ELECTRICITY TARIFF

Definition: The amount of money frame by the supplier for the supply of electrical
energy to various types of consumers in known as an electricity tariff. In other words,
the tariff is the methods of charging a consumer for consuming electric power. The
tariff covers the total cost of producing and supplying electric energy plus a
reasonable cost.

The actual tariffs that the customer pay depends on the consumption of the electricity.
The consumer bill varies according to their requirements. The industrial consumers
pay more tariffs because they use more power for long times than the domestic
consumers. The electricity tariffs depends on the following factors

 Type of load
 Time at which load is required.
 The power factor of the load.
 The amount of energy used.
The total bill of the consumer has three parts, namely, fixed charge D, semi-fixed
charge Ax and running charge By.

where, C – total charge for a period (say one month)

x – maximum demand during the period (kW or kVA)
y – Total energy consumed during te period (kW or kVA)
A – cost per kW or kVa of maximum demand.
B – cost per kWh of energy consumed.
D – fixed charge during each billing period.

This is known as three-part electricity tariff, and it is mainly applied to the big
consumer.

Factors Affecting the Electricity Tariffs

The following factors are taken into accounts to decide the electricity tariff:

 Types of Load – The load is mainly classified into three types, i.e., domestic,
commercial, or industrial. The industrial consumers use more energy for a longer
time than domestic consumers, and hence the tariff for the industrial consumers is
more than the domestic consumers. The tariff of the electric energy varies
according to their requirement.
 Maximum demand – The cost of the electrical energy supplied by a generating
station depends on the installed capacity of the plant and kWh generated.
Increased in maximum capacity increased the installed capacity of the generating
station.
 The time at which load is required – The time at which the maximum load
required is also essential for the electricity tariff. If the maximum demand
coincides with the maximum demand of the consumer, then the additional plant is
required. And if the maximum demand of the consumers occurs during off-peak
 hours, the load factor is improved, and no extra plant capacity is needed. Thus,
the overall cost per kWh generated is reduced.
 The power factor of the load – The power factor plays a major role in the plant
economics. The low power factor increases the load current which increases the
losses in the system. Thus, the regulation becomes poor. For improving the power
factor, the power factor correction equipment is installed at the generating station.
Thus, the cost of the generation increases.
 The amount of energy used – The cost of electrical energy is reduced by using
large amounts of energy for longer periods.
Types of Electricity Tariff

Some of the most important types of tariff are as follows;

1. Flat Demand Rate tariff

2. Straight-line Meter rate tariff
3. Block meter Rate tariff
4. Two-part tariff
5. Power factor tariff
6. Seasonal rate tariff
7. Peak load tariff
8. Three-part tariff
1. Two-part tariff – In such type of tariff, the total bill is divided into two parts. The
first one is the fixed charge and the second is the running charge. The fixed charge is
because of the maximum demand and the second charge depends on the energy
consumption by the load.

The factor A and B may be constant and vary according to some sliding.

Equipment Safety Measures

Fuse:
Fuse
An Electric Fuse is a protective device which interrupts the flow of excessive current
in an Electric circuit. This works on the principle of heating effect of the Electric
Current

A Fuse consists of conducting wire, which has high resistivity and low melting point.
The thickness of the Fuse wire is determined based on the amount of current flow in
the circuit. If a fault causes a flow of excess Current then a Conductor break the
Circuit by melting or separating it, the thin Conductor used is known as an Electric
Fuse. The wire inside the Fuse melts if there is an occurrence of high Current due to a
short Circuit or an overloaded Circuit. As a result of which the Current stops flowing
since the wire has broken. In order to stop the flow of Electricity. Once a Fuse melts,
it can be changed or replaced with a new Fuse. A Fuse is normally made up of
elements like zinc, copper, aluminum and silver.

Miniature circuit breaker (MCB) :

An MCB – miniature circuit breaker is an electromagnetic device that embodies

complete enclosure in a molded insulating material.

Miniature circuit breaker (MCB) :

The main function of an MCB is to open the circuit automatically when the current
passing through MCB exceeds the value for which it is set. It can be manually
switched ON and OFF as similar to normal switch if necessary. An MCB is a simple,
easily operable device and is maintenance-free too. It can be easily replaced.
The trip unit is the key part of the MCB on which the unit operates. The bi-metal
present in the MCB circuit protects against overload current and the electromagnet in
the circuit protects against short-circuit current.

Working:

When the overflow of current takes place through MCB , the bimetallic strip gets
heated and it deflects by bending. The deflection of the bi-metallic strip or trip bar
releases a latch. The latch causes the MCB to turn off by stopping the flow of the
current in the circuit. This process helps to safeguard the appliances or devices from
the hazards happening due to overload or overcurrent. To restart the flow of current,
MCB must be turned ON manually.
In the case of short circuit conditions, the current rises suddenly in an unpredictable
way, leading to the electromechanical displacement of the plunger associated with a
solenoid.
The plunger hits the trip lever, it causes the automatic release of the latch mechanism
by opening the circuit breaker contacts.

