Ethiofetena.

com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website
Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website
Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

First Published August 2023 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia,

Min­istry of Education, under the General Education Quality Improvement
Program for Equity (GEQIP-E) supported by the World Bank, UK's Department
for Inter­national Development/DFID-now merged with the Foreign,
Common wealth and Development Office/FCDO, Finland Ministry for
Foreign Affairs, the Royal Norwegian Embassy, United Nations Children尹s
Fund/UNICEF), the Global Partnership for Education (GPE), and Danish
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, through a Multi Donor Trust Fund.

©2023 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education.

All rights reserved. The moral rights of the author have been asserted. No part
of this textbook reproduced, copied in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means including electronic, mechanical, magnetic, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Ministry of
Education or licensing in accordance with the Federal Democratic Republic
of Ethiopia as expressed in the Federal Negarit Gazeta, Proclamation No.
410/2004 -Copyright and Neighboring Rights Protection.

The Ministry of Education wishes to thank the many individuals, groups and
other bodies involved鈤湣directly or indirectly - in publishing this Textbook.
Special thanks are due to Hawassa University for their huge contribution in
the development of this textbook in collaboration with Addis Ababa University,
Bahir Dar University and Jimma University.

Copyrighted materials used by permission of their owners. If you are the owner
of copyrighted material not cited or improperly cited, please contact the Ministry
of Education, Head Office, Arat Kilo, (P.O.Box 1367), Addis Ababa Ethiopia.

978-99990-0-035-2
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

Contents

1 Application of physics in other fields 1

1.1 Physics and other sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Physics and engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Medical physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Physics and defense technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Physics in communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 Two-dimensional motion 24
2.1 Projectile motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Rotational Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3 Rotational Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4 Planetary motion and Kepler’s laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3 Fluid Mechanics 69
3.1 Fluid Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 Pressure in fluids at rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3 Archimedes’ principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.4 Fluid flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.5 Safety and high pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4 Electromagnetism 117
4.1 Magnets and Magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.2 Magnetic field lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.3 Current and Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4 Electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.5 Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.6 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.7 Application and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

5 Basics of electronics 142

5.1 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2 Diodes and their Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3 Rectification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.4 Transistors and their application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

i
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

ii CONTENTS

5.5 Integrated Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

5.6 Logic gates and logic circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.7 Application of electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Index 177
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

Unit 1

Application of physics in other

fields
Introduction
Brainstorming
Science is a collection of different scientific fields, or disciplines. It is the union of question1.1
these fields that helps us to understand the world in which we live. Although there
(i) List as many
are many scientific disciplines with a special character and history of their own,
other sciences or
each discipline is dependent on and reinforces the other disciplines. Scientific specializations as
disciplines do not have fixed borders. Each discipline benefits from advances in possible in which
other areas of science. Understanding the contribution that a scientific discipline the word physics
can make to others is important for the collaborative development all scientific appears in their

disciplines, and their contribution to society and the environment. names.

(ii) How is
At the end of this unit, you will be able to: knowledge of
• Comprehend the contribution of physics to the betterment of society. physics used
or applied in
• Understand the relation of physics to other sciences. these sciences or
specializations?
• Recognize and appreciate the place of physics in advancement of
Technology.

• Appreciate the contribution of Technology to the advancement of Physics.

• Advocate physics as an important field of study to address societal issues

and challenges.

1
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2 Unit 1 Application of physics in other fields

1.1 Physics and other sciences

Physics is the most essential field of science and it has a strong influence on most
scientific developments. We can find different concepts of physics in many of the
Brainstorming
modern sciences.
question 1.2

(i) Identify some At the end of this section, you will be able to:
relationships
• explain the relationship of physics with chemistry, biology, geology and
between physics
astronomy.
and chemistry.
(ii) What physics
concept is applied
Physics and chemistry
in separation of
dissolved salt Physics and chemistry may overlap when the system under study involves matter
from water by
composed of electrons and nuclei. Fundamental laws that govern the behavior of
evaporation
matter apply to both chemistry and physics. Both physics and chemistry are
method?
concerned with matter and its interaction with energy. The theory and various
rules about atoms which are important in chemistry are ultimately explained in
principle by atomic and subatomic particle physics. Chemists and physicists use
Discussion similar method to study the interaction of large number of particles which have
question 1.1 complicated interaction beyond the capacity of any computer, and the capacity
of the human mind.
tDear students,
chemistry studies
minute entities The physics of atoms and subatomic particles is critically important for
like elements, understanding how individual atoms are joined by covalent bonds to form
atoms, molecules molecules. The physics of atoms and subatomic particles can also provide
and ions which
quantitative insight into ionic and covalent bonding processes by explicitly
cannot be seen with
showing which molecules are energetically favorable to which others and the
your naked eyes.
magnitudes of the energies involved.
How do chemists
collect information,
like composition, The physics of energy related to heat tells chemists whether a particular reaction
structure, properties is energetically possible in the direction in which it is written, and it gives the
and the changes composition of the reaction system at equilibrium. The physics of heat energy
they undergo during
provides a bridge between the macroscopic properties of a substance and the
a reaction with
individual properties of its constituent molecules and atoms.
other substances,
from these minute
invisible particles? Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic
radiation as a function of the wavelength or frequency of the radiation.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

1.1 Physics and other sciences 3

Spectroscopy is a fundamental examining tool in many fields including physics

and chemistry. Most of what we know about the structure of atoms and
molecules comes from spectroscopic study. The spectroscopic techniques are
developed by collaborative work of physicists and chemists.

In general, the study of matter and electricity in physics is fundamental towards

the understanding of concepts in chemistry, such as atomic structure, molecular
structure, X-ray diffractions, radioactivity, periodic properties of elements, nature
of valency, chemical bonds in molecules, crystal structure of solids and others.
This shows that chemistry is rooted in atomic and molecular physics.

Physics and biology

To understand how life works, it is essential to understand physics. Physics can Brainstorming
explain the human body like the mechanics of human motion, the energetics of question 1.3
metabolism, the fluid dynamics of blood flow through vessels, the mechanisms
List some physics
for speaking and hearing, and the optical imaging system we call the eye. In this concepts in our
section some of the physics concepts within a living things are briefly explained. body.

Physics of Newtonian mechanics and biology

The Newtonian mechanics tells us how different animals and their body parts
move. The combination of knowledge of physics and biology help to explain how
athletes run fast and why the fastest animal in the world, cheetah, runs fast.
Newtonian mechanics tells us that a body is in stable equilibrium under the
action of gravity if its center of mass is directly over its base of support. Under
this condition, the reaction force at the base of support cancels the force of
gravity and the torque produced by it. If the center of mass is outside the base,
the torque produced by the weight tends to fall the body. A person falls when his
center of gravity is displaced beyond the position of the feet. The wider the base
Figure 1.1 (a) Center of gravity
on which the body rests and the closer the center of gravity of it to the base, the of a freely standing person (b) A
more stable it is; that is, the more difficult it is to fall it. How we can use our limbs person carrying unbalanced load
to do different jobs can also be explained by Newtonian mechanics . stands bending
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4 Unit 1 Application of physics in other fields

Discussion question 1.2

(i) Why it is difficult to stand on one foot than the two feet? Why we are
more stable when we sleep than we are standing?
(ii) Figure 1.1 (a) shows freely standing person and Figure 1.1 (b) shows
the way a person carrying a load stands. Why the person carrying the load
stands bending in Figure 1.1(b) than the person in Figure 1.1(a)?

Physics of fluid flow and biology

Discussion The physics of fluid flow, like viscosity, equation of continuity and turbulent flow,
question 1.3 is very important in understanding the circulation of blood and blood pressure in

(i) Have you

the multicellular organisms. Soft-bodied animals (such as the sea anemone and
observed when the the earthworm) that lack a firm utilize Pascal’s principle to produce body motion.
earthworm moves?
How do earthworms
locomote without
limbs?
(ii) How a blood
moves against
gravity from the
feet to the heart or
from the heart to
the brain when a
person stands erect?

Figure 1.2 Sound wave generating organ in human being.

Activity 1.1 Physics of sound wave and biology

Dear students, Sound is a mechanical wave produced by vibrating bodies. The vocal cords
please check
produce sound when they come together and then vibrate as air passes through
whether inhalation
them during exhalation of air from the lungs. This vibration produces the sound
or exhalation of air
enables formation
wave for your voice. When the human vocal cords (Figure 1.2) set into vibrational
of a controlled motion, the surrounding air molecules are disturbed and are forced to follow
sound. the motion of the vibrating body. The vibrating molecules in turn transfer their
motion to adjacent molecules causing the vibrational disturbance to propagate
away from the source. When the air vibrations reach the ear, they cause the
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

1.1 Physics and other sciences 5

eardrum to vibrate; this produces nerve impulses that are interpreted by the
brain.

Physics of electricity and biology

Many life processes involve electrical phenomena. The nervous system of animals
and the control of muscle movement, for example, are both governed by electrical
interactions. The very important electrical phenomena in living organisms are
found in the nervous system of animals. Specialized cells called neurons form
a complex network within the body which receives, processes, and transmits
information from one part of the body to another. The center of this network
is located in the brain, which has the ability to store and analyze information.
Based on this information, the nervous system controls various parts of the body.
The messages are electrical pulses transmitted by the neurons. When a neuron
receives an appropriate stimulus, it produces electrical pulses that are propagated
along its cablelike structure.

Optical physics and biology

Light is the electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength region between about 400
nm and 700 nm. Although light is only a tiny part of the electromagnetic spectrum,
it is very important in both physics and biology. Light has fundamental roles in
living system because of its paramount importance. Most of the electromagnetic
radiation from the sun that reaches the Earth’s surface is in this region of the
spectrum, and life has evolved to utilize it. In photosynthesis, plants use light to Discussion
convert carbon dioxide and water into organic materials, which are the building question 1.4
blocks of living organisms. Animals have evolved light-sensitive organs, like
Discuss how our
the eyes, which are their main source of information about the surroundings. eyes use light to see
Some bacteria and insects can even produce light through chemical reactions. objects?
Optical physics, which is the study of light, includes topics such as microscopes,
telescopes, vision, color, pigments, illumination, spectroscopy, and lasers, all of
which have applications in the life sciences.

Physics and astronomy

Astrophysics is the study of the physics of heavenly objects, called astronomical

objects, in the sky like the solar system and its constituents, the properties, birth,
life and death of stars, interstellar gas and dust, galaxies and clusters of galaxies,
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

6 Unit 1 Application of physics in other fields

and finally the study of the Universe as a whole.

Brain storming
question 1.4 Newton’s laws of motion and astronomy

Most of the Newton’s law of gravitation is used to describe the motion of the moon around
astronomical
a planet and the motion of the planets around the sun. Newton was able to
objects are far
explain why Kepler’s Laws described planetary motion using his laws of motion
from the earth
where astronomers and gravity. The knowledge of centripetal force and centrifugal force from our
live. How can physics knowledge greatly help as to understand what keeps objects in orbit
astronomers around others. This applies to planets orbiting the Sun, moons orbiting planets,
get information and artificial satellites in Earth0 s orbit.
about these far
objects? What
Physics of electromagnetic wave and astronomy
physics concepts do
astronomers use to Astronomers collect information about the radiation from space objects to study
study astronomical the birth and death of stars, how hot objects are, how far away they are, even how
objects?
the universe was formed. Astronomers use telescopes that detect different parts
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Each type of telescope can only detect one part
Brainstorming of the electromagnetic spectrum. There are radio telescopes, infrared telescopes,
question 1.5 optical (visible light) telescopes and so on. We can’t see most of the radiation

What information detected, so computers turn data into images we can see. The colour we observe
do you expect on these image are called false colours because computers have taken the data
from studying the from wavelengths we can’t see and presented them as colours that can be seen as
electromagnetic shown in Figure 1.4.
wave which comes
from astronomical
objects?

Figure 1.4 Detection of different components of electromagnetic radiation

Figure 1.3 Entoto space
by telescope
observatory telescope
Astronomers use light to measure distance of astronomical objects. For more
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

1.1 Physics and other sciences 7

distant objects, we can measure distances by using brightness of objects, since

objects will appear fainter if they are at larger distances than identical nearby
object. Measuring the apparent brightness of an object gives its distance if we
know its true brightness.

true brightness
apparent brightness ∝
distance 2
This is known as the inverse square law of apparent brightness. The true
Exercise 1.1
brightness is also known as the luminosity. Astronomers also used light year as
What is the distance
an alternate astronomical distance measuring unit. A light year is the distance
that light can
that light travels in one year.
travel in one year
in kilometer?
Physics of atoms and astronomy

Atomic astrophysics is concerned with performing atomic physics calculations

Brain storming
that will be useful to astronomers and using atomic data to interpret
question 1.6
astronomical observations. The astronomers’ only information about a
What do emission
particular object comes through the light that it emits, and this light arises
and absorption of
through atomic transitions.
light by an object
tell us?
The physics that explains emission and absorption of radiation is closely related
to the structure and energies of individual atoms that form the astronomical
objects. When electrons of atoms jump from higher to a lower atomic orbit,
photon is emitted. Photon is absorbed if electron jumps from lower electron
orbit to higher electron orbit (Figure 1.5). The emission and absorption of
radiation depends on the characteristics of individual atoms, and helps to
measure something about the compositions, temperatures, and motions of stars
by studying their spectra. You can visit the link:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/hydrogen-atom to observe the Bohr
atomic model for hydrogen atom.

In the interstellar matter, atoms are heated by nearby stars. This results in
knocking of electrons to higher energy orbits. These electrons fall down to lower
energy orbits emitting light of precisely the wavelength that corresponds to the
energy change between the two orbits. The nature of the emitted light depends
on the temperature. Thus, emitted light can be used to determine both
compositions and temperatures of astronomical objects.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

8 Unit 1 Application of physics in other fields

Figure 1.5 The Bohr atomic structure and electron transitions

Physics and geology

The study of different parts of Earth is called Earth science. Earth Science deals
with all aspects of the Earth including molten lava, icy mountain peaks, steep
valleys and towering waterfalls, the atmosphere high above the earth as well as
the Earth’s core far beneath the surface. Geology is a branch of Earth science that
studies the solid and liquid matter that makes up Earth and the different
Figure 1.6 Mineralogists focus on processes on these matters.
all kinds of minerals.

The understanding of geological processes demand the understanding of the

Activity 1.2 different concepts of physics like force, optics, atomic structure, electromagnetic
radiation, heat and heat flow, electricity and magnetism, stress and strain, waves
Dear students,
please organize including sound wave and fluid flow. In geology, these physics concepts are used
yourself in five to study the following properties of rocks and minerals: electrical properties,
groups to visit density, magnetization, radioactivity, elasticity and more. To study these
your other science properties of rocks and minerals,the geologist take samples from different layers
teachers like of the earth through excavation. They can also study different properties of rocks
chemistry, biology,
and minerals by sending different types of waves from the surface of the earth
geography, history
without excavation.
and ICT to ask them
how the knowledge
Geology has so many branches that most geologists become specialists in one
of physics is used in
area. For example, a mineralogist studies the composition and structure of
their disciples. Your
teacher will help
minerals such as halite (rock salt), quartz, calcite, and magnetite (Figure1.6).
you how to proceed Geological knowledge is also used to detect or infer the presence and position of
in your activities.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

1.2 Physics and engineering 9

economically useful geological deposits, such as ore minerals, fossil fuels and
other hydrocarbons, geothermal reservoirs, and groundwater reservoirs.

Brainstorming
1.2 Physics and engineering question 1.7
(i) List importance
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
of physics in
• Relate the Newtonian mechanics with civil engineering engineering.
(ii) Should we learn
• List different concepts of physics used in mechanical engineering
physics before we
learn engineering?
• Relate electromagnetism to electrical and electronics engineering

• Explain how technology contributes to the development of physics

Physics generates fundamental knowledge that can be used by different branches

of engineering. Physical concepts, such as Mechanics, Thermodynamics,
Electromagnetism, Atomic Physics, Molecular Physics, Optics, Nuclear Physics
etc., are important knowledge inputs in different engineering branches.
Engineering branches such as civil, mechanical, electrical, etc., are basically
governed by physical laws. It is difficult to solve many of the complex engineering
problems without understanding the physics behind it. If one understands the
laws of nature using physics, then one can use that knowledge to predict what
will happen to the things one builds in engineering.

Figure 1.8 Civil Engineering in (a) Suspension Bridge (Abay Bridge)

(b)Building construction (Africa Union Head Quarter, Addis Ababa) (c)
Transportation Engineering (Gotera interchange road)

Figure 1.7 Civil Engineering in

Civil engineering ancient civilization(a) Axumite
Obelisks (b) Lalibela Betegiorgis
Civil engineering concerns designing and building skyscrapers, roads,bridges, rock hewen church (c) Harar Jugol
(The Arthur Rimbaud Cultural
dams, and railways using our physics knowledge of forces, fluid pressure, gravity,
center) (d) Egyptian Pyramids
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

10 Unit 1 Application of physics in other fields

and others. Civil engineering has been known since ancient civilizations in
Ethiopia, Egypt and others (Figure1.7), where large buildings were built such as
temples, pyramids and palaces with engineering designs. However, the major
change in civil engineering resulted from the development of physics particularly
after the development of laws of motion, power and energy in the eighteenth
century. Advance in accuracy of measurements and calculations in Civil
engineering results in construction of complex sky scraper buildings,
transportation/traffic systems/ engineering, suspension bridges and others in
worldwide.

Mechanical engineering

Mechanical engineering uses knowledge of mathematics, science mostly physics

and materials science to create mechanical systems like engines, manufacturing
equipment and vehicles. The physics concepts like mechanics, dynamics,
thermodynamics, forces, stresses and aerodynamics are mostly used in
mechanical engineering in dealing with aircraft, watercraft, engines, robotics,
weapons, cars, hydraulics and others. A mechanical engineer takes one or more
of these concepts to create a mechanical system that operate without failure.

Figure 1.10 Mechanical engineering design products

Electrical engineering

Electrical engineering involves designing electrical circuits including motors,

electronic appliances, optical fiber networks, computers, and communication
links. Electrical engineers often need to convert electrical energy to other forms
Figure 1.9 Areas electrical of energy like mechanical and thermal energy. Therefore electrical engineering
engineering concerns (a)electrical demands the understanding of some physics concepts like electromagnetism,
system for installation and
mechanics, thermodynamics and others.
maintainance (b) Electric power
transmission and management (c)
Electric circuit
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

1.2 Physics and engineering 11

Chemical engineering

Chemical engineering involves the production of products through chemical

processes. This includes designing equipment, systems, and processes for
refining raw materials and for mixing, compounding, and processing chemicals.
The laws of physical chemistry and physics govern the practicability and
efficiency of chemical engineering operations. Particularly, chemical engineering
requires an understanding of the physical properties of molecules, the chemical
bonds between atoms as well as the molecular dynamics which are dealt by
molecular physics. Furthermore, concept of energy changes, deriving from
thermodynamic considerations, are very important in chemical engineering.

Figure 1.11 Some chemical Engineering products (a) plastics (b) petroleum
products (c) detergents and (d)paints

Brainstorming
Technology generating new physics question 1.8
There is a fundamental connection between physics and technology. Without What is the
knowledge of physics, most of the technologies we know well today could not be contribution of
available for the society. Dear students, do you think the revere also is true i.e., technology in the
can technology give rise to new physics? development of
physics?

Science and technology are two things that are completely interwoven. Science
seeks to understand the natural world using technology. Engineering uses
scientific discoveries to design products and processes to solve the societal
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

12 Unit 1 Application of physics in other fields

problems. This products and processes are what we call technology which are
important for the scientists as well as for the engineers. Technology wouldn’t
exist without science, and science wouldn’t be as effective without technology.
The technology that was developed using science can help to do even more
science. Many modern scientific experiments wouldn’t be possible without
technology. The rocket technology allowing blasting off from the earth enables us
to take scientific measurements in space. The discovery of X-ray technology
helped in further development of physics. Technology helped in study of atomic
structure, spectral analysis, etc. The relation of science/physics, Engineering and
technology can be schematized as shown in Figure 1.12.

Activity 1.3

Dear students, Carefully think about your living area including your school.

(i) What technologies and engineering products are available? Explain

Figure 1.12 Interrelation of how physics is used in these technologies and engineering products.
physics, engineering and
technology (ii) Try to find also the latest technology and engineering products based
on physics discoveries. You can use sources like internet, library,
expert visit and media. Your work has to be presented in group.

(iii) Present a poster on the title “Contribution of different technologies

on the advancement of physics”.
Brainstorming
question 1.9
List as many
1.3 Medical physics
medical diagnostic
instruments you At the end of this section, you will be able to:
know. Try to explain
• Explain the relation of physics with medicine
what information do
these instruments
• Explain how the magnetic property of water is used in MRI for diagnosis
collect from the
body part being • Differentiate the working principle of conventional x-ray and computer
diagnosed? tomography (CT) scan

• Discuss how sound wave is used for diagnosis

• Explain how radiation is used for cancer and tumor treatment

Medical physics is a branch of physics that deals the applications of principles of

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

1.3 Medical physics 13

physics to medical diagnosing and treating abnormal tissues. The discovery of

X-rays by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1895 brought a revolution in the fields of
science and medicine and it has opened a path to a new interdisciplinary branch,
medical physics. The first X-ray photograph was made by Roentgen himself in
late 1895 (Figure 1.13).

Medical imaging refers to several different technologies that are used to view the
human body in order to diagnose, monitor, or treat medical conditions. There are
several imaging techniques that can provide imaging of biological samples. Some
techniques used for imaging are electromagnetic (optical, X-ray, magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), thermography); other techniques are acoustic
(ultrasound), chemical, and electrical. Among the most prolific ones are MRI,
X-ray computed tomography (CT scan), and high-frequency ultrasound.

Figure 1.13 Wilhelm Conrad

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Roentgen0 s hand first x-ray image

Magnetic resonance is absorption or emission of electromagnetic radiation by

electrons or atomic nuclei in response to the application of certain magnetic fields.
MRI uses the physical principle of magnetic resonance that was first described
by Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell in 1946. Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield
described how to acquire MR images from the human body.
How is MRI working?: Getting an MRI image depends upon the presence of
protons in the body. Protons are free hydrogen atom (proton without electrons).
They are abundant in the body as most part of our body consists of water which
contains two hydrogen and one oxygen atoms. With their net positive charge, Figure 1.14 An MRI image of the
protons are small magnets each having a north and a south pole. brain. The MRI technique yields
detailed visualization of soft tissue
structures with a resolution of
How do we get an image from these oscillation of flipped hydrogen protons in the about 0.5 mm.
brain? MRI uses the movement of these small magnets within a magnetic field to
generate an image. Within the constant magnetic field of an MRI scanner, these Discussion
small magnets arrange themselves parallel to constant magnetic field. When a question 1.5
current pulse (a current that flows for very short period of time) is applied to How can magnetic
the patient’s tissue, this parallel arrangement of the small magnets is disturbed. vibration be used to
When the current pulse is off the small magnets back to their parallel arrangement form MRI image of
releasing energy that they absorbed from the pulse. Different tissues in the body the body part and
used for diagnosis?
give off different amounts of energy. A special device detects the released energy
as an electrical current. The electrical current is transformed in to an image via a
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

14 Unit 1 Application of physics in other fields

computer. Because protons in the different kinds of tissues in the brain, such as
gray matter, white matter and blood, all give off different amounts of energy, the
result of the transformed energy is a highly detailed image of the tissue inside the
brain.

X-Ray computerized tomography (CT) scan

Brainstorming
question 1.10 An X-ray imaging is based on the absorption of X-rays as they pass through the
different parts of a patient’s body. Differences in the densities of body tissue allow
Dear student, share
us to see inside the body by creating a shadow gram. The body is composed of
your X-ray and CT
scan diagnostic tissues containing many different elements, which vary by atomic number (the
experience. number of protons in the nucleus). The higher the atomic number, the denser
the element and the more effectively the X-ray is blocked. For example, when
X-ray strikes the calcium in cortical bone, it is blocked, and on the radiographic
image the bone will appear white. When an X-ray strikes less dense element like
nitrogen, it passes all the way through. Therefore, the air-containing lung will
appear darker, approaching black on the radiographic image. When a fracture
extends through the bone, the fracture line will be dark while the intact bone will
remain white.

During a regular X-ray procedure, a stationary machine sends X-rays through the
body to make a single shadow picture. A computed tomography (CT) scan uses
computers and rotating X-ray machines to make many successive images (called
Figure 1.15 Relative arrangement tomograms) of the inside of body along different directions. In CT scan, the X-ray
and motion of X-ray source and source and the detectors rotate simultaneously in opposite direction as shown in
detectors in CT scan.
Figure 1.18. A motorized table moves the patient (Figures 1.15 and 1.16) through
a circular opening in the CT imaging system. As the patient passes through the
CT imaging system, a source of X-rays rotates around the inside of the circular
opening while the detectors on the other side of the patient record the X-rays
exiting the section of the patient’s body being irradiated. The CT scan images
provide more detailed information than normal X-ray.

Discussion question 1.6

What is the basic difference between conventional X-ray and CT scan?

Figure 1.16 Image of CT scan
machine
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

1.3 Medical physics 15

Clinical uses of sound: stethoscope and ultrasound

The most familiar clinical use of sound is in the analysis of body sounds with a Brainstorming
stethoscope (Figure 1.17). This instrument consists of a small bell-shaped cavity question 1.11
attached to a hollow flexible tube. The bell is placed on the skin over the source Have you ever
of the body sound (such as the heart, intestines, or lungs). The sound is then brought your
conducted by the pipe to the ears of the examiner who evaluates the functioning ears very near to
of the organ. The stethoscope was developed in 1816 by a French physician, Rene a person’s chest?
Laennec. A stethoscope can be used to listen sounds made by the heart, lungs or What sounds could
you hear? What
intestines, as well as blood flow in arteries and veins. A stethoscope can detect
simple equipment
sound waves with frequency ranging from tens to thousands of Hertz.
do medical doctors
use to listen these
Ultrasound sounds? What
information could
If the frequency of sound is higher than 20 KHz (0.02 MHz), it is called ultrasonic
doctors get from
or ultrasound. Typical frequencies used in medical ultrasound are 3.5-10 MHz.
these sounds?
Ultrasonic waves penetrate tissue and are reflected, scattered and absorbed
within it. The scattered and reflected ultrasound contains information about the
form and structure of the tissue.

Figure 1.17 Stethoscopes

Figure 1.18 Ultrasound image showing hyperechoic, hypoechoic and

anechoic regions.
An ultrasound machine sends an ultrasound wave into a body tissue and detects
the reflected wave. The detector generates a tiny electric current that is amplified
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

16 Unit 1 Application of physics in other fields

to generate an ultrasound image on the monitor. An ultrasound image is

commonly described by three words: anechoic, hypoechoic and hyperechoic as
shown in Fig. 1.18.

Anechoic These areas appear black on ultrasound because they do not send back
any sound waves (echoless region). Anechoic regions are resulted from
fluid-filled regions.

Hypoechoic Gives off fewer echoes; These areas appear dark gray because they
don’t send back a lot of sound waves (echoes).

Hyperechoic These areas bounce back many sound waves. They appear as light
gray on the ultrasound image.

Brainstorming Radiation therapy

question 1.12
The photons of X-rays and gamma-rays and the particles emitted by radioactive
Have you ever
nuclei all have energies far greater than the energies that bind electrons to atoms
heard a medical
and molecules. As a result, when such radiation penetrates into biological
treatment curing
internal body cancer materials, it can rip off electrons from the biological molecules and produce
without surgery and substantial alterations in their structure.
medicine? How can
be possible to do In controlled doses radiation can be used therapeutically. In the treatment of
this?
certain types of cancer, an ampul containing radioactive material such as radium
or cobalt 60 is implanted near the cancerous growth. By careful placement of the
radioactive material and by controlling the dose, the cancer cell can be destroyed
without greatly damaging the healthy tissue.

An externally applied beam of gamma rays or X-rays can also be used to destroy
cancerous tumors. The advantage here is that the treatment is administered
without surgery 1.19. The effect of radiation on the healthy tissue can be reduced
by frequently altering the direction of the beam passing through the body. The
tumor is always in the path of the beam, but the dosage received by a given
Figure 1.19 Radiotherapy of
kidney cancer. section of healthy tissue is reduced.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

1.4 Physics and defense technology 17

1.4 Physics and defense technology

Brainstorming
At the end of this section, you will be able to: question 1.13

• List different defense technologies What do physicists

do in military?
• Explain how physics is used in radar, missile and infra-red detection for
night vision

The modern defense force has different branches like Air Force, Army, Navy and
Space Force. All of these defense forces demand different knowledge and
advancement of physics like laser guidance and satellite technology, modern
electronics, optics, sensing systems, high-energy-density physics, atomic and
nuclear physics, hydrodynamics, and physics of advanced materials. The Navy
demands oceanographic physics, the propagation of sound through water,
deep-ocean currents, and meteorology. Air Force demands turbulent fluid flows,
navigation, long-range observation, and pattern recognition. The Army force Brainstorming
demands night and all-weather vision and techniques for avoiding detection. question 1.14
Advanced optical physics is important in space-based satellite surveillance
Dear students you
systems. Advanced optical physics is also important in manned and unmanned
are familiar with
aircraft, in missiles, and even on rifles. the traffic police
and traffic light
Radar technology to control the
ground vehicles
The word RADAR is an acronym derived from the phrase RAdio Detection And traffic. Do you have
Ranging. It applies to electronic equipment designed for detecting and tracking any knowledge
the presence of objects like ships, vehicles, aircraft, missiles, etc which are at of the air traffic
certain distances from the location of the radar. It collects the information related control mechanism?
Share with your
to the object or target like its range (R) and location by radiating electromagnetic
colleagues.
signal and examining the echo received from the distant object.
Let the time taken for the signal to travel from Radar to target and back to Radar
be ‘t’. The two-way distance between the Radar and target will be 2R. The range
can be calculated using the speed-distance formula with the speed equal to the
speed of light(c).

distance ct
speed = , distance = speed ∗ time; 2R = c ∗ t and R =
time 2

As shown in the Figure 1.21, Radar mainly consists of a transmitter and a receiver.
It uses the same antenna for both transmitting and receiving the signals. The
Figure 1.20 Radar system
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

18 Unit 1 Application of physics in other fields

transmitter transmits the radar signal in the direction of the target. The target
reflects this received signal in various directions. The signal, which is reflected
back to the antenna is received by the receiver and displayed on the radar display.

