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Lozada​ ​ 1

1.0 UNIT #1: Limit of a Function * from the right of 2:

X>2 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4
●​ Evaluating Limits through Table
of Values 2.1 2.1 + 4 = 6.1
●​ Evaluating Limits through Graphs
2.05 2.05 + 4 = 6.05

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●​ Limit of a Function versus the
Function Value at 𝒙 = 𝑐 2.01 2.01 + 4 = 6.01

2.005 2.005 + 4 = 6.005

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1.1 LESSON 1: Evaluating Limits
through Table of Values
2.001 2.001 + 4 = 6.001
●​ Suppose that the function 𝑓(𝑥) is
defined when 𝑥 is near 𝑐. If 𝑓(𝑥)
​ ⬇️2​​ ​​ ​
​
​
​
⬇️6

-S gets closer to 𝐿 from both sides

as 𝑥 gets closer to 𝑐, then we say
that “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥
approaches 𝑐 is equal to 𝐿.”
This is written as
Notice that as the value of 𝑥 gets closer
and closer to 2 from both sides, the
value of 𝑓(𝑥) gets closer and closer to 6
from both sides. Thus, we say that: “the
limit of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4 as 𝑥
approaches 2 is equal to 6.” In
PU
symbols,
In this case, we say that the limit exists.

Example: Investigate what happens to

One-Sided Limits
the value of the linear function:
●​ Left-hand Limit: Suppose that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4 as 𝑥 approaches 2 the function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 𝑥
is near 𝑐 from the left. Then, the
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left hand limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥

* from the left of 2:
approaches 𝑐 from the left is
X<2 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4 equal to a number 𝑀. This can
1.9 1.9 + 4 = 5.9 be written as

1.95 1.95 + 4 = 5.95

1.99 1.99 + 4 = 5.99

●​ Right-hand Limit: Suppose
1.995 1.995 + 4 = 5.995 the function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 𝑥
is near 𝑐 from the right. If 𝑓(𝑥) gets
1.999 1.999 + 4 = 5.999
⬇️2​​ ​​ ​
​
​
​
⬇️6 closer to 𝑁 as 𝑥 gets closer to 𝑐
from the right, then we say that
“the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥

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approaches 𝑐 from the right is Example: Given the piecewise function

equal to 𝑁.” This can be written below:
as

Estimate ​ ​ using a table of

If the left- and right-hand limits of 𝑓(𝑥) as

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values.
𝑥 approaches a number 𝑐 are equal,
then we say that the limit of 𝒇(𝒙) as 𝒙
Solution:
approaches 𝒄 exists. If this is not the
(from the

H
case, then the limit does not exist.
LEFT)
Example: Given the piecewise function
below:

-S
Estimate ​
values.

Solution:
​ using a table of
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(from the
RIGHT)
Notice that as 𝑥 approaches -3 from the
left, f(𝑥) approaches 1. Therefore,

Infinite Limits
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●​ A function 𝑓(𝑥) may not have a

limit as 𝑥 approaches a certain
value because it increases or
decreases indefinitely. In this
case, we will use the concept of
infinity.
●​ Suppose the function 𝑓(𝑥) is
Notice that as 𝑥 approaches 1 from the defined when 𝑥 is as near as
right, 𝑚(𝑥) approaches 1. Therefore, possible to 𝑐 on both sides. If 𝑓(𝑥)
increases without bound as 𝑥
approaches 𝑐, then we write

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●​ If 𝑓(𝑥) decreases without bound close to 𝑐 from the left and right
as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐, then we say sides.
that “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 ●​ Step 2: Complete the table by
approaches 𝑐 is negative infinity.”
solving the value of 𝑓(𝑥) for each 𝑥
This is written as
value.
●​ Step 3: Estimate the values that

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Example: Estimate ​​ using a are being approached by 𝑓(𝑥)
table of values. from the left and right sides of
𝑥 = 𝑐.

