Module 1: Sensors and Energy Systems

Sensors: Introduction, the working principle, and applications of Conductometric sensors,

Electrochemical sensors, Thermometric sensors, and Optical sensors. Sensors for the measurement of
dissolved oxygen (DO). Electrochemical sensors for pharmaceuticals, surfactants, and hydrocarbons.
Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx. Disposable sensors in the detection of biomolecules and
pesticides.
Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, construction, working, and applications of Lithium-ion and
Sodium-ion batteries. Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSCs)- Principle, Properties and
Applications.
Sensors are basically devices when exposed to a physical phenomenon produce a proportional output
signal (electrical, mechanical, etc.). Physical Phenomenon: heat, light, sound, weight, attraction.
• Sensors: These devices convert physical characteristics or events into electric signals.
• Transducers: A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another
• Amplifiers: It amplifies and converts an electric signal to a characteristic or a physical event.
• Processor: It converts the signal into a recognizable electrical signal proportional to the target analyte's
concentration.
• Display: It is an output data that shows the characteristic data.

Temperature Sensors
Temperature sensors detect and measure coldness and heat and convert it into an electrical signal.
When dealing with severe heat, risks, or inaccessible measurement sites, temperature sensors guarantee that
a process either remains within a specified range, provides safe application usage, or satisfies a mandated
requirement. Working of Temperature Sensors

The fundamental working of this sensor is based on the voltage in its diode.
The temperature variation is directly related to the resistance of this diode.
The resistance of the diode is detected and transformed into simple and
readable temperature values such as Fahrenheit, Kelvin, or Centigrade.
The cooler the temperature, the lesser the resistance will be and vice versa.
Temperature Sensors
Contact Type Sensors are a group of sensors that detect the degree of temperature in an object by using
direct contact with it. They can sense liquids, solids, or gases in various temperatures. Among them are
thermocouples and thermistors.
Non-contact sensors (IR sensors) will not be in contact with the object; they measure the temperature by
utilizing the radiation of the heat source. IRs detect the energy of an object remotely and emit a sign to an
electronic circuit that senses the object’s temperature by a specific calibration diagram.

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Types of contact Temperature Sensors
 Thermostats: contact-type sensor containing a bi-metallic section constructed from two different
metals based on the difference in the linear expansion coefficient of the metals. Therefore, it forces
them to generate a mechanical movement due to heat rise.
 Thermistors: Constructed from ceramic substances like oxides of particular metals covered with
glass
 Resistive Temperature Detectors: RTD Constructed from precise conducting metals like platinum
covered in a coil. The electrical resistance of an RTD is modified due to temperature variations.
 Semiconductor-Based Sensors: operates with two combined circuits or ICs. They include two
similar MOSFETs with high sensitivity. They precisely provide electrical characteristics, including
voltage and current, to measure the temperature variations.
 Thermocouples: A thermocouple generally includes two sections of dissimilar metals, such as
constantan and copper, combined by welding. One of these sections, introduced as the Cold junction,
has a particular temperature while the other one, introduced as the Hot junction, is for the measuring
process.
Advantages of Temperature Sensors
• Low-cost, precise, and highly reliable.
• Desirable for both embedded and surface mount applications.
• Faster response time because of the lower thermal mass.
• The vibrating wire type is normally fully interchangeable. It means that one indicator can be used for
all sensors.
• They have some indicators that are suitable for direct temperature presentation. So, they can be used
for remote detecting and data logging.
• Their temperature probes have precise linearity and low hysteresis.
Applications of Temperature Sensors
 Environmental Monitoring in weather stations, studying climate patterns, predicting weather
conditions, and monitoring global warming.
 Monitor and regulate the manufacturing, chemical processing, food production, and more
temperatures.
 Electronics equipment like Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning.
 Medical Devices for monitoring, body temperature measurement, and thermal imaging. Infrared
thermal sensors.
 Fire Detection and Prevention
Conductivity Sensors
Conductivity sensors, also known as conductivity meters or conductivity probes, are devices used to
measure the electrical conductivity of a solution.
There are two technical approaches or principles to measure conductivity - inductive and contracting.
1. Inductive conductivity meters or electrodeless conductivity meters use two electromagnetic coils
inside a corrosion-resistant casing to measure the conductivity of a solution. When the device
submerges into the solution, it applies an alternating voltage to the drive coil, which causes a voltage
in the receiving coil. The voltage makes an ionic current move proportional to the conductance of the
solution.