Discussion
question 1.7

What is the basic

principle of radar? Figure 1.21 Basic principles of radar

Military applications of Radar

Radar is mostly used for military purpose and is one of the most important parts
of the air defense system. Its major function is to detect target and guiding the
defensive and offensive weapons. Radar can also be utilized in civilian
applications particularly in controlling air traffic, observation of weather,
navigation of ship, environment, sensing from remote areas, observation of
planetary, etc.

Missiles

A missile is a rocket-propelled or jet-propelled weapon designed to deliver an

explosive weapon with great accuracy at high speed. Jets get the oxygen to burn
fuel from the air while rockets carry their own oxygen. Missiles are different types.
The well-known ones are cruise missile and ballistic missile. Cruise missiles
are jet-propelled throughout their flights. Ballistic missiles are rocket-powered
only in the initial phase of flight, after which they move under the influence of
gravity and air resistance following an arc trajectory to the target. It is governed
by Newtonian mechanics. The motion of cruise missile can be controlled by
altering the thrust (accelerating a mass of gas) from its engine (or engines) to
conserve momentum. A missile is a combination of many electronic, digital and
mechanical subsystems that perform many operations to guide the missile from
its launcher to its target. There is continuous radio communication between the
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

1.4 Physics and defense technology 19

internal missile controlling unit and the launch controller to track the target and
the proper functioning of each unit of the missile.

Infra-red wave detection for night vision

Human eyes are sensitive to visible light: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and Brainstorming
violet light. Infrared, is just out of range of what the human eye can detect. It is question 1.15
detected by infrared detecting devices. All people, places, and things give off
Do you know any
infrared light in an amount proportional to their temperature. Infrared (IR) mechanisms that
devices will typically use heat emissions to identify objects that cannot be enable us to see
detected using available light sources. Infrared vision is used extensively by the objects at dark night
military for various purposes like night vision, navigation, hunting, without available

hidden-object detection and targeting. Infrared imaging systems like infrared light source?

imaging goggles create an electronic image based on the temperature differences

in the radiating object; hotter objects appear brighter than cooler objects. You
cannot see the actual color of the objects but temperature difference in the target
is represented by different colors that are not related to the actual color of the
target. Night vision image is green this is because green is the best wavelength for
enhancing the natural night vision in humans to see the targets.
Discussion
question 1.8

What are the major

physics concepts
used in Radar and
infra-red night
vision?

Activity 1.4

Visit a nearby
military
establishment and
develop a report on
instruments and
methods applying
physics.
Figure 1.22 A helicopter as observed by Night Vision Goggles
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

20 Unit 1 Application of physics in other fields

Brain storming 1.5 Physics in communication

question 1.16
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
List all the
communication • Explain the working principle of different communication technologies.
technologies you
• Explain the relation of physics and communication technology
have ever used. Do
you know other
This day, our lives would be very difficult without the use of the communication
communication
technologies like telephone, cell-phone, mobile and computers. Communication
technologies you
have not yet used? is transferring of information (message) from one point to another. To transfer
the information to the receiver, medium of transmission is required. Depending
on the communication medium, the communication system is classified as wired
and wireless communication system. Wireless communication systems use radio
waves, microwaves and infrared waves. Satellite communication and ground
wave communication are common examples of wireless communications. The
wire communication system uses wire and optical fiber.

Discussion All forms of communication technologies demand the knowledge of physics. The
question 1.9 demanded physics knowledge depends on the type of message and the medium
How wireless of transmission. The knowledge of electromagnetic theory is crucial to
communication understand radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves and visible light which are
is possible? used in wireless and fiber optics communication. Electricity and magnetism,
electrical circuit, energy, electronics and wave phenomena like reflection,
diffraction, refraction, interference, rarefaction and compression of wave
propagation are also very important.

Unit summary

• Different scientific fields are dependent on and reinforces the other fields.

• Physics has a strong influence on many scientific developments and

many modern sciences arose from physics.

• The study of matter and electricity in physics is fundamental towards

the understanding of concepts in chemistry, such as atomic structure,
molecular structure, X-ray diffractions, radioactivity, periodic properties
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

1.5 Physics in communication 21

of elements, nature of valency, chemical bonds in molecules, crystal

structure of solids and others.

• In biology, the motion of animals and their body parts, flow of blood
through blood vessels,sound production and transmission as well as
receiving by special living tissues, communication networks in the
body, reaction of living tissue with light, the development of scientific
instrument to study living cell demands different concepts of physics

• Astronomers use the physics of light, atomic physics and Newtonian

mechanics for the study of astronomical objects.

• Geologists use basic physics concepts like force, optics, atomic structure,
electromagnetic radiation, heat and heat flow, electricity and magnetism,
stress and strain, sea waves, acoustics and fluids and fluid flow to study
common geological processes and the analytical techniques.

• Physicists discover facts and laws, develop methods of measurement,

determine various constants, propose and work out in detail
mathematical theories and hypotheses, etc., while engineers later apply
some of these valuable facts and theories to design and build machines,
construction, and operation of various practical devices.

• In Civil Engineering, the laws of physics can tell you about forces, tension,
harmonic vibrations and oscillations, tensile strength, elasticity, and all
kinds of other concepts that you can use to make calculations about your
designing and construction work.

• As many of the current technologies wouldn’t be existed without physics,

many modern physics experiments also wouldn’t be possible without
technology.

• Medical physics is a branch of physics that concerns the applications

of principles of physics to medical diagnosing and treating abnormal
tissues. The modern medical equipment like X-ray, MRI, CT scan,
ultrasound and others are developed by the application of physics
knowledge.

• Defense technologies like Radar and Infra-red night vision uses the
physics of electromagnetic waves.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

22 Unit 1 Application of physics in other fields

• Mechanical Engineering need the concepts of physics like mechanics,

dynamics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis, and
electricity to design aircraft, watercraft, engines, robotics, weapons, cars,
pneumatics, hydraulics and others.

• Electrical and electronic engineers demand the basic knowledge of

physics in electromagnetism and semiconductor physics.

End of unit questions

1. Explain the following biological process in terms of some physics

knowledge.

• How our brain receives information from the whole body and send
information to other body?

• Which part of our body tells us the temperature of our environment?

What instrument is used to measure the exact value of our body
temperature? What is the physics in this instrument?

• What physics knowledge is needed to understand how a sound is created

and transmitted to the listener?

• What energy transformation occurs in human body?

• What energy transformation occurs in photosynthesis?

2. List as many concepts of physics that can be used in designing modern

vehicles.

3. How physics of light is important to study the astronomical objects?

4. As physics is the basis for the development of many technologies, how

technologies contribute for the development of science particularly
physics?

5. What major physics knowledge is used in defense radar system to detect

the enemy target?

6. List at least three modern medical devices and explain their working
principles.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

1.5 Physics in communication 23

7. List as much physics knowledge and engineering as possible to build a

modern building for residence.

8. Identify the difference between the diagnostic and therapeutic medical

device.

9. What are the possible applications of radar system?

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

Unit 2
Brain storming
question 2.1
Two-dimensional motion
1 . Consider a ball Introduction
shot horizontally
from a very high Kinematics is the study of motion without considering its causes. For example,
building at a high studying the motion of a football without considering what forces cause or
speed. Assume that
change its motion. Two-dimensional kinematics are simple extensions of the
there is no force of
one-dimensional kinematics developed for motion in a straight line in Grade 11.
gravity acting on the
ball. What would This simple extension will allow us to apply physics to many more situations, and
the motion of the it will also yield unexpected insights about nature.
ball be like? Explain A ball kicked by a football player, the orbital motion of planets, a bicycle
its motion? rounding a curve,the rotation of wheels of a car are a few examples of
2 . The ball is two-dimension motion. In fact, most motions in nature follow curved paths
projected rather than straight lines. Such types of motion along a curved plane are
horizontally from described by two-dimensional kinematics.
the top of the same
building. This time, At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
the force of gravity
• Understand the basic ideas of two-dimensional motions.
is acting on the
ball. What will the
• Describe the motion of objects in horizontal and inclined projectiles;
motion of the ball
be like? Will gravity • Describe uniform rotational motion,rotational dynamics and Kepler’s
affect the ball’s laws
horizontal motion?
Will the ball travel a • Describe Newton’s law of Universal gravitation.
greater (or shorter)
horizontal distance • Develop pertinent problem-solving skills.
due to the influence
of gravity?

24
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.1 Projectile motion 25

2.1 Projectile motion

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain the motion of the projectile with respect to the horizontal and
vertical components of its motion.

• Derive equations related to projectile motion.

Discussion
• Apply equations to solve problems related to projectile motion question 2.1

A projectile is a thrown, fired, or released object that moves only under the Which motion is
different from the
influence of gravitational force. The projectile accleration is g = 9.8m/s s . Anyone
others? Explain
who has observed the motion of a ball kicked by a football player (Figure 2.1b)
Why?
has observed projectile motion. The ball moves in a curved path and returns to
a) A ball thrown
the ground. Other examples of projectile motion include a cannonball fired from horizontally into the
a cannon, a bullet fired from a gun, the flight of a golf ball and a jet of water air.
escaping a hose. b) A bullet fired
from a gun.
c) A javelin thrown
by an athlete.
d) A bird flying in
the air.

Figure 2.1 a) A ball thrown horizontally b) A football kicked in a game

Projectile motion of an object is simple to analyze if we make three assumptions:

1. The free-fall acceleration is constant over the range of motion, and it is

always directed downward. It is the acceleration due to gravity (g)=9.8m/s 2 .

2. The effect of air resistance is negligible.

3. The horizontal velocity is constant because the acceleration of the object

does not have vertical component. With these assumptions, we find that
the path of a projectile, which we call its trajectory, is a parabola as shown
in Figure ??.

The horizontal and vertical components of a projectile’s motion are completely

independent of each other and can be handled separately, with time t as a
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

26 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

common variable for both components.

Horizontal Projection

In this type of motion the projectile is projected horizontally from a certain height
as shown in Figure 2.2. Its initial velocity along the vertical direction is zero and it
possesses only horizontal velocity at the beginning. As the time progresses, due
to the impact of gravity, it acquires the vertical component of velocity (Figure 2.2).

Equations for the horizontal component of motion

Figure 2.2 The motion of a ball

The projectile has zero acceleration along x direction. Therefore, the initial
projected horizontally. velocity v0x remains constant throughout the motion. We use constant
acceleration motion equations. The final horizontal velocity, v x after a time t is:

vx = v0x (constant)

The horizontal distance traveled by the projectile at a time t is given by the

equation
Discussion
question 2.2 ∆x = v 0x t (2.1)

Assume that an
airplane flying Equations of vertical motion
horizontally drops a
package to a remote
The vertical motion is a constant accelerated motion. We use the kinematic
village. equations of motion for constant accelerated motion. The final vertical velocity
What kind of motion v y after time t is:
is performed by the
package? v y = v oy + g t (2.2)
Draw the trajectory
of the package. Where v0y is the initial vertical velocity.
As the package hits
the ground at the
The initial vertical velocity has no downward component (v0y =0). Therefore
village, where is the
aircraft? v y = gt

From the kinematics equations, the vertical displacement, ∆y has a form:

1
∆y = v 0y t + g t 2 (2.3)
2
But v0y = 0, therefore
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.1 Projectile motion 27

∆y = 21 gt2

Remember: When you use equations to answer questions on vertical motion,

upwards motion is positive (+) and downwards motion is negative (-).

Time of flight Activity 2.1

The time of flight is the time taken by the projectile to hit the ground. Place two tennis
We know that: balls at the edge of a
tabletop. Sharply
∆y = 21 gt2 snap one ball
horizontally off the
Then
table with one hand
while gently tapping
s
2∆y
t= the second ball off
g
with your other
hand. Measure
Range
the height (y) of
The range is the maximum horizontal distance traveled by the projectile. the table and the
Once we find the time of flight t, we can solve for the horizontal displacement horizontal distance
between the table’s
using:
edge and the balls
∆x = v0x t landing location (R).
Determine the
In projectile motion, the time to cover both the x and y displacement is the same. following from your
By substituting the total time flight, we get: measurements:
a) The time of flight
s
2∆y of both tennis
R = v0x
g balls. Explain your
result.

b) The initial
Example 2.1 horizontal velocity

A rifle is aimed horizontally at a target 30m away as shown in Figure 2.3. The bullet of the balls when

hits the target 2 cm below the aiming point. they leave the

(a) What is the bullet’s time of flight? edge of the table.

(b) What is the initial velocity of the bullet?

Assume gravity (g) =10m/s 2 .

Solution:
The givens in this question are: ∆X =30 m, ∆Y =2 cm =0.02 m, g=10m/s 2 .
(a) The equation for the vertical displacement is:
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

28 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

1 2
∆y = gt
2

1
-0.02 m = (-10)t2
2

The vertical displacement is in the negative direction, which gives:

t=0.06 s

Since this is the time of impact with the target, the time of flight of the bullet is also
Figure 2.3 A bullet fired the same.
horizontally.
(b) The equation for x−motion is:

∆x =vox t

∆x 30m
vox = =
t 0.06s

The initial velocity of the bullet is 500 m/s.

Example 2.2

A rescue airplane travelling at 360 km/h horizontally dropps a food package from
a height of 300 m when it passes over a car driver stranded in the desert.
Assumming (g)=10m/s 2 .

(a) How long will it take the food package to reach the ground?

(b) How far from the car driver should the food package be dropped ?

Solution:
(a) The package has the same horizontal velocity as the airplane. Therefore,
the initial vertical velocity is zero.
The equation for the vertical displacement is:
1 2
∆y = gt
2
1
-300 m = (-10)t2
2
The vertical displacement is in the negative direction, which gives:

t =7.74 s

(b) The equation for the horizontal displacement is:

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.1 Projectile motion 29

∆x =v0x t

∆x =100 m/s x 7.74 s

∆x =774 m

Activity 2.2

Use this activity to investigate horizontal projection.

Materials

• Ruler

• A cannon ball made from scrunched up aluminum foil.

• Rubber band.

• A tube made from paper or cardboard with diameter larger than the
diameter of the ball.

Procedures:

1. Put the tube near the edge of the table.

2. Use the rubber band to shoot the ball out of the tube.

3. Stretch the rubber band the same amount each time to make sure
the initial velocity is constant.

4. You can increase the stretching of the rubber band to increase the
initial horizontal velocity of the projectile.

5. Measure the height of the table. Use this height to calculate the time
of flight (assume there is no air resistance).

6. Measure the horizontal distance traveled by the canon ball. Use this
distance to calculate the initial velocity of the projectile.

Inclined projectile motion

This is a type of motion in which an object is projected with an initial velocity v0

which makes an angle θ with the horizontal (Figure ??).The initial velocity can be
resolved into two components, vertical and horizontal component. The vertical
component of the velocity changes with time as a result there is acceleration due
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

30 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

to gravity.

The horizontal component of the velocity is constant throughout the flight; this is
because there is no force acting along the horizontal direction of the projectile as
a result there is no acceleration along x-axis. The analysis of the motion involves
dealing with the two motions.

As shown in Figure 2.4, the projectile has velocity components at different

positions. At the top where it reaches its maximum height the vertical
Discussion component of the velocity becomes zero. After V y becomes zero the projectile
question 2.3 changes its direction and make free fall.
Balls A and B are
kicked at an angle
of 370 and 530 with
the horizontal
respectively, with
the same initial
velocity v0 . Which
ball has:
a) the maximum
horizontal
displacement?
b) the maximum
height?

Figure 2.4 Inclined projectile motion.

Equations of inclined projectile motion

The initial velocity can be expressed as x component and y component:

v0x = v0 cos θ
v0y = v0 sin θ

The horizontal velocity at any time t is:

vx = v0 cos θ (constant)

The vertical velocity at any time t is:

v y = v o si n θ + g t (2.4)
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.1 Projectile motion 31

Displacements of the projectile

There are two different types of displacement of the projectile motion:

Horizontal displacement at any time t:

∆x = v 0 cosθt (2.5)

Vertical displacement at any time t:

1
∆y = v 0 si nθt + g t 2 (2.6)
2

The time to reach the maximum height is:

v y = v0 sinθ + gt

Since v y = 0 at maximum height and g is negative:

v 0 sin θ
t=
g

Time of flight

The time of flight is the total time for which the projectile remains in flight. The
time of flight depends on the initial velocity of the object and the angle of the
projection, θ.
1
∆y = v0 sin θ t + gt 2
2
When the point of projection and point of return are on the same horizontal level,
the net vertical displacement of the object is zero, ∆Y =0.
1
0 = v0 sin θ t + gt 2
2
Apply factorization, we have:

0 = t(v0 sin θ + 21 gt)

Since t cannot be zero and g is negative,solving for t gives us:

2v 0 sin θ
tt ot al =
g
This last equation does not apply when the projectile lands at a different
elevation from the one at which it was launched.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

32 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Horizontal range and maximum height of a Projectile

Let us now consider a special case of projectile motion. Assume a projectile is

launched from the origin at O, as shown in Figure 2.4, and returns to the same
horizontal level. This situation is common in sports, where baseballs, footballs
and golf balls often land at the same level from which they were launched. Two
points in this motion are especially interesting to analyze: the peak point A, which
has Cartesian coordinates (R/2, H), and the point B, which has coordinates (R, 0).
The distance R is called the horizontal range of the projectile, and the distance H
is its maximum height. Let us find R and H mathematically in terms of v0 , θ, and
g.

Range(R)

The range of the projectile is the maximum displacement in the horizontal

direction. There is no acceleration in this direction since gravity only acts
vertically.

∆x = v0 cos θ t

When ∆x is maximum, ∆x=R.

Since the time to cover the range is the total time of flight:

2v 0 sin θ
tt ot al =
g

R = v0 cos θ tt ot al

v 0 2 sin 2θ
R=
g

This equation is valid for launch and impact on a horizontal surface, as shown in
Figure 2.5. We can see in Figure 2.5a the range is directly proportional to the
square of the initial speed v0 and sin2θ. Furthermore, we can see from the
factor sin2θ that the range is maximum at 45◦ .

In Figure 2.5 (a) we can see that the greater the initial velocity, the greater the
range. In Figure (b) the range is maximum at 45◦ . This is true only for conditions
ignoring air resistance. It is interesting that the same range is found for two initial
launch angles that add up to 90◦ . The projectile launched with the smaller angle
has a lower peak than the higher angle, but they both have the same range.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.1 Projectile motion 33

Figure 2.5 Trajectories of projectiles on leveled ground. (a) The effect of

initial velocity v0 on the range of a projectile with a given initial angle. (b)
The effect of initial angle θ on the range of a projectile with a given initial
speed.

Maximum height (H)

The maximum height of a projectile trajectory occurs when the vertical

component of velocity, v y equals zero. As the projectile moves upwards it goes
against gravity, and therefore the velocity begins to decrease. Eventually the
vertical velocity will reach zero, and the projectile is immediately accelerated
downward under gravity. Thus, once the projectile reaches its maximum height,
it begins to accelerate downward.

1
∆y = v0 sin θ t + gt 2
2

v 0 sin θ
The time to cover the maximum height is: t =
g
When ∆y is maximum, ∆y =H

v 0 2 sin2 θ
H=
2g

Discussion question 2.4

1. A projectile is fired in such a way that its horizontal range is equal to

three times its maximum height. What is the angle of projection?
2. A ball is kicked into the air from the ground at an angle θ with the
horizontal. When the ball reaches its highest point, which statement is
true ? (a) Both the velocity and acceleration of the ball are zero.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

34 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

(b) Its velocity is not zero, but its acceleration is zero. (c) Its velocity is
perpendicular to its acceleration. (d) Its acceleration depends on the angle
at which the ball was thrown.
Activity 2.3
3. One ball is thrown horizontally. At the same time, a second ball is
Use this activity to dropped from the same height. Ignoring air resistance and assuming the
investigate inclined
ground is level, which ball hits the ground first? Explain why.
projection.
You need the
materials listed
Relation between range and maximum height
in Activity 2.2.
Procedures: Consider a projectile motion as shown in Figure 2.4. The initial velocity of the
(a) Adjust the tube
projectile is v0 , H is the maximum height and R is its horizontal range. We know
at different
that the maximum height of the projectile H is given by the equation:
angles from the
horizontal.

(b) As before keep

v 0 2 sin2 θ
H=
the stretching of 2g
the rubber band And horizontal range is given by the equation:
constant.

(c) Vary the angle of v 0 2 sin 2θ

projection. R=
g
(d) Measure the Divide the maximum height of the projectile by the horizontal range.
relationship
(In the equation, sin2 θ can be written as sinθsinθ, and sin2θ can be written
between the angle
as 2sinθcosθ).
of projection, H si nθ
range and =
R 4cosθ
maximum height
R t anθ
reached by the H=
4
projectile.

Example 2.3

A football player kicks a ball at angle of 370 with the horizontal. The initial velocity
of the ball is 40 m/s.

a) Find the maximum height reached by the ball.

b) Find the horizontal range of the ball.

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.1 Projectile motion 35

Solution:
In this problem the given quantities are: v0 = 40 m/s, θ = 370 and g=10 m/s2
a) The maximum height reached is:

V0 2 sin2 θ
H=
2g

(40m/s)2 sin 370 sin 370

H=
2x10m/s 2

H=28.8 m

b) The horizontal range is:

V0 2 sin 2θ
R=
g

(40m/s)2 sin 740

R=
10m/s

R=153.8 m

Example 2.4

A ball is kicked from the ground with an initial speed of 25 m/s at an angle of 530
above the horizontal directly toward a wall, as shown in Figure 2.6. The wall is 24
m from the release point of the ball.
(a) How long does the ball take to reach the wall?
(b) How far above the ground level does the ball hit the wall?
(c) What are the horizontal and vertical components of its velocity as it hits the
wall?
(d) What is the resultant velocity with it hits the wall?

Solution:
In this problem the given quantities are:

∆x = 24 m, θ =530 , v0 =25 m/s

(a) The horizontal displacement of the ball is given by the equation

∆x = v0 cosθt
Solving for the time at which ∆x = 24 m:
∆x 24m
t= =
v 0 cosθ (25m/s)x0.6

t = 1.6 s
Thus, the ball reaches the wall 1.6s after being thrown.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

36 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

(b) We can answer this question if we can find the y coordinate of the ball at the
time it hits the wall, namely at t = 1.6 s. We need the y equation of motion.
1
∆y = v0 sin θ t + gt 2
2
1
∆y = 25 m/s x0.8 x 1.6 s + x(−10m/s 2 )x(1.6s)2
2
∆y =19.2 m
This tells us that the ball hits the wall at 19.2 m above the ground level.

(c) The x and y components of the ball’s velocity at the time of impact (t=1.6 s)
vx =v0 cosθ
vx = 25 m/s x 0.6
vx =15 m/s
v y =v0 sinθ +gt
Figure 2.6 A ball thrown toward a v y = 25m/s x 0.8 +(−10m/s 2 )x1.6 s
wall. v y =4 m/s

(d) The resultant velocity is the vector sum of the x and y components.
q
v= v x2 + v 2y
p
v= (15m/s)2 + (4m/s)2
v= 15.5 m/s

Activity 2.4:

Use this activity to investigate inclined projection. In this activity you use
the law of conservation of mechanical energy that you learned in grade 11.
Materials required

• Ruler

• V-shaped track with a shorter launch track.

• Small ball (e.g. tennis ball).

• protractor

Procedures:

1. Adjust the shorter end of the track to the edge of the surface of a table.

2. Use a short segment of the track at an angle; say 45 degrees with respect
to the surface of a table.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.1 Projectile motion 37

3. Measure the height of the longer end of the track where the ball is to be
released and also measure the height of the shorter end where the ball is
going to leave the surface of the table.

4. Put the ball in motion down the track.

5. Calculate the speed of the ball on the track just as it leaves the level of
1
the surface of the table using conservation of energy (mgh = mv2 ).
2
6. Calculate the time it takes to fall back to the surface of the table
2V0 sin θ
t= .
g

V0 2 sin 2θ
7. Predict where the ball will land using, x= .
g
8. Put a cup there to catch the ball. Put the ball in motion down the track
again.

9. Change the velocity of the ball by changing the inclined angle of the
longer arm of the track (this is to reduce the height from which the ball is
released).

Discussion question 2.5

1. As a projectile moves in its parabolic path, is there any point along the
path where the velocity and acceleration vectors are (a) perpendicular to
each other (at right angles)? (b) parallel to each other?

2. Which of the following statements about projectile motion are true?

(ignoring air resistance).

(a) The horizontal and vertical motions are independent.

(b) The force on the projectile is constant throughout the flight.
(c) The acceleration of the projectile is constant throughout the flight.
(d) The path depends upon the initial velocity, but not upon the mass
of the projectile.
(e) All of the above statements are true.

3. A projectile is fired on Earth with some initial velocity. Another projectile

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

38 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

is fired from the surface of the Moon with the same initial velocity. If air
resistance is ignored, which projectile has the greater range? Why? Which
reaches the greater height? Why? (Note that the free-fall acceleration on
the Moon is about 1.6 m/s2 ).

Exercise 2.1
Use g=10m/s 2 where necessary.

1. At which position in its flight will a ball experience its minimum speed
during inclined projection? A. at the beginning B. at maximum height C.
at the end D. the same speed at all positions

2. A gun with a muzzle velocity of 500 m/s shoots a bullet at a target 50 m

away. To hit the target the gun should be aimed: A.directly towards the
target along the line joining the gun and target. B.10 cm high above the
target. C. 5 cm high above the target. D. 5cm below the target.

3. A ball is thrown horizontally with a velocity of 20m/s from a top of

building 90 m high. Calculate:
a) the time taken to reach the ground.
b) the horizontal displacement.
c) The resultant velocity with which it strikes the ground.

4. A long jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 20.0o above the horizontal
and at a speed of 11.0 m/s.
a) How far does he jump in the horizontal direction?
b) What is the maximum height reached?

5. An object projected at an angle θ with velocity 30 m/s reaches its

maximum height in 1.5 s. Calculate its range.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.2 Rotational Motion 39

2.2 Rotational Motion

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the motion of a rigid object around a fixed axis.

• Derive equations of motion with constant angular acceleration.

• Apply equations to solve problems related to rotational motion.

Rotational motion is the motion of an object in a circle around a fixed axis. For
example, the rotation of Earth around its axis, the rotation of the flywheel of a
sewing machine, rotation of a ceiling fan, rotation of wheels of a car, and so on.
Figure 2.7 Rotation of a disc of
mass M around a fixed axis.
The disc in Figure 2.7 is performing rotational motion because all of its particles
are rotating around a fixed axis, called its axis of rotation. An object can rotate
around a fixed point in two directions: a clockwise or an anticlockwise direction
(also known as counterclockwise).

Rigid body is n object with a perfectly defined and unchanging shape. NO matter
the size of the force , the distance between any two particles within the object
remains constant.

Angular displacement and angular velocity

Angular displacement(∆θ)

Figure 2.8 is a view from above of a rotating compact disc, or CD . The disc rotates
Figure 2.8 A CD rotating about a
around a fixed axis perpendicular to the plane of the figure, passing through the
fixed axis through O perpendicular
center of the disc at O. One particle of the disc P, is kept at a fixed distance r from to the plane of the figure.
the origin and rotates around O in a circle of radius r.

Because the disc is a rigid object, as the particle moves through an angle θ from
the reference line, every other particle on the object rotates through the same
angle . Therefore, we can associate the angle θ with the entire rigid object as well
as with an individual particle. Figure 2.9 A particle P on a
rotating disc moves from A to B
along the arc of a circle.
As the particle travels from position A to position B in a time interval ∆t ,as shown
in Figure 2.9, the line joining the particle to the center sweeps out an angle ∆θ .
This quantity ∆θ is defined as the angular displacement of the rigid object.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

40 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

∆θ = θ f − θ 0 (2.7)

Because rotational motion involves studying circular paths, rather than using
meters to describe the angular displacement of an object, physicists use radians
or degrees. A radian is convenient because it naturally expresses angles in terms
of π since one complete turn of a circle (360 degrees) equals 2π radians.

1revolution = 2πrad = 3600

Angular velocity(ω)

How fast an object is rotating can be calculated using the concept of angular
velocity. If the disc spins rapidly, the angular displacement can occur in a short
time interval. If it rotates slowly, the angular displacement occurs in a longer
time interval. The rate at which angular displacement occurs can vary. These
different rotation rates can be quantified by defining the average angular velocity
ωav (Greek letter omega) as the ratio of the angular displacement of a disc to the
time interval ∆t during which the displacement occurs.

θ f − θ0 ∆θ
ωav = = (2.8)
t f − t0 ∆t

Angular velocity has units of radians per second (rad/s).

Angular acceleration

If the angular velocity of an object changes from ω0 to ω f in the time interval

∆t, the object has an angular acceleration. The angular acceleration α (Greek
letter alpha) of a rotating rigid object is defined as the ratio of the change in the
angular speed to the time interval ∆t during which the change in the angular
speed occurs:

ω f − ω0 ∆ω
α= = (2.9)
t f − t0 ∆t

Angular acceleration has units of radians per second squared (rad/s2 ).

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.2 Rotational Motion 41

Direction of angular velocity and angular acceleration

Angular velocity and angular accelerations can be treated as a vectors, so we Discussion

must include magnitude and direction. For rotation around a fixed axis, the question 2.6
direction of rotational motion is specified in relation to the direction along the
In small group,
axis of rotation. Therefore, the directions of ω and α are along this axis. discuss how to find
To illustrate this convention, it is convenient to use the right-hand rule the direction of
demonstrated in Figure 2.10. When the four fingers of the right hand are wrapped angular velocity
in the direction of rotation, the extended right thumb points in the direction of ω. and angular

The direction of α follows from its definition α = ∆ω /∆t. It is in the same acceleration.

direction as ω if the angular speed is increasing in time, and it is antiparallel

(parallel but moving in the opposite direction) to ω if the angular speed is
decreasing in time.