H
Solution:
1.2 LESSON 2: Evaluating Limits
through Graphs

-S ●​ The graph of a function shows

how the function behaves for any
value of 𝑥. Thus, we can also use
graphs to find limits.
PU
Observe that the value of 𝑟(𝑥) decreases
without bound as 𝑥 approaches 2 from
the left and increases without bound as
●​ The absence of a “gap” or
𝑥 approaches 2 from the right. Thus,
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“break” in the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) at

𝑥 = 1 shows that the limit of the
function exists at 𝑥 = 1. By
looking at the graph above, we
see that as 𝑥 approaches 1 both
Therefore,​ ​ does not exist.
from the left and the right sides,
𝑓(𝑥) approaches 1. Thus,
●​ REMEMBER: To estimate the
limit of a function 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥
approaches 𝑐, follow the steps: Example: Estimate​ ​ using its
●​ Step 1: Construct tables with graph on the next page..
arbitrary 𝑥 values that are very

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Limits Where:

●​ Example: Solve for

S
H
Answer:

-S
As 𝑥 approaches −3 from the left and
Limits Where:

●​ Example: Let us evaluate the

value of 𝑓(4). In
PU
it follows that 𝑓(4) = 5. Since
right sides, the function approaches −2. and 𝑓(4) = 5, we can see that
●​ 𝑥 = 4 is part of the domain of 𝑓(𝑥).
However, the value of 𝑓(𝑥) is
1.3 LESSON 3: Limit of a defined differently when 𝑥 = 4 and
Function versus the 𝑥 ≠ 4. The value of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4
Function Value at 𝒙 = c
and 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 at 𝑥 = 4 are different,
which makes the limit different
●​ In a function 𝑓(𝑥), we can
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from the function value.

determine 𝑓(𝑐) only when 𝑐 is in
the domain of 𝑓(𝑥). If 𝑐 is not in the Functions Where 𝑓(𝑐) is
domain of 𝑓(𝑥), we can still
estimate ​ as long as the undefined:
values near 𝑐 are defined ●​ Example:​ ​
●​ In most cases, ​ ​ .
However, if 𝑓(𝑐) is undefined or
indeterminate, we can determine ​ ●​ Solution:
​ either by manipulating
𝑓(𝑥) or using tables of values or a
graph.

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Functions Where 𝑓(𝑐) is ●​ Limit of an Identity Function-

indeterminate: f(x) = x as x approaches c is
equal to c.
●​ Example:

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●​ Solution: ●​ Example:

●​ Constant Multiple Law- The limit

of a constant k multiplied by a

H
function is equal to k multiplied by
the limit of the function.

-S
PU
2.0 UNIT #2: Limit Laws ●​ Sum or Difference Law- The
limit of the sum or difference of
●​ The Basic Limit Laws two functions is equal to the sum
or difference of the
●​ Limits of Algebraic Functions limits of the two functions.
●​ Limits of Transcendental
Functions
●​ Limits at Infinity
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●​ Special Limits

2.1 LESSON 1: The Basic

Limit Laws

●​ Constant Law- limit of k as x ●​ Product Law- The limit of the

approaches c is equal to k. product of two functions is equal
to the product of the limits of the
limit of k as x approaches c = k, two functions.

●​ Example:

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●​ Quotient Law– The limit of the integer, and the limit of the
quotient of two functions is equal function is positive when n is
to the quotient of the limits of the even. In symbols:
two functions, provided that the
limit of the divisor is not equal to
zero.

S
H
●​ Key Formulas

-S
PU
●​ Power Law- The limit of the
integral power of a function is
equal to the integral power of the
limit of the function, provided that
the limit of the function is not
equal to zero when the exponent
is negative.
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2.2 LESSON 2: Limits of

Algebraic Functions

●​ Algebraic functions are

functions that can be expressed
using the operations addition,
●​ Root Law- The limit of the nth subtraction, multiplication,
root of a function is equal to the division, and raising to a
nth root of the limit of the fractional power.
function, where n is a positive

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●​ Limits of three kinds of algebraic

functions: polynomial, rational,
and radical functions.

Limit of a Polynomial
Function

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●​ A polynomial function is a
function that can be written in the
form:

H
REMEMBER!
●​ Theorem 2.2.1. - The limit of a
polynomial function f(x) as x Rules in Evaluating Limits

-S of Rational Functions:
approaches c is equal to f(c).

