Fat soluble vitamins

Vitamin A
The fat soluble vitamin A, as such is present only in foods of animal origin.
However, its provitamins carotenes are found in plants.
CHEMISTRY: Retinol, retinal and retinoic acid are regarded as vitamers of
vitamin A
1. Retinol (vitamin A alcohol) : It is a primary alcohol containing β-ionone
ring. Retinol is present in animal tissues as retinyl ester with long chain
fatty acids.
2. Retinal (vitamin A aldehyde) : This is an aldehyde form obtained by the
oxidation of retinol. Retinal and retinol are interconvertible.
3. Retinoic acid (vitamin A acid) : This is produced by the oxidation of
retinal. However, retinoic acid cannot give rise to the formation of retinal
or retinol.
4. β-Carotene (provitamin A) : This is found in plant foods. It is cleaved in
the intestine to produce two moles of retinal.

DIETARY SOURCES
● Best sources: liver, kidney, egg yolk, milk, cheese, butter.
● Rich sources: Fish (cod or shark) liver oils
● Vegetable sources contain the provitamin A-carotenes.
● Good sources: Yellow and dark green vegetables and fruits of carotenes
e.g. carrots, spinach, pumpkins, mango, papaya etc.
RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA):
Man = 3,500 IU woman = 2,500 IU
BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN A: It is necessary for a variety
of functions such as vision, proper growth and differentiation, reproduction and
maintenance of epithelial cells.

1. Retinol and retinoic acid function almost like steroid hormones. They regulate
the protein synthesis and thus are involved in the cell growth and differentiation.
2. Vitamin A is essential to maintain healthy epithelial tissue. This is due to the
fact that retinol and retinoic acid are required to prevent keratin synthesis
(responsible for horny surface).
3. Retinyl phosphate synthesized from retinol is necessary for the synthesis of
certain glycoproteins, and mucopolysaccharides which are required for growth
and mucus secretion.
4. Retinol is necessary for normal reproduction. It acts like a hormone and
regulates gene expression.
5. Vitamin A is considered to be essential for the maintenance of proper immune
system to fight against various infections.
6. Carotenoids (most important β-carotene) function as antioxidants and reduce
the risk of cancers initiated by free radicals and strong oxidants. β-Carotene is
found to be beneficial to prevent heart attacks.
DEFICIENCY MANIFESTATIONS:
The vitamin A deficiency may be due to inadequate dietary intake, impaired
intestinal absorption, reduced storage in liver and chronic alcoholism.
The deficiency manifestations are related to the eyes, skin and growth.
1. Night blindness (nyctalopia): Earliest symptoms of vitamin A deficiency.
Night blindness (nyctalopia) is one of the earliest symptoms of vitamin A
deficiency. The individuals have difficulty to see in dim light since the dark
adaptation time is increased.
2. Xerophthalmia: Prolonged deficiency irreversibly damages a number of
visual cells, severe deficiency of vitamin A leads to xerophthalmia. It is
characterized by dryness in conjunctiva, cornea and keratanization of epithelial
cells.
3. Bitot’s spots: In certain areas of conjunctiva, white triangular plaques are seen.
4. keratomalacia: If xerophthalmia persisits for a long time, corneal ulceration
and degeneration occur. This result in the destruction of cornea, a condition
referred to as keratomalacia, causing total blindness.
Vitamin D

Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin. It resembles sterols in structure and functions

like a hormone.
Chemistry : Ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol are sources for vitamin D activity
and are referred to as provitamins.

DIETARY SOURCES: Good sources: fatty fish, fish liver oils, egg yolk etc.
❖ Milk is not a good source of vitamin D.
❖ Vitamin D can be provided to the body in three ways
1. Exposure of skin to sunlight for synthesis of vitamin D;
2. Consumption of natural foods;
3. By irradiating foods (like yeast) that contain precursors of vitamin D and
fortification of foods (milk, butter etc).
RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA):
i. Children = 10μg/day
ii. Men = 5μg/day
iii. Women = 5μg/day
iv. Pregnancy = 10μg/day
v. Lactating woman= 10μg/day

STORAGE TISSUES & STORAGE FORM

Storage Tissues: Liver, Adipose Tissue
Storage form: Calcitriol (1,25 DHCC)
BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS
1. Calcitriol (1,25-DHCC) is the biologically active form of vitamin D.
 2. Vitamin D regulates the plasma levels of calcium and phosphate
3. Calcitriol, acts at 3 different levels (Intestine, kidney and bone) to maintain
plasma calcium.
1. Action of calcitriol on intestine: In the intestinal cells, calcitriol binds with
a cytosolic receptor to form a calcitriol-receptor complex. This complex
then approaches the nucleus and interacts with a specific DNA leading to
the synthesis of a specific calcium binding protein. This protein increases
the calcium uptake by the intestine. The mechanism of action of calcitriol
on the target tissue (intestine) is similar to the action of a steroid hormone.
2. Action of calcitriol on the bone : In the osteoblasts of bone, calcitriol
stimulates calcium uptake for deposition as calcium phosphate. Thus
calcitriol is essential for bone formation. The bone is an important reservoir
of calcium and phosphate. Calcitriol along with parathyroid hormone
increases the mobilization of calcium and phosphate from the bone. This
causes elevation in the plasma calcium and phosphate levels.

3.Action of calcitriol on the kidney : Calcitriol is also involved in

minimizing the excretion of calcium and phosphate through the kidney, by
decreasing their excretion and enhancing reabsorption.

VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY CAUSES

I. Inadequate supply of vitamin D
II. Impaired absorption
III. Impaired Production of 25 Cholecalciferol
IV. Impaired Renal Synthesis of 1,25 DHCC

DEFICIENCY MANIFESATIONS:
1. Children - Rickets
2. Adults - Osteomalacia
3. Renal Rickets (Renal Osteodystropy)
I. Children - Rickets
Definition: Clinical Condition of Vitamin D deficiency
Age: 4 months to 2 years
Causes: Dietary(strict veg), Non exposure to sunlight
Bone mineralization: Defective Bone Mineralization
leads to Enlargement of Bone & Softening of bones
Features:
1. Decreased serum calcium
2. Deformities of bones
Deformities of Bones
1. Craniotabes: Softnening of skull on pressure
2. Frontal bossing: Prominent forehead
3. Knocked knee: Weakning of leg bones
4. Bowed legs: Weakning of leg bones
II.Adults - Osteomalacia: Vitamin D deficiency in Adults
Causes: Inadequate exposure to sunlight or low dietary intake
Features:
Demineralization occurs mainly in spine, pelvis and lower extremities.
Bowing of long bones
Flattening of pelvis bones
III. Renal Rickets (Renal Osteodystropy): Seen in Chronic renal failure

Due to decreased synthesis of calcitriol in kidney.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E (tocopherol) is a naturally occurring antioxidant. It is essential for

normal reproduction in many animals, hence known as anti-sterility vitamin.
Vitamin E is described as a ‘vitamin in search of a disease.’ This is due to
the lack of any specific vitamin E deficiency disease in humans.
CHEMISTRY: Vitamin E is the name given to a group of tocopherols and
tocotrienols.

About eight tocopherols (vitamin E vitamers) have been identified–α, β, γ, δ etc.

Among these, α-tocopherol is the most active.

The tocopherols are derivatives of 6-hydroxy chromane (tocol) ring with

isoprenoid (3 units) side chain.

The antioxidant property is due to the hydroxyl group of chromane ring.

DIETARY SOURCES:
Rich Sources: Vegetable oils (Soyabean oil, Corn oil).
Good Sources: Wheat germ oil, cotton seed oil, peanut oil, corn oil and sunflower
oil.
Moderate Sources: Meat, milk, butter and eggs.
RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA)
Man : 10 mg/day and woman : 8 mg/day

BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS:
The biochemical functions of vitamin E, related either directly or indirectly to its
antioxidant property, are given hereunder.
1. Vitamin E is essential for the membrane structure and integrity of the cell,
hence it is regarded as a membrane antioxidant.
2. It prevents the peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in various tissues
and membranes. It protects RBC from hemolysis by oxidizing agents (e.g.H2O2).
Vitamin E + free radicals →→→ Quinone form
3. It is closely associated with reproductive functions and prevents sterility..
4. It increases the synthesis of heme by enhancing the activity of enzymes
δaminolevulinic acid (ALA) synthase and ALA dehydratase.
5. It is required for cellular respiration– through electron transport chain
(believed to stabilize coenzyme Q).
6. Vitamin E prevents the oxidation of vitamin A and carotenes.
7. It is required for proper storage of creatine in skeletal muscle.
8. Vitamin E is needed for optimal absorption of amino acids from the intestine.
9. It is involved in proper synthesis of nucleic acids.
10. Vitamin E protects liver from being damaged by toxic compounds such as
carbon tetrachloride.
12. Vitamin E has been recommended for the prevention of chronic diseases such
as cancer and heart diseases.

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS:
The symptoms of vitamin E deficiency vary from one animal species to another.
● In many animals, the deficiency is associated with sterility,
● Degenerative changes in muscle,
● megaloblastic anaemia and changes in central nervous system.
● Severe symptoms of vitamin E deficiency are not seen in humans except
increased fragility of erythrocytes and minor neurological symptoms.
Vitamin K

Vitamin K is the only fat soluble vitamin with a specific coenzyme function. It is
required for the production of blood clotting factors, essential for coagulation (in
German–Koagulation; hence the name K for this vitamin)
CHEMISTRY: Vitamin K exists in different forms
Vitamin K1 - Phylloquinone - Plant origin
Vitamin K2 - Menaquinone -Normally produced by bacteria in the large intestine
Vitamin K3 - Menadione - Synthetic form.
K1 and K2 are used differently in the body
K1 – Used mainly for blood clothing
K2 – Important in non-coagulation actions - as in metabolism and bone
mineralization, in cell growth, metabolism of blood vessel walls cells.

DIETARY SOURCES:
Good sources: Cabbage, cauliflower, tomatoes, alfalfa, spinach and other
green vegetables. Moderate Sources: Egg yolk, meat, liver, cheese and
dairy products.

RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA):

RDA for an adult is 70-140 μg/day.

BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS:
1) They are needed for the posttranslational modification of proteins
required for blood coagulation
2) They are involved in metabolism pathways, in bone mineralization, cell
growth, metabolism of blood vessel wall.
 3) Cofactor of liver microsomal carboxylase which carboxylates glutamate
residues to gamma-carboxyglutamate during synthesis of prothrombin and
coagulation factors II, VII, IX and X (post translation reaction).
4) Carboxylated glutamate chelates Ca2+ ions, permitting the binding of blood
clotting proteins to membranes.
5) Vitamin K is also required for the carboxylation of glutamic acid residues
of osteocalcin, a calcium binding protein present in the bone.

DEFICIENCY:
It is caused by fat malabsorption (or) by the liver failure.
Blood clotting disorders – dangerous in newborns,
life-threatening, bleeding (hemorrhagic disease of the Newborn - Red rashes)
Causes: Poor placental transport,
Low hepatic stores,
Immature Hepatocytes.
Osteoporosis due to failed carboxylation of osteocalcin and decreased activity of
osteoblasts.