Figure 2.10 The right-hand rule for determining the direction of the angular
velocity vector.

Equation of motion for constant angular acceleration

Consider a rigid object such as the CD rotating around a fixed axis with a constant
angular acceleration. A set of kinematic equations exist for rotational motion just
as they do for translational motion. They have a similar form and are derived in a
similar fashion.

ωf − ω0
α= (constant angular acceleration) (2.10)
tf − t0
Then, by rearranging, we get an equation
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

42 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

ω f = ωo + α∆t (2.11)

where ωo is the angular speed of the rigid object at time t = 0. This equation allows
us to find the angular speed ω f of the object at any later time t.
If the angular acceleration is constant, the average angular velocity is obtained
by:
ωo + ω f
ωav =
2

∆θ
ωav =
∆t
Combining these two equations, you we get:

∆θ ωo + ω f
=
∆t 2

When we substitute ω f = ωo + α∆t

1
∆θ = ωo ∆t + α∆t 2 (2.12)
2
This equation allows us to find the angular displacement of the object at any later
time t.
ωo + ω f ω f − ωo
µ ¶
We know that: ∆θ = ∆t and ∆t =
2 α
Combining these two equations, we get:
ωo + ω f ω f − ωo
µ ¶µ ¶
∆θ =
2 α

ω2f = ω20 + 2α∆θ (2.13)

This equation allows us to find the angular speed ω f of the rigid object for any
value of its angular position ∆θ.

Example 2.5

What is the average angular velocity of a rotating wheel if its angular speed
changes from 30 rad/s to 50 rad/s in 2 s?
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.2 Rotational Motion 43

Solution:
In this problem the given quantities are: ωi =30 rad/sec, ω f = 50 rad/s and t=2 s

ω f − ω0
αav =
∆t

50r ad /s − 30r ad /s
αav =
2s

αav = 10 r ad /s 2

Example 2.6

A rotating wheel has an initial angular velocity of 10 rad/s and accelerates at

2.5 rad/s2 .

(a) How many revolutions are completed in 30 s?

(b) What is angular speed of the wheel at t =20 s?

Solution:
The given quantities are ωo = 10 rad/s, α = 2.5 rad/s2 , t=30 s

(a) ∆θ = ωo ∆t + 21 α∆t 2
Substitute the known values to find the angular displacement.
1
∆θ=10rad/sx30s + x2.5r ad /s 2 x900s 2
2
∆θ = 300 rad + 1125 rad
∆θ = 1425 rad
Convert rad in to revolution
1rev = 2π rad µ
1r ev
¶
∆θ = 1425 rad
2πr ad
∆θ = 226.9 rev
(b) The final speed at t = 20 s is asked ω f = ωo + α∆t
ω f = 10 rad/s + 2.5 rad/s2 x20 s
ω f = 60 rad/s

Example 2.7

A car’s wheel has an initial angular velocity of 6 rad/s and a constant angular
acceleration of 3 rad/s2 . Calculate the angular velocity after 100 rev ?
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

44 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Solution:
The given quantities are: ωo = 6 rad/s, α = 3 rad/s2 , ∆θ = 100 rev
First convert rev to rad.

1rev = 2πrad
³ ´
2πr ad
∆θ = 100 rev 1r ev

∆θ = 628 rad

ω2f = ω20 + 2α∆θ

ω2f =(6r ad /s)2 + 2x(3r ad /s 2 )2 x628r ad

ω f = 61.68 rad/s

Kinematic equations for rotational and linear motion

The kinematics for rotational motion is completely analogous to linear (or

translational) kinematics. Many of the equations for the mechanics of rotating
objects are similar to the motion equations for linear motion. When solving
problems involving rotational motion, we use variables that are similar to linear
variables (distance, velocity and acceleration) but take into account the curvature
or rotation of the motion. We defined:

• the angular rotation ∆θ, which is the angular equivalence of distance, ∆s;

• the angular velocity ω, which is the angular equivalence of linear velocity v;

• the angular acceleration α, which is the angular equivalence of linear

acceleration, a.

Example 2.8

A wheel has a radius of 20 cm and accelerates from rest to 15 rev/s in 30 s. What is

the magnitude of the tangential acceleration of a point at the tip of the wheel.

Solution:
The angular acceleration is:
ω f − ωo 15r ev/s − 0
α= =
∆t 30s

α =0.5 r ev/s 2
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.2 Rotational Motion 45

Table 2.1 shows the analogy between linear and angular motion equations.

Linear motion with Angular motion with

constant acceleration constant angular
acceleration
v f = v0 + a∆t ω f = ωo + α∆t
v f + v0 ω f + ω0
Vav = ωav =
µ 2 2 ¶
v f + v0 ω f + ω0
¶ µ
∆s = ∆t ∆θ = ∆t
2 2
1 1
∆s = v0 t + a∆t 2 ∆θ = ωo ∆t + α∆t 2
2 2
v f 2 = v0 2 + 2a∆s ω f 2 = ω20 + 2α∆θ

Since 1rev = 2π rad α =3.14 r ad /s 2 Therefore, the tangential acceleration is

at = αr

at = 3.14 rad/s2 x 0.2 m

at = 0.6 m/s2

Example 2.9

A car accelerates from 20 m/s to 24 m/s in 5 s. Calculate the angular acceleration

of the wheels of the car if the radius of a wheel is 40 cm.

Solution:
First, we calculate the tangential acceleration of a point on the rim of the wheel.

The equation to use is:

v f − v o 24m/ sec −20m/s
at = =
∆t 5s
a t = 0.8 m/s 2

Then the angular acceleration of the wheels is:

at
α=
r
0.8m/s 2
α=
0.4m
α = 2 r ad /s 2
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

46 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Example 2.10

A boy rides a bicycle for 5 minutes. The wheel with radius of 30 cm completes
2000 rev during this time. Calculate.

(a) the average angular velocity of the wheel.

(b) the linear distance traveled by the bicycle in 5 minutes.

Solution:
r = 30 cm = 0.3 m, ∆θ = 2000 rev

∆t = 5 min = 5×60 = 3000 s

∆θ 2000r ev
(a) ωav = = = 6.67 rev/s
∆t 3000s
1rev=2π rad
ωav = 41.9 rad/s

(b) Convert 2000 rev into rad

∆θ = 12560 rad
Then ∆s = r∆θ
∆s = 0.3 m × 12560 rad
∆s = 3768 m

Relationship between angular motion and translational motion

quantities

In this section, we derive some useful relationships between the angular

quantities θ, ω and α of a rotating rigid object and the corresponding linear
quantities s, v, and a of a point,p in the object. To do so, we must keep in mind
that when a rigid object rotates around a fixed axis as in Figure 2.11, every
particle of the object moves in a circle whose center is on the axis of rotation.
As the particle moves along the circle through an angular displacement of θ, it
moves through an arc length s.
The arc length s is related to the angle θ through the equation:

s =rθ (2.14)

Note that in this equation the angular displacement must be expressed in rad
(not degrees or revolutions).
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.2 Rotational Motion 47

Because point p, in the figure moves in a circle, the translational velocity vector
→
−
v is always tangent to the circular path, and hence is called tangential velocity.

The magnitude of the tangential velocity of the point P is by definition the

tangential speed v= ∆s/∆t, where s is the distance traveled by this point
measured along the circular path. Recalling that ∆s= r∆θ and noting that r is
constant, we get:

∆s ∆θ
v= =r (2.15)
∆t ∆t Figure 2.11 As a rigid object
∆θ rotates around the fixed axis (the
Because ω = , it follows that: z axis) through O, the point P has
∆t a tangential velocity →
−
v that is
v = ωr (2.16)
always a tangent to the circular
path of radius.
Therefore, the tangential speed of a point on a rotating rigid object equals the
radius multiplied by the angular speed. Although every point on the rigid object
has the same angular speed, not every point has the same tangential speed
because r is not the same for all points on the object. The tangential speed of a
point on the rotating object increases as it moves outward from the center of
rotation.

We can relate the angular acceleration of the rotating rigid object to the tangential
acceleration of the point P by taking the rate of change v.

∆v ∆ω
a= =r (2.17)
∆t ∆t
∆ω
Because α = , it follows that
∆t
a =rα (2.18)

That is, the tangential component of the translational acceleration of a point on a

rotating rigid object equals the radius multiplied by the angular acceleration.

Example 2.11

A rope is wrapped many times around a pulley of radius 50 cm as shown in Figure

2.12. How many revolutions of the pulley are required to raise a bucket to a height
of 20 m?

Solution: Figure 2.12 A rope wrapped a

∆s around a pulley of radius 50 cm.
∆θ =
r
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

48 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

When the bucket is raised to 20 m the same length of rope is wrapped around the
pulley.

Thus ∆s=20 m
20
∆θ =
0.5
∆θ=40 rad

1 rev=2π rad

∆θ=6.34 rev

Example 2.12

The angular velocity of a bicycle wheel is 18 rad/s. If the radius of the wheel is
40 cm, what is the speed of the bicycle in m/s?

Solution:

r = 40 cm=0.4 m

ω=18 rad/s

The linear speed of the bicycle is

v = ωr

∆s = 0.4 m x 18 rad/s

v=7.2 m/s

Example 2.13

Consider two particles, A and B, on a flat rotating disk as shown in Figure 2.13.
Particle A is 20cm and particle B is 40cm from the center. The disc starts from rest
and its angular speed increases to 20rad/s in 4s.

(a) What is the average angular and linear acceleration for particle B?

(b) What is the average angular and linear acceleration for particle A?

Solution:
Figure 2.13 Particle A and B on ω f − ωo
the rotating disc are at different (a) αav =
∆t
radius.
(20 − 0)r ad /s
αav =
4s
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.2 Rotational Motion 49

αav = 5r ad /s 2
a=αr
a= (5 rad/s2 )(0.4 m)
a= 2 m/s2

(b) The angular acceleration is the same for all particles about the axis of rotation
but the linear accleration depends on r.
a=αr
a= (5 rad/s2 )(0.2 m)
a= 1 m/s2

Discussion question 2.7

1. What is the angular speed of the second hand of a clock? What is the
direction of →
−
ω as you view a clock hanging vertically?

2. A wheel rotates counterclockwise in the xy plane. What is the direction of

→
−
ω ? What is the direction of →
−
α if the angular velocity is decreasing in time?

3. When a wheel of radius R rotates about a fixed axis, do all points on the
wheel have (a) the same angular speed? and (b) the same linear speed?

Exercise 2.2

1. When a wheel of radius R rotates about a fixed axis, all points on the
wheel have the same angular speed. True or False.

2. Which of the following can not be a unit for angular displacement ? A.

deg B. rad . rev D. rpm

3. A rope is wrapped many times around a pulley of radius 20 cm. What is

the average angular velocity of the pulley if it lifts a bucket to 10 m in 5 s?

4. A particle moves in a circle 1.50 m in radius. Through what angle in

radians does it rotate if it moves through an arc length of 2.50 m? What is
this angle in degrees?

5. A wheel is under a constant angular deceleration of 5r ad /s 2 . Its initial

speed is 3 rad/s. What angular distance will it travel just before coming
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

50 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

to rest?

6. A wheel initially turning at 200 rpm uniformly increases its speed to 600
rpm in 8s. Calculate:
(a) the angular acceleration of the wheel in r ad /s 2 . (b) the number of
revolutions turned by the wheel during the 8 s interval.

2.3 Rotational Dynamics

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Define the physical concept of torque in terms of force and distance from axis
of rotation.

• Define the physical concept of moment of inertia in terms of point mass and
distance from the axis of rotation.

• Express torque in terms of moment of inertia and angular acceleration.

• Solve problems involving torque and rotational kinematics.

Having developed the kinematics of rotational motion, we now turn to the

dynamics of rotational motion. Just as force played a big role in linear dynamics,
we have a torque in rotational dynamics. We begin by defining this quantity and
showing how it acts on objects in rotational motion. Next, we relate torque to our
study of kinematics through an equation very similar to Newton’s second law.

Torque

Torque is the rotational effect of force. Torque is what causes an object to acquire
angular acceleration. If F is the force acting on an object and r is the distance from
the axis of rotation to the point of application of the force, as shown in Figure 2.14,
the magnitude of the torque is given by:

Figure 2.14 Counterclockwise

rotation by F around the pivot τ = r F si nθ (2.19)
point.
where θ is the angle between r and F when they are drawn from the same origin.
Torque is a vector quantity, meaning it has both a direction and a magnitude.
Its SI unit is Nm. The direction of the torque is along the axis of rotation. It is
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.3 Rotational Dynamics 51

determined by a right-hand-rule: when you curl the fingers of your right hand in
the direction of the rotation, your thumb points in the direction of the torque.

Example 2.14

The object in Figure 2.15 is pivoted at O. Three forces act on it in the directions
shown: F 1 = 10 N at 3.0 m from O; F 2 = 16 N at 4.0 m from O; and F 3 = 19 N at 8.0 m
from O. What is the net torque about O?

Solution:
F 2 andF 3 give a torque in the counterclockwise direction (positive, usually) and F 1
gives a torque in the clockwise direction (negative torque).

τ1 = r 1 F 1 si nθ
τ1 = 3mx10N xsi n(120)0
τ1 = −25.9N m

τ2 = r 2 F 2 si nθ
τ2 = 4mx16N xsi n(150)0
τ2 = 32N m Figure 2.15 Three forces acting on
an object pivoted at O.

τ3 = r 3 F 3 si nθ
τ3 = 8mx19N xsi n(45)0
τ2 = 107.4N m
τnet = τ1 + τ2 + τ3
τnet = −25.9N m + 32N m + 107.4N m
τnet = 113.5N m (counterclockwise direction)

Moment of inertia (I)

The moment of inertia of an object is the quantitative measure of rotational

inertia, just as mass is the quantitative measure of linear inertia inertia in
translational motion. The greater the moment of inertia of a rigid object or Figure 2.16 Point mass rotating
system of particles, the greater is its resistance to change in angular velocity about O
about a fixed axis of rotation.
The moment of inertia depends on the mass and axis of rotation of the body.The
moment of inertia is given the symbol I. For a single point mass, as shown in
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

52 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Figure 2.16, rotating at radius r from the axis of rotation the moment of inertia is:

I = mr 2 (2.20)

From the formula, the SI unit of moment of inertia is kg m 2 . Moment of inertia is

a scalar quantity.
The moment of inertia for more than one particle around a fixed axis is:

I = m 1 r 12 + m 2 r 22 + m 3 r 32 ...

Example 2.15

Three particles are connected by rigid rods of negligible mass lying along the y-axis
as shown in Figure 2.17. If the system rotates about the x-axis with angular speed
of 2 rad/s, find the moment of inertia about the x-axis.

Solution:

I = m 1 r 12 + m 2 r 22 + m 3 r 32
I = 4kg (3m)2 + 2kg (2m)2 + 3kg (4m)2
I = 164 kg m 2

Figure 2.17 Three particles

rotating around the x-axis. Torque and angular acceleration

When a number of individual forces act on a rotating object, we can calculate the
net torque:

τnet = τ1 + τ2 + τ3 ...

We can relate the net torque to angular acceleration α, by analogy with Newton’s
second law of motion (F = ma). We replace m by I and a by α.

τ = Iα (2.21)

The angular acceleration of a rotating object is proportional to the net torque on

the object.

Example 2.16
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.3 Rotational Dynamics 53

When a torque of 36 Nm is applied to a wheel, the wheel acquires an angular

acceleration of 24r ad /s 2 . Find the rotational inertia of the wheel.

Solution:

τ = Iα
36N m
I=
24r ad /s 2
I=1.5 kg m 2

Example 2.17

A motor capable of producing a constant torque 100 Nm and a maximum rotation

speed of 150 rad/s is connected to a flywheel with rotational inertia 0.1 kgm2 .

(a) What angular acceleration will the flywheel experience as the motor is
switched on?

(b) How long will the flywheel take to reach the maximum speed if starting from
rest?

Solution:
(a) The angular acceleration is:
τ
α=
I
100N m
α=
0.1kg m 2
α = 1000 r ad /s 2
(b) The time to reach the maximum speed is:
ω f = ωo + α∆t

ω f − ωo 150r ad /s − 0
t= =
α 1000r ad /s 2

t=0.15 s
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

54 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Exercise 2.3

1. A force of 400 N is applied to a beam at a distance of 5 m from the

pivot point, as shown in Figure 2.18. Calculate the magnitude of the
torque which turns the bar around pivot.

2. Three point masses, each of mass m, are placed at the corners

of an equilateral triangle of side L. Find the moment of inertia
of the system about an axis passing through one of the corners
perpendicular to the plane of the triangle.

Figure 2.18 Torque on a beam by 3. A disc with moment of inertia 2 kgm2 changes its angular speed from
400 N force.
3 rad/s to 8rad/s by a net torque of 50 Nm.How long will the disc
take to change its angular speed?

2.4 Planetary motion and Kepler’s laws

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe the motion of the planets around the Sun.

• State Kepler’s three laws.

• Apply equations to solve problems related to orbital motion.

The planets orbit the Sun. They maintain their respective distances from the
Sun. They do not cross each other as they revolve around the Sun. Kepler’s laws
describe how planetary bodies orbit around the Sun.

Kepler’s laws
Figure 2.19 Earth with its Moon
revolving around the Sun. Humans have observed the movements of the planets, stars, and other celestial
objects for thousands of years. In early history, these observations led scientists
to regard Earth as the center of the Universe. This geocentric model was
elaborated and formalized by the Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy
(c.100–c.170) in the second century and was accepted for the next 1400 years.

In 1543, Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) suggested that

Earth and the other planets revolved in circular orbits around the Sun (the
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.4 Planetary motion and Kepler’s laws 55

heliocentric model). Discussion

question 2.8
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) wanted to determine how the
In small group
universe was constructed and pursued a project to determine the positions of discuss the
both stars and planets. His observations of the planets and stars visible from following questions.
Earth were carried out using only a large sextant and a compass. (The telescope What is the shape of
had not yet been invented.) an orbit?
What’s in the middle
of the orbit?
German astronomer Johannes Kepler was Brahe’s assistant for a short while
What is the
before Brahe’s death, where upon he acquired his mentor’s astronomical data.
difference between
Kepler spent 16 years trying to deduce a mathematical model for the motion of circle and ellipse?
the planets. Such data are difficult to sort out because the moving planets are
observed from a moving Earth. After many lengthy calculations, Kepler found
that Brahe’s data on the revolution of Mars around the Sun led to a successful
model. Kepler’s complete analysis of planetary motion is summarized in three
statements known as Kepler’s laws.

Kepler’s first law

Discussion
Kepler’s first law is sometimes referred to as the law of ellipses. It states that the question 2.9
orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse (near circular, oval) with the Sun at
Think of the planets
one focus (Figure 2.20a).
orbiting the Sun.
Do all the planets
The planet follows the ellipse in its orbit, meaning that the planet-to-Sun distance move at the same
is constantly changing as the planet goes around its orbit. An ellipse is a closed speed? At which
curve such that the sum of the distances from a point on the curve (r1 + r2 ) to the position are the

two foci, f 1 and f 2 is constant, as shown in Figure 2.20b. planets’ orbital

speeds greatest?
Explain why.

Figure 2.20 (a) The motion of a planet about the Sun. (b) Any distance
drawn from f 1 and f 2 to a point on the curve add up to a constant.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

56 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Kepler’s second law

Kepler’s second law is sometimes referred to as the law of equal areas. It

describes the speed at which any given planet will move while orbiting the Sun.
Basically, it states that planets do not move with constant speed along their orbits.
Instead, their speed varies so that the line joining the centers of the Sun and the
planet sweeps out equal area in equal times. The point at which a planet is
nearest the Sun is called perihelion. The point of greatest separation is aphelion.
Figure 2.21 The shaded regions Hence Kepler’s second Law, a planet is moving fastest when it is at perihelion and
shown have equal areas and slowest at aphelion.
represent the same time interval.

Kepler’s second law states that each planet moves so that an imaginary line
drawn from the sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times interval.

Consider Figure 2.21. The time it takes a planet to move from position A to B,
sweeping out area A1 ,is exactly the time taken to move from position C to D,
Discussion sweeping area A2 and to move from E to F, sweeping out area A3 . These areas are
question 2.10 the same: A1 =A2 =A3
In small groups
discuss the Comparing the areas in the Figure 2.21 and the distance traveled along the ellipse
following questions. in each case, we can see that in order for the areas to be equal, the planet must
What is the period speed up as it gets closer to the Sun and slow down as it moves away.
of Earth?
What is meant by
Kepler’s Third law
the orbital period of
a planet? Kepler’s third law compares the orbital period and the average radius of orbit of a
Which planet has
planet to those of other planets. Unlike Kepler’s first and second laws that
the shortest orbital
describe the motion characteristics of a single planet, the third law makes a
period: Earth or
Pluto? comparison between the motion characteristics of different planets. The period
Is there a systematic (T ) of a planet is the time for one complete revolution around the Sun.
relationship
between period Kepler’s third law implies that the period for a planet to orbit the Sun increases
and radius for the rapidly with the radius of its orbit. Thus we find that Mercury, the innermost
planets?
planet, takes only 88 days to orbit the Sun. Earth takes 365 days, while Saturn
requires 10,759 days to do the same.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.4 Planetary motion and Kepler’s laws 57

T2
Kepler’s third law states that the ratio , where T is the time period and R is the
R3
average distance from the sun is the same for all planets:

T2
=K (2.22)
R3
K is a proportionality constant which is nearly the same for all planets.
Kepler’s third law equation is valid for both circular and elliptical orbits. Notice
that the constant of proportionality is independent of the mass of the planet.
Therefore, the equation is valid for any planet.

As an illustration, consider the orbital period and average distance from Sun
(orbital radius) for Earth and Mars as given in table 2.2.
Table 2.2 The orbital period and average distance from the Sun for Earth and
Mars.
Period(s) Average T2 /R3 (2 /m3 )
distance (m)
7
Earth 3.156 x 10 1.4957 x 1011 2.977 x 10−19
Mars 5.93 x 107 2.278 x 1011 2.975 x 10−19

Observe that the T 2 /R3 ratio is the same for Earth as it is for Mars. In fact, the
T2 /R3 ratio is the same for the other planets.

Example 2.18

Earth has an orbital period of 365 days and its mean distance from the Sun is
1.495×108 km. The planet Pluto’s mean distance from the Sun is 5.896×109 km.
Using Kepler’s third law, calculate Pluto’s orbital period in Earth days?

Solution:
The given quantities are: TE = 365 d a y a, r E = 1.495 × 108 km , r P = 5.896 ×
109 km
We use Kepler’s third law to calculate Pluto’s orbital period.

T2E T2p
=
R3E R3p

365days T2p
3
= 3
(1.495x108 km) (5.896x109 km)

To solve for Tp , we cross-multiply and take the square root.

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

58 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Thus : TP = 9.0 × 1014 days

Example 2.19

If Saturn is on average 9 times farther from the Sun than Earth is, what is this
distance in Earth years?

Solution:
rS = 9rE , TE = 1year
TS =?
T2E T2S
=
R3E R3S

1Year T2S
=
R3E (9R E )3
TS = 27 years

Exercise 2.4

1. According to Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, a satellite increases

its speed as it approaches the Sun and decreases its speed as it moves
away from the Sun. True or False.

2. Given that the Moon orbits Earth every 27.3 days and that it is an
average distance of 3.84×108 m from the center of Earth, calculate
the period of an artificial satellite orbiting at an average altitude of
1,500 km above Earth’s surface. (Radius of Earth is 6380 km.)

3. How would the period of an object in a circular orbit change if the

radius of the orbit doubled?

A. The period would increase by a factor of 2.

B. The period would decrease by a factor of 4.

p
C. The period would increase by a factor of 2 2.
p
D. The period would decrease by a factor of 2 2.

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/gravity-and-orbits/latest/
gravity-and-orbits_en.html
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation 59

2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain what determines the strength of gravity.
Brainstorming
• Describe how Newton’s law of universal gravitation extends our question 2.2
understanding of Kepler’s laws.
Imagin the Sun’s
• Apply equations to solve problems related to Newton’s law of universal gravity is suddenly
switched off. What
gravitation.
will happen to the
planets?
Planets orbit the Sun. If we look more closely at the Solar System, we see almost
unimaginable numbers of stars, galaxies, and other celestial objects orbiting one
another and interacting through gravity. All these motions are governed by
gravitational force.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) pointed out that heavy and light objects fall toward
Earth at the same rate (so long as air resistance is the same for each). But it took
Sir Isaac Newton (in 1666) to realize that this force of attraction between masses
is universal.
Discussion
Question 2.11
Newton proved that the force that causes, for example, an apple to fall toward the
ground is the same force that causes the Moon to fall around, or orbit, Earth. This What keeps the
planets in orbit?
universal force also acts between the Earth and the Sun, or any other star and its
Explain your
satellites. Each attracts the other.
answer.

Newton defined this attraction mathematically. The force of attraction between

two masses is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.

Gm 1 m 2
Fg = (2.23)
r2
where G is a constant, called the universal gravitational constant, m1 is the first
mass, m2 is the second mass, and r is the distance between the two masses. G is a
Figure 2.22 Gravitational
universal constant, meaning that it is thought to be the same everywhere in the
attraction is along a line joining
Universe. The value G in SI units is G = 6.67x10−11 Nm2 /kg2 . the centers of mass of the two
bodies.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

60 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

The gravitational force is always attractive, and it depends only on the masses
involved and the distance between them. The force is directed along the line
joining the two masses, as shown in Figure 2.22. The magnitude of the force on
each body is the same but the direction is opposite, consistent with Newton’s
third law, action-reaction (F12 = -F21 .)

Example 2.20

A 10 kg mass and a 100 kg mass are 1 meter apart. What is the force of attraction
between them?

Solution:
G is given above, m1 = 10 kg, and m2 = 100 kg. Putting these values into Newton’s
gravitational force
Gm 1 m 2
Fg =
r2
³ ´
6.673x10−11 N m 2
2 x10kg x100kg
kg
Fg =
(1m)2

Fg = 6.67 x 10−8 N

Example 2.21

If a person has a mass of 60.0 kg, what would be the force of gravitational
attraction on him at Earth’s surface?

Solution:
G is given above, Earth’s mass ME is 5.97 × 1024 kg, and the radius rE of Earth is
6.38 × 106 m. Putting these values into Newton’s gravitational law:

G ME m
Fg =
rE 2

(6.673x10−11 N m 2 /kg 2 )x5.97x1024 kg x60kg

Fg = 2
(6.38x106 m)
F g = 584N

We can check this result with the relationship: Fg = mg

Fg = 60 kgx9.8 m/s2
Fg = 588 N
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation 61

You may remember that g, the acceleration due to gravity, is another important Discussion
constant related to gravity. By substituting g for a in the equation for Newton’s question 2.12
second law of motion (F = ma) we get: Fg = mg.
By what factor
Combining this with the equation for universal gravitation force gives would a person’s
weight at the surface
G ME m
mg = (2.24) of Earth change
rE 2
if Earth had its
Cancelling the mass m on both sides of the equation and filling in the values for present mass but
the gravitational constant, mass and radius of the Earth, gives the value of g on eight times its
the surface of the earth. which may look familiar. present volume?
By what factor
−11 2 2 24
(6.673x10 N m /kg )x5.97x10 kg would a person’s
g= 2
= 9.8 m/s 2 (2.25)
6 weight at the surface
(6.38x10 m)
of Earth change
Centripetal Force if Earth had its
present size but only
It is possible to derive Kepler’s third law from Newton’s law of universal gravitation. one-third its present
A force that pulls an object towards the centre of a circle is called centripetal force mass?
as shown in Figure 2.23. The source for the centripetal force in the Solar System
is the gravitational force of the Sun. Without the centripetal force from the Sun
the planets would travel in a straight line. The velocity of the planets is high
enough so that they continuously accelerate towards the Sun without ever leaving
their orbits. It is for this reason that the planets do not fall into the sun from its
strong gravitational force of attraction. Applying Newton’s second law of motion
to circular motion gives an expression for centripetal force.

mv 2
Fc = (2.26)
r
where v is the tangential speed and r is the radius of the orbit and m is mass of
the planet.
The gravitational attraction of the Sun provides the centripetal force needed to
keep planets in orbit around the Sun. Earth’s gravity keeps the Moon and all types
Figure 2.23 Centripetal force
of satellite in orbit around Earth. Because the gravitational force provides the
constantly pulls the object towards
centripetal acceleration of the planet, it follows that: the center of the circle.

mp v 2 G Ms mp
= (2.27)
r r2

Mp is mass of the planet, Ms is mass of the sun (Ms ≈1.989x1030 kg) and v is the
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

62 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

speed of the plane about the sun.

G Ms
v2 = (2.28)
r

The orbital speed of the planet is

2πr
v= (2.29)
T

where T is the period of the planet about the Sun.

Thus
(2πr )2 G M s
= (2.30)
T2 r
T2 4π2
= = 2.97x10−19
r 3 G Ms
This equation is Kepler’s third law: the square of the period is proportional to the
cube of the distance of the planet from the Sun. The proportionality constant K
takes the value:
4π2
K= ≈ 2.97x10−19
G Ms
The above equation is therefore valid for any planet. If we were to consider the
orbit of a satellite such as the Moon about the Earth, the constant would have a
4π2
different value, with the Sun’s mass replaced by the Earth’s mass; that is, .
G ME

Exercise 2.5

1. The gravitational force between a 60 kg man and Earth is not equal

because Earth is more massive than the man therefore, it exerts the
greatest force. True or False.