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 2. Contacting meters have conducting electrodes made of metal that are in direct contact with the
solution. The meter applies an alternating voltage to the electrodes, and the electric field created in
the solution causes the ions to move back and forth. This creates a current between the two
conductivity meter electrodes.

Working of Conductivity Sensors

1. Sensor Design: A conductivity sensor consists of two or four electrodes made of conductive
materials, such as metal or graphite. The electrode arrangement allows for measuring the solution's
conductivity.
2. Applying Voltage: This AC voltage applied across the electrodes creates an electric field in the
solution between the electrodes.
3. Ion Movement: Ions in the solution move in response to the electric field. Positively charged moves
towards their oppositely charged electrodes.
4. Current Measurement: The sensing electrode measures the current that flows between the two
electrodes due to the movement of ions. The magnitude of the current is proportional to the
conductivity of the solution. A higher concentration of ions leads to higher conductivity and, thus, a
higher current.
5. Display and Output: The measured conductivity value can be displayed on a digital screen or output
as an electrical signal that can be interfaced with measurement systems.
Advantages of Conductivity Sensors
• Conductivity sensors are versatile and can be used in a wide range of applications, including water
quality monitoring, industrial processes, chemical analysis, environmental studies, food and beverage
production, pharmaceuticals, and more.
• Conductivity measurements are relatively quick and can be taken in real-time, allowing for
continuous monitoring of solutions.
• Conductivity measurements are non-destructive.
• Conductivity is directly related to the concentration of ions in a solution.
• Conductivity sensors typically have simple designs with fewer moving parts.
• Conductivity sensors can cover a wide range of conductivity values, from very low (such as
ultrapure water) to very high (such as concentrated solutions).
• Conductivity sensors are often cost-effective.
Applications of Conductivity Sensors
• Water Quality Monitoring: Assessing the salinity, total dissolved solids (TDS), and ion
concentrations in natural water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and oceans.
• In aquaculture and aquariums, monitoring salinity levels is critical for aquatic organisms' health
and well-being.
• In industrial processes, to assist in quality control by monitoring the concentration of dissolved
substances and ensuring consistent product properties. E.g., Efficiency of the desalination process,
Boiler and Cooling Water Treatment and others.
• Assess soil salinity levels in agricultural fields, helping farmers to manage irrigation and nutrient
application, optimizing crop growth and yield.

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 • Wastewater Treatment by monitoring and controlling the treatment, ensuring that effluent meets
regulatory standards before discharge.
• Swimming Pools and Spas to monitor water quality, helping to maintain a safe and comfortable
environment for users.
Optical Sensors
Optical sensors are electronic components that detect and convert incident light rays into electrical signals.
1. Photoconductive devices: This device converts incident light into a change of resistance.
2. Photodiode Sensors: These sensors convert an amount of incident light into an output current.
3. Photovoltaic Sensors: This device converts incident light into an output voltage.

One of the features of an optical sensor is its ability to measure the changes from one or more light beams.
This change is most often based on alterations to the intensity of the light. Optical Sensors are used in
numerous research, and commercial applications such as for quality and process control, medico
technologies, metrology, imaging, and remote sensing.

Colorimeter
It is a quantitative analytical technique for measuring the transmittance and absorbance of light passing
through a colored solution.

Beer’s Lambert’s law: Colorimeter is based on Beer-Lambert Law which states that “when a
monochromatic light is passed through a colored solution, the absorbance is directly proportional to the
concentration of the solution when the path length is kept constant.”