Scenario 1: Direct Substitution

●​ If direct substitution results in a

●​ Key Information/Terminology defined value (i.e., the
PU
denominator is NOT zero), then
the limit is simply the result of
substituting the given value into
the function.

Limit of a Rational Scenario 2: Undefined Form

Function (Nonzero/Zero Case)
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●​ A rational function is a function

that can be written in the form ●​ If direct substitution results in a
value where the numerator has a
real number (nonzero) but the
denominator is zero, the function
approaches infinity or negative
where P(x) and Q(x) are both infinity, or does not exist.
polynomials, and Q(x) is not
equal to zero. Three Key Rules to Apply in This
●​ Theorem 2.2.2. Case:

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1.​ Check Left-Hand Limit and

Right-Hand Limit – If they are
different, the limit does not exist.
2.​ Analyze the Sign of the
Function – Determine whether it
approaches +infinity or −infinity.

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3.​ Use Asymptotic Behavior – If
the function exhibits vertical
asymptotes, check the trends as

H
x approaches the critical value.

Scenario 3: Indeterminate Form Evaluating Limits of Indeterminate

(0/0 Case) – Apply Algebraic Form of Type 0/0 by Rationalizing

-S
Manipulation

●​ If substitution results in 0/0, this

means the function is
indeterminate and requires
further manipulation such as:
Technique. Follow the 3 cases:

1. Rationalize the denominator if only

the denominator has a radical
expression.
2. Rationalize the numerator if only the
PU
○​ Factoring – If the numerator has a radical expression.
numerator and 3. Rationalize both numerator and
denominator have denominator if the two have radical
common factors. expressions.
○​ Simplification – If terms Example:
can be canceled out.
○​ Rationalization through
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conjugate – If square
roots are involved. Substitute:

Limit of a Radical
Function
●​ A radical function is a function
having a polynomial under the
radical sign.
●​ Theorem 2.2.3.

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Example:
Evaluate the limit by rationalizing
technique:

S
Limit of a Logarithmic

H
Function
●​ A logarithmic function is a
function of the form:

-S
2.3 LESSON 3: Limits of Transcendental
Functions
where b is a real number, b > 0,
and b ≠ 1. It is also the inverse of
an exponential function.
PU
●​ Property of Limit for
Limit of an Exponential Logarithmic Function
Function Let g(x) be a polynomial and, b
and c be real numbers, where b >
●​ An exponential function is a
0, and b ≠ 1.
function written in the form f(x) =
where b is a real number,b ≠ 1,
and b > 0.
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Property of Limit for

Exponential Function
○​ The limit of an exponential
function is the exponential
function of the limit of the
function.

●​ Theorem 2.3.2.
●​ Theorem 2.3.1

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Example: Sine Function

Cosine Function

S
●​ Theorem 2.3.2 holds as well for
the logarithmic function of base Tangent Function

H
e, which is called the natural
logarithmic function.It could be
expressed as:

-S Cosecant Function
PU
Example:

Secant Function
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Limit of a Trigonometric
Function
●​ A trigonometric function (also
called a circular function) is a
function that represents the ratio
of the x- and y- coordinates in a
unit circle. It could be written in
any of the following forms:
y = sin x, y = cos x, y = tan x,
y = csc x, y = sec x, and y = cot x.

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Cotangent Function if a > 0, the right-end of the graph

is rising (positive infinity).
2.​ If n is odd, the right and the left
end of the graph are in opposite
directions, while if n is even, the
right and the left end of the graph
are in the same direction.

S
The limits at infinity of polynomial

H
2.4 LESSON 4: Limits at Infinity functions of degree n and leading
coefficient a is generalized below:
Limits at Infinity of Some
Algebraic Functions

-S
Limits at Infinity of Polynomial
Functions

●​ The limits at infinity of polynomial

functions depend on the end
PU
behaviors of their graphs.

Limits at Infinity of Rational

Functions

●​ Unlike polynomial functions,

rational functions differ in terms
of end behaviors as they may
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consist of one or more branches.

Graph

As x approaches positive infinity, y extends to positive

infinity. Meanwhile, as x approaches negative infinity,
y extends to negative infinity.