2. Two objects are attracted to each other by a gravitational force F.

If the distance between the objects is doubled, what is the new
gravitational force between the objects in terms of F ?
A. 4 F B. 1/4F C. 16F D. 1/16F

3. Newton’s law of gravitation applies to:

A. Small bodies only. B. Plants only. C. All bodies irrespective of
their size. D. Moon and satellites only

4. Suppose the gravitational force between two spheres is 30 N. If the

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation 63

magnitude of each mass doubles, what is the force between the

masses?

5. Calculate the mass of the Sun, noting that the period of Earth’s orbit
around the Sun is 3.156 x 107 s and its distance from the Sun is 1.496
x 1011 m.

6. A hypothetical planet has a mass of four times that of the Earth and
radius of twice that of the Earth? What is the acceleration due to
gravity on the planet in terms of the acceleration on Earth?

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/gravity-force-lab/latest/
gravity-force-lab_en.html

Unit summary

• Projectile refers to an object that is in flight with acceleration due to

gravity after being thrown or projected.

• A football kicked in a game, a bullet fired from a gun, the flight of a golf
ball, a jet of water escaping a hose are a few common examples of
projectile motion

• The horizontal component of the velocity is constant throughout the

projectile motion.

• The vertical motion has a constant acceleration which is the accleration

due to gravity.

• In projectile motion the time to cover both the horizontal and vertical
displacement is the same.

• When the angle of projection is measured with the horizontal axis: given
by:

– The vertical displacement is:

1
∆ y = v 0 sin θ t + 2 g t2

– The horizontal displacement is:

∆ x=v 0 cosθt
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

64 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

– The vertical velocity is:

v y =v 0 sinθ+gt

– The horizontal velocity is:

v x =v 0 cosθ

• When a rigid object rotates about a fixed axis, the angular position,
angular speed, and angular acceleration are related to the
translational position, translational speed, and translational
acceleration through the relationships

s = rθ , v = rω, a= rα

• For a body rotating around a fixed axis, every particle on the body has
the same rotational quantities ∆θ, ω, and α. That is ∆θ, ω, and α
describe the rotational motion of the entire body.

• ω and α are vector quantities.

• The direction of →
−
ω is given by the right-hand-rule (RHR) and the
→
−
direction of α follows from its definition: α = ∆ω ∆t

• Right-hand rule: Wrap your four right-hand fingers in the direction of

rotation. Your extended thumb points in the direction of →
−
ω.

• Mathematically, we have defined the rotational quantities θ, ω, and α

similar to how we defined the linear quantities s, v, and a for linear
motion. Therefore, the rotational equations of motion with constant
angular acceleration, should also be similar.

• The speed at which any planet moves through space is constantly

changing. A planet moves fastest when it is closest to the Sun and
slowest when it is furthest from the Sun.

• Kepler’s laws apply to any celestial body orbiting any other celestial body.
For example, any planet around a Sun, the Moon around Earth, any
satellite around Earth.

• A planet in the Solar System is in orbit around the Sun, due to the
gravitational force on the planet exerted by the gravitational force of
the Sun.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation 65

• Every object in the Universe attracts every other object with a force
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

• Torque is the rotational effect of force.

• Moment of inertia is a measure of an object’s resistance to changes to its

rotation.

• The motion of planets around the Sun governed by the gravitational

force the Sun and the planets.

• Newton’s universal law of gravitation states that any particle of matter in

the universe attracts any other with a force varying directly as the
product of the masses and inversely as the square of the distance
between them.

• The gravitational force is always attractive.

• The source for the centripetal force in the solar system is the gravitational
force of the sun. Without the centripetal force from the sun the
planets would travel in a straight line.

End of unit Problems

1. A ball is thrown horizontally from the top of a building 45 m high.

Calculate:

(a) the time taken to reach the ground.

(b) the horizontal displacement from the foot of the building to the
strike point.

(c) The resultant velocity with which it strikes the ground.

2. A football is kicked at angle 300 with the horizontal with an initial velocity
of 20 m/s. Calculate:

(a) the horizontal and vertical component of initial velocity.

(b) the time of flight

(c) the range

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

66 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

(d) the horizontal displacement at t=1.5 s.

3. The launching speed of a certain projectile is five times the speed it has
at its maximum height. Calculate the elevation angle at launching.

4. During volcanic eruptions, pieces of solid rock can be blasted out of a

volcano; these projectiles are called volcanic bombs (Figure 2.24).

(a) At what initial speed would the bomb have to be ejected, at 350
to the horizontal, from the hole at A in order to fall at the foot of
the volcano at B? (Ignore the effects of air resistance on the bomb’s
travel.)

(b) What would be the time of flight?

Figure 2.24 Volcanic bombs away.

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation 67

Figure 2.25 A firefighter directs a stream of water from a fire hose.

5. A firefighter, a distance d from a burning building, directs a stream of

water from a fire hose at angle θ i above the horizontal, as shown in
Figure 2.25. If the initial speed of the stream is vi , at what height h
does the water strike the building?

6. A rotating fan completes 1200 revolutions every minute. Consider a

point on the tip of a blade, at a radius of 0.15 m.

(a) Through what linear distance does the point move in one
revolution?

(b) What is the linear speed of the point?

7. A car traveling at 80 km/h has wheels with a 40 cm radius. If the car

can be brought to stop within 30 revolutions, what is the angular
acceleration of the wheels?

8. The angular velocity of the belt of a grindstone is 40 rad/s. To what angle

does the belt rotate in one minute. Given your answer a) in rad b) in
rev and c) in degree.

9. A cyclist rides a bicycle with a wheel radius of 0.50 m across campus. If

the wheel completes 320 rotations between her apartment and the
cafeteria, how far has she traveled?
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

68 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

10. A spinning wheel is slowed down by a brake, giving it a constant angular

acceleration of -5.60 rad/s2 . During a 4.20 s time interval, the wheel
rotates through 62.4 rad. What is the angular speed of the wheel at
the end of the 4.20 s interval?

11. Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, has a mean orbital radius of 1.22x109
m. The orbital period of Titan is 15.95 days. Hyperion, another moon
of Saturn, orbits at a mean radius of 1.48x109 m. Use Kepler’s third
law of planetary motion to predict the orbital period of Hyperion in
days.

12. The planet Mercury travels around the Sun with a mean orbital radius
of 5.8x1010 m. The mass of the Sun is 1.99x1030 kg. How long does it
take Mercury to orbit the Sun. Give your answer in Earth days.

13. Two identical isolated particles, each of mass 2.00 kg, are separated by a
distance of 30.0 cm. What is the magnitude of the gravitational force
exerted by one particle on the other?
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

Unit 3

Fluid Mechanics

Introduction

Matter most commonly exists as solids, liquids or gases. Liquid and gas are both Brainstorming
fluids: in contrast to solids they lack the ability to resist deformation. As a result question 3.1
fluid moves, or flows under the action of the force. Fluid mechanics refers to the 1. Why do over-
study of fluid behavior at rest and in motion. Fluid mechanics has a wide range of inflated balloon
applications in mechanical and aerodynamic engineering, in biological systems, bursts?
and in many more fields. 2. How does a plane
move upwards,
At the end of this unit, you will be able to: against gravity?

• Develop knowledge and understanding of the concepts related to fluids

and pressure.

• Gain knowledge and understanding of Pascal’s principle and Archimedes’

principle.

• Understand the behaviors of fluid flow.

• Develop skills of solving problems related to fluid mechanics.

3.1 Fluid Statics

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain the properties of solids, liquids and gases.

• Define pressure.

69
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

70 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

• Convert values of pressure from one pressure unit to another.

• Explain causes of pressure in gas and liquids.

• Define absolute, atmospheric and gauge pressure.

• Define density and relative density.

• Solve problems related to pressure, density and specific gravity.

Brainstorming
question 3.2 Properties of solids, liquids and gases

Why are gases easy Atoms in solids are very close to each other. The forces between them acts as a
to compress, while spring that allow the atoms to vibrate without changing positions relative to their
liquids and solids neighboring atoms (Figure 3.1 a). Thus, a solid resist all types of stress because
are almost the atoms are not able to move about freely. Solids also resist compression,
incompressible?
because their atoms are relatively fixed distance apart. Under compression, the
atoms would be forced into one another.

Figure 3.1 (a) Atoms in a solid always have the same neighbors, held near
equilibrium position by forces represented here by springs. (b) Atoms in
a liquid are also in close contact but can slide over one another. Forces
between them strongly resist attempts to push them closer together
and also hold them in close contact. (c) Atoms in a gas are separated by
distances that are considerably larger than the size of the atoms themselves,
and they move about freely.
The molecular spacing in the liquid phase is not much different from that of the
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.1 Fluid Statics 71

solid phase except the molecules are no longer at fixed positions relative to each
other and they can rotate and translate freely.

In a liquid, the intermolecular forces are weaker relative to solids, but still strong
compared with gases. Liquids deform easily when stressed and do not spring
back to their original shape once the force is removed because the atoms are free
to slide about and change neighbors. That is, they flow (so they are a type of
fluid), with the molecules held together by their mutual attraction (Figure 3.1b).

Atoms in gases are separated by distances that are large compared with the size
of the atoms (Figure 3.1c). The forces between gas atoms are therefore very weak,
except when the atoms collide with one another. Gases thus not only flow but
they are relatively easy to compress because there is much space and little force
between atoms. A gas also expands until it encounters the walls of the container
and fills the entire available space (Figure 3.2a). In contrast, if we move the liquid
filling a small container to a much larger container, the liquid volume remains
the same independent of the container’s shape (Figure 3.2b). Solids maintain not
only their volume but also their shape. The properties of solids, liquids and gases
can be observed from the following simulation link: https://phet.colorado.edu/
Figure 3.2 (a) The same gas fills
sims/html/states-of-matter-basics/latest/states-of-matter-basics_en.html. completely different volume (b)
The liquid volume remains the
Activity 3.1: Compressibility of gases and liquids same regardless of volume and
shape of container.
Materials required:
Two syringes of equal size and water.
Procedures:

• Fill a first syringe with water by pushing the piston into the syringe
casing until it stops.

• Put the open end of the syringe in to water and then pull water in to
it by pulling the piston back to its maximum limit.

• Close the water filled syringe tightly by your finger and push the
piston. Notice how far does the piston move.

• Fill a second syringe with air by pushing the piston into the syringe
casing until it stops.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

72 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

• Pull air in to it by pulling the piston back to its maximum limit.

• Close the air filled syringe tightly by your finger and push the piston.
Notice how far does the piston move.

Precaution:
(i) Please do not use a syringe with needle to keep yourself safe.
(ii) Closed the water and air filled syringe tightly so that no water and air
comes out from the syringes while you are pushing the piston,
Discussion
question 3.1 Questions:
(i) How far does a piston move in water and air filled syringe?
(i) Explain the
(ii) What can you say about the compressibility of water and air from the
difference between
solids, liquids
distance moved by the piston?
and gases in
terms of distance Fluid statics deals with nature of fluids at rest. The fluid can be either gaseous or
between particles, liquid. In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers,
intermolecular and no shear (tangential) stresses. The only stress in fluid statics is the normal
force, their stress, which is the pressure.
shape and their
compressibility.
Fluid statics is used to determine the forces acting on floating or submerged
(ii) What is the
bodies and the forces developed by devices like hydraulic presses and car jacks.
difference between
fluids and solids? The design of many engineering systems such as water dams and liquid storage
tanks requires the determination of the forces acting on their surfaces using fluid
statics.

Pressure in Fluid
Brainstorming question 3.3

(i) Why does a mattress sink more when a person is standing on it

compared with when he is lying (Figure 3.4) ?
(ii) Why Scissors, blade, saw and knives cut objects easily?
(iii) Why nails, syringes and pins penetrate into objects easily?

Figure 3.3 The normal stress The normal component of a force acting on a surface per unit area is called the
and shear stress at the surface normal stress, and the tangential component of a force acting on a surface per
of a fluid element. For fluids at
rest, the shear stress is zero and unit area is called shear stress (Figure 3.3). For fluid at rest, the shear stress is zero
pressure is the only normal stress. and the only existing stress is the normal stress and is called pressure.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.1 Fluid Statics 73

Activity 3.2:

Hold a sharp pencil

between your two
fingers and start
pressing it from
both sides. Notice
how you feel on
Figure 3.4 Effect of lying and standing on a mattress. both the fingers. Do
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid (or a solid) per unit area. you feel pain in any
If F is the magnitude of the force exerted on the fluid (or solid) at a particular one of your fingers?
point and A is the surface area at which this force is applied, the pressure P at Notice the finger in

this particular point is defined as the ratio of the force to the contact area A over which pencil leaves
a deeper mark.
which that force is exerted:
F
P= (3.1)
A
Pressure is a scalar quantity because it is proportional to the magnitude of the
force. If a large force acts on a small area, the pressure is large.

The unit of pressure is newtons per square meter (N/m2 ) in the SI system. Another
name for the SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa):

1P a = 1N /m 2 (3.2)

In addition to pascal there are other units of pressure such as millimeter mercury
(mmHg), torr, atmosphere (atm) and pounds per square meter (psi) with their Figure 3.5 Effect of force varies
relation shown as follow: with area

1 at m = 760 mmH g = 760 t or r = 101.3 K P a = 14.7 psi (3.3)

Example 3.1

As a woman walks, her entire weight is momentarily placed on one of her shoes.
Calculate the pressure exerted on the floor by the shoe if it has an average width
10 cm and average length of 30 cm and the woman’s mass is 55.0 kg.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

74 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

Solution:

(a) Assuming the shoe is rectangular, its are is obtained by the relation

A = w × l = 10 cm × 30 cm = 300 cm 2 = 0.03 m 2

The force exerted on the floor is the wait of the woman, which is obtained from
the relation
F = mg = 55.0 kg × 9.8 m/s 2 = 539.00 N

Therefore, the pressure

F 539.00 N
P = = = 1.8 × 101 K P a
A 0.03 m 2

Exercise 3.1
Repeat example 3.1, Example 3.2
if the woman stands
Express the pressure obtained in example 3.1 in atm, torr, mmHG and psi.
on her two shoes.
Compare the result
Solution:
with example 3.1.
To express the pressure in other pressure units we have to use relations in Eq 3.3.
What can you say
about the difference To convert pressure in pascal to other units:
between the results? P cons × P pasc al
Assume the shoes P ot her =
101.3 K P a
have equal area
where P cons is the constant value of pressure in other system of units excluding
and her weight is
pascal, P pasc al is the given value of pressure in pascal, P ot her is the value of
balanced on her two
pressure in the new system of unit. Here P pasc al is 1.8 × 101 K P a. Therefore,
shoes.

1 at m × P pasc al 1 at m × 1.8 × 101 K P a

P at m = = = 0.18 at m;
101.3 K P a 101.3 K P a

760 mmH g × P pasc al 760 mmH g × 1.8 × 101 K P a

P mm H g = = = 135.04 mmH g ;
101.3 K P a 101.3 K P a

760 t or r × P pasc al 760 t or r × 1.8 × 101 K P a

P t or r = = = 135.04 t or r ;
101.3 K P a 101.3 K P a

14.7 psi × P pasc al 14.7 psi × 1.8 × 101 K P a

P psi = = = 2.61 psi ;
101.3 K P a 101.3 K P a
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.1 Fluid Statics 75

Example 3.3

Nail tips exert tremendous pressures when they are hit by hammers because they
exert a large force over a small area. What force must be exerted on a nail with a
circular tip of 1.00 mm diameter to create a pressure of 3.00 × 109 N /m 2 .

Solution:
From the definition of pressure P = F /A, the force F is

F = P A.

Here, the pressure P is given, and the area of the end of the nail A is given by

³ ´2
d
A = π 2 .
Since d = 1.00 mm = 1x10−3 m.

Thus,

A = (3.14)(5x10−4 m)2 = 7.85x10−7 m 2

F = P A = (3.00 × 109 N /m 2 )(7.85x10−7 m 2 )

= 2.36 × 103 N

The result shows that the magnitude of pressure is far greater than the force applied. Brainstorming
The reason is that the area of the tip of the nail is very small. This is why nails are question 3.4
easily hammered into a wood and concrete.
Try to crush air-
filled balloon a little
bit. Can you feel the

Pressure in Gases balloon resisting

the crushing, as if
As air particles move randomly in space, they eventually collide with the solid something inside
surfaces of any objects in that space. In each of these collisions, the particle it pushes back on
exerts an impulsive force on the object (see Figure 3.6). your fingers. How
can we explain
this “resistance” of
However, when a huge number of particles bombard a solid surface at a constant
the air inside the
rate, these collisions collectively exert an approximately constant force on the balloon,and how
object (Figure 3.6 b). This impulsive force must be what we feel when we are pressure of the gas is
trying to squeeze the balloon. formed?
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

76 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

Figure 3.6 a) Each particle exerts an impulsive force on the wall (b)
collective collision of gas particles on a wall.
As we blow a balloon, we add air particles to the interior of the balloon; thus there
are more particles inside colliding with the walls. This greater collision rate
results in a larger outward average force on each part of the balloon’s surface,
causing it to expand outward. The force exerted by the gas on the walls of the
container per unit contact area gives the pressure of the gas.

Figure 3.7 Absolute, gauge, and vacuum pressures.

The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.1 Fluid Statics 77

measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most

pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the
atmosphere, and so they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure
and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called the gauge pressure (
P g ag e ). Absolute and gauge pressures are related to each other by

P g ag e = P abs − P at m (3.4)

This is illustrated in Figure 3.7.

Like other pressure gauges, the gauge used to measure the air pressure in an
automobile tire reads the gauge pressure. Therefore, the common reading of 32.0
psi indicates a pressure of 32.0 psi above the atmospheric pressure.

Figure 3.8 Measuring a gauge pressure of a car.

Example 3.4

What is the absolute pressure at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 14.3
psi and the gauge pressure of an automobile tire is 32.0 psi?

Solution:
The absolute pressure is determined by rearranging Eq. 3.4 as:
Exercise 3.2
P abs = P at m + P g ag e = 14.3 psi + 32.0 psi = 46.3 psi Determine the
absolute pressure
where gauge
pressure is 61.152
Example 3.5 KPa and atmospheric
pressure is 14.0 psi.
The absolute pressure in water at a depth of 8 m is read to be 175 kPa. Determine
the local atmospheric pressure if the guage pressure at this depth is 78.4 KPa.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

78 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

Solution:
The absolute pressure in a water at a depth of 8 m is given as 175 K P a

The local atmospheric pressure is to be determined.

It can be obtained from Eq. 3.4

P l oc.at m = P abs − P g aug e

= 175 K pa − 78.4 K P a = 96.6 K P a

We can observe that the local atmospheric pressure is less than the atmospherics
pressure at sea level.

Brainstorming
question 3.5 Density

Why some objects Density is an important characteristic of substances. It is crucial, for example, in
float and others determining whether an object sinks or floats in a fluid. It directly affects
sink? pressure of fluids (gases and liquids). Density is a much more useful physical
quantity for gases.

Density, ρ, is the mass, m, per unit volume, V , of any object. It is calculated by

dividing the mass of an object by its volume.

m
ρ= (3.5)
V

The unit of density is kg/m3 .

Discussion
Exercise 3.3
question 3.2 Density measures the mass of one cubic meter of a substance. For example, at
t An iron ball with
sea level and 0◦C the mass of 1.0 m3 of air is 1.3 kg. We say that the density of air is
radiusthree
When 5.0 cm has
liquids
a mass of 2.0 kg. 1.3 kg/m3 . If we had 2.0 m3 of air at sea level, its mass would be 2.6 kg. Its density
with densities
Determine
ρ1 < ρ2 < theρball’s is still 1.3 kg/m3 .
3 are
density.together,
mixed
which liquid will be The density of most gases is proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to
at the top, middle temperature. Liquids and solids, on the other hand, are essentially incompressible
and bottom layer? substances, and the variation of their density with pressure is usually negligible.

Example 3.6

Assume the following about a person: mass is 80 kg; dimensions are 1.8 m tall, 0.3
m wide, and 0.1 m thick; and volume is V = 1.8 m × 0.3 m × 0.1 m = 0.054 m 3 ,
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.1 Fluid Statics 79

What is the density of this person.

Solution: The person’s density is given by Eq. 3.5:

m
ρ=
V

Substitute the person’s mass and volume into the above to get

80 kg
ρ= = 1500 kg /m 3
0.054 m 3

Table 3.1 Densities of some common substance at standard temperature (◦C) and
pressure (1 atm)

Substance ρ (kg /m 3 ) substance ρ(kg /m 3 )

Air 1.29 Iron 7.86 x103
Aluminum 2.70x103 carbon Steel 7.84 x103
Benzene 0.879x103 mercury 13.6 x103
Brass 8.4 x103 oxygen 1.43
copper 8.92 x103 nitrogen 1.25
Fresh water 1.00 x103 Sea water 1.03 x103
Gold 19.3 x103 silver 10.5 x103
Ice 0.917 x103 Tin 7.30 x103

Figure 3.9 Less dense materials

As you can see from Table 3.1, the density of an object may help identify its floats on denser matter.

composition. The density of gold, for example, is about 2.5 times the density of
iron. The density of iron is about 2.5 times the density of aluminum. Density also
indicates about the phase of the matter and its particles arrangement. The
densities of liquids and solids are roughly comparable, consistent with the fact
that their atoms are in close contact.

Understanding density allows us to answer questions like: “why does oil form a
film on water?”. If you pour oil into water or water into oil, they form layers (see
Figure 3.9 a). Independently of which fluid is poured first, the layer of oil is
always on top of the water. The density of oil is less than the density of water.

Similar phenomena occur with gases. Helium-filled balloons accelerate upward

in air while air-filled balloons accelerate (slowly) downward. The mass of helium
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

80 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

atoms is much smaller than the mass of any other molecules in the air. At the
same pressure and temperature, atoms and molecules of gas have the same
concentration; because helium atoms have much lower mass, their density is
lower. The air-filled balloon must be denser than air. The rubber with which the
skin of any balloon is made is denser than air. We can ignore the slight
compression of the gas by the balloon, because even though it increases the
density of the gas, the effect is the same for both the air and helium in the
balloons. You can study more about density from the simulation:
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/density/latest/density_en.html.

Relative density

Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of an

another substance. Then it is called specific gravity, or relative density, and is
defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard
substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4◦ C, for which
ρ H2 O = 1000kg /m 3 ).

That is;

ρ
specific gravity = SG = ρ H2 O

Note that the specific gravity of a substance does have any unit. In SI units, the
numerical value of the specific gravity of a substance is exactly equal to its density
in g/cm3 . For example the density of mercury at 20◦ C is 13.6 x103 kg/m3 ). Its
relative density is 13.6 x103 kg/m3 divided by density of water, 1 x103 kg/m3 ,
which is 13.6. The density of mercury in g/cm3 is also 13.6.
The specific gravities of some substances at 20◦ C are given in Table 3.2. Note that
substances with specific gravities less than 1 are lighter than water, and thus they
would float on water.

Ideal gas equation

The simplest and best-known equation in the gas phase that relate density and
pressure of gases is the ideal-gas equation of state, expressed as

m
PV = nRT = M RT = mR speci f i c T
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.1 Fluid Statics 81

Table 3.2 The specific gravity of some substances at 20◦C and 1 atm unless stated
otherwise

Substance SG Substance SG
Air 0.00129 Seawater 1.025
Blood (at 37◦C) 1.06 Gasoline 0.68
Ethyl alcohol 0.790 mercury 13.6
Gold 19.3 bones 1.7-2.0
Ice (0◦C) 0.916

This gives us
m
P= R speci f i c T = ρR speci f i c T (3.6)
V
where P is the absolute pressure, V is the gas volume, n is number of mole, T is
m
the thermodynamic (absolute) temperature, ρ = V is the density, and R speci f i c =
R/M is the specific gas constant. The specific gas constant is different for different
gases and R is the universal gas constant whose value is R = 8.314 J/mol. K and M
is the molar mass of the gases.
The relation of pressure, volume, temperature and number of moles of gases
can be observed from the simulation: https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/
gas-properties/latest/gas-properties_en.html.

Example 3.7

Determine the density, specific gravity, and mass of the air in a room whose Figure 3.10 Dimension of air at
◦
dimensions are 4 m × 5 m × 6 m at 100 kPa and 25 C (Figure 3.10). 25◦C and 100 kPa

Solution:

Air can be treated as an ideal gas. The gas constant of air is R/M = 0.287
kPa·m3 /kg·K.

The density of the air is determined from the ideal-gas relation P = ??(R/M)T to be

P 100 K pa
ρ= = = 1.17 kg /m 3
(R/M ) T (0.287 K P a.m 3 /kg .K ) (25 + 273.15) K

Note that the temperature is converted to (absolute) unit K from (relative) unit ◦ C
before using it in the ideal-gas relation.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

82 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

Then the specific gravity of the air becomes

ρ 1.17kg /m 3
SG = = = 0.00117
ρ H2 O 1000 kg /m 3

The volume of the air is equal to the volume of the room

V = (4 m) (5 m) (6 m) = 120 m 3

Finally, the mass of the air in the room is

m = ρV = (1.17 kg /m 3 ) 120 m 3 = 140 kg

¡ ¢

3.2 Pressure in fluids at rest

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• State Pascal’s principle

• Explain how Pascal’s principle is used in hydraulic press machine.

• Discuss how pressure depends on the depth of fluid.

• Discuss the working principles of pressure measuring devices like

barometers and manometers.

• Perform simple experiments related to pressure.

• Solve problems related to Pascal’s principle, fluid depth and atmospheric

pressure.

As gas particles collide with the walls of the container in which they reside, they
exert pressure. In fact, if you place any object inside a gas, the gas particles exert
the same pressure on the object as the gas exerts on the walls of the container. Do
liquids behave in a similar way? The particles in a liquid are in continual random
motion, somewhat similar to particles in gases.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.2 Pressure in fluids at rest 83

Activity 3.3: Testing direction of pressure

Materials required:
A plastic bottle, five nails and water
Procedures:

• Pock five holes at the middle of the bottle along its perimeter using
the nail as shown in (Figure 3.11).

• Close all the holes by nails.

• Fill the bottle with water while the it is opened.

• Remove the nails and observe what happens.

Precaution:
Take care to avoid the damage while pocking the bottle using nail.
Figure 3.11 Arcs of water leaving
Question holes at the same level in a bottle.
Try to explain your observation.

Pascal’s principle

Pushing the piston in to a confined fluid in one direction causes a greater pressure
in the fluid close to the piston. Almost immediately the pressure throughout the
fluid increases uniformly, fluid is pushed out of all of the holes in the container
(Figure 3.12 a and b)). This phenomenon was first discovered by French scientist
Blaise Pascal in 1653 and is called P asc al 0 s principle.
Pascal’s principle: States that a change in the pressure applied to a static fluid
is transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the
container.
Figure 3.12 Pascal’s principle:
Increasing the pressure of a fluid
How can we explain this observation? The pressure applied at one point is sooner at one location causes a uniform
transmitted to the whole part of the fluid by a continuous collisions of neighboring pressure increase throughout the
molecules of the fluid. fluid.

Activity 3.4: Pressure in a pair of connected syringes

Materials required: Two syringes of different size, a piece of flexible plastic

tube, two identical 250 ml transparent beakers and bucket partly filled
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

84 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

with water
Procedures:

• Submerge the plastic tube and let it fill completely with water.

• Push the plunger of the small syringe all the way into it so there is no
air in it. Fill it partially with water. Then insert its tip into one end of
the submerged, water-filled plastic tube.

• Push the plunger of the larger syringe all the way into it so there is
no air in it. Fill it partially with water. Then insert its tip into an other
end of the submerged, water-filled plastic tube.

• Then take the entire assembly out of the water and arrange the
syringes vertically as shown in the Figure below with their initial
water level at the same height.

• Put identical beakers on the top of the syringes’ plungers.

• Draw some water into the beaker on the plunger of small syringe.
What do you observe about the water level in the two syringes?

• Draw water into the beaker on the plunger of the large syringe until
the water level on the two syringes is the same.

Precaution: Syringes should not have needle to avoid damage.

Question: How much water is require on both beakers to balance the level
of water in the syringes. Try to explain your observation.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.2 Pressure in fluids at rest 85

Hydraulic press

One of the technical applications of Pascal’s Principle is a hydraulic press which

is a form of simple machine that converts small forces into larger forces, or vice
versa. Automobile mechanics use hydraulic presses to lift cars, and dentists and
barbers use them to raise and lower their clients’ chairs. The hydraulic brakes of
an automobile are also a form of hydraulic press. Most of these devices work on
the simple principle illustrated in Figure 3.13, although the actual devices are
usually more complicated in construction.

Figure 3.13 Schematic of a hydraulic press.

→
−
In Figure 3.13, a downward force F 1 on L is exerted by piston 1 (with small area
A 1 ) on the liquid. This piston compresses a liquid (usually oil) in the lift.

The pressure in the fluid just under piston 1 is

F 1 on L
P1 = (3.7)
A1

Because the pressure changes uniformly throughout the liquid, the pressure
under piston 2 is also P = F 1 on L /A 1 , assuming the pistons are at the same height.
Since piston 2 has a greater area A 2 than piston 1, the liquid exerts a greater
upward force on piston 2 than the downward force on piston 1:

F 1 on L A2
µ ¶ µ ¶
F L on 2 = P A 2 = A2 = F 1 on L (3.8)
A1 A1

Since A 2 is greater than A 1 , the lift provides a significantly greater upward force
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

86 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

F L on 2 on piston 2 than the downward push of the smaller piston 1 on the liquid
F 1 on L .

Figure 3.14 Hyraulic press

Example 3.8

A hydraulic lift has a small piston with surface area 0.0020 m2 and a larger piston
with surface area 0.20 m2 . Piston 2 and the car placed on piston 2 have a combined
mass of 1800 kg. What is the minimal force that piston 1 needs to exert on the fluid
to slowly lift the car?