What is electric shock?

Our bodies conduct electricity. If any part of your body meets live electricity an
electric current flows through the tissues, which causes an electric shock. People
sometimes call it electrocution.

Depending on the length and severity the electric shock, injuries can include:

 burns to the skin

 burns to internal tissues
 electrical interference or damage (or both) to the heart, which could cause the
heart to stop or beat erratically.

It is important to seek medical attention for mild electric shock to assess whether the
heart has been affected.

Safety tips around the home to reduce the risk of electric shock

You can reduce the risk of electric shock in your home by taking a few precautions:

 Don’t be tempted to do your own electrical work. Although you may think it
looks easy to do jobs yourself, such as changing power points or switches,
always hire a licensed electrician. Do not use extension leads or appliances if
the cords are damaged or frayed. Throw them away if they are damaged in any
way.
 Do not remove a plug from a power point by pulling on the cord – pull the
plug instead.
  Keep electrical appliances away from wet areas. Electricity and water don’t
mix.
 Wear rubber or plastic soled shoes when using electrical appliances, especially
in wet areas, on concrete or outdoors.
 Have safety switches installed by an electrician.
 Buy portable power boards with built-in safety switches.
 Insert safety plugs into unused power points to stop children from inserting
objects into them.
 If you have children, turn off and unplug electric appliances and keep them out
of reach (this includes electrical cords).
 Get household wiring checked by a registered electrician, especially if your
house is more than 30 years old.
 If you plan to buy second-hand appliances, check they meet Australian
standards and are not damaged. It is a good idea to have them checked by
someone who is qualified in electrical repairs such as a licensed electrician.
 If you use a metal ladder, make sure it has rubber feet. When metal contacts
the ground it can increase the risk of electric shock.

EARTHING

Earthing is defined as “the process in which the instantaneous discharge of the

electrical energy takes place by transferring charges directly to the earth
through low resistance wire.”

Low resistance earthing wire is chosen to provide the least resistance path for leakage
of fault current. Let us know more about earthing and its types in this article.

To ensure safety, earthing can be done by connecting the electrical appliance to

earthing systems or electrodes placed near the soil or below the ground level.

The electrode or earthing mat equipped with a flat iron riser is installed under the
ground level. It helps to connect all the non-current-carrying metallic parts of the
equipment.

This picture below shows the earthing system incorporated into an electrical system.
When the overload current is passed through the equipment or when the fault occurs
in the system due to the current, the fault current from the equipment flows through
the earthing system. The earth mat conductors aid in raising the voltage value equal to
the resistance of the earth mat multiplied by a ground fault and helps guard the
equipment against overload current or fault current.

In homes, there shall be three types of wires, live, neutral, and earth. Live
and neutral carry electric current from the power station and the earth is connected to
the buried metal plate. Electric appliances like refrigerators, iron boxes, and TV are
connected to the earth wire while operating. Hence, these devices are protected from
the surge or faulty electrical supply. Local earthing is done near the electrical metre of
the house.
Types of Earthing

There are three types of earthing, they are:

 Pipe earthing
 Plate earthing
 Strip earthing
Pipe earthing is the best and most efficient way of earthing and is also easily
affordable. Pipe earthing uses 38mm diametre and 2 metres length pipe vertically
embedded in the ground to work as earth electrodes.

In plate earthing, an earthing plate made of copper or G.I. is buried into the ground at
a depth more than 3 metres from the ground level. This earthing plate is embedded in
an alternative layer of coke and salts.

Strip earthing is used in transmission processes. Strip electrodes of cross section not
less than 25mm X 1.6mm of copper or 25 mm X 4mm of G.I. or steel are buried in
horizontal trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m.

Advantages of Earthing

1. Earthing is the safe and the best method of offering safety. We know that the
earth’s potential is zero and is treated as Neutral. Since low equipment is
connected to earth using low resistance wire, balancing is achieved.
2. Metal can be used in electrical installations without looking for its
conductivity, proper earthing ensures that metal does not transfer current.
3. A sudden surge in voltage or overload does not harm the device and person if
proper earthing measures are done.
4. It prevents the risk of fire hazards that could otherwise be caused by the
current leakage.

Hydroelectric power plant

Working principle
Hydroelectric power plant (Hydel plant) utilizes the potential energy of water stored
in a dam built across the river. The potential energy of the stored water is converted
into kinetic energy by first passing it through the penstock pipe. The kinetic energy of
the water is then converted into mechanical energy in a water turbine. The turbine is
coupled to the electric generator. The mechanical energy available at the shaft of the
turbine is converted into electrical energy by means of the generator.
Because gravity provides the force which makes the waterfall, the energy stored in the
water is called gravitational potential energy.

