unit weights and voids
• absorption and surface moisture
The most common type of aggregates used in Australia are,
(a) Crushed river gravels (b) Basalts (c ) Granites ( WA)
Further reading
http://www.cement.org/cement-concrete-basics/concrete-materials/aggregates

25

Materials for Concrete

Admixtures

Need for admixtures

• Reduce the cost of concrete construction
• To modify the properties of hardened concrete
• To ensure the quality of concrete during mixing , transporting, placing ,
curing
• Overcome certain emergencies during concrete operations

Types of admixtures
• Water reducers (WR)
• Superplasticizers (HWR)
• Air Entraining Agent (AEA)
• Accelerators (Ac)
• Retarders (Re)
• Shrinkage reducing admixtures (SRA)

Further reading :
http://www.cement.org/cement-concrete-basics/concrete-materials/chemical-admixtures
http://www.nrmca.org/aboutconcrete/cips/15p.pdf

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Design Properties of Materials

Characteristic Compressive Strength

The characteristic compressive strength of the standard strength grades are,

20 MPa, 25 MPa, 32 MPa, 40 MPa, 50 MPa, 65 MPa, 80 MPa, and 100 MPa

Characteristic strength is the compressive strength

grade of concrete determined statistically as
described in AS1379. Basically, a characteristic
compressive strength means that out of 100 test
results, 95 or more will be equal to or greater than a
specified strength. Typical specified strengths for this
are 20 MPa, 25 MPa, 32 MPa, 40 MPa and 50 MPa ,
65 MPa, 80MPa, and 100 MPa. Denoted as 𝑓𝑐′ in
Australian Standards AS 3600 and AS1379.

AS 3600-2009 Section 3 : Clause 3.1.1.1

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Design Properties of Materials

Concrete Slump Test

Concrete slump test : The concrete slump test is an

empirical test that measures the workability of fresh
concrete. It measures the consistency of the concrete in that
specific batch. This test is performed to check the
consistency of freshly made concrete. Consistency is a term
very closely related to workability. It is a term which
describes the state of fresh concrete. It refers to the ease
with which the concrete flows. It is used to indicate the
degree of wetness. Workability of concrete is mainly affected
by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable than
drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary
in workability. It is also used to determine consistency
between individual batches.

AS 1379-2007
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Design Properties of Materials

Concrete Slump Test
AS 1379-2007

29

Design Properties of Materials

Characteristic Flexural Tensile Strength

The characteristic flexural tensile strength of the concrete,

′
𝑓𝑐𝑡.𝑓 = 0.6 𝑓𝑐′

A second tensile strength, the characteristic principal

( 𝑓𝑐𝑡′ ) or splitting, tensile strength is calculated as
follows.
𝑓𝑐𝑡′ = 0.36 𝑓𝑐′

AS 3600-2009 Section 3 : Clause 3.1.1.3

Flexural strength tests carried out in accordance with

AS 1012.11 or Indirect tensile strength tests carried
out in accordance with AS 1012.10.

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Design Properties of Materials

Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

Modulus of elasticity of concrete AS 3600-2009 Section 3 : Clause 3.1.2

𝐸𝑐 = 𝜌1.5 × 0.043 𝑓𝑐𝑚𝑖 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑚𝑖 ≤ 40𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐸𝑐 = 𝜌1.5 × 0.024 𝑓𝑐𝑚𝑖 + 0.12 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑚𝑖 ≥ 40𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜌 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 2400 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Modulus of elasticity for different compressive strengths

𝑓𝑐′ ( MPa) 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100

𝑓𝑐𝑚𝑖 ( MPa) 22 28 35 43 53 68 82 99

𝐸𝑐 (GPa) 24 26.7 30.1 32.8 34.8 37.4 39.60 42.2

31

Design Properties of Materials

Standard Grades for Reinforcements

The Standard grades of reinforcing steel AS 3600-2009 Section 3 : Clause 3.2

250 N, 500 L, 500 N AS/NZS 4671
N- Normal ductility L –Low ductility, R-Round , D-Deformed

Reinforcement Characteristic yield Uniform Ductility

strength, fsy strain class
Type Grade

Bar plain to AS/NZS 4671 R250N 250 0.05 N

Bar deformed to AS/NZS 4671 D500L 500 0.015 L

D500N 500 0.05 N

Welded wire mesh, plain, D500L 500 0.015 L

deformed, or indented to AS/NZS
4671
D500N 500 0.05 N

32

Commonwealth of Australia : This material has been reproduced and communicated to you by or on behalf of the
University of Sydney pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968. 16
Lecture Notes_1/ CIVL5269/SEM2/2015

Design Properties of Materials

Types of Reinforcement Bars

Why its called as “Deformed bars” ?

Deformed bars

Round bars Plain bar mesh

33

Design Properties of Materials

Weight of Reinforcements

Work example : Assume density of steel as 7850 kg/m3 ( Includes rolling

margin of 2.5% for the weight )
Bar Diameter Lengths per tonne Length
(mm) 6m 9m 12m (m/t)

10mm 264 1583

12mm
16mm
20mm
24mm
28mm
32mm
36mm
40mm

34

Commonwealth of Australia : This material has been reproduced and communicated to you by or on behalf of the
University of Sydney pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968. 17
Lecture Notes_1/ CIVL5269/SEM2/2015

Design Properties of Materials

Stress versus Strain Behaviour of Steel

Typical stress-strain plot for mild steel

35

Design Properties of Materials

Stress versus Strain Behaviour of Steel

› A ductile material will show a

significant permanent deformation
before fracturing, while a brittle
material will exhibit little or no
permanent deformation prior to
fracture.
› Unsurprisingly, designers generally
prefer to work with ductile materials
when possible.
› One commonly used measure of
ductility is the strain at fracture εf in a
tension test.

What is a good metric for classifying a material as “ductile”?

“significant” permanent deformation = 5%? 10%? 15%? (before fracture)

36

Commonwealth of Australia : This material has been reproduced and communicated to you by or on behalf of the
University of Sydney pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968. 18