Solution:
Assume that the levels of the two pistons are the same and that the car is being
lifted at constant velocity. Use the force diagram for the car and piston 2 (see Figure
3.14) and Newton’s second law to determine F L on 2. Note that the force that the
liquid exerts on the piston 2, F L on 2 , is equal in magnitude to the force that piston
2 and the car exert on the liquid F 2 on L , which equals the downward gravitational
force that Earth exerts on the car and piston:
Exercise 3.4
FE on C ar +P i st on2 = F 2 on L = mC ar +P i st on g .
Dear students,
We rewrite the hydraulic press Eq. (3.8) to determine the unknown force:
in example 3.8, if ³ ´ ³ ´
F 1 on L = AA 21 F 2 on L = AA 21 mC ar +pi st on g
you needed to lift
substituting the givens and solving
the car about 0.10 m
above the ground, µ
0.0020 m 2 £
¶
¤
what distance would F 1 on L = 2
(1800 kg )(9.8 N /kg ) = 180 N
0.20 m
you have to push
down on the small
That is the force equal to lifting an object of mass 18 kg. This example shows
piston?
that a six year old child of average mass 20 kg is more than capable of raising the
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.2 Pressure in fluids at rest 87

car simply by sitting on the small piston.

A hydraulic press is a force multiplying machine. It reduces the amount of force
needed to lift a load. A small force is applied at small piston to raise a heavy load
at the larger piston. However, the work done by the two pistons is the same. That
is
Wb y P i st on1 = Won P i st on2
or
F b y P i st on1 (d 1 ) = F on P i st on2 (d 2 ),

where W , F and d refer work done, force and distance traveled respectively.

Variation of pressure with depth

Activity 3.5: Variation of pressure with depth

Materials required:
Three identical plastic bottles, three identical nails, a table and water.
Procedures:

• Make a hole near to the bottom of each plastic bottle by identical

nails. The holes should have identical height.

• Fill the three bottles with water to different height while the holes
are closed by the nails.

• Put the bottles on the edge of a table facing the holes in the same
direction, away the table.

• Remove the nails gently simultaneously and observe the distance

the water shots hits the ground.

Precaution:

• Take care to avoid damage while making a hole using the nails.

• Keep the lids of the bottles open throughout your experiment.

Question

• Which water shot has the largest distance (wider arc) from the
bottom of the table?
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

88 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

• What do you think the reason for that?

• How the distance of the water shots from each bottles vary with time
and explain the result.

Consider a liquid of density ρ at rest as shown in Figure 3.15. We assume ρ is

uniform throughout the liquid, which means the liquid is incompressible. Let
us select a parcel of the liquid contained within an imaginary block of cross-
sectional area A extending from depth d to depth d + h. The liquid external to
our parcel exerts forces at all points on the surface of the parcel, perpendicular to
the surface. The pressure exerted by the liquid on the bottom face of the parcel
is P , and the pressure on the top face is P o . Therefore, the upward force exerted
Figure 3.15 A parcel of fluid in a by the outside fluid on the bottom of the parcel has a magnitude P A, and the
larger volume of fluid.
downward force exerted on the top has a magnitude is P o A. The mass of liquid
in the parcel is M = ρV = ρ Ah; therefore, the weight of the liquid in the parcel
is W = M g = ρ Ahg . Because the parcel is at rest and remains at rest, it can be
modeled as a particle in equilibrium, so that the net force acting on it must be
zero. The forces are the upward force at the bottom (PA), the downward force at
the top (P o A) and weight of the parcel (Mg). Choosing upward to be the positive
y direction, we see that

X→
−
F = P A bj −P o A jb−M g bj =0

Or
P A−P o A−ρ Ahg =0

P = P o +ρhg (3.9)

That is, as the depth increases by h, the pressure increases by ρg h. It depends on

the depth as well as the density of the liquid. If the liquid is open to the
atmosphere and P o is the pressure at the surface of the liquid, then P o is
atmospheric pressure.

P o = 1.00 at m = 1.013 3 × 105 P a

Equation 3.9 implies that the pressure is the same at all points having the same
depth, whatever shape the container posses. Because the pressure in a fluid
depends on depth and on the value of P o , any increase in pressure at the surface
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.2 Pressure in fluids at rest 89

must be transmitted to every other point in the fluid by the Pascal’s principle.

Thus the equation P = hρg represents the pressure due to the weight of any fluid
of average density ρ at any depth h below its surface. For liquids, which are nearly
incompressible, this equation holds to great depths. For gases, which are quite
compressible, one can apply this equation as long as the density changes are
small over the depth considered. The pressure due depth of liquid is independent
of the shape and size of the container, it only depends on the depth.

Activity 3.6: Independence of liquid pressure with size and shape

of container
Materials required:
Three plastic bottles of different diameter, three identical nails and a table
Procedures:

• Make a hole near to the bottom of each plastic bottle by identical

nails. The holes should have identical height.

• Fill the three bottles with water to the same level.

• Put the bottles on the edge of a table facing the holes in the same
direction, away the table.

• Remove the nails gently simultaneously and observe the distance

the water shots hits the ground.

Precaution:

• Take care to avoid damage while making a hole using the nails.

• Keep the lids of the bottles open throughout your experiment.

Question

• Which water shot has the largest distance (wider arc) from the
bottom of the table?

• Explain the reason for your observation?

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

90 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

Example 3.9

Calculate the force on a circular area of diameter 0.40 m on the bottom of the
ocean which is 25.0 m below the surface. Take atmospheric pressure and density
of sea water at the bottom to be 1 atm and 1.03 K kg /m 3 respectively.

Solution:

The absolute pressure is obtained from the relation:

P abs = P amt + P g aug e = P amt + ρg h

where P amt = 1 at m = 101.3 K P a, ρ = 1.03 × 103 k/m 3 , and h = 25 m. Therefore,

P abs = 101.3 K P a + (1.03 × 103 k/m 3 )(9.8 m/s 2 ) (25 m)

= 101.3 K P a + 252.35 K P a = 353.65 K P a

³ ´2 ¡ 0.4 m ¢2
d
Similarly, the area is obtained as A = π 2 = (3.14) 2 = 0.1256 m 2
F net
We can use the relation P abs = A . Then, the force exerted is

F net = P abs A = 353.65 K P a × 0.1256 m 2

= 4.44 × 104 N

Atmospheric pressure

Discussion
question 3.3

A sealed empty
plastic water bottle
collapses as a plane
descends from a
higher elevation to
a lower elevation
as shown in Figure
3.16. Why this
happens? Figure 3.16 The plastic bottle (a) sealed at 4,300 m altitude, (b) the same
sealed plastic bottle at an altitude of 2,700 m and (c) at the 300 m.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.2 Pressure in fluids at rest 91

Activity 3.7: Effect of temperature on Pressure

Materials required:
Two identical plastic bottles, and hot water
Procedures:

• Fill one of the plastic bottle by hot water and cover tightly; then keep
it to cool down to room temperature.

• Fill the other plastic bottle by hot water and keep it to cool down to
room temperature while the lid is open.

Precaution:
Take care to avoid the damage of hot water by using heat resistance glove
and using moderately hot water.
Question

• What happens to the closed plastic bottles at room temperature?

Explain the reason.

• What happens to the opened plastic bottles at room temperature?

Explain the reason.

At the Earth’s surface, the air pressure exerted on you is a result of the weight of
air above you. This pressure is reduced as you climb up in altitude and the weight
of air above you decreases. There are two reasons why air pressure decreases as
altitude increases: density and depth of the atmosphere.

Most gas molecules in the atmosphere are pulled close to Earth’s surface by
gravity, so gas particles are denser near the surface. With more gas particles in a
given volume, there are more collisions of particles and therefore greater
pressure.

The depth (distance from top to bottom) of the atmosphere is greatest at sea level
and decreases at higher altitudes. With greater depth of the atmosphere, more air
is pressing down from above. Therefore, air pressure is greatest at sea level and
falls with increasing altitude. On top of Mount Everest, which is the tallest
mountain on Earth, air pressure is only about one-third of the pressure at sea
level.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

92 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

Atmospheric pressure P at m changes from 101.325 KPa at sea level to 89.88, 79.50,
54.05, 26.5, and 5.53 KPa at altitudes of 1000, 2000, 5000, 10,000, and 20,000
meters, respectively. Remember that the atmospheric pressure at a location is
simply the weight of the air above that location per unit surface area.

Activity 3.8: Effect of atmospheric pressure on the flow of

confined water
Materials required:
A Plastic bottle and nail or pin
Procedures:

• Fill a plastic bottle with water and cover the lid tightly.

• Make a small hole at the bottom of this bottle by a nail or a pin and
take the nail/pin out.

Precaution:
Take care to avoid the damage while using the nail/ pin.
Question

• (i) Does all the water leave the plastic bottle? Why?

• (ii) What will happen if the bottle is open?

The decline of atmospheric pressure with elevation has far-reaching

consequences in daily life. For example, cooking takes longer at high altitudes
since water boils at a lower temperature at lower atmospheric pressures. For a
given temperature, the density of air is lower at high altitudes, and thus a given
volume contains less air and less oxygen. So it is no surprise that we tire more
easily and experience breathing problems at high altitudes. To compensate for
this effect, people living at higher altitudes develop more efficient lungs.
Similarly, a 2.0-L car engine will act like a 1.7-L car engine at 1500 m altitude
(unless it is turbocharged) because of the 15 percent drop in pressure and thus 15
percent drop in the density of air.

Measuring pressure

Under the water, the pressure exerted on you increases with increasing depth.
In this case, the pressure being exerted upon you is a result of both the weight
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.2 Pressure in fluids at rest 93

of water above you and that of the atmosphere above you. You may notice an
air pressure change on an elevator ride that transports you many floors, but you
need only dive one meter or below the surface of a pool to feel a pressure increase.
The difference is that water is much denser than air, about 775 times as dense.

The Barometer

Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the

atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure. The Italian
Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647) was the first to conclusively prove that the
atmospheric pressure can be measured by inverting a mercury-filled tube into
a mercury container that is open to the atmosphere, as shown in Figure 3.17(a).
The pressure at point B is equal to the atmospheric pressure, and the pressure at
point C can be taken to be zero since there is only mercury vapor above point C
and the pressure is very low relative to P at m and can be neglected to an excellent
approximation. Writing a force balance in the vertical direction gives

P at m = ρg h (3.10)

where ρ is the density of mercury, g is the local gravitational acceleration,

Discussion
and h is the height of the mercury column above the free surface. Note that the
question 3.4
length and the cross-sectional area of the tube have no effect on the height of the
fluid column of a barometer (Figure 3.17b). (i) Why nosebleed
is a common
experience at high
altitudes?
(ii) Federation
International de
Football Association
(FIFA) had banned
international
matches played
above an altitude
of 2,800m in 2007.
Why do you think
the reason for this?
Figure 3.17 (a) The basic barometer. (b) The length or the cross-sectional
area of the tube has no effect on the height of the fluid column of a
barometer, provided that the tube diameter is large enough to avoid surface
tension (capillary) effects.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

94 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as

the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0◦ C
(ρ H g = 13, 595 kg /m 3 ) under standard gravitational acceleration
2
(g = 9.807 m/s ). If water instead of mercury were used to measure the standard
atmospheric pressure, a water column of about 10.3 m or 10300 mm would be
needed. Pressure is sometimes expressed (especially by weather forecasters) in
terms of the height of the mercury column. The standard atmospheric pressure,

Exercise 3.5 for example, is 760 mmHg at 0◦ C. The unit mmHg is also called the torr in honor
of Torricelli. Therefore, 1 atm = 760 torr and 1 torr = 133.3 Pa.
(i) The reading of a
barometer in your
room is 700 mm Example 3.10
Hg. What does this
Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading
mean? What is the
is 740 mmH g and the gravitational acceleration is g = 9.805 m/s 2 . Assume the
pressure in pascals?
temperature of mercury to be 10◦C , at which its density is 13, 595 kg /m 3 ).
(ii) If oil of density
950 kg /m 3 is used
Solution:
in the barometer
instead of mercury, The temperature of mercury is assumed to be 10◦C .
what would be the The density of mercury is given to be 13, 595 kg /m 3 .
height of the oil in
From Eq. 3.11, the atmospheric pressure is determined to be
the tube at 1 atm?

P at m = ρg h

= (13, 570 kg /m 3 )(9.805m/s 2 )(0.740 m)

= 98.5 kP a

The manometer

A manometer is a device similar to a barometer that can be used to measure the

pressure of a gas trapped in a container. A closed-end manometer is a U-shaped
tube with one closed arm and the other arm connected to the gas whose pressure
is to be measured, and a nonvolatile liquid (usually mercury) in between. The
distance between the liquid levels in the two arms of the tube (h in Figure 3.18) is
proportional to the pressure of the gas in the container. An open-end manometer
(Figure 3.18) is the same as a closed-end manometer, but one of its arms is open
to the atmosphere. In this case, the distance between the liquid levels
corresponds to the difference in pressure between the gas in the container and
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.2 Pressure in fluids at rest 95

the atmosphere.

Figure 3.18 Measurement of gas pressure with manometer (a) closed end
manometer (b) open end manometer with atmospheric pressure greater
than gas pressure (c) open end manometer with atmospheric pressure less
than gas pressure
This device is mainly used to measure low pressure differences accurately. In the
Figure 3.18, let us use the principle of hydrostatic equilibrium. The pressure in
the gas supply (P g as ) for the situations shown in Figure 3.18 are given as follow:
(a) For closed end manometer:

P g as = ρg h

(b) For open end manometer with atmospheric pressure greater than gas
pressure:
P g as = P at m − ρg h

(c) open end manometer with atmospheric pressure less than gas pressure:

P g as = P at m + ρg h

where ρ denotes density of the liquid, g denotes gravitational constant, h is the

height of the liquid column. Note that the cross-sectional area of the tube has
no effect on the differential height h, and thus the pressure exerted by the fluid.
However, the diameter of the tube should be large enough (more than several
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

96 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

Exercise 3.6 millimeters) to ensure that the surface tension effect and thus the capillary rise is
The pressure of negligible.
a sample of gas
is measured with
a closed-end
Example 3.11
manometer, as An open manometer is used to measure the pressure of a gas in a tank. The fluid
shown in Figure used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the fluid column in the open arm is 55 cm
3.19. The liquid in above the gas connected arm, as shown in Figure 3.18. If the local atmospheric
the manometer is pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure within the tank.
mercury. Determine
the pressure of the Solution:
gas. The reading of a manometer attached to a tank and the atmospheric pressure are
given. The absolute pressure in the tank is to be determined.

The density of the gas in the tank is much lower than the density of the manometer
fluid.

The specific gravity of the manometer fluid is given to be 0.85. We take the standard
density of water to be 1000 kg/m3 .

The density of fluid is obtained by multiplying its specific gravity by the density of
water,
ρ = SG(ρ H2 O ) = (0.85)(1000 kg /m 3 ) = 850 kg /m 3

Then from Eq. 3.12,

Figure 3.19 Fluid level in closed
end manometer P = P at m + ρg h

= 96 kP a + (850 kg /m 3 )(9.81 m/s 2 )(0.55 m)

= 100.6 kPa
Brainstorming
question 3.6 Note that the gauge pressure in the tank is 4.6 kPa.

Dear students, can

you guess why
objects like empty
plastic bottle, plastic 3.3 Archimedes’ principle
balls, some wooden
and metallic objects
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
like boats is difficult • Define the buoyant force.
to submerge in to
a water or other • Classify floating and submerging objects comparing the objects and the
liquids? fluid density.

• Solve problems related to buoyant force.

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.3 Archimedes’ principle 97

Buoyant force

It is extremely difficult to push a ball down under water because of the large
upward force exerted by the water on the ball. The upward force exerted by a
fluid on any immersed object is called a buoyant force. Where does this buoyant
force come from? Buoyant force is based on the fact that pressure increases with
depth in a fluid. This means that the upward force on the bottom of an object in a
fluid is greater than the downward force on the top of the object. There is a net
upward, or buoyant force on any object in any fluid (See Figure 3.20). Buoyant
force is also called up thrust force. How a buoyance force is exerted by gas
particle can be observed from the link:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/balloons-and-buoyancy.

How large is this buoyant force? To answer this question, think about what
happens when a submerged object is removed from a fluid. The space it
occupied is filled by fluid having a weight W f l . Since this weight is supported by
surrounding fluid, the magnitude of buoyant force on an object must equal the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
It is a tribute to the Greek mathematician and inventor Archimedes (287–212
B.C.) that he stated this principle long before concepts of force were well
established. Archimedes’ principle is Stated as follows: The buoyant force on an
object equals the weight of the fluid it displaces. In equation form, Archimedes’
principle is given as:
F B = W f l ui d (3.11)
Figure 3.20 Pressure variation
with depth resulting a buoyant
force
Activities 3.9: Buoyancy

Materials required:
Two glass cups, table salt, spoon, two eggs and water.
Procedures:

• Fill 3/4 of both glass cups with ordinary water.

• Dissolve 4 to 5 spoons of salt in one of water filled glass cups.

• Put one of the egg into fresh water and the other in to a salt solution.

Question
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

98 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

• Which of the eggs floats and which one is sinking? Reason out your
observation in both experiments.

To further understand the origin of the buoyant force, consider a cylinder of solid
material immersed in a liquid as in Figure 3.20. The pressure P 2 at the bottom
of the cylinder is greater than the pressure P 1 at the top by an amount ρ f l ui d g h,
where h is the height of the cylinder and ρ f l ui d is the density of the fluid. The
pressure at the bottom of the cylinder causes an upward force equal to P 2 A ,
where A is the area of the bottom face. The pressure at the top of the cylinder
causes a downward force equal to P 1 A. The resultant of these two forces is the
buoyant force F B with magnitude

F B = P 2 A − P 1 A = ρ f l ui d g h A

F B = ρ f l ui d g Vd i sp (3.12)

where Vd i sp = Ah is the volume of the fluid displaced by the cylinder. Because the
product ρ f l ui d Vd i sp is equal to the mass of fluid displaced by the object,

F B = M d i sp g (3.13)

where M d i sp g is the weight of the fluid displaced by the cylinder.

Totally submerged object

When an object is totally submerged in a fluid of density ρ f l ui d , the volume Vd i sp

of the displaced fluid is equal to the volume of the object Vob j ; so, the magnitude
of the upward buoyant force is F B = ρ f l ui d g Vob j . If the object has a mass M and
density ρ ob j , its weight is equal to F g = M g = ρ ob j g Vob j , and the net force on the
object is F B − F g = (ρ f l ui d − ρ ob j )g Vob j . Hence, if the density of the object is less
than the density of the fluid, the downward gravitational force is less than the
buoyant force and the unsupported object accelerates upward. If the density of
the object is greater than the density of the fluid, the upward buoyant force is less
than the downward gravitational force and the unsupported object sinks.

If the density of the submerged object equals the density of the fluid, the net force
on the object is zero and the object remains in equilibrium. It can be anywhere
inside the fluid. Therefore, the direction of motion of an object submerged in a
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.3 Archimedes’ principle 99

fluid is determined only by the densities of the object and the fluid.

Floating object

Now consider an object of volume Vob j and density ρ ob j < ρ f l ui d in static

equilibrium floating on the surface of a fluid, that is, an object that is only
partially submerged. In this case, the upward buoyant force is balanced by the
downward gravitational force acting on the object. If Vd i sp is the volume of the
fluid displaced by the object (this volume is the same as the volume of that part
of the object beneath the surface of the fluid), the buoyant force has a magnitude
F B = ρ f l ui d g Vd i sp . Because the weight of the object is F g = M g = ρ ob j g V ob j and
F g = F B , we see that ρ f l ui d g Vd i sp = ρ ob j g Vob j , or

Vd i sp ρ ob j
= (3.14)
Vob j ρ f l ui d

This equation shows that the fraction of the volume of a floating object that is
below the fluid surface is equal to the ratio of the density of the object to that of
the fluid.

Example 3.12

An iceberg floats in seawater as shown in Figure ??. What fraction of the iceberg
lies below the water level?
Givens: Density of sea water and icebergs are 1030 kg /m 3 and 917 kg /m 3
respectively.

Solution:

From equation (3.14)

Vdi sp ρ i ce 917 kg /m 3
= = = 0.89 = 89%
Vi ce ρ sea w ast er 1030 kg /m 3

Therefore, the visible fraction of ice above the water’s surface is about 11%. It is
the unseen 89% below the water that represents the danger to a passing ship. This
hidden ice can damage a ship that is still at a considerable distance from the visible
ice.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

100 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

Figure 3.21 (a) Much of the volume of this iceberg is beneath the water. (b)
A ship can be damaged even when it is not near the visible ice.

Activities 3.10. Measuring buoyant force and density of liquid

Materials required: two 100 ml beakers, a pendulum bob, spring balance

and water.
Procedures:

(i) Measure the weight of the pendulum using spring balance.

(ii) Fill a 100 ml beaker by pure water.
(iii) Measure the weight of a pendulum bob inside the water by suspending
it on a spring balance while collecting the overflowing water.
(iv) Measure the weight of overflow water you have collected.
(v) Subtract the weight of the bob measured in pure water from its weight
measured in air. This is equal to buoyant force.
Questions

• (a)Compare the weight of overflow water you measured in step (iv)

and the buoyant force in step (v). Does your result verify Archimedes’
principle?
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.3 Archimedes’ principle 101

• (b)Calculate the density of water using the relation

F B = ρ sol g Vsol

.
where F B is the buoyant force you got in step (v), Vsol is the volume
of the overflow water. ρ sol is the density of water you are going to
calculate and g is gravitational acceleration. Compare your result
with the density of water in Table 3.1.

Example 3.13

(a) Calculate the buoyant force on 10,000 metric tons (1.00×107 kg) of solid carbon
steel completely submerged in water, and compare this with the steel’s weight. (b)
What is the maximum buoyant force that water could exert on this same steel if it
were shaped into a boat that could displace 1.00×105 m3 of water?

Solution: for (a)

To find the buoyant force, we must find the weight of water displaced. We can
do this by using the densities of water and steel given in Table 3.1. We note that,
since the steel is completely submerged, its volume and the water’s volume are the
same.
m
From the definition of density ρ = V

m st 1.00x107 kg
Vst = = = 1.28x103 m 3
ρ st 7.84x103 kg /m 3

Because the steel is completely submerged, this is also the volume of water
displaced, Vw . We can now find the mass of water displaced from the relationship
between its volume and density, both of which are known. This gives

m w = ρ w Vw = 1.000x103 kg /m 3 1.28x103 m 3
¡ ¢¡ ¢

= 1.28x106 kg

By Archimedes’ principle, the weight of water displaced is m w g , so the buoyant

force is
F B = Ww = m w g = (1.28x106 kg )(9.80 m/s 2 )

= 1.3x107 N

The steel’s weight is m st g = 9.80 × 107 N , which is much greater than the buoyant
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

102 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

force, so the steel will remain submerged.

Solution for (b)

The mass of water displaced is found from its relationship to density and volume,
Exercise 3.7:
both of which are known. That is,
Suppose your
mass is 70.0 kg and m w = ρ w Vw = (1.000x103 kg /m 3 )(1.00x105 m 3 )
your density is 970
kg /m 3 . If you could = 1.00x108 kg .

stand on a scale in The maximum buoyant force is the weight of this much water, or
a vacuum chamber
on Earth’s surface, F B = m w g = (1.00x108 )(9.80m/s 2 )
the reading of the
scale would be mg = = 9.80x108 N
(70.0 kg )(9.80 N/kg)
The maximum buoyant force is ten times the weight of the steel, meaning the ship
= 686 N . What will
can carry a load nine times its own weight without sinking.
the scale read when
you are completely
submerged in air
of density 1.29
Example 3.14
kg /m 3 ? Compare
your answer with The mass of an ancient Greek coin is determined in air to be 8.630 g. When the coin
your weight in the is submerged in water, its apparent mass is 7.800 g. Calculate its density, given that
vacuum chamber water has a density of 1.0 g /cm 3 and that effects caused by the wire suspending
and decide whether the coin are negligible.
the buoyant force
of air is to be Solution:
considered or to The volume of water displaced Vw can be found by solving the equation for density
be ignored. ρ = m/V .

The volume of water is Vw = m w / ρ w where m w is the mass of water displaced. As

noted, the mass of the water displaced equals the apparent mass loss, which is m w
0.830 g
= 8.630 g − 7.800 g = 0.830 g . Thus the volume of water is Vw = 1.000 g /cm 3
=
0.830 cm 3 . This is also the volume of the coin, since it is completely submerged.
We can now find the density of the coin using the definition of density:

mc 8.630 g
ρc = = = 10.4 g /cm 3
Vc 0.830 cm 3

You can see from Table 3.1 that this density is very close to that of pure silver.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.4 Fluid flow 103

Exercise 3.8:
Exercise 3.9:
A crown weighs 25.0 N when it is measured in air and 22.6 N when it is
A rectangular
submerged in water. Check whether the crown is made from pure gold or
wooden block
some less valuable metal assuming the density of gold is 19, 300kg /m 3 .
floats with 75 %
of its volume inside
a water. What is
3.4 Fluid flow the density of this
block?
Fluid flow is caused by differences in pressure. When the pressure in one region
of the fluid is lower than in another region, the fluid tends to flow from the higher
pressure region toward the lower pressure region. For example, large masses of
air in Earth’s atmosphere move from regions of high pressure into regions of low
Brainstorming
pressure creating what we call wind. question 3.7

At the end of this section, you will be able to: i) What mechanism
maintains the Blood
• Differentiate steady and turbulent fluid flow.
flows through our
circulatory system?
• Define flow rate.
ii) How can a plane
• Derive equation of continuity from flow rate. fly against gravity?

• Explain the cause and working principle of some common activities or

experiences.

• Solve problems on equation of continuity.

Steady and turbulant fluid flow

When fluid is in motion, its flow can be characterized as being steady fluid flow if
each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path such that the paths of different
particles never cross each other as shown in Figure 3.22. In steady flow, every
fluid particle arriving at a given point in space has the same velocity. The laminar
flow always occurs when the fluid flow with low velocity and in small diameter
pipes.

Above a certain critical speed, turbulent fluid flow occurs. Turbulent flow is
irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool-like regions as shown in Figure
3.22. The adjacent layers of the fluid cross each other and move randomly in a
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

104 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

zigzag manner. The turbulent flow occurs when the velocity of the fluid is high
and it flows through larger diameter pipes.

As a solid surface is acted by a frictional force when it slides over another solid,
there is also an internal frictional force in liquid, called viscosity, when two
adjacent layers of fluid try to move relative to each other. Viscosity causes part of
the fluid’s kinetic energy to be transformed to internal energy. This mechanism is
similar to the one by which the kinetic energy of an object sliding over a rough,
horizontal surface decreases.
Figure 3.22 Laminar and turbulent
flow.
The path taken by a fluid particle under steady flow is called a streamline. The
velocity of the particle is always tangent to the streamline as shown in Figure 3.23.
A set of streamlines like the ones shown in Figure 3.23 form a tube of flow. In
laminar flow, fluid particles cannot flow into or out of the sides of this tube; if
they could, the streamlines would cross one another and results in turbulent flow.

Flow rate

Flow rate Q is defined to be the volume of fluid passing by some location through
an area during a period of time, as seen in Figure 3.24. In symbols, this can be
Figure 3.23 A particle in laminar written as
flow follows a streamline. V
Q = (3.15)
t
where V is the volume and t is the elapsed time.

The SI unit for flow rate is m 3 /s , but a number of other units for Q are in common
use.

Example 3.15

How many cubic meters of blood does the heart pump in a 75-year lifetime,
assuming the average flow rate is 5.00 L/min?

Figure 3.24 Flow rate of fluid. Solution:

Time and flow rate Q are given, and so the volume V can be calculated from:
V
Solving Q = t for volume gives
V = Qt
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.4 Fluid flow 105

Substituting the known values gives:

5.00 L ¡ ¢ 1 m3 5 mi n
µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
V= 75 y 5.26 × 10
1 mi n 103 L y

= 2.0 × 105 m 3 Figure 3.25 Flow of

incompressible fluid through a
pipe of decreasing radius

Equation of continuity

Figure 3.25 shows an incompressible fluid flowing along a pipe of decreasing

radius. Because the fluid is incompressible, the same amount of fluid must flow Discussion
past any point in the tube in a given time to ensure continuity of flow. In this question 3.5:
case, because the cross-sectional area of the pipe decreases, the velocity must What happens when
necessarily increase. This logic can be extended to say that the flow rate must be water flows from a
the same at all points along the pipe. In particular, for points 1 and 2, hose into a narrow
) spray nozzle?
Q1 = Q2
(3.16)
A1 v1 = A2 v2

This is called the equation of continuity and is valid for any incompressible
fluid where v 1 is the average speed of the fluid passing cross section A 1 and v 2 is
the average speed of the fluid passing cross section A 2 . The equation of
continuity is used to relate the cross-sectional area and average speed of fluid
flow in different parts of a rigid vessel carrying an incompressible fluid. You can
visualize effect of cross-sectional area on velocity of fluid flow from the link:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/fluid-pressure-and-flow.

Since liquids are essentially incompressible, the equation of continuity is valid for
all liquids. However, gases are compressible, and so the equation must be applied
with caution to gases if they are subjected to compression or expansion.

Example 3.16

A nozzle with a radius of 0.250 cm is attached to a garden hose with a radius of

0.900 cm. The flow rate through hose and nozzle is 0.500 L/s. Calculate the speed
of the water (a) in the hose and (b) in the nozzle.

Solution: for (a)

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

106 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

First, we solve Q = Av for v 1 and note that the cross-sectional area is A = πr 2 ,

yielding
Q Q
v1 = =
A 1 πr 12

Substituting known values and making appropriate unit conversions yields

(0.500 L/s(m −3 /L)

v1 = = 1.96m/s
π(9.00 × 10−3 m)2

Solution for (b)

Discussion We could repeat this calculation to find the speed in the nozzle v 2 , but we will use
question 3.6 the equation of continuity to give a somewhat different insight. Using the equation

What happens which states

when you blow air A1 v1 = A2 v2

hard across the top solving for v 2 and substituting πr 2 for the cross-sectional area yields
surface of a piece A1 πr 12 r 12
v2 = A2 v 1 = πr 22
v1 = r 22
v 1 Substituting known values,
of paper held at the
corners as shown in
(0.900)2
Figure 3.26. What is v2 = 1.96m/s = 25.5 m/s
(0.250 cm )2
the reason for that?
Can you relate this
to how airplane flies As a fluid’s speed increases, the pressure that the moving fluid exerts on the
against gravity? surface decreases. This is called Bernoulli’s principle and stated as: The pressure
that a fluid exerts on a surface decreases as the speed with which the fluid moves
across the surface increases.