Layout of Hydroelectric power plant

Fig. shows the schematic representation of a Hydroelectric power plant.

The main components are

• Water reservoir
• Dam
• Spillway
• Gate
• Pressure tunnel
• Surge tank
• Penstock
• Water turbine
• Draft tube
• Tail race level
• Powerhouse

hydroelectric power plant diagram

Water reservoir:

In a reservoir the water collected from the catchment area during the rainy season is
stored behind a dam. Catchment area gets its water from rains and streams.
Continuous availability of water is a basic necessity for a hydroelectric power plant.
The level of the water surface in the reservoir is called the Headwater level. The water
head available for power generation depends on the reservoir height.

Dam:

the purpose of the dam is to store the water and to regulate the out going flow of
water. The dam helps to store all the incoming water. It also helps to increase the head
of the water. In order to generate a required quantity of power, it is necessary that a
sufficient head is available.

Spillway:

Excess accumulation of water endangers the stability of dam construction. Also in

order to avoid the overflow of water out of the dam especially during rainy seasons
spillways are provided. This prevents the rise of the water level in the dam. Spillways
are passages that allow the excess water to flow to a different storage area away from
the dam.

Gate:

A gate is used to regulate or control the flow of water from the dam.

Pressure tunnel:

It is a passage that carries water from the reservoir to the surge tank.

Surge tank:

A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the water level rises or falls due to
sudden changes in pressure. There may a sudden increase of pressure in the penstock
pipe due to sudden backflow of water, as the load on the turbine is reduced. This
sudden rise of pressure in the penstock pipe is known as water hammer.

Penstock:

Penstock pipe is used to bring water from the dam to the hydraulic turbine. Penstock
pipes are made up of steel or reinforced concrete. The turbine is installed at a lower
level from the dam. Penstock is provided with a gate valve at the inlet to completely
close the water supply.
It has a control valve to control the water flow rate into the turbine. Water turbine or
hydraulic turbine (Prime mover): The hydraulic turbine converts the energy of water
into mechanical energy. The mechanical energy (rotation) available on the turbine
shaft is coupled to the shaft of an electric generator and electricity is produced. The
water after performing the work on the turbine blade is discharged through the draft
tube.

The prime movers which are in common use are Pelton wheel, Kaplan turbine,
Francis turbine.
Draft tube:

Draft tube is connected to the outlet of the turbine. It converts the kinetic energy
available in the water into pressure energy in the diverging portion. Thus, it maintains
a pressure of just above the atmospheric at the end of the draft tube to move the water
into a tailrace. Water from the tailrace is released for irrigation purposes.

Tailrace level:

Tailrace is a water path to lead the water discharged from the turbine to the river or
canal. The water held in the tailrace is called the Tailrace water level.

Power House:

The powerhouse accommodates the water turbine, generator, transformer, and control
room. As the water rushes through the turbine, it spins the turbine shaft, which is
coupled to the electric generator. The generator has a rotating electromagnet called a
rotor and a stationary part called a stator. The rotor creates a magnetic field that
produces an electric charge in the stator. The charge is transmitted as electricity. The
step-up transformer increases the voltage of the current coming from the stator. The
electricity is distributed through power lines.

NUCLEAR

The main components of nuclear power plant are 1. Nuclear reactor, 2. Steam
generator, 3. Turbine, 4. Coolant pump & feed pump, and 5. Generator.

1. Nuclear reactor:
It consists of the following components.

(a) Core: This contains the nuclear fuel and space for coolant. The fuels used are
U233, U235, Pu239

To have uniform release of heat, the fuel is shaped and located in the core.

(b) Moderator: The moderator is used to reduce the speed of the fast moving
neutrons. For natural uranium, the following are used as moderators-graphite, heavy
water or beryllium. For enriched uranium, the ordinary water is used as moderator.

(c) Control rods: The control rods are used to start the chain reaction, maintain the
chain reaction at required level and to shut down during emergency. The control
rods are made of cadmium, boron and hafnium.

(d) Coolant: Coolant is used to transfer the heat which is produced in the reactor to
steam generator for rising the steam. The generally used coolants are ordinary &
heavy water, air, carbon dioxide, helium and hydrogen and liquid metals like sodium
and potassium.

(e) Reflector: Reflector is used to reflect the escaping neutrons back into the core.
This improves the neutron economy of the reactor. The generally used reflectors are
heavy water, graphite and beryllium.

(f) Radiation shield: Radiation shield is a concrete shield to absorb dangerous

radiations like alpha, beta, gamma rays tend to escape to the atmosphere.

(g) Reactor vessel: This is a housing for all the equipment’s and it is designed in such
a way that it can withstand high pressures safely. The reactor is positioned at the
bottom of the vessel.