𝑨 = €𝑪𝒕
A is absorbance.
€ is the molar absorption constant,
C is concentration
t is path length.
The absorbance of the colored solution is measured at a particular wavelength (λ max).

Application of Colorimetric Sensors

• Environmental Monitoring to detect pollutants and contaminants in air, water, and soil.
• Water Quality Testing to assess parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, nitrate, and
phosphate levels.
• Clinical Diagnostics detects various analytes in bodily fluids, such as blood, urine, and saliva. They
are often incorporated into point-of-care tests for diseases like diabetes, pregnancy, and infectious
diseases.
• Food Safety and Quality Control by testing food products for contaminants, allergens, and spoilage
indicators.
• Chemical Analysis to quantify the concentration of specific chemicals or ions in samples.

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 • Biotechnology and Biochemistry by monitoring enzyme reactions, detecting DNA or RNA
sequences, and measuring protein concentrations in various biological assays.
• Forensic Analysis for detecting and identifying substances like blood, drugs, and explosives at crime
scenes.
• Drug Development and Pharmaceutical Analysis to screen potential drug candidates, analyze
pharmaceutical formulations, and study drug-receptor interactions.
• Water Treatment Plants monitor and control disinfection processes, ensuring safe drinking water.
Electrochemical Sensors
Electrochemical sensors work by reacting with the analyte of interest and producing an electrical signal
proportional to the analyte concentration.
Based on the type of electrical signal generated, electrochemical sensors are classified as,
• Potential sensors,
• Conductivity sensors,
• Electricity sensors,
• Polarographic sensors,
• Electrolytic sensors.
Electrochemical sensors analyze gas, liquid, or solid components dissolved in liquids, measuring liquid pH,
conductivity, and oxidation-reduction potential.
Working of Electrochemical Sensors
An electrochemical sensor consists of the following components.
Gas permeable membrane – This material covers the sensing electrode and controls the number of gas
molecules reaching the electrode surface. The membrane also performs the important role of filtering
unwanted particulates.
Electrode (anode) – to create an effective reaction with gas molecules.
The electrode is typically made from metals such as platinum or gold and works as a transducer.
The anode is the point at which the current enters the electrode.
Electrode (cathode) – this is the point where the current leaves the electrode.
Electrolyte - The electrolyte facilitates the cell reaction and carries the ionic charge across the electrodes.

Applications of Electrochemical Sensors

 Environmental monitoring of air quality in monitoring and controlling contaminations affecting
atmospheric quality offers cheaper and widespread air monitoring.
 Detection of explosive gases and toxic vapors within hazardous locations in manufacturing and
chemical industries.
 Oxygen monitoring in the medical sector to measure oxygen concentration and flow is vital to a
patient’s health.
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  Food quality control for monitoring carbon dioxide and ethanol in the food and beverage industry,
to prevent people from ingesting poisonous or harmful gases.
Advantages of Electrochemical Sensors
 Selectivity & Specificity.
 High Sensitivity.
 Rapid Response.
 Miniaturization & Portability.
 Low Cost & Ease of Use.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) measurement
Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen that is dissolved in the water and is represented by mg/L.
The solubility of oxygen in any given water is affected greatly by the temperature of the water, the salinity
of the water and the barometric pressure of the water.
Dissolved oxygen is a key measure of water quality relied upon in various applications.
• In industrial water treatment, dissolved oxygen levels can be an indicator of water quality issues that
lead to corrosion of equipment.
• In aquaculture, fish transport, and aquarium applications, dissolved oxygen is monitored to ensure
that aquatic species have enough oxygen in their habitat to survive, grow, and reproduce.
• In municipal water treatment facilities, dissolved oxygen in wastewater is monitored during aeration
water treatment processes.
Galvanic / Electrochemical DO sensors
Construction
 Cathode: (e.g., Ag or another noble metal) accepts electrons from
the anode via an internal circuit and passes them on to the oxygen
molecules
 Anode: (e.g., Zn, Pb, or another active metal) is oxidized, and
electrons travel to the cathode.
 Electrolyte: The cathode and anode are submerged in an electrolyte
(e.g., NaOH, NaCl, or another inert electrolyte).
 Membrane: The cathode is fitted with a thin hydrophobic, oxygen-
permeable membrane.
Working
 When the galvanic DO sensor is immersed in a water sample, oxygen enters through the oxygen-
permeable membrane.
 The oxygen gets reduced by consuming electrons at the cathode. This reaction produces an
electrical current that is directly related to the oxygen concentration.
 The current produced is proportional to the amount of oxygen.