Fluid flow has important implications in biological systems for example, in the
flow of blood through blood vessels. The blood pressure against the wall of a
vessel depends on how fast the blood is moving. Pressure is lower when the blood
is moving faster. Similarly, a snoring sound occurs when air moving through the
narrow opening above the soft palate at the back of the roof of the mouth has

Figure 3.26 A piece of paper held lower pressure than nonmoving air below the palate (Figure 3.27). The normal
at the corner before air is blown air pressure below the soft palate, where the air is not moving, pushes the palate
across the top.
closed. When airflow stops, the pressures equalize and the passage reopens. The
rhythmic opening and closing of the soft palate against the throat leads to the
snoring sound. Pressure is also very important in wind musical instruments.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.5 Safety and high pressure 107

Figure 3.27 Snoring occurs when the soft palate opens and closes due to
the starting and stopping of air flow across it.
Brainstorming
question 3.8
3.5 Safety and high pressure
Dear students,
have you ever seen
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
while metal and
• List high- pressure systems. wood technicians
spraying ink
• List application of high-pressure system
or varnish on
• Identify the common causes of risk in the high-pressure systems wooden or metallic
furniture? How
• Familiarized the safety measures related to high pressure systems do these spraying
machines work?
Have you observed
High pressure systems other equipment
having similar
Pressure far greater than 1 atmosphere (most of the time greater than 50 atm) is purpose?
considered as high pressure. High pressure is used for many applications. High
pressure cookers are used in a kitchen to cook food. Gas cylinders containing
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

108 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

liquid petroleum gas at high pressure are used as fuel. Gas cylinder are also used
to seal different types of gases at high pressure for laboratory or medical use. The
bicycle and car tires are inflated by high pressure tire inflator. High pressure is
also used in high pressure washers. In physical science (physics and chemistry)
high pressure is important to study physical properties of various materials
(mainly solids) and to transform their nature.

Many materials undergo fascinating changes in their physical and chemical

characteristics when subjected to high pressure. The application of high pressure
to biological samples is also of technological relevance because it is known that
the microorganism activity is diminished or canceled by application of high
pressures, a process called pascalization. Pascalization can be used to increase
the shelf lives of perishable foodstuffs: juice, fish, meat, dairy products, etc. High
pressure affects many scientific and technological fields, like biology, chemistry,
environmental engineering, food technology, material science, pharmacy, and
physics.
High pressure equipment may consist of high-pressure compressors (or pumps),
high pressure piping (fittings, seals, tubing and valves), high pressure vessels,
Steam Generator, Safety Accessories and high-pressure instrumentation (Figure
3.29).

Figure 3.28 A compressor with a

storage tank . High pressure compressors (pumps): A compressor is a mechanical device that
increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume (Figure 3.28). Compressors
are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can
transport the fluid through a pipe. Heated pressure equipment are intended for
generation of steam or super-heated water at temperatures higher than 110◦ C
and having a volume greater than two liters. This includes all pressure cookers.
Because of severe stresses, it is essential to design and fabricate high-pressure
machines very carefully.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.5 Safety and high pressure 109

Figure 3.29 Components of high pressure equipments.

High pressure vessels: Pressure vessel means a housing designed and built to
contain fluids under pressure including its direct attachments up to the coupling
point connecting it to other equipment. A vessel may be composed of more than
one chamber.

Safety Accessories: These accessories include safety valves and bursting discs, as
well as limiting devices. Limiting devices can either activate the means for
correction or shutdown and lock-out, such as pressure switches and temperature
switches.

High-pressure instrumentation: To operate high-pressure plants, adequate

control- and measuring devices are required. High-pressure instrumentation is
available for purposes like pressure, temperature, flow and level measurements.

Safety for high pressure equipment

If pressure systems or equipment fails and bursts violently apart, it can seriously
injure or kill people and cause serious damage to property. The main hazards
from pressure are: impact from the blast of an explosion, impact from parts of
equipment that fail or any flying debris, impact with the released liquid or gas
(such as steam), fire resulting from the escape of flammable liquids or gases.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

110 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

Common causes of pressure system and equipment risks includes

• Damaged equipment or system design

• Poor or no maintenance

• An unsafe system of work

• Operator error due to lack of training/supervision

• Incorrect installation

• Inadequate repairs or modifications

The safety measures to be taken to avoid the risks depends on the nature of the
high pressure system. Below the nature and safety measures for high pressure gas
cylinders and high pressure washers are briefly explained.

Discussion High Pressure Gas Cylinders

question 3.7 Gas cylinders filled with Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) are sealed at high
(i) List at least three pressure. If the gas is released uncontrollably, there is a considerable
applications of high hazard to life and health. Thus, to keep you family safe, you have to
pressure systems. consider the following safety measures at your home while using LPG:
(ii) What are the
cause for high • keep the gas cylinder in a vertical position, on a flat surface and in a
pressure risks? proper ventilated area.
(iii)What are the
basic measures to • Gas cylinders should be stored in locations where they are protected
avoid high pressure from any physical impact or damage, and
risks?
• Make sure that there are no inflammable materials and fuels (like
kerosene) near the gas cylinder, which can cause an explosion.

• Always turn off the knob on the gas cylinder, after use, to prevent any
accidental leakage.

• Keep the gas knob out of reach for children when not using.

• Educate people around you on gas cylinder safety measures and how to
use and handle gas cylinders.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.5 Safety and high pressure 111

• Do not use gas cylinder for long hours while cooking

Dear students,you have to consider similar safety measures when you use
compressed gas cylinder in your science laboratory.

High Pressure washers

Pressure washers are high pressure equipment used in industry or our

home. Pressure washers can help us clean large areas of all kinds of hard
outdoor surfaces quickly. They have made our lives so much easier, in
so many ways and so many places (Fig 3.30). They are used for cleaning
automobiles, motorcycles, boats and bicycles. They remove grease, tar,
gum, wax and grim from concrete, sidewalks and floors. They also remove
persistent stains or patches of rust, or strip paint. Despite their useful
applications, pressure washer has their own risks if they are not used
properly. These risk can be avoided if appropriate safety measures are
taken. The following are the common safety measures for high pressure
washers:

• Safety glasses or goggles. Proper safety glasses will prevent flying

projectiles entering your eye.

• Enclosed shoes. Use work boots while using high pressure washer.

• Gloves. Wear proper safety gloves to avoid the most common point, the
hand.

• Wear ear protection while using a gas-powered pressure washer for

Figure 3.30 Application of high
extended duration. pressure washer

• Never point your pressure washer at pets or people (this could cut the
skin).

• Stand properly when using a pressure washer.

• Turn the machine and water off before taking off the hoses.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

112 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

Unit summary

• A fluid is a state of matter that yields to sideways or shearing forces.

Liquids and gases are both fluids. Fluid statics is the physics of
stationary fluids.

• Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance or object.

• Pressure is the force per unit perpendicular area over which the force is
applied.

• Pressure due to the weight of a liquid is given by P = hρg , where P is the

pressure, h is the height of the liquid, ρ is the density of the liquid,
and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

• Pascal law states that a change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid

is transmitted undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the
walls of its container.

• A hydraulic system is an enclosed fluid system used to exert forces.

• Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.

• Absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric

pressure.

• Open-tube manometers have U-shaped tubes and one end is always

open. It is used to measure pressure.

• A mercury barometer is a device that measures atmospheric pressure.

• Buoyant force is the net upward force on any object in any fluid. If
the buoyant force is greater than the object’s weight, the object will
rise to the surface and float. If the buoyant force is less than the
object’s weight, the object will sink. If the buoyant force equals the
object’s weight, the object will remain suspended at any depth. The
buoyant force is always present whether the object floats, sinks, or is
suspended in a fluid.

• Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyant force on an object equals

the weight of the fluid it displaces.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.5 Safety and high pressure 113

• Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of an object to a fluid (usually

water).

• Flow rate and velocity are related by Q = Av where A is the cross-

sectional area of the flow and v is its average velocity.

• High pressure equipment that we use in our home for various purposes
should be used appropriately to keep the family and pets safety.

End of unit questions

1. The distance between air particles is very small—about 3 × 10−7 cm.

How can we say that there is considerable empty space in air?

2. How would you determine the density of an irregularly shaped object?

3. Pascal’s Principle says that an increase in pressure in one part of an

enclosed liquid results in an increase in pressure throughout all
parts of that liquid. Why then does the pressure differs at different
heights?

4. What does the atmospheric pressure is 760 mm of mercury mean?

5. Why does a fluid exert an upward force on an object submerged in it?

6. What would happen to the level of water in the oceans if all icebergs
presently floating in the oceans melted?

7. Describe a method to measure the density of a liquid.

8. Two objects have the same volume, but one is heavier than the other.
When they are completely submerged in oil, on which one does the
oil exert a greater buoyant force?

9. An iron ball with radius 5.0 cm has a mass of 2.0 kg. Determine the ball’s
density.

10. Determine the density of the material whose mass-versus volume graph
line is shown in Figure 3.31. If you double the mass of this substance,
what will happen to its density? What substance might this be?
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

114 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

Figure 3.31 Mass versus volume graph of unknown material

11. The pressure in a water line is 1500 kPa. What is the line pressure in (a)
torr units and (b) psi units? (c) atm units

12. How tall must a water-filled closed end manometer be to measure blood
pressures as high as 300 mm Hg?

13. What fraction of ice is submerged when it floats in freshwater, given the
density of water and ice at 0◦ C respectively are very close to 1000
and 917 kg /m 3 ?

14. A rock with a mass of 540 g in air is found to have an apparent mass of
342 g when submerged in water. (a) What mass of water is displaced?
(b) What is the volume of the rock? (c) What is its average density?

15. A manometer is used to measure the air pressure in a tank. The fluid
used has a specific gravity of 1.40, and the differential height between
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

3.5 Safety and high pressure 115

the two arms of the manometer is 50 cm. If the local atmospheric

pressure is 0.8 atm, determine the absolute pressure in the tank for
the cases of the manometer arm with the (a) higher and (b) lower
fluid level being attached to the tank.

16. The gage pressure in a liquid at a depth of 2.5 m is read to be 28 kPa.

Determine the gage pressure in the same liquid at a depth of 9 m.

17. Consider a 55-kg woman who has a total foot imprint area of 400 cm 2 .
She wishes to walk on the snow, but the snow cannot withstand
pressures greater than 0.5 kPa. Determine the minimum size of the
snowshoes needed (imprint area per shoe) to enable her to walk on
the snow without sinking.

18. (a) A 75.0-kg man floats in freshwater with 3.00% of his volume above
water when his lungs are empty, and 5.00% of his volume above
water when his lungs are full. Calculate the volume of air he inhales
called his lung capacityin liters. (b) Does this lung volume seem
reasonable?

19. A hydraulic lift has a small piston with surface area 0.0020 m2 and a
larger piston with surface area 0.20 m2 . Assume your mass is 60 kg.
If you stand at the smaller piston, how much mass can you lift at the
larger piston?

20. A fluid that occupies a volume of 24 L weighs 225 N at a location where

the gravitational acceleration is 9.80 m/s2 . Determine the mass of
this fluid and its density.

21. Blood flows at an average speed of 0.40 m/s in a horizontal artery of

radius 1.0 cm. The average pressure is 1.4 × 104 N /m 2 above
atmospheric pressure (the gauge pressure). (a) What is the average
speed of the blood past a constriction where the radius of the
opening is 0.30 cm? (b) What is the gauge pressure of the blood
as it moves past the constriction?

22. Suppose your mass is 70.0 kg and your density is 970 kg/m3 . If you could
stand on a scale in a vacuum chamber on Earth’s surface, the reading
of the scale would be mg = (170.0 kg ) (9.80 N/kg2 ) = 686 N. What
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

116 Unit 3 Fluid Mechanics

will the scale read when you are completely submerged in air of
density 1.29 kg/m3 ? (b) What will the scale read if you weigh yourself
in a swimming pool with your body completely submerged?

23. The aorta is the principal blood vessel through which blood leaves the
heart in order to circulate around the body. (a) Calculate the average
speed of the blood in the aorta if the flow rate is 5.0 L/min. The aorta
has a radius of 10 mm. (b) Blood also flows through smaller blood
vessels known as capillaries. When the rate of blood flow in the aorta
is 5.0 L/min, the speed of blood in the capillaries is about 0.33 mm/s.
Given that the average diameter of a capillary is 8.0 µm , calculate
the number of capillaries in the blood circulatory system.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

Unit 4

Electromagnetism

Introduction

Electromagnetism is one of the fundamental force in nature consisting of the

elements electricity and magnetism. It involves the study of electromagnetic
force. The electromagnetic force is carried by electromagnetic fields composed of
electric fields and magnetic fields. At the subatomic level, electromagnetism is
related to the electromagnetic force that causes the attraction and repulsion of
electrically charged particles. When electrically charged particles, such as
electrons, are put into motion, they create a magnetic field. When these particles
are made to oscillate, they create electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves.

Electricity and magnetism have been known to humans for a long time. The
relationship between Electricity and magnetism was discovered in 1819 when,
during a lecture demonstration, Hans Christian Oersted found that an electric
current in a wire deflected a nearby compass needle. His experiment provided
the first reproducible observation of a relationship between electricity and
magnetism, A current carrying wire produced a magnetic field whose strength
and direction depends on the amount of the current flowing and direction of the
current. In the 1820s, further connections between electricity and magnetism
were demonstrated independently by Faraday and Joseph Henry (1797-1878).
They showed that an electric current can be produced in a circuit either by
moving a magnet near the circuit or by changing the current in a nearby circuit.

The discovery of electromagnetism marked the birth of modern science and

technology. Now, it is known that all magnetic phenomena result from forces

117
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

118 Unit 4 Electromagnetism

arising from electric charges in motion. Without an understanding of

electromagnetism, devices such radios, televisions, computers, tape recorders,
CD players, electric motors, and generators, could not have been invented.
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• Understand the behaviour of electric and magnetic fields

• Demonstrate the principles of electromagnetic induction;

• Describe the working principles of transformer;

Brainstorming • Understand and implement pertinent safety rules;

question 4.1

How does a
magnetic field 4.1 Magnets and Magnetic field
originate? What
happens if you cut a At the end of this section, you will be able to:
bar magnet in half
• Describe magnet and magnetic field.
? Do you get one
magnet with two • Describe the sources of magnetic field.
south poles and one
magnet with two • Describe the difference between electric field and magnetic field.
north poles?
A magnet generates a magnetic field which represents the magnetic force existing
in the region around the magnet. A magnetic pole is the part of a magnet that
exerts the strongest force on other magnets or magnetic material, such as
iron,nickel and cobalt. Every magnet has two poles: a north pole (N) and a south
pole (S) (Figure 4.1). Like poles (N-N or S-S) repel each other, and opposite poles
(N-S) attract each other.

Although the force between two magnetic poles is similar to the force between
Figure 4.1 Permanent magnet
two electric charges, electric charges can be isolated (as a positive and negative
charge), whereas it is not possible to separate the north and south poles of a
magnet. That is, magnetic poles are always found in pairs. No matter how many
times a permanent magnet is cut in to two, each piece always has a north and a
south pole.

Permanent and electromagnet are the two major types of materials that exhibit
magnetic properties. Permanent magnets are materials where the magnetic field
Figure 4.2 Electromagnet
is generated by the internal structure of the material itself. Thus, once the
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4.1 Magnets and Magnetic field 119

permanent magnets are magnetized then they hold their magnetic property for a
very long time. The magnet shown in Figure 4.1 is an example of permanent
magnet.

An electromagnets usually consist of wire wound into a coil. The electromagnet

generates a magnetic field when an electric current is provided to it and it loses
its magnetism when the current is off. Figure 4.2 shows a simple electromagnet
consisting of a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core. The iron core serves to
increase the strength of the magnetic field created.

The Earth has a magnetic field. The magnetic field behaves like a giant bar
magnet inside the Earth, with the North magnetic pole corresponding to the
South Geographic Pole and vice versa (Figure4.3). A compass needle aligns itself
in a north-south direction to line up with Earth’s magnetic field.

Magnetic Field is the region around a magnet or a moving electric charge within
which the force of magnetism acts. As you have learned in the previous grades,
an electric field surrounds an electric charge, like wise a magnetic field also
surrounds a magnet. Magnetic field is a vector quantity and the vector points in
the direction that a compass would point.

Figure 4.3 Earth’s magnetic field

is like a bar magnet that resides in
Differences Between Electric Field and Magnetic Field the center of the Earth.

• The SI unit of an electric field is Newton/coulomb, whereas the SI unit of

magnetic field is Tesla.

• The region around the electric charge where the electric force exists is
called an electric field. The region around the magnet where the pole of the
magnet exhibits a force of attraction or repulsion is called a magnetic field.

• The electric field produces by a unit pole charge, i.e., either by a positive or
through a negative charge, whereas the magnetic field caused by a dipole
of the magnet (i.e., the north and south pole).

• The electric field lines start on a positive charge and end on a negative
charge, whereas the magnetic field line do not have starting and ending
point.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

120 Unit 4 Electromagnetism

• The electric field lines do not form a loop whereas the magnetic field lines
form a closed loop.

Exercise 4.1:

1. Which one of the following is false about magnets ? A. A magnet

generates a magnetic field. B. Every magnet has two poles. C. Like
poles attract each other. D. The magnetic field is stronger at the
poles.

2. An electromagnet loses its magnetism when the electric current is

off. A. True B. False

3. Define magnetic field.

4. Mention some difference between electric field and magnetic field.

5. Explain the difference between permanent magnet and

electromagnet.

4.2 Magnetic field lines

Brainstorming At the end of this section, you will be able to:

question: 4.2 • Describe magnetic field lines around permanent magnets and

Like elctric field electromagnet.

lines, do magnetic
• Describe the properties of magnetic field lines.
field lines have
starting and ending • Compare magnetic and electric field lines.
point? Explain your
answer. Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines or a visual tool used to represent magnetic
fields. The density of the lines indicates the magnitude of the field. As with
electric fields, the pictorial representation of magnetic field lines is very useful
for visualizing the strength and direction of the magnetic field. Figure4.4 shows
magnetic field pattern surrounding a bar magnet. When we sprinkle iron filings
around the magnet, the iron filings will orient themselves along the magnetic
field lines, forming magnetic field pattern around the magnet.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4.2 Magnetic field lines 121

Figure 4.4 a) Magnetic field pattern surrounding a bar magnet b) Magnetic

field pattern between opposite poles (N–S) of two bar magnets and c)
Magnetic field pattern between like poles (N–N) of two bar magnets.

Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

• Field lines have both direction and magnitude at any point on the field. The
direction of the magnetic field is tangent to the field line at any point in
space. A small compass placed in a magnetic field will point in the direction
of the field line.

• The strength of the field is proportional to the closeness of the lines.

• Magnetic field lines can never cross each other, meaning that the field is
unique at any point in space.
Figure 4.5 Magnetic field lines of
• Unlike electric field lines, magnetic field lines are continuous, forming
electromagnet.
closed loops without beginning or end.

• The field lines emerge from north pole and merge at the south pole (note
the arrows marked on the field lines in Figure 4.5). Inside the magnet, the
direction of field lines is from its south pole to its north pole. Thus the
magnetic field lines are closed curves.

Figure 4.6 Comparison of Magnetic and electric field lines.

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

122 Unit 4 Electromagnetism

Exercise 4.2:

1. Define magnetic field lines.

2. The magnetic field lines are denser where the magnetic field is
stronger. A. True B. False

3. Mention som properties of magnetic field lines.

4. Which of the following is true about magnetic field lines ? A. They

form closed loops. B. They never intersect each other. C. The

Brainstorming magnetic field lines are crowded near the pole. D. All are true
question:4.3

t Think about what

you have learned 4.3 Current and Magnetism
about electricity and
magnetism. How
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
are they alike? How • Explain the relationship between current and magnetism
are they different?
• Describe Ampere’s law.

• Describe the magnetic Field Created by a Long Straight Current-Carrying

Wire.

The connection between electricity and magnetism has many important

applications in today’s world. Whenever a current passes through a conductor, a
magnetic field is produced. This is the basis of the electromagnet as shown in
Figure 4.7. This could be shown by placing a directional compass near a straight
current-carrying wire or conductor (Figure 4.8). A compass placed near a
current-carrying conductor will always point in the direction of the magnetic
field lines produced. As soon as the current is off there is no magnetic field.This is
because the magnetic field is generated by the electric current ( moving charges).

Ampere’s law

Figure 4.7 A basic configaration of Ampere’s Law can be stated as: "The magnetic field created by an electric current
electromagnet. is proportional to the size of that electric current with a constant of proportionality
equal to the permeability of free space."
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4.3 Current and Magnetism 123

Magnetic Field Created by a Long Straight Current-Carrying Wire

For our understanding, let us consider a wire through which the current is made
to flow by connecting it to a battery. As the current through the conductor
increases, the magnetic field increases proportionally. When we move further
away from the wire, the magnetic field decreases with the distance.

The magnitude of the magnetic field at a point a distance r from a long straight
current carrying wire is given by:

− µo I
→
B= (for long straight wire) (4.1)
2πr
Where µ0 is permeability of free space, µ0 = 4π × 107 T.m/A and r is the distance
from the wire where the magnetic field is calculated. I is the current through the
wire.

The magnetic field has both magnitude and direction. The SI unit of magnetic Figure 4.8 The magnetic field
around a straight line.
field is Tesla(T). The other common unit of magnetic field is gauss (G). Gauss is
related to the Tesla through the conversion 1T = 104 G.

The circular pattern in Figure 4.8 represents the magnetic field around the wire. A
compass needle can also be used to find the direction of the magnetic field.
The magnetic field produced by a current flowing in a straight wire have the
following properties.

• The magnetic field lines form a circular pattern.

• The magnetic field strength increases when current increases.

• The magnetic field strength is stronger near the wire and weaker further
away.

• When the direction of the current is reversed, the direction of the magnetic
field is reversed too.

The direction of a magnetic field around a wire carrying a current is given by Figure 4.9 Applying the right hand
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule. This rule states that, if you grip a straight wire with rule to find the direction of the
magnetic field around a current
your right hand in such a way that your extended thumb points in the direction of carrying wire.
the current, then your fingers wrapped around the wire will point in the direction
of the magnetic field lines as shown in Figure 4.9.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

124 Unit 4 Electromagnetism

Activities 4.1
Creation of electromagnetism (the model is given in Figure 4.7)
Materials needed

• Dry cell battery

• nail, insulated wire

• paper clips

• Compass needle

Procedure

1. Before you begin to build your electromagnet, check the magnetic

property of the nails. Do they attract the paper clips?

2. Connect the insulated wire to the battery. Make sure you complete
the circuit by attaching the ends of the wire to opposite ends of
battery. Place the compass under the wire. Is there any reaction?

3. Disconnect one end of the wire. Wrap it around a nail 15 times

before connecting it back to the battery. What do you see when you
bring the compass near to the coiled wire? Is this reaction different
from what you saw when you placed the compass under the straight
wire? Can you pick up paper clips with the wire? Can you pick up
paper clips with the nail?

4. Remove the nail from the wire without unwinding it. Will the wire
pick up any paper clips? Will the nail alone pick up any paper clips?

5. Place your compass under the wound wire. Do you get the same
reaction as you did when you observed the compass in Step 4? How
can you explain this?

Example 4.1

Find the current in a long straight wire that would produce a magnetic field twice
the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field (The Earth’s magnetic field is about
5.0×10−5 T ) at a distance of 5.0 cm from the wire.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4.3 Current and Magnetism 125

Solution:

Magnetic field due the earth (B E ) is 5x10−5 T.

Magnetic field due the current carryng wire B is B=2B E =2x5x10−5 T=1x10−4 T.
The equation B = µ0 I /2πr can be used to find I, since all other quantities are
known. Solving for I and entering known values gives

2πrB
I= µ0
2π(5.0x10−2 m)(1.0x10−4 T)
= 4π× 10−7 T.m/A
= 25A

Table 4.1 shows some Approximate magnitudes of magnetic fields

Source of field Field Magnitude

(T)
Strong superconducting laboratory 30
magnet
Strong conventional laboratory magnet 2
Medical MRI unit 1.5
Bar magnet 10−2
Surface of the sun 10-2
Surface of the Earth 0.5x10−4
Inside human brain (due to nerve 10−13
impulses)

Exercise 4.3:

1. A long straight wire carrying a current produces a magnetic field of

0.8 T at a distance 0.5 cm from the wire. Find the magnetic field at a
distance of 1 cm.

2. Which one of the following does not affect the magnetic field
produced by a long straight wire? A. The current in the wire B. the
distance from the wire C. the type of the wire D. None

3. The magnetic field B at a distance r from a long straight wire carrying

current I is directly proportional to r. A. True B. False
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

126 Unit 4 Electromagnetism

4.4 Electromagnetic Induction

Brainstorming question:4.4

If you have a magnet and a coiled wire, can you produce electricity inside
the wire ? Explain your answer.

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Define electromagnetic induction

• Define magnetic flux

• Calculate magnetic flux

Electricity and magnetism were considered as separate and unrelated

phenomena for a long time. In the early decades of the nineteenth century,
experiments on electric current by Oersted, Ampere and a few others established
the fact that electricity and magnetism are inter-related. They found that moving
electric charges produce magnetic fields. For example, an electric current
deflects a magnetic compass needle placed in its vicinity. This naturally raises the
questions like: Is the converse effect possible? Can moving magnets produce
electric currents? Does the nature permit such a relation between electricity and
magnetism? The answer is yes. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that magnets
could be used to generate electricity. He showed that a changing or variable
magnetic field can produce an electromotive force (emf ). This e.m.f produces an
induced current in a closed circuit. We call this effect electromagnetic induction.
This discovery led Faraday to invent the dynamo (generator) through the use of
electromagnetic induction. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is
not only of theoretical or academic interest, but also of practical utility. Imagine a
world where there is no electricity, no electric lights, no trains, no telephones,
and no personal computers. The pioneering experiments of Faraday and Henry
have directly led to the development of modern generators and transformers.
The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction is based on a
long series of experiments by Faraday and Henry.

Activities 4.2: Electromagnetic induction

Materials required

• A coil of N turns
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4.4 Electromagnetic Induction 127

• Bar magnet

• Multimeter (Galvanometer)

Connect the coil to the Galvanometer as shown in Figure 4.10 and examine
what happens to the pointer of the galvanometer when the magnet is in
motion through the coil. Answer and address the following questions with
your observations.
What happens to the pointer of the galvanometer for the following actions
of the magnet or coil?

Figure 4.10 Basic principle of electromagnetic induction.

1. When the magnet is moved towards the coil.

2. When the magnet stops moving and is held stationary.

3. When the magnet is moved away from the coil.

4. Moving the magnet back and forth towards the coil.

5. Similarly, if the magnet is now held stationary and only the coil is
moved towards or away from the magnet.

6. Increasing the speed of movement of the coil or magnet.

7. What do you conclude from your observation?

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

128 Unit 4 Electromagnetism

Magnetic flux

Faraday’s great insight lay in discovering a simple mathematical relation to explain

the series of experiments he carried out on electromagnetic induction. However,
before we state his laws, we must get familiar with the notion of magnetic flux,φ .
Can you define magnetic flux from your grade 11 physics knowledge?
Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic lines of force which passes
through a given area A as shown in Figure 4.11. For a plane of surface area A
placed in a uniform magnetic field B, magnetic flux is mathematically written as:

Figure 4.11 A plane of surface area

ΦB = B.A = B Acosθ (4.2)
A placed in a uniform magnetic
field.
where θ is angle between B and A.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is Weber(Wb).

Example 4.2

A square loop of side 3 cm is positioned in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude

0.5 T so that the plane of the loop makes an angle of 60 0 with the magnetic field as
shown in Figure 4.11: Find the flux passing through the square loop?

Solution:
Putting the known values into the magnetic flux equation

ΦB = BAcosθ
= (0.5)(0.03 x 0.03)(cos300 )
= 0.39 mWb

Exercise 4.4:
1. Define magnetic flux.
2. A circular loop of area 200 cm2 sits in the xz plane. If a uniform magnetic
field of ~
B= 0.5 T is applied on it. Determine the magnetic flux through the
square loop?
3. The magnetic flux is maximum when the angle between magnetic field
lines and the line perpendicular to the plane of the area is:
A. 0o B.900 C .450 D.300
4. A magnetic field of 2.5T passes perpendicular through a disc of radius
2cm. Find the magnetic flux associated with the disc.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4.5 Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction 129

4.5 Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction

The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction are based on a

Brainstorming
long series of experiments carried out by Faraday and Henry. From the
question:4.5
experimental observations, Faraday concluded that an emf is induced when the
How does a
magnetic flux across the coil changes with time.
generator produce
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
electricity? What
• State Faraday’s law of electromgnetic induction energy conversion
takes place in a
• State Lenze’s law in the phenomena of electromagnetic induction
generator?

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and Lenz’s Law

Faraday’s law considers how the changing magnetic fields can cause current to
flow in wires. Lenz’s law tells about the direction of the current.

Faraday’s law states that the magnitude of the induced electromotive force (emf)
is directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux in a closed coil.

∆Φ B
ε=− (4.3)
∆t
Where, ε is the induced voltage (also known as electromotive force) ∆φ is change
in magnetic flux and ∆t Change in time.

In the case of a closely wound coil of N turns, change of flux associated with each
turn, is the same. Therefore, the expression for the total induced emf is given by:

N ∆Φ B
ε=− (4.4)
∆t
The negative sign is involved according to Lenz’s law.
Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced current in the coil is such that it
opposes the change that causes the induced emf.
Lenz’s law depends on the principle of conservation of energy and Newton’s third
law. It is the most convenient method to determine the direction of the induced
current.