2. Steam generator:

In this, the steam is generated from the feed water by absorbing heat from the hot
coolant from the reactor.

3. Turbine:

The generated steam is made to expand in the turbine to produce work. This work is
converted into electricity by generator which is coupled with turbines.

4. Coolant pump & Feed pump:

The coolant pump is used to maintain the flow of coolant and the feed pump is to
pump the feed water to the steam generator.

5. Generator:

The generator is used to convert the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
generator is directly coupled to the turbine.
WIND

Functions of WIND POWER :

1. Rotor blades fitted (supported) in the hub.

2. Wind power is received and blades start rotating.
3. At the top side of tower, turbine and generator assembly are located. Turbine
and generators are mechanically coupled.
4. Large capacity turbines are provided with sensor coupled with motor.
5. As discussed in figure the detailed structure consists of a tower with
foundation; hub and rotor, drive train, gears, generator, nacelle, pitch controller,
power converter.
6. The shaft axis is horizontal.
7. Wind force hits the turbine blades and causes its rotation and hence generator
coupled to It rotates and electrical energy is the output.
8. The system may be connected to feed power to Grid system or may supply the
power to the loads directly.
9. Use of nacelle (head) is measure speed and to know wind direction also
anemometer, wind vane and controller arrangement are active when in operation.
10. In extreme conditions, the turbine may be damaged.
11. To safeguard turbine, safety features with breaking arrangement are provided.

SOLAR

General block diagram of PV system

Components of Solar Power Plant
The major components of the solar photovoltaic system are listed below.
 Photovoltaic (PV) panel
 Inverter
 Energy storage devices
 Charge controller
 System balancing component

Photovoltaic (PV) Panel

PV panels or Photovoltaic panel is a most important component of a solar
power plant. It is made up of small solar cells. This is a device that is used to
convert solar photon energy into electrical energy.
Generally, silicon is used as a semiconductor material in solar cells. The
typical rating of silicon solar cells is 0.5 V and 6 Amp. And it is equivalent to 3
 W power. The number of cells is connected in series or parallel and makes a
module. The number of modules forms a solar panel.
According to the capacity of power plants, a number of plates are mounted
and a group of panels is also known as Photovoltaic (PV) array.
Inverter
The output of the solar panel is in the form of DC. The most of load connected
to the power system network is in the form of AC. Therefore, we need to
convert DC output power into AC power. For that, an inverter is used in solar
power plants.
For a large-scaled grid-tied power plant, the inverter is connected with special
protective devices. And a transformer is also connected with the inverter to
assures the output voltage and frequency as per the standard supply.
Energy storage devices
The batteries are used to store electrical energy generated by the solar power
plants. The storage components are the most important component in a
power plant to meet the demand and variation of the load. This component is
used especially when the sunshine is not available for few days.
The capacity of a battery is that how much amount of electrical power it can
store. The capacity of batteries is measured in Ampere-hours (AH) rating.
For example, a battery having 100 AH battery can supply 1 Amp current for
100 hours or 100 Amp current for 1 hour.
For a long life of a battery, never fully discharge a battery. And in case, if a
battery is fully discharged, never keep fully discharged battery for a long time.
The capacity of a battery is affected by the temperature. There is a reduction
of 0.6% of capacity for every degree Celsius rise in temperature more than
25˚ C.
There are two types of batteries used in the solar power plant;
 Lead-Acid battery
 Nickel-Cadmium battery
Charge Controller
A charge controller is used to control the charging and discharging of the
battery. The charge controller is used to avoid the overcharging of the battery.
The overcharging of a battery may lead to corrosion and reduce plate growth.
And in the worst condition, it may damage the electrolyte of the battery.
Sometimes, the charge controller is termed a solar battery charger. There are
many technologies used to make a charge controller. For example, the most
popular technique is the MPPT charge controller that is known as “Maximum
Power Point Tracking”. This algorithm is used to optimize the production of PV
cells.
System balancing component
It is a set of components used to control, protect and distribute power in the
system. These devices ensure that the system working in proper condition
and utilize energy in the proper direction. And it ensures maximum output and
security of other components of a solar power plant.
Blocking diode
The solar PV panels are connected with a battery. And these panels are used
to charge the battery during sunlight is available. During charging of the
battery, the current flows from panel to battery. But when the sunlight is not
available, the current can be flow in a reverse direction and it may harm the
solar panel. So, the blocking diode is a diode that is connected between the
battery and panel to avoid reversal current from battery to panel.

Voltage regulator
The output of solar panels depends on sunlight. And the sunlight is not
constantly available. It is continuously varying. Similarly, the output of the
solar panel is also varying with respect to sunlight. This results in fluctuation in
load current. The voltage regulators are used to maintain fluctuation within an
acceptable range.