Reaction

Anode: 2Pb  2Pb2+ + 4e-

Cathode: O2 + 4e- + 2H2O  4OH-
Overall reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 2Pb  2Pb2+ + 4OH-

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 Electrochemical gas sensors
Electrochemical gas sensors are widely used for the detection and quantification of various gases,
including sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) such as nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2).
These sensors operate based on the principle of electrochemical reactions that occur at the sensor's
electrodes when the target gas molecules come into contact with them.
The accuracy and performance of electrochemical gas sensors can be
affected by factors such as temperature, humidity, and cross-sensitivity to
other gases.
Oxides of Sulphur
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and Sulfur trioxide (SO3), a colorless, bad-
smelling, toxic gas referred to as sulfur oxides (SOx). Burning of fossil
fuels, coal, oil, and diesel or other materials that contain sulfur are the
major sources of SOx gases.
Effects
 Short-term exposures to SO2 can harm the human respiratory system and make breathing difficult.
 People with asthma, particularly children, are sensitive to these effects of SO 2.
 Long exposure of SO2 gasses results in Cardiac, respiratory, and pulmonary diseases.
 SO2 and other sulfur oxides can contribute to acid rain which can harm sensitive ecosystems.
Electrochemical gas sensors Sox
1. Sensing Electrode: The sensing electrode is typically made of a noble metal, such as gold or
platinum, coated with porous structured Lead oxide or tungsten oxide (Sensing material),
facilitating the SO2 gas adsorption and reaction.
2. Reference Electrode: This electrode maintains a stable potential against which the sensing
electrode's potential is measured.
3. Electrochemical Reaction: The specific redox reactions between the sensing material and SOx
depend on the measured gas type (SO2, SO3, etc). If lead oxide is used as a sensing material, then
the SOx reduces PbO to PbSO4, decreasing the material’s conductivity.

This reaction generates a current proportional to the concentration of SO2 present.

4. Ion Transport: The electrochemical reaction at the sensing electrode generates or consumes
electrons. These electrons flow through an external circuit, creating an electric current. Additionally,
ions (charged particles) are exchanged through an electrolyte between the sensing and reference
electrodes to maintain charge neutrality.
5. Measurement: The generated current is measured and used to calculate the concentration of SO2 in
the air.

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Electrochemical gas sensors for Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitrogen constitutes 78% of Earth’s air. It is essential to exist life on earth but too much of everything
is dangerous in the same way an excessive amount of nitrogen may be dangerous for soil, plants, living
beings, etc. NOx is produced from the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen gases in the air during combustion,
especially at high temperatures.

Nitrogen oxide NO

Sources:
• The major source of oxides of nitrogen is automobile exhaust.
• Combustion of coal, oil, natural gas, and gasoline.
Effects
• It has an unpleasant odor and causes irritation to the eyes and even lung congestion.
• NOx impacts respiratory conditions by causing inflammation of the airways at extreme levels.
• Long-term inhalation decreases lung function, increases the risk of respiratory conditions, and
increases the response to allergens.
• NOx also reacts with other pollutants in the presence of sunlight to form ozone which can damage
vegetation at high concentrations.
Electrochemical gas sensors NOx
1. Sensing Electrode: The sensing electrode in a NOx sensor is often made of a material such as
Tungsten trioxide or Zinc oxide having a porous structure to allow gas diffusion.
2. Reference Electrode: A reference electrode maintains a stable potential for accurate
measurements.
3. Electrochemical Reaction: In the presence of NOx gases (NO and NO2), an electrochemical cell
is formed between the sensing and counter electrodes. At the sensing electrode, an electrochemical
reaction reduces NOx to nitric oxide (NO2-).