Figure 4.12 illustrates Lenze’s law. The change in magnetic flux caused by the
approaching magnet induces a current in the loop. When the change in magnetic
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

130 Unit 4 Electromagnetism

flux induces a current in a conducting coil, the induced current also generates its
own magnetic field that opposes the change in the flux that creates it.

Example 4.3

Figure 4.12 (a) An approaching A square loop of side 10 cm and resistance 0.5 Ω is placed vertically in the east-west
north pole induces a counter- plane. A uniform magnetic field of 0.10 T is set up across the plane in the north-
clockwise current with respect east direction. The magnetic field is decreased to zero in 0.70 s at a steady rate.
to the bar magnet. (b) An
Determine the magnitudes of induced emf and current during this time-interval.
approaching south pole induces a
clockwise current with respect to
the bar magnet. Solution: The angle θ made by the area vector of the coil with the magnetic field is
45◦ . From the Equation of magnetic flux:

Φ = BA cosθ

the initial magnetic flux is:

Φi = B i Acosθ
0.1x10 −2
= p
2
φi = 7.1x10−4 W b
φf = 0

The change in flux is brought about in 0.70 s. The magnitude of the induced emf is
given by:
|∆ΦB | |(Φf −φi )| −7.1x10−4 W b
ε=− ∆t = ∆t = 0.7s = 1.01mv
And the magnitude of the current is :
ε 1.01mv
I= R = 0.5Ω = 2.01mA

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/faradays-law

Exercise 4.5:
1. The emf induced in a coil can be increased by: A. increasing the number
of turns in the coil ( N ). B. increasing magnetic field strength surrounding
the coil. C. increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil
and the magnet. D. All
2. Faraday’s Law states that the induced voltage or emf is proportional to:
A. the resistance of the coil B. the cross sectional area of the coil. C. the
rate of change of the magnetic flux in the coil. D. All
3. Lenz’s law is the result of the law of conservation of: A. mass B. charge
C. energy D. Momentum
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4.6 Transformers 131

4. In Lenz’s law the induced emf opposes the magnetic flux. A. True B.
False
5. a) Calculate the induced emf when a coil of 100 turns is subjected to a Brainstorming
magnetic flux change at the rate of 0.04Wb/s. b) Calculate the induced question:4.6
current if the resistance of the coil is 0.08Ohm.
1. What is the
function of
transformer?
4.6 Transformers 2. What household
appliances have a
At the end of this section, you will be able to: transformer?
• Describe the working principle of transformer

• Discuss how transformer is used in commonly available devices

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one

circuit to another through the process of electromagnetic induction. It is most
commonly used to increase (’step up’) or decrease (’step down’) voltage levels
between circuits with out altering the frequency Figure 4.13. A Step-up
Transformer converts the low primary voltage to a high secondary voltage and
steps up the input voltage. On the other hand, a step-down transformer steps
down the input voltage.
A transformer is simply a pair of coils wound on the same core. The core is often
shaped as a square loop shown in Figure 4.14 with primary and secondary coils
wound on opposite sides. The construction of a transformer allows the magnetic
flux generated by a current changing in one coil to induce a current in the
neighboring coil.

The operating principle of a transformer is based on electromagnetic induction.

The current from the electrical supply that is connected to the primary coil is an
alternating current. An alternating current is a current whose magnitude and Figure 4.13 Transformer.
direction varies or changes continuously at a certain frequency. The alternating
current produces a flux or magnetic field lines which link the primary and the
secondary coils. The magnetic flux varies in magnitude and direction.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

132 Unit 4 Electromagnetism

Figure 4.14 step up and step down transformers.

Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid, distribution
sector, transmission and electric energy consumption. The primary and
secondary windings are electrically isolated from each other but are magnetically
linked through the common core allowing electrical power to be transferred from
one coil to the other.

The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary winding is
achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the primary winding (NP )
compared to the number of coil turns on the secondary winding (NS ). The
number of turns of the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the
secondary coil is called the ratio of transformation, more commonly known as a
transformers ’turns ratio’. If the ratio between the number of turns changes the
resulting voltages must also change by the same ratio. The relationship between
the voltage applied to the primary winding VP and the voltage produced on the
secondary winding VS is given by

Np Vp
= = Turns Ratio (4.5)
Ns Vs
Where Np and Ns are number of primary and secondary turns Vp and Vs are
primary and secondary volts respectively.

For a transformer operating at a constant AC voltage and frequency its efficiency

can be as high as 98%. The efficiency, η of a transformer is given as:

output power
efficiency,η = Input power x100%

Where input and output are all expressed in units of power.

Example 4.4
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4.6 Transformers 133

A transformer has a primary and a secondary coil with the number of loops of 500
and 5000 respectively. If the input voltage is 220 V. What is the output voltage?

Solution:
Np Vp
Ns = Vs
Vs Vp
⇒ Ns = Np
Vs 220
⇒ 5000 = 500
⇒ Vs = 2200Volt

Working principle of transformer in house appliances

An alternating current (AC) changes its direction periodically and typically

supplies power to run household appliances and industrial equipment.
Transformer in Chargers: There are many appliances that use transformers in
their circuity. Your phone, laptop, computer, tablet power supplies have
transformers in them. They step the voltage down to a safe voltage that will not
harm you to charge your device battery. Your microwave uses a step up
transformer to provide a high voltage to make microwaves to cook food.

A transformer in real life is a commonly used circuit that can either step up the Figure 4.15 Mobile Phone charger.
voltage of incoming current or step down the voltage of incoming current. But
why is there a need for a transformer in a mobile phone or laptop charger shown
in Figure 4.15 and 4.16? The reason is the current in your wall outlet is at high
voltage. So, if this voltage is not stepped down to a lower voltage, it will damage
the circuits in your mobile phone or laptop. The electronics in your mobile
phone or laptop are designed to work at low voltages compared to the electric
current you get in wall outlets.
A mobile phone charger also contains a rectifier. After Stepping down the voltage,
AC is converted to DC using the rectifier. You will learn about the working
principle of rectifier in unit five. Figure 4.16 Laptop charger.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

134 Unit 4 Electromagnetism

Exercise 4.6:

1. A transformer has primary coil with 1200 loops and secondary coil
with 1000 loops. If the current in the primary coil is 4 Ampere, then
what is the current in the secondary coil.

2. Calculate the turn ratio to step 110 V AC down to 20 V AC.

3. Why does a transformer can not raise or lower the voltage of a DC

supply? Explain your answer.

4.7 Application and safety

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe application of electromagnetism in your daily life.

Over the last 200 years, physicists have discovered a lot about the natural world.
A lot of the time, when that knowledge is first discovered it seems pretty useless,
but it almost always leads to applications later.
Now the modern society has numerous applications of electromagnetism. Some
computer hard drives apply the principle of electromagnetism to record
information. Historically, reading these data was made to work on the principle
of electromagnetic induction. However, most input information today is carried
in digital rather than analogue form a series of 0s or 1s are written upon the
spinning hard drive.

Graphics tablets, or tablet computers where a specially designed pen is used

to draw digital images, also applies electromagnetic induction principles. This
tablets is different than the touch tablets and phones many of us use regularly,
but it is still be found when signing your signature at a cash register. Underneath
the screen, shown in Figure 4.17, there are tiny wires running across the length
Figure 4.17 A tablet with a and width of the screen. The pen has a tiny magnetic field coming from the tip.
specially designed pen to write As the tip brushes across the screen, a changing magnetic field is felt in the wires
with is another application of
magnetic induction. which translates into an induced emf that is converted into the line you just drew.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4.7 Application and safety 135

Applications of electromagnetism

Today, there are countless applications for electromagnetism, ranging from large
scale industrial machinery, to small-scale electronic components. These
machines can be electric motors, generators, transformers or other similar
devices. All of these work with the principles related to electromagnetism. The
principle of Ampere’s law is used in solenoid, straight wire,cylindrical conductor
and toroidal solenoid.

Electromagnets at Home or School

Electromagnets are used for various purposes on a day-to-day basis. For example,
in electric bells, headphones, loudspeakers, relays, MRI machines, electric fan,
electric doorbell, magnetic locks, and others. Most of the electric appliances used
in the home use electromagnetism as the basic working principle.

Magnetic Relays

A magnetic relay is a switch or circuit breaker that can be activated into the ’ON’
and ’OFF’ positions magnetically. One example is the low-power reed relay used
in telephone equipment, which consists of two flat nickel−iron blades separated
by a small gap as shown in Figure 4.18 . The blades are shaped in such a way
that in the absence of an external force, they remain apart and unconnected
(OFF position). Electrical contact between the blades (ON position) is realized
by applying a magnetic field along their length. The field, induced by a current
flowing in the wire coiled around the glass envelope, causes the two blades to
assume opposite magnetic polarities, thereby forcing them to attract together
Figure 4.18 A magnetic switch
and close out the circuit gap.
circuit

Electric bell

Electric bell is based on the principle of electromagnetism. When the switch is

pressed on, the electromagnet is activated and it attracts the soft iron towards the
electromagnet. At this time, the hammer moves and hits the bell. As the hammer
moves, the circuit breaks at the screw contact and the electromagnet is disabled.
This causes the hammer and the soft iron to go back to initial position due to the
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

136 Unit 4 Electromagnetism

spring and then the circuit completes again as shown in Figure 4.19. This process
is continuously repeated giving the ringing sound of the bell.

Figure 4.19 Electric bell.

DC Electric Motor

Freely rotating loop is placed between two permanent magnets whose poles
facing each other with a sufficient space between them to allow rotation of the
loop. Connecting the ends of the loop to battery terminals makes the loop an
electromagnet. Since the loop has become a magnet, one side of it will be attracted
to the north pole of the magnet and the other to the south pole. This causes the
loop to rotate continuously. The components of the DC motor is shown in Figure
4.20.
A DC power source supplies electric power to the motor. The commutator is
the rotating interface of the rotating loop (or coil) with a stationary circuit. The
permanent magnetic field helps to produce a torque on the rotating coil. The
brushes conduct current between stationary wires and moving parts.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4.7 Application and safety 137

Figure 4.20 DC electric motor.

AC Generator

An AC generator is a mechanical device that converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy in the form of alternate electromotive force (emf). For example,
the electricity generated at various power plants is produced by the generators
installed there. Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction governs the
operation of an AC generator. It consists of a strong permanent magnet and a
rectangular coil with a number of wires wounded around an iron core which is
used to boost the magnetic flux. When the coil spins in the magnetic field or
moves relative to the magnet, it generates an alternating electromotive force.

Electromagnets are generally safe for their various uses, but you need to take
precautions depending on the context in which you use them. very powerful
electromagnets that come into contact with laptops or computers can damage
their hard drives.

An electromagnet can affect monitors for computers or television sets. For classic
cathode ray tube (CRT) television sets, powerful magnets can distort the images
on the screen when they come close to them. This is because the magnets deflect
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

138 Unit 4 Electromagnetism

the beam of electrons that the television sends to produce an image.

Electromagnets help us to lift metal plates and transport them comfortably and
quickly. All factors that determine the operation of the electromagnet must
be taken into account. The number of plates to be lifted, their weight or the
conditions of the surface on which they are located are essential details to be
considered. For example, if some of the materials create an air gap between the
magnet and the plate, this will have an impact on the lifting.

Unit summary

• Magnetic Field is the region around a magnetic material or a moving

electric charge within which the force of magnetism acts.

• A magnetic pole is the part of a magnet that exerts the strongest force on
other magnets or magnetic material.

• Like poles (N-N or S-S) repel each other, and unlike poles (N-S) attract
each other.

• Magnetic poles are always found in pairs. No matter how many times a
permanent magnet is cut in two, each piece always has a north and
a south pole.

• Once permanent magnets are magnetized then they hold their magnetic
property for a very long time.

• An electromagnet generates a magnetic field when an electric current is

provided to it and it loses its magnetism when the current is off.

• The Earth magnetic field behaves like a giant bar magnet inside the
Earth.

• Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines used to represent magnetic fields.

• When we sprinkle iron filings around a magnet, the iron filings will orient
themselves along the magnetic field lines.

• The strength of the field is proportional to the closeness of the lines.

• Magnetic field lines can never cross, meaning that the field is unique at
any point in space.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4.7 Application and safety 139

• Magnetic field lines are continuous, forming closed loops without

beginning or end.

• Ampere’s law states that the magnetic field around an electric current is
proportional to the current.

• The SI unit of magnetic field is Tesla(T):

• The direction of a magnetic field around a wire carrying a current is given

by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.

• The principle of Ampere’s law is applied in solenoid, straight

wire,cylindrical conductor and toroidal solenoid.

• Michael Faraday showed that a changing magnetic field can produce an

electromotive force in a closed circuit.

• Electromagnetic induction is a phenomenon in which the relative

motion between a conductor and a magnetic field produces an emf
across the conductor.

• Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic lines of force which

passes through a given area A.

• For a plane of surface area A placed in a uniform magnetic field B,

magnetic flux Φ is mathematically written as:

Φ = B.A = BA cos θ

• The SI unit of magnetic flusx is Weber(Wb).

• Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that whenever a

conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an electromotive
force is induced. If the conductor circuit is closed, a current is
induced, which is called induced current.

• The time rate of change of magnetic flux through a circuit induces emf
in it given by: ε = − ∆Φ
∆t
B

• The direction of induced current in the coil is such that it opposes the
change that causes the induced emf.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

140 Unit 4 Electromagnetism

• Lenz’ s law confirms the general principle of the law conservation of

energy.

• A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy

from one circuit to another through the process of electromagnetic
induction.

• It is commonly used to increase (step up) or decrease (step down) voltage

levels between circuits with out altering the frequency.

• A Step-up Transformer steps up the input voltage. On the other hand, a

step-down transformer steps down the input voltage.

• The operating principle of a transformer is based on electromagnetic

induction.

• The relationship between the voltage applied to the primary winding VP

and the voltage produced on the secondary winding VS is given by
N p Vp
= =Turn ratio
N s Vs
• Electromagnets are used in generators, motors, transformers, electric
bells, headphones, loudspeakers, relays, MRI machines and others.

• Some electromagnet uses in the home include an electric fan, electric

doorbell, induction cooker, magnetic locks, etc

End of unit questions and problems

1. A long straight wire carries a current of 10 A. At what distance from the

wire will a magnetic field of 8 x 10−4 T be produced?

2. A closed coil of 40 turns and of area 200 cm2 , is rotated in a magnetic field
of flux density 2 Wb m−2 . It rotates from a position where its plane
makes an angle of 300 with the field to a position perpendicular to
the field in a time 0.2 sec. Find the magnitude of the emf induced in
the coil due to its rotation.

3. A portable x-ray unit has a step-up transformer, the 120 V input of which
is transformed to the 100 kV output needed by the x-ray tube. The
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

4.7 Application and safety 141

primary has 50 loops and draws a current of 10.00 A when in use. (a)
What is the number of loops in the secondary? (b) Find the current
output of the secondary.

4. A 500 turns coil develops an average induced voltage of 60 V. Over what

time interval must a flux change of 0.06 Wb occur to produce such a
voltage?

5. Calculate the voltage output by the secondary winding of a transformer

if the primary voltage is 35 volts, the secondary winding has 4500
turns, and the primary winding has 355 turns.

6. A circular loop with a radius of 20 cm is positioned perpendicular to a

uniform magnetic field, the magnetic flux that passes through the
loop is 1.9x10−2W b. What is the magnetic flux density?

7. A uniform magnetic field has a magnitude of 0.1T. What is the flux

through a rectangular piece of cardboard of sides 3cm by 2cm
perpendicular to the field?

8. A coil of wire 1250 turns is cutting a flux of 5mWb. The flux is reversed in
an interval of 0.125 sec. Calculate the average value of the induced
emf in the coil.

9. A 150 W transformer has an input voltage of 10V and an output current

of 5A. a). is this step-upmor step down transformer? b). what is the
ratio of Vout to Vin?

10. Determine the magnetic field strength at a point 5cm from a wire
carrying a current of 10A.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

Unit 5

Basics of electronics
Introduction

Electronic devices influence our daily lives in such a way that it is almost
impossible to spend even a few hours without them. Calculators, digital watches,
mobile phones, televisions, and computers are just some of the electronic
devices that we use every day. Why have we become so dependent on
electronics? The answer is very simple. They simplify our activities and lifestyle.
Electronics plays an important role in the aerospace industry and automobile
industries. Electronic devices are also necessary in medicine. For example,
equipment such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography
(CT) and X-rays rely on electronics in order to do their work quickly and

Brainstorming accurately.
question 5.1
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
Observe the figure
• Appreciate the characteristics of the P-N junction diode and its
above. It shows an
electronic circuit applications in electronics.
board used in
• Understand the characteristics of the bipolar transistor and its application
electronic devices.
in electronics.
List some of the
basic electronic
• Appreciate the use of digital electronics in electronic switching and
components that
integrate circuits.
are used for building
electronic circuits. • Understand the application areas of electronics.

142
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.1 Semiconductors 143

5.1 Semiconductors
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the difference between conductor, insulator and semiconductor.

• Give example of semiconductor elements.

• Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

Brainstorming
• Distingush betwee N- type and P-type semiconductors. question 5.2

Why are metals

• Explain how doping supports current flow in a semiconductor material.
good conductor
and insulators
Conductors are materials which allow electricity to flow through them. Metals
poor conductor of
are good conductors of electricity. Conductors have free electrons that allow the
electricity? What
easy flow of electric current. do you know about
Some materials do not allow electricity to pass through them. These materials semiconductor
are known as insulators. Insulators do not have free electrons every electron in materials?
them is tightly bound to the parent atom. Plastic, wood, glass and rubber are
good electrical insulators. That is why they are used to cover materials that carry
electricity.
Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity between conductors
and insulators. Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon or
germanium, or compounds such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide.
Semiconductors act as insulators at absolute zero temperature (zero kelvin) and
conductors at higher temperatures. Conduction occurs at higher temperature
because the electrons surrounding the semiconductor atoms can break away
from their covalent bond and move freely within the material in order to conduct.
In a process called doping, small amounts of impurities are added to pure
semiconductors causing large changes in the conductivity of the material.

Lattice structure of semiconductors

Semiconductors, such as silicon (Si) are made up of individual atoms bonded

together in a regular and periodic structure to form an arrangement whereby
each atom is surrounded by eight electrons. An individual atom consists of a
nucleus made up of a core of protons (positively charged particles) and neutrons
(particles having no charge) surrounded by electrons (Figure 5.1a). The number
of electrons and protons is equal, such that the atom is overall electrically neutral.
The electrons in the outer most shell of each atom in a semiconductor are part
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

144 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

of a covalent bond. A covalent bond consists of two atoms sharing a pair of

electrons. Each atom forms four covalent bonds with the four surrounding atoms
(Figure ??b). Therefore, between each atom and its four surrounding atoms, eight
electrons are being shared.

Figure 5.1 a) Electron structure of silicon atom b) covalent bond in silicon.

Hole in a semiconductor means the absence of electron in an atom (Figure 5.2).
Hole behaves like a positive charge. In magnitude they are equal to electron but
opposite sign. Holes and electrons are two types of charge carriers responsible
for current in semiconductor materials.

Types of Semiconductors
Figure 5.2 Free electron and hole
in semiconductor. Semiconductors are divided into two categories: Intrinsic semiconductor and
extrinsic semiconductor.

Intrinsic semiconductors: are composed of only one kind of material; silicon

and germanium are two examples. They are semiconductor materials which has
not had impurities added to them in order to change the carrier concentrations.
These are also called undoped semiconductors.

Extrinsic semiconductors: have impurities added to their lattice structure. The

addition of small amounts of selected impurities to a pure semiconductor
considerably improves its conductivity. The process of adding impurity to a pure
semiconductor crystal to improve its conductivity is called doping. Sometimes
the impurity is called a dopant.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.1 Semiconductors 145

The main aim of doping is to make sure that there are either too many electrons
(surplus) or too few electrons (deficiency). Depending on what situation you
want to create, you use different elements for the doping. In semiconductor
production, doping intentionally introduces impurities into the intrinsic (or
pure) semiconductor for the purpose of changing its electrical properties. Lightly
or moderately doped semiconductors are called extrinsic semiconductor. The
extrinsic semiconductors are further classified as N-type and P-type
semiconductors, based on the type of atomic impurity added to the
semiconductors.

N-type semiconductor: an extra electron is created by adding an element that

has more electrons in the outer shell of the atom (called valence electrons) than
the intrinsic semiconductor. These elements usually come from Group V in the
periodic table. Elements from Group V have five valence electrons one more than
the Group IV elements. Group V elements that serve as impurities include
antimony, arsenic, bismuth, and phosphorus. Adding these impurities causes
conduction mainly by means of electron flow. The excess electrons are passed
from atom to atom when a voltage exists across the material. The electron carries Discussion
a negative charge, so the material is called an N-type semiconductor and question 5.1:
conduction is due to a large number of electrons. Since N-type dopants donate
1. What are the
their free electrons to the semiconductor, they are known as donor atoms. current carriers in
semiconductors and
For example, Figure 5.3a shows a silicon (Si) crystal doped with arsenic(As) . conductors?
When As is added to a Si crystal, the four electrons in As bond with the four Si 2. A germanium
(Ge) crystal is
electrons. The fifth As valence electron is free to move around for conduction. It
doped with boron.
takes only a few As atoms to create enough free electrons to allow an electric
What type of
current to flow through the silicon.
semiconductor
is this?
P-type semiconductor: when Group III element such as aluminum, boron, 3. Would the
gallium, or indium is added to a pure semiconductor. The added impurity atoms following elements
establish covalent bonds with the neighboring atoms. For example, boron (B) has make good P-type
dopants or good
three electrons. However, the boron atom is surrounded by four silicon atoms as
N-type dopants?
shown in the Figure 5.3b. So, one of the covalent bonds is not completed. The
a) Phosphorus b)
absence of an electron creates a hole. Boron needs one more electron to
Gallium c) Arsenic
complete its covalent bond. So, Boron is an acceptor of electrons. In this type of d) Indium
semiconductor, the holes are majority and the electrons are minority.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

146 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Conduction is due to the majority charge carriers which are holes. Here the holes
are behaving like positive charge carriers. This material is therefore called a
P-type semiconductor.

Figure 5.3 (a) Silicon crystal doped with arsenic element. For each arsenic
atom present in the Silicon crystal, there is one extra electron. (b) Silicon
crystal doped with boron. For each boron atom present in the Silicon
crystal, there is one less electron.

Review question 5.1:

1. Why a semiconductor conducts better when it is hot? Explain your

answer.

2. Define intrinsic semiconductor and extrinsic semiconductor.

3. What is P-type and N-type semiconductor?

4. Which of the following impurities could be used to convert intrinsic

silicon to extrinsic P-type silicon? (A) aluminium. (B) germanium.
(C) arsenic. (D) zinc.

5. What type of impurities are chosen for doping to form N-type

semiconductor? (A) trivalent (B) tetravalent (C) pentavalent (D)
both a and c

6. Electrons are the minority carriers in (A) extrinsic semiconductors

(B) P-type semiconductors (C) intrinsic semiconductors (D) N-type
semiconductors
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.2 Diodes and their Functions 147

5.2 Diodes and their Functions

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe what a junction diode is and how it is made.

• Draw and label the schematic symbol for a diode.

• Explain the difference between forward bias and reverse bias of a diode.

• Describe the I-V characteristics of a diode.

• Describe the function of diodes, including rectification.

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts current in Brainstorming

one direction and blocks current in the reverse direction. Diodes are made from a question 5.3
large variety of materials including silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide,etc. Do you know a
device which allows
P-N junction diode current to flow in
one direction and
Semiconductor diodes are the most common type of diode. When an N-type blocks in the reverse
semiconductor is joined with the P-type semiconductor, a P-N junction diode direction?
is formed as shown in Figure 5.4. When a P-N junction is formed, some of the
electrons in the N-region diffuse across the junction and combine with holes to
form negative ions on the P-side. In so doing they leave behind positive ions in
the N-region.

Figure 5.4 The P-N junction diode formed between P-type and N-type
semiconductors.
The combination of electrons and holes near the junction creates a narrow region
in the vicinity of the junction called the depletion region. Within the depletion
region, there are very few mobile electrons and holes.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

148 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

The electric field created by the ions in the depletion region prevents any further
diffusion across the junction by establishing a barrier potential across the junction.
The barrier potential is the potential difference required to move the electrons
through the electric field. The barrier potential of a P-N junction depends on the
type of semiconductor material. This is approximately 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V
for germanium.
Figure 5.5 shows symbol of a diode. is shown in Figure . The arrow head points in
the direction of conventional current flow. That means the anode is connected to
the P side and the cathode is connected to the N side.

Figure 5.5 a) The P-N junction diode b) P-N junction symbol.

Biasing of P-N junction diode

Applying a suitable DC voltage to a diode is known as biasing. It can be done

in two ways: forward and reverse biasing. Diodes in both forward and reverse
bias are useful for computer chips, solar cells, and other electronic devices. Zero
biasing condition is when no external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.

Forward biased

When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type

semiconductor and the negative terminal to the N-type semiconductor, the P-N
junction diode is said to be forward biased (Figure ??).5.6). In forward biasing,
the electrons move towards the junction as they are repelled by the negative
terminal of the battery. Similarly, the holes move towards the junction because
they are repelled by the positive terminal of the battery.
When a forward biasing voltage is applied to a junction diode, the depletion
region becomes very thin and narrow. This represents a low resistance path
through the junction, allowing high currents to flow.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.2 Diodes and their Functions 149

Figure 5.6 (a) Forward biased P-N junction (b) Forward biased circuit
diagram.

Reverse biased

When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type

semiconductor and the positive terminal to the N-type semiconductor, the P-N
junction diode is said to be reverse biased (Figure 5.7).
When a reverse biasing voltage is applied to a junction diode,the free electrons
from the N-type semiconductor and the holes from the P-type semiconductor
move away from the P-N junction. This increases the width of the depletion
region,which blocks the majority charge carrier current. This condition
represents a high resistance path through the P-N junction and almost zero
current flows through the junction diode.

Discussion
question 5.2:

What is the
difference between
forward and reverse
biasing?
Give examples of
Figure 5.7 (a) Reverse biased P-N junction (b) reverse biased circuit the application of
diagram. diodes in daily life.

Current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of the semiconductor diode

From the I-V curve (Figure 5.8) we can see that the current is very low if the
forward voltage is lower than the cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage is the voltage
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

150 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

at which the forward diode current starts increasing rapidly. Once the forward
bias exceed the cut-in voltage ( 0.3 V for germanium diode, 0.7 V for silicon diode),
the current will be dramatically increased, in the manner that the diode will
function as a short-circuit.Since the diode can conduct very high current above
the cut-in voltage, resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current
flow.
In the reverse bias, a very small current called a reverse bias current or leakage
current flows through the junction due to the minority charge carriers. If the
Figure 5.8 I-V characterstics of p-n
junction diode. reverse bias voltage is too high, a sharp change in the reverse bias characteristics
occurs. At a certain voltage, called the breakdown voltage, the current in the
reverse direction increases rapidly.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IvZv910pM7Am
Review question 5.2:

1. Define diode.

2. Under forward bias, the resistance is low and the current is high.
True or False.

3. What are the current carriers in P-N junction diode?

4. What is forward bias? What is reverse bias?

5. The characteristic curve of the diode shows the relation between:

(A) Current and voltage. (B) voltage and resistance. (C) voltage and
power. (D) resistance and temperature.

6. Depletion layer is caused by (A) doping (B) recombination (C) barrier

potential (D) ions

5.3 Rectification
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the working principle of half-wave and full-wave rectification.

• Describe the function of capacitor in the case of full-wave rectification.

• Describe some practical uses of diode.

A P-N junction diode conducts electricity when it is forward biased and it does
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.3 Rectification 151

not conduct electricity when it is reverse biased. Hence, it is used to rectify an

alternating current (AC) voltage supply. The process in which an AC voltage
supply is converted into a unidirectional (DC) voltage is known as rectification
and the electric circuit used for the conversion is called a rectifier. When the AC.
input is applied to a junction diode, it becomes forward biased during the
positive half cycle and reverse biased during negative half-cycle. Rectification is
the main function of diodes.

There are two basic types of rectifier circuit used with power supplies: half-wave
rectifiers and full-wave rectifiers.

Half wave rectification

A half-wave rectifier only allows one half-cycle of an AC voltage waveform to pass

by blocking the other half-cycle. Therefore, the current in the circuit flows in
only one direction. A half-wave rectifier consists of a diode and a load resistor
connected in series to the cathode end of the diode. Figure 5.9 illustrates the
basic principle of a half-wave rectifier.

Figure 5.9 Basic half-wave rectifier.

Working principle of Half Wave Rectifier:

In a half-wave rectifier circuit during the positive half-cycle of the input, the
diode is forward biased. Current flows through the load resistor and a voltage is
developed across it. During the negative half-cycle, the diode is reverse biased
and does not conduct. Therefore, in the negative half-cycle of the supply, no
current flows in the load resistor as no voltage appears across it. Thus the DC
voltage across the load is sinusoidal for the first half-cycle only and a pure AC
input signal is converted into a DC pulsating output signal.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

152 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Full-wave Rectification

The fact that the current flows only during half of each cycle in a half-wave rectifier
is a disadvantage. To overcome this disadvantage, a full-wave rectifier can be
used. Figure 5.10 shows a basic full-wave rectifier circuit, which uses four diodes
arranged in a particular way.

Figure 5.10 Basic full-wave rectifier circuit.

Working principle of full wave bridge rectifier

The four diodes, labeled D1 to D4, are arranged in such a way that only two
diodes conduct current during each half-cycle. During the positive half-cycle
of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series. However, diodes D3 and D4
are reverse biased and so the current flows through the load resistor,as shown
in Figure 5.11a. During the negative half-cycle of the supply , diodes D3 and D4
conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch off as they are now reverse biased.
The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before as shown in
Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11 a) positive half cycle b) Negative half cycle.