Behaviors of the Graph of a

Polynomial Function:

1.​ If a < 0, the right-end of the graph

is falling (negative infinity), while

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As x approaches positive or negative infinity, y

becomes closer to the x-axis, but will never For natural logarithmic functions, we
intersect this line. Therefore:
have:

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Limits at Infinity of Some 2.5 LESSON 5: Special Limits
Transcendental Functions

H
Limits at Infinity of Exponential
Functions

-S
Properties of limits at infinity of
exponential functions:
PU
For natural exponential functions, we
have:
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Limits at Infinity of Logarithmic

Functions

Properties of limits at infinity of

logarithmic functions:

3.0 UNIT #3: Continuity of a Function

●​ Continuity of a Function at a
Point

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●​ Types of Discontinuity

3.1 LESSON 1: Continuity of a

Function at a Point

Intuitive Definition of

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Continuity of a Function
●​ A function is said to be

H
continuous if its graph has
no breaks or holes, and you
can trace it without lifting

-S
your pen. The function is continuous at x = 2
●​ A continuous function is
defined for any real number. KEY POINTS:

Examples of continuous functions: ●​ A function f is said to be

continuous at the number c if and
only if the following conditions
PU
are satisfied:

Examples of discontinuous functions:

●​ If at least one of these conditions

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fails to hold at c, the function is

said to be discontinuous at c.

Continuity of a Function at ●​ If f(x) and g(x) are both

continuous at x = c, then the
a Point Given Its Graph following properties can be
●​ Any function f(x) is said to observed:
be continuous at a point
x = c if you can trace the
graph from the left going to
the right of c without lifting
your pen.

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3.2 LESSON 2: Continuity of a Since the left-hand limit is equal to the

Function at a Point right-hand limit, the limit exists, and

Removable Discontinuity
Remove the discontinuity at x = 1 by

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●​ Removable discontinuity
occurs when the limit of a redefining the function.
function exists but not equal to
the value of the function. This can

H
easily be determined if there is a
hole in the graph of the function.
It is called removable because
the discontinuity can be removed In this case,

-S
by redefining the function.
The discontinuity is removed as
Example: illustrated in the graph:
PU
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●​ Summary:
The graph has a hole at x = 1, making
it discontinuous at x = 1. The value of
the function at x = 1 is f(1) = 1.

Redefining the function:

Find the limit of the function as x
approaches 1.
Nonremovable Discontinuity
●​ Nonremovable discontinuity (also
called essential discontinuity)

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occurs when the limit of a

function fails to exist. There are ●​ Summary:
two types of nonremovable
discontinuities, jump (or finite)
and infinite (or asymptotic).
●​ Functions with a nonremovable
discontinuity cannot be redefined

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to make it continuous at x = c,
unlike the removable Infinite Discontinuity
discontinuity.

H
●​ There is a vertical asymptote at
Jump Discontinuity x = c.
●​ Cannot remove this type of
●​ The graph has a break and discontinuity since it is impossible

-S
discontinuous. to connect the branches of the
●​ Needs to “jump” from the graph at the vertical asymptote.
endpoint of the first branch to the
endpoint of the second branch of
the graph to continue tracing.
●​ Can easily determine if the
function has a jump discontinuity
PU
at x = c if there is a break on its
graph at x = c.
●​ Cannot remove this type of
discontinuity since a vertical
segment must be drawn to
connect the endpoints of the
graph, which will fail the vertical
line test for function.
C

●​ Summary:

TRY THIS:

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ANSWER:

TRY THIS:

S
You decide to flip a coin to determine
whether to study ReadWrite or BasCal first.
The coin is flipped straight up with a velocity

H
of 7.2 ft/s. Determine the limit of the height
of the coin as time approaches 5 seconds.

What is the initial velocity of the coin?

-S
What is height (h) as a function of time (t)?.

What is acceleration due to gravity in ft/s²?

Use this formula:

PU
"Life is a math equation. In order to gain the most,
you have to know how to convert negatives into
positives." - Anonymous

CONGRATS! YOU MADE IT! HANG IN THERE!

Same lang tayo nag stru-struggle sa basic cal na
hindi basic. - Tita Carms
C

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