If tungsten oxide is used, then.

If Zinc oxide is used then,
4. Ion Transport: The hydroxyl ions (OH-) are transported through the solid electrolyte between the
sensing and counter electrodes, and the current flow due to this ionic transport is proportional to the
concentration of NOx.
5. Measurement: The generated current is measured, and the concentration of NOx is determined
based on calibration curves.

Electrochemical sensors for pharmaceuticals

Electrochemical detection occurs at the interface between an analyte (diclofenac) of interest and the
working electrode to which a potential is applied concerning the reference electrode, while the
corresponding current is measured.

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Electrochemical sensors for detection of diclofenac

 Working electrode: Carbon coated with MWCNT or Graphene

 Counter Electrode: Carbon coated with MWCNT or Graphene
 Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
When the sample containing diclofenac is put in the sensor, oxidation of diclofenac occurs on the
surface of the sensing electrode. The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of
diclofenac.

Applications in Pharmaceuticals
1. Drug Analysis: Electrochemical sensors can determine the concentration of active pharmaceutical
ingredients in drug formulations, ensuring product quality and consistency.
2. Quality Control: Electrochemical sensors can be employed in pharmaceutical manufacturing
processes to monitor reactions, optimize conditions, and ensure the desired product quality.
3. Environmental Monitoring: Electrochemical sensors can help detect pharmaceutical residues and
byproducts in wastewater, contributing to environmental protection.
4. Biosensing: Electrochemical biosensors combine biological recognition elements (enzymes,
antibodies, DNA) with electrochemical transducers to detect specific pharmaceutical compounds
with high selectivity and sensitivity.
5. Point-of-Care Testing: Miniaturized electrochemical sensors can be used for rapid on-site testing of
drug levels or biomarkers in patient samples, enabling quick diagnosis and treatment adjustments.

Disposable sensors
 Disposable sensors are low-cost and easy-to-use sensing devices designed for short-term or rapid
single-point measurements.
 Portable sensors used for on-spot analysis using disposable strips with receptors and electrodes
printed on it is called disposable sensors.
Disposable sensors in the detection of biomolecules and pesticides
 Advantages of disposable sensors:
 They transduce physical, chemical, or biological changes in their environment to an analytical
signal.
 Disposable sensors are biodegradable and sustainable
 They have a short duration of analysis and fast response times.
 It provides digitized chemical and biological information.
 Prevents the contamination of samples

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 The disposable sensors are a type of paper over which receptors and electrodes are printed. Electrodes
reference, working and counter electrode and receptor are printed on a single platform as shown in fig. These
electrodes are called screen-printed electrodes and are the main components of disposable sensors.
Detection of Ascorbic acid.
 Ascorbic acid is a chemical name of Vitamin-C, it is water soluble.
 In the disposable strip, the sensing electrode, counter, and reference electrode are printed using
Screen printing technology.
Working:

 Active material coated on the sensing electrode must be capable of oxidizing ascorbic acid on its
surface.
 The active surfaces of the counter electrode and working electrode have been coated with a
conductive ink of C (MWCNT) and modified with gold nanoparticles.
 Reference electrode is Ag/AgCl
The sensor is immersed in the analyte. The analyte diffuses and adsorbed on the sensing electrode. The
sensing electrode oxidizes ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acid and produces electric current or voltage
and it is proportional to the concentration of the ascorbic acid.

Detection of pesticide such as Glyphosate by electrochemical oxidation method

Electrochemical Sensor for Glyphosate Detection
The sensor is a silicon- based chip comprising of three-electrode system. It is fabricated by electro
deposition technique.
 Working Electrode: Gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 200nm gold nanoparticles
 Counter electrode: Gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 20nm gold nanoparticles
 Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl/Cl
 Electrolytes are added to increase the conductivity of the solution and minimizes the resistance
between the working and counter electrode.
Working:
 The electrochemical detection is based on the oxidation of Glyphosate on a gold working electrode.
A potential of 0.78V is applied on the working electrode, there is an interaction between the analyte
and electrode surface.
 Glyphosate oxidizes on the working electrode bringing a change in current in the electrolyte
medium.
 The change in the current is a measure of the concentration of Glyphosate

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 Batteries
Batteries: Introduction
A battery is an electrochemical device that converts stored chemical energy into electrical energy.
Components of Battery:
1. The anode (Negative electrode): the electrode at which oxidation takes place by liberation of
electrons.
2. The Cathode (Positive electrode): the electrode at which
reduction takes place by accepting electrons.
3. Electrolyte: The electrolytes act as a medium for transfer of
ions. The electrolyte must have good ionic conductivity.
4. Containers: This holds the components and must be
corrosion resistant.
5. Separator: it separates anode and cathode materials to
prevent internal short circuit.
Classification of Batteries:
1. Batteries are classified as primary (non-rechargeable)
2. secondary (rechargeable)
3. reserve (inactive until activated)

Primary batteries Secondary batteries Reserve batteries

→Primary batteries are →Secondary batteries are →Reserve batteries are special purpose
those which cannot be those which can be recharged. primary batteries designed for emergency
recharged. →Net cell reaction is use and for long term storage.
→The net cell reaction is reversible. →The vital part of the battery is stored
not reversible. →Example: Lead acid, separately.
→Primary batteries are Li-Ion batteries etc →The battery is only activated when it is
relatively inexpensive. →Used in cell phones, needed.
→Example: Dry cell. laptops etc →Self-Discharge is eliminated.
→Example: Magnesium-AgCl batteries,
zinc-silver oxide batteries, etc.
→Used in Missiles, space ships, etc.
Construction, working and applications of modern batteries:
1. Sodium-ion battery:
Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are energy conversion and storage devices that use sodium-ions to
shuttle positive charge between the anode and cathode in order to convert electrical energy to
chemical energy and vice versa.

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 Anode: Hard carbon or distorted graphite is used as anodic material.
 Cathode: Layered sodium intercalated Transition metal oxide (eg., Sodium Nickel oxide
NaNiO2)
 Electrolyte: Aqueous or Non-aqueous solution of sodium salts (eg, Sodium sulphate in water or
in diethyl carbonate)
 Separator: Sodium ion conducting separator like cellulose, PVDF-HFP (Poly (vinylidene
fluoride-hexafluoropropylene).

The electrochemical cell reactions in an Na-ion battery is as follows:

Anode 2Na→ 2Na+ + 2e-
Cathode NiO2 + 2Na+ +2e- Na2NiO2
Overall reaction 2Na + NiO2 Na2NiO2
Discharging
Overall charging and discharging,2Na + NiO2 Na2NiO2
Charging
Advantage:
1) Low-cost and environmentally friendly.
2) Slightly lower energy density and high efficiency.
3) Better safety characteristics.
4) These are high-rate batteries and operate at lower temperatures.
Disadvantage:
1) Batteries are less powerful.
2) Anode graphite absorbs too little sodium.
Applications:
1) Used in cellular phones and laptops.
2) In electric vehicles and power tools.
Lithium Batteries:
Lithium metal is an attractive anode material because of its lightweight, high voltage, very
low electrode potential, high electrical equivalence, and good conductivity. A lithium cell can
produce voltage from 1.5 V to 3.5 V based on the types of materials used. There are two types of
lithium-based batteries are available. A schematic diagram of Lithium Metal Battery is shown in

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Figure and Lithium-ion Battery is shown in Figure .

1.11.1Construction and working of Li-Ion Batteries:

The cell is represented as, C, Li+│Li+│ LiMn2O4
It consists of
 Anode: is made of graphite (C6)
 Cathode: The cathode material is made of intercalated lithium compound, such as multi layered
lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), lithium manganese oxide
(LiMn2O4) etc.
 Electrolyte: A non-coordinating electrolyte salt such as LiPF6 or lithium hexafluoroarsenate
monohydrate (LiAsF6) or lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4) is dissolved in an organic solvent like
ethylene carbonate or diethyl carbonate etc. Since lithium reacts violently with water, a non-
aqueous electrolyte must be used.
 Separator: Polypropylene soaked with electrolyte.
Working: During charging, an external load forces the Li+ ions to travel from the cathode (lithium
compound of LiMn2O4) to the anode and accumulate on the surface of graphite. During discharge,
Li+ spontaneously starts migrating back to the lithium compound (LiMn 2O4) at the cathode and
electrons flow through the external circuit. The probable cell reactions are given below,

Anode LixC6→ xLi+ + 6C + xe-

Cathode Mn2O4 + xLi+ +xe- LixMn2O4

Overall reaction LixC6 + Mn2O4 → LixMn2O4 + 6C

Overall charging and discharging,
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Charging
 LixC6 + Mn2O4 LixMn2O4 + 6C
Advantages
1. They have higher energy density than other rechargeable batteries.
2. They are less weight.
3. They produce a high voltage of about 4 V as compared with other batteries.
4. They have improved safety, i.e., more resistance to overcharging.
5. No liquid electrolyte means they are immune from leaking.
6. Fast charge and discharge rate
Disadvantage:
1. They are expensive.
2. They are not available in standard cell types.
Applications:
 Light weight and compact, low maintenance
 High voltage and high energy density
 Used in mobile phones, tabs, laptops, wireless communication devices etc.
 Used in medical devices, electric cars, auto mobiles etc.
Quantum Dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs)
Quantum dots are nanoscale semiconductor particles with unique optical and electronic properties that
can be tuned by controlling their size and composition.
These artificially synthesized semiconductor nanoparticles have a
wide range of potential applications, including use in composites,
solar cells, fluorescent biological labeling, displays, lighting, and
medical imaging.
In photovoltaic solar cells, a single photon of light can only generate
a single electron with large energy losses. QDSCs produce more
electrons and take advantage of the intense energy from the sun to
supply exceptional amounts of electricity. This is of great importance
to make solar energy a more cost-effective source of energy relative
to conventional power sources.
Construction and working of QDSC
Photoanode: It is semiconducting metal oxide deposited made of (fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass it
works as a current collector.
Sensitizer (Quantum dots): To maximize the efficiency of the incident light.
Electrolyte (Polysulfide): It is a medium that transfers charges between Electrodes.
The counter electrode (Brass or Pt) transfers electrons from the external circuit.
Working
• Upon light irradiation, the sensitizer (QDs) is photoexcited.
• The excited electrons of quantum dots are injected into the conduction band of the TiO2.
• The electrons penetrate through the nanocrystalline TiO2 film to the back contact of the conducting
substrate.
• The same electron flows through an external circuit to the counter electrode.
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 • At the counter electrodes, Redox electrolytes transfer the electron to a quantum dot.
• quantum dots get recharged by the redox electrolyte, and the same process will continue.
Formation of exciton due to absorption of photon:
QD + h ν → QD*
Electron transfer from QD to MO
QD* + MO → QD + + MO-
Charged QD getting reduced to neutral QD
QD+ + Re → QD + Ox
Reduction of oxidant from e-supplied by CE
Ox + e- → Re
Properties of QDs
• It exhibits a tunable band gap.
• Strong light absorption
• Multiple electron generation.
Application of QDs
• Biological labeling.
• Light-emitting diode (QLED)
• Photoconductors and photodetectors.
• Photovoltaic.
• Biomedicine and environment.
• Catalyst.
Advantages
• They have a favorable power-to-weight ratio with high efficiency.
• Their power consumption is low.
• There is an increase in electrical performance at low production costs.
• Their use is versatile and can be used in Windows.
Disadvantages
• Cadmium selenide-based quantum dot solar cells are highly toxic in nature and require a very stable
polymer shell.
• Cadmium and selenium ions which are used in the core of quantum dots are known to be cytotoxic.

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