Diodes and capacitor

Capacitor is used in rectifier circuits to smooth the fluctuations of the output

voltage. A capacitor stores charge and releases it later. The capacitor is connected
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.3 Rectification 153

across the terminals as shown in Figure 5.12. During the positive quarter-cycle
of the output voltage, the capacitor is charged to the peak voltage. Then, as the
rectifier voltage falls, the capacitor discharges and provides the required current
to the load resistor from its stored charge.. This charging and discharging process
of the capacitor smooths out the waveform.

Figure 5.12 Smoothing the output voltage using a capacitor in a full-wave

rectifier.

Practical uses of diodes

Light emitting diodes (LED)

A light emiting diode(LED) is a P-N junction diode which can emit light when
an electrical current flows through it Figure 5.13. It uses a special kind of doping
so that when an electron crosses the P-N junction, a photon is emitted, which
creates light. The frequency(color) of the light emitted is determined by the type
of semiconductor material used in construction of the diode. LED allows the
Figure 5.13 a) LED b) LED symbol
current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse
direction. LEDs are very efficient producers of light.

Photodiode

A photodiode (Figure 5.14) is a semiconductor device with a P-N junction that

converts photons (or light) into electrical current. Photons absorbed in the
depletion region (or close to it) will create electron-hole pairs which will move to
opposite ends of the diode due to the electric field. Electrons will move toward
the positive potential on the cathode, and the holes will move toward the Figure 5.14 Photodiode symbol.
negative potential on the anode. These moving charge carriers form the current
(photocurrent) in the photodiode.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

154 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Logic gates

Diodes and resistors can be combined with other components to construct AND
and OR logic gates. This is referred to as diode resistor logic.These are discussed
in detail in section 5.5.

Over-voltage protection

Excess voltage can damage our electronic devices. Sensitive electronic devices
need to be protected from fluctuations in voltage; the diode is perfect for this.
Diodes achieve this by shutting down the switch after sensing an over-voltage
condition.
Discussion Review question 5.3:
Question 5.3:
1. What is rectification?
If we use half-wave
rectifier, what 2. Describe the function of resistor and capacitor in electronic circuit
percentage of the
input AC power will 3. The dc current through each forward-biased diode in a full-wave
be converted to DC rectifier equals: (A) the load current (B) half the dc load current (C)
power ? twice the dc load current (D) one-fourth the dc load current.

4. The basic reason why a full-wave rectifier has a twice the efficiency
of a half-wave rectifier is that: (A) it makes use of transformer (B) the
heating loss is much less (C) it utilizes both half-cycles of the input
(D ) its output frequency is double the line frequency

5.4 Transistors and their application

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe how a transistor is constructed and its two different configurations.

• Draw and label the schematic symbol for an NPN and a PNP transistor.

• Describe the function of a transistor as an amplifier.

• Describe the difference between emitter, base and collector in terms of dopant
concentration.

• Calculate the gain (amplification) of a transistor.

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.4 Transistors and their application 155

A Transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic

signals. It is an essential component in an electronic circuit.

Transistors are classified into two types: bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and
field effect transistors (FET). In this section, you will learn about BJTs.
When a third layer is added to a semiconductor diode, a BJT is produced. The
term, transistor, will now be used for a BJT. A transistor is a three terminal,
two-junction device used to control electron flow. By varying the amount of
voltage applied to the three terminals, the amount of current can be controlled.
This is how transistors can be used for amplification or switching.

A transistor consists of three alternately doped regions. The three regions are
arranged in one of two ways. In the first method, the P-type material is
sandwiched between two N-type materials, forming an NPN transistor (Figure
5.15a). In the second method, a layer of N-type material is sandwiched between
two layers of P-type material, forming a PNP transistor (Figure 5.15b).
In both types of transistor, the middle region is called the base and the outer
regions are called the emitter and collector. The emitter, base, and collector are
identified by the letters E, B, and C, respectively.

Figure 5.15 Block diagrams of (a) NPN transistor (b) PNP transistor.

Emitter: The section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or holes).
The emitter terminal is the heavily doped region as compared to the base and
collector.
Collector: The section on the other side that collects the charges carriers. The
collector is moderately doped region and slightly larger in size as compared to
the base and the emitter.
Base: The middle section between the emitter and the collector. The base is
lightly doped and very thin.
In the symbolic representation for a transistor (Figure 5.16), the arrow mark is
placed on the emitter in the direction of conventional current flow.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

156 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Figure 5.16 Schematic symbols for (a) an NPN transistor (b) a PNP
transistor.

Basic transistor operation

NPN transistor

A transistor must be biased by external voltages so that the emitter, base, and
collector regions interact in the desired manner. In a properly biased transistor,
the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is reverse
biased.

The emitter in NPN transistor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery
while the base is connected to the positive terminal. Since the second P-N
junction is required to be reverse biased for proper transistor operation, the
collector must be connected to an opposite polarity voltage (positive), as shown
in Figure 5.17a.

Figure 5.17 a) NPN transistor b) PNP transistor.

In the forward biased circuit:

• Electrons leave the negative terminal of the battery and enter the N material
(emitter) as shown in Figure5.18. This constitutes the emitter current I E .

• Since electrons are majority current carriers in the N material, they pass
easily through the emitter, cross over the junction, and combine with holes
in the P material (base).
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.4 Transistors and their application 157

• As the base is lightly doped and very thin, only a few electrons combine
with holes and they constitute the base current I B .

• The electron majorities will diffuse to the collector region and constitutes
collector current IC . These electrons are influenced by the positive potential
applied voltage to the collector and are attracted to the positive side of the
voltage source of the collector.

It can then be seen that the emitter current is the sum of the base current and
collector current.

I E = I B + IC (5.1)

The arrows in Figure 5.18 show the direction of the electron current which is
opposite to the direction of the hole current (conventional current).

Figure 5.18 Electron current flow in NPN transistor (a) Block diagram NPN
transistor (b) Schematic diagram of NPN transistor.

Discussion
PNP Transistor
question 5.4:
The PNP transistor works in essentially the same way as the NPN transistor. The 1. How does the
majority current carriers in the PNP transistor are holes. To support this different construction
type of current (hole flow), the bias batteries are reversed that is, the positive of a transistor
terminal of the battery(V E B ) is connected with emitter (P-type) and the negative differ from the

terminal is connected with the base terminal (N-type). Therefore, the emitter- construction of a
P-N junction diode?
base junction is connected in forward bias as shown in Figure 5.17b.
2. What are the two
• Since the base-collector junction is always reverse biased, then the opposite types of bipolar

polarity voltage (negative) should be used for the collector (V C B ), as shown transistors?
3. What are the
in Figure 5.19.
three regions of a
• The emitter current is created when the emitter-base junction is forward transistor? Describe

biased, the emitter pushes the holes towards the base region. their purpose?
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

158 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

• When the holes move into the base, they combine with the electrons.

• The base is lightly doped and is comparatively thin. Hence only a few holes
are combined with the electrons and the remaining are moved towards the
collector.

Figure 5.19 Electron current flow in PNP transistor. (a) Block diagram of a
biased PNP transistor (b) Schematic diagram of a biased PNP transistor.

Transistor configurations

There are three possible ways to connect a transistor in an electronic circuit with
one terminal being common to both the input and output signal. These
configurations are common-emmiter,common-collector and common-base
(Figure 5.20). Each method of connection responds differently to its input signal
in a circuit as the characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit
arrangement.

Figure 5.20 NPN Transistor Circuits.

Common-Collector (CC) : In the CC, the input signal is applied between the base
and collector terminal and the output is taken between the emitter and collector
terminal. It provides good current gain but no voltage gain.
Common-base (CB) : In the CB, the input signal is applied between the emitter
and the base terminal and the output signal comes from the collector and base
terminal. This leaves the base common to both the emitter and collector. The
circuit has voltage gain but no current gain.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.4 Transistors and their application 159

Common-emitter (CE) : In the CE, the input signal is applied between the base
and emitter terminal , and the output is taken between the collector and emitter Discussion
terminal. The circuit (Figure 5.22) has both current and voltage gain. question 5.5

The CE is commonly used because its current and voltage, power gain are quite 1. Which terminal
high.The ratio of collector current to base current is called the amplification current in the

factor or current gain β. Amplification is the property of a transistor to raise the transistor controls
the collector
strength of a weak signal. It is calculated using the equation:
current?
IC 2. What is the
β= most commonly
IB
used transistor
configuration?
Example 5.1
3. What is (are)
A transistor has a current gain of 250 and a base current 20 µA. What is the collector the high gain(s)
current? in common-base,
common-collector
Solution: and common-
IC
From the relation, β = emitter transistor
IB
circuits?
IC = βIB = 250 × 20 µA = 5 mA

Output characteristics of common-emitter

The output characteristics for a CE transistor describe the change in collector

current IC when an increasing voltage VC E is placed between the collector and
emitter. A greater amount of current flows from the emitter to the collector when
there is a small change of current through the base. To determine the output
characteristics, the input current or base current I B is kept constant. However, the Figure 5.21 Output characteristics
graph is usually plotted for more than one base current (Figure 5.21). Notice that of common-emitter transistor.
the base current is small in micro-Ampere, but the collector current is in milli-
Ampere. For example, with the transistor represented by the graph, a change of
10 µA in the base current would produce a change of around 2 mA in the collector
current, which is about 200 times more than the base current.

Transistor applications
Figure 5.22 common emitter
The main applications of transistors are amplification of electrical signal and circuit
switching. The transistor is a very useful and widely usable electronic component.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

160 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

• Most of the parts of modern electronic devices like computers,

smartphones, tablets, smart watches, etc are made up with transistors
where they are acting as switches.

• Transistor can amplify electronic signal. A weak signal applied in the input
circuit appears in the amplified form in the output circuit.

• Transistors can be combined to form a logic gate, which compares multiple

input currents to provide a different output. Computers with logic gates
can make simple decisions using boolean algebra. These techniques are
the foundation of computer programs.

• Transistors are used in complex switching circuits that comprise all modern
telecommunications systems.

• They are the basic elements in integrated circuits (ICs), which consist of a
large number of transistors interconnected in a circuit.

• In large numbers, transistors are used to create microprocessors where

millions of transistors are embedded in nearly all ICs, which are part of
every electronic device.

Review question 5.4:

1. Describe the function of transistor in electronic circuit

2. Which of the transistor currents is the largest? Which is the smallest?

3. The doping concentration of base in PNP transistor is (A) lightly

doped (B) moderately doped (C) heavily doped (D) not doped

4. Which junction in the transistor is forward biassed? Which junction

reverse biassed?

5. In transistor, if the current gain is 100 and the collector current is 10

mA, what is the emitter current?
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.5 Integrated Circuits 161

5.5 Integrated Circuits

At the end of this section, you will be able to: Brainstorming

• Explain the importance of integrated circuits. question 5.4

How diodes,
• Identify the major components of an integrated circuit.
transistors and
• Identify advantages and disadvantages of integrated circuits. other electrical
elements are
Transistors and other semiconductor devices have made it possible to reduce the connected to
size of electronic circuits because of their small size and low power consumption. perform a certain

It is now possible to extend the principles behind semiconductors to complete task?

circuits as well as individual components.

The importance of integrated circuits

Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and
have revolutionized the world of electronics. The integrated circuit was invented
by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce. This invention is a boon for digital technologies
like computer, mobile phones, MP3, fans, traffic lights, DVDs and many other
devices. The goal of the integrated circuit is to develop a single device to perform
a specific function, such as amplification or switching, microprocessor, timer, as
computer memory, eliminating the separation between components and circuits.

Figure 5.23 Integrated circuits.

The components of an integrated circuit

An integrated circuit (IC) (also referred to as a chip, or a microchip) is a set of

electronic circuits on one small flat piece (or "chip") of semiconductor material,
usually silicon (Figure 5. 23). It is no larger than that of a conventional low-power
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

162 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

transistor. The circuit consists of diodes, transistors, resistors, and capacitors.

Integrated circuits are produced with the same technology and materials used in
making transistors and other semiconductor devices.

Advantages and disadvantages of integrated components

Among the four types of components included in integrated circuits only a very
small amount of the space is occupied by diodes and transistors. The rest is
occupied by resistors and capacitors as their size increases with their value. The
most obvious advantage of the integrated circuit is its small size. An integrated
circuit is constructed of a chip of semiconductor material approximately
one-eighth of an inch square. Due to the integrated circuit’s small size, it is used
extensively in military and aerospace programs. The integrated circuit has also
transformed the calculator from a desktop to a handheld instrument. Computer
systems are now available in portable models because of integrated circuits. This
small, integrated circuit consumes less power and operates at higher speeds than
a conventional transistor circuit. The electron travel time is reduced by direct
connection of the internal components.

Integrated circuits are more reliable than directly connected transistor circuits. In
the integrated circuit, internal components are connected permanently. The
components are formed at the same time, reducing the chance for error. After the
integrated circuit is formed, it is pretested before final assembly.
Integrated circuits reduce the number of parts needed to construct electronic
equipment. This reduces manufacturing cost and further reducing the cost of
electronic equipment. Integrated circuits do have some disadvantages. They
cannot handle large amounts of current or voltage. High current generates
excessive heat, damaging the device. High voltage breaks down the insulation
between the various internal components. Furthermore, integrated circuits
cannot be repaired. This is because the internal components cannot be
separated. Therefore, problems are identified by individual circuit instead of by
individual component.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.6 Logic gates and logic circuits 163

5.6 Logic gates and logic circuits

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify digital and analog signals.

• Identify and explain the function of the basic logic gates.

• Draw the symbols and analog switch circuit for the basic logic gates.

• Develop truth tables for the basic logic gates.

Brainstorming
Digital and analog signals question 5.5

What mechanism
In electronics and telecommunications, "signal" refers to any time-varying
is used to record
voltage, current, or electromagnetic wave that carries information. Two main
and store video and
types of signals encountered in practice are analog and digital.
audio information
An analog signal is any continuous signal representing some time-varying including musical
quantity. The voltage signals which vary continuously with time are called sounds we often
continuous or analog voltage signals. Figure 5.24 shows a typical voltage signal, watch or listen?

varying as a sinusoidal wave of 0 to 5 v. An analogue signal carries a smooth wave.

At any time, the voltage of the signal could take any value.
A digital signal is a signal that is being used to represent data as a sequence of
discrete values; at any given time, it can only take on, at most, one of a finite
number of values. In most digital circuits, the digital signal can have two possible
valid values; this is called a binary signal or logic signal. They are represented by
two voltage bands: one near a reference value (typically termed as ground or zero
volts), and the other a value near the supply voltage. It is either low or high. It
never has any other value. These two special voltages are given symbols. The low
voltage level is written as 0, while the high voltage level is written as 1.

Using a computer, any information can be turned into a pattern of 0s and 1s.
Figure 5.24 Analog and digital
Pictures, recorded music, text and motion pictures can all be turned into a string signals.
of 0s and 1s and transmitted or stored in the same way. The computer receiving
the signal at the other end converts it back again. A compact disc (CD) for example,
can store music or text or pictures, and all of them can be read using a computer.
You can don all kinds of mathematics using 0s and 1s. That is what computers do.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

164 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Positive and negative logic

In computing systems, the binary number symbols ’0’ and ’1’ represent two
possible states of a circuit or an electronic device.

Table 5.1 Positive logic

. Circuit Switch Voltage Sign Statement

1 on closed high plus TRUE
0 off opened low minus FALSE

Table 5.2 Negative logic

. Circuit Switch Voltage Sign Statement

1 off opened low minus false
0 on closed high plus true

If we say that value 1 stands for 5V and value 0 for 0 V, then we have positive logic
system. If on the other hand, we decide that 1 should represent 0 V (low voltage)
and 0 should represent 5 V (high voltage), then we have negative logic system.

Logic gates

Digital electronics is a field of electronics involving the study of digital signals

and the engineering of devices that use or produce digital signals. This is in
contrast to analog electronics and analog signals. The simplest digital circuits are
called logic gates. An integrated circuit is a collection of logic gates. The logic
gates are building blocks of digital electronics. Each logic gate is made of many
microscopic transistors connected together inside a thin slice of silicon. They are
used in digital electronics to change one voltage level (input voltage) into another
(output voltage) according to some logical statement relating to them. Thus, a
logic gate is a digital circuit, which works according to some logical relationship
between the input and output voltage. The logic gate may have one or more
inputs, but only one output.

The logical statements that logic gates follow are called Boolean expressions.

1. In Boolean algebra, the addition sign (+) is referred to as OR. The Boolean
expression for OR is:
y = A +B (5.2)
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.6 Logic gates and logic circuits 165

This Boolean expression is read as y is equal to A ’OR’ B.

2. The multiplication sign (.) is referred to as AN D in Boolean algebra. The

Boolean expression for this is:

y = A.B (5.3)

This Boolean expression is read as y is equal to A ’AND’ B.

3. The bar sign (-) is referred to as NOT in Boolean algebra. The Boolean
expression is:
y=A (5.4)

This expression is read as y is equal to ’NOT’ A.

The OR gate, AND gate and NOT gate are called basic logic gates. The NOR
gate and NAND gate are called universal logic gates because any logic gate can
be made from combinations of NAND gate or NOR gates. Each of these gates
performs a different logical operation.

OR gate

Two parallel switches and Lamp is connected as shown in Figure 5.25. Lamp ”ON”
is equal to 1 and lamp “OFF” is equal to 0.

• If both switches A and B are open, no current will flow through the external
wire. So the lamp is OFF i.e. equal to 0.

• If switch A is closed switch B is open, the current passes through switch A

and the lamp is ON, i.e. equal to 1; 1 + 0 = 1

• If switch A is open and switch B is closed, the current passes through B and
the lamp is ON, i.e. equal to 1; 0 + 1 = 1

• If both switches are closed, tamp is ON, i.e. equal to 1; 1 + 1 = 1

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

166 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Figure 5.25 The OR gate symbol, switch circuit and truth table.

You can see from the truth table that the Boolean expression y = A + B makes
sense. The only case where the OR function differs from normal addition is when
A = 1 and B = 1. Here A OR B = 1 in logic, but A+B=2 in arithmetic. However, there
is no such thing as ‘2’ in logic, so we define + to mean ‘OR’, and write 1 + 1=1.
Application of OR gate: An OR gate can be used to fit two light switches for a
long, dark corridor which has one switch at each end of the corridor. Each of the
switches send an output of 0 to the control unit if no-one has pressed the switch.
If someone presses the switch, its output is 1. The lights in the corridor should
come on if either witch is pressed.

AND gate

In general, the simple AND gate is also a two inputs and one output logic gate. It
combines the inputs A and B to give the output y, following the Boolean expression

y = A.B (5.5)

The AND operation is written as multiplication. A AND B is written AB. If either A

or B are 0, then AB will also be 0. For AB to be 1, we need A and B to both be 1.

Figure 5.26 The AND gate symbol, switch circuit and truth table.
The symbol, equivalent circuit and truth for an AND gate are shown in Figure 5.26.
The function of the AND gate is such that the output is TRUE if and only if all the
inputs are in TRUE conditions. In this circuit, the switches and the lamp are in
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.6 Logic gates and logic circuits 167

series. All the possible inputs and resulting outputs are tabulated in a truth table.

• If both switches A and B are OPEN (i.e., A = 0, B = 0) then the lamp will not
glow, i.e.y = 0. The current will not pass through the lamp.

• If switch A is closed and switch B is open, the current will not pass through
the lamp. The lamp is OFF, so y = 0.

• If switch A is open and switch B is closed, the current will not pass through
the lamp. The lamp is OFF, so y = 0.

• If both switches A and B are closed, current will pass through the circuit.
Now the lamp is ON and glowing. So y = 1.

Application of AND gate: An AND gate can be used to fit an automatic circuit to
light up a display in an airplane if two toilets are in use. Then passengers know
that if the light is off, there is a free toilet for them to use. There is a sensor in each
toilet. It gives out a 0 if the toilet is free, and a 1 if it is in use. You can send a 1 to
the display unit if both sensors are sending 1. That is, if both toilets are occupied.

NOT gate

The NOT gate is a one input and one output logic gate. It inverts or complements
the input A to give output y following the Boolean expression.

y=A (5.6)

This gate is also called an ’inverter’. . The symbol, equivalent circuit and truth
table are shown in Figure 5.27.

Figure 5.27 The NOT gate symbol, switch circuit and truth table.

• If switch A is open, the current will pass through the lamp and it will glow.
So, y = 1 when A = 0
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

168 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

• If switch A is closed, the current will take the shortest path and pass through
the switch. Hence the lamp is OFF, so y = 0 when A = 1.

Application of NOT gate : Let’s assume you want the water pipe in your garden
to automatically turn on when it is very dry.. You already have a digital electronic
soil moisture sensor. To make the pipe work, you need a circuit which will change
a 0 (from the sensor) into a 1 (to send to the pipe). This will make the pipe turn
on when the soil is dry. You also want it to change a 1 (from the sensor) into a 0
(to send to the digital pipe). This will close the pipe when the soil is wet.

NOR gate

A NOR logic gate is one in which OR gate is followed by a NOT gate. The symbol,
equivalent circuit and truth table are shown in Figure 5.28. The function of this
gate is ’inverting’ the output of the OR gate.

Figure 5.28 The NOR gate symbol.

The NOR gate combines the inputs A and B to give the output y, by the Boolean
expression:
y = A +B (5.7)

Figure 5.29 The NOR gate switch circuit and truth table.

• switch A and switch B are open, the current will flow through the lamp, and
the lamp is ON. So y = 1.

• If switch A is closed and switch B is open, the current will pass through
switch A (low resistance path) and reach the cathode of the battery. The
lamp is OFF, so y = 0.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.6 Logic gates and logic circuits 169

• If switch A is open and switch B is closed, the current will pass through
switch B (low resistance path) and reach the cathode of the battery. The
lamp is ‘OFF’, so y = 0.

• If switch A and switch B are closed, the current from the battery will pass
through the two parallel switches (the low resistance paths) reach the
cathode of the battery. The lamp is OFF, so y = 0.

NAND gate

A NAND logic gate is one is logic gate in which an AND gate is followed by a NOT
gate. The symbol, equivalent circuit and truth table are shown in Figure 5.30.
The function of this gate is to invert the output of the AND gate. It combines the
inputs A and B to give the output y, by the following Boolean expression:

y = A.B (5.8)

Figure 5.30 The NAND gate symbol, switch circuit and truth table.

• If both switches A and B are open, the current will flow through the lamp.
The lamp is ON, so y = 1

• If the switch A is closed and B is open, the current will again flow through
the lamp. The lamp is ON, so y = 1.

• If the switch A is open and B is closed, the current flows through the lamp.
The open switch A act as a inter circuit breaker. The lamp is ON, so y = 1.

• If the switch A and B are in closed position, the current will pass through the
switches (low resistance path) and reach the cathode of the battery. Hence,
the lamp is OFF, So, y = 0
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

170 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Exercise 5.1
Figure 5.31 shows
a logic circuit and
its incomplete truth
table. Complete the
truth table.

Exercise 5.2
Figure 5.31 A logic circuit and its incomplete truth table
Figure 5.32 shows
a logic circuit and
its incomplete truth
table. Complete the
truth table.

Exercise 5.3
Figure 5.32 A logic circuit and its incomplete truth table
The truth table of a
logic circuit is given
in Figure 5.33 (a)
and (b). Name the
logic circuit..

Brainstorming
question 5.6
Figure 5.33 Truth tables of a logic circuit
Dear students, think
of your living area
including your 5.7 Application of electronics
house. List as many
devices as you can We use a large number of electronic gadgets to simplify our work and to solve our
think of that use problems. From small alarm watches to complex computers, from mobile phones
electricity. This may to camcorders, from leisure items to equipment for work, electronic items can be
be transmitting everywhere. Here are details of a few applications of electronics:
information,
controlling other 1. Aerospace industry
machine, displaying
information, storing
Electronics is widely used in aerospace such as Space shuttle, Satellite
information, and power supplies, aircraft power management. Even in commercial airlines
many more. there are hundreds of instruments which are used to measure different
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.7 Application of electronics 171

physical factors like temperature, pressure, elevation, etc.

2. Medical

The development of electronics, and particularly that of computers, has

made it possible for a doctors to examine patients. Many machines like X-
ray, MRI and others which are the combination of different physics
theorems and electronics. There are tremendous advancement of
electronics in the field of medical sciences. There are a few recent
innovations which show how important electronics is in medical science -
Robotic Check-Ups, Needle-Free Diabetes Care, Electronic Aspirin, etc.

3. Automobile

Electronics are used in road vehicles, such as carputers, telematics, in-car

entertainment systems, etc. The first electronic pieces in cars were used
to control engine functions; they were referred to as engine control units.
Now, electronics are used in engine, transmission, chassis, active safety,
driver assistance, passenger comfort and entertainment systems.

4. Agriculture

With an increase in global warming, many devices and systems are being
built to monitor a crops. For example, e-Agri Sensors Centre producing
sensors to monitor the crop above and below the land. These sensors
monitor the crop quality as well as the needs of the crop during growth.
There are also several other electronic gadgets which are used for measuring
the moisture level, nutrition level and also salinity of the soil.

5. Communication

Electronic devices and systems are used for the acquisition or acceptance,
processing, storage, display, analysis, protection, disposition, and transfer
of information.

6. Residential

There are also various electronic equipment which make our life easy and
better. These include appliances such as air conditioner, cooking
appliances, dryer, personal computer etc. These equipment make daily life
easy. Nowadays, mobile phones are used by each and every person.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

172 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Discussion
Question 5.6 7. Military

Explain how
Electronics devices and machinery are also widely used in military.
electronics is used in: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and drones are some common aerial
1. Agriculture electronics machines which are used in the military for aerial attack as well
2. Medicine as for monitoring. There are also some electronics equipment used in guns
3. Military and airplanes which help soldiers to target his enemy during frontline war.
4. Communication
Magnetic anomaly detector Night vision device, People sniffer, infrared
detector and night vision camera etc. are some gadgets used by military.

Project

1. Dear students, using broken parts of electronic devices, identify

and classify different types of diodes. From your collection of
broken parts and the school lab, assisted by your teacher, construct
functional devices for personal applications.

2. Dear students, using some electronic devices available in the school

Lab construct a half-wave rectification circuit. Present your circuit
to the class.

Unit summary

• At zero Kelvin, a semiconductor serves as an insulator. As the

temperature increases, the conductivity increases, and vice versa.

• Doping is the process of adding impurities to a semiconductor material.

• By adding certain selected impurities to the pure semi-conductor in a

very small ratio, the conductivity of a semiconductor crystal can be
improved.

• In semiconductors, a hole is an electric charge carrier with a positive

charge, equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity to the charge on
an electron.

• In N-type materials, electrons are the majority carrier and holes are the
minority carrier. In P-type materials, holes are the majority carrier
and electrons are the minority carrier.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.7 Application of electronics 173

• A junction diode is created by joining N-type and P-type materials

together.

• The depletion region is a region in a P-N junction diode where no mobile

charge carriers are present. Depletion layer acts like a barrier that
opposes the flow of electrons from N-side and holes from P-side.

• Applying a suitable DC voltage to a diode is known as biasing.

• The I-V characteristic curves shows the relationship between the current
flowing through a diode and the applied voltage across its terminals.

• The process in which an AC voltage is converted into a unidirectional

(DC) voltage is known as rectification.

• A half-wave rectifier only allows one half-cycle of an AC voltage waveform

to pass by blocking the other half-cycle.

• A full-wave rectifier is a diode circuit which is used to transform the

complete cycle of AC voltage supply to DC.

• A capacitor is used in rectifier circuits to smooth the fluctuations of the

output voltage

• A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light

when an electricity passes through it.

• A bipolar junction transistor is a three layer (NPN or PNP) semiconductor

device.

• The three layers are called the emitter, base and collector.

• A transistor consists of two P-N junction. The junction are formed by

positioning either P-type or N-type semiconductor layers between a
pair of opposite types.

• The base is lightly doped and sandwiched between the collector and the
emitter. The collector is moderately doped and the emitter is heavily
doped.

• The base region is much thinner than either the collector or emitter
regions.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

174 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

• The transistor operates when base-emitter junction is forward biased

and base-collector is reversed biased.

• Transistors can be used for amplification or switching.

• Transistors are used in digital computers, satellites, mobile phones and

other communication systems, control systems,etc.

• The arrowhead in the symbol of a transistor indicates the direction of a

conventional current flow.

• In NPN transistors the majority carriers are free electrons, while in PNP
transistors these are the holes.

• There are three types of configuration for the operation of a

transistor: common-emitter, common-base and common-collector
configurations.

• The current gain in the common-emitter circuit is called beta. β is the

ratio of collector current to base current.

• Integrated circuits cannot handle large amounts of current or voltage.

• Diodes, transistors, resistors, and capacitors are available as integrated

circuits.

• Integrated circuits cannot be repaired, only replaced.

• An AND gate produces a 1 output when all of its inputs are 1s. It performs
the basic operation of multiplication.

• An OR gate produces a 1 output if any of its inputs are 1s. It performs the
basic operation of addition.

• A NOT gate performs the function called inversion or complementation.

It coverts the input state to an opposite output state.

• A NAND gate is a combination of an AND gate and a NOT gate. It

produces 1 output when any of the inputs are 0s.

• A NOR gate is a combination of an OR gate and a NOT gate. It produces

a 1 output only when both inputs are 0s.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

5.7 Application of electronics 175

• Electronics is widely used in aerospace such as Space shuttle, Satellite

power supplies, aircraft power management. Even in commercial
airlines. They are used to measure different physical factors like
temperature, pressure,elevation, etc.

• Electronics devices and machinery are widely used in medicine. Today

many medical devices and system such as MRI, CT scan x-ray,etc
are builds with the combination of different physics theorem and
electronics.

• Electronics are used in road vehicles, such as: carputers, telematics, in

car entertainment systems,to control engines. etc.

• Electronics has made daily life much easier and better.

• Many devices and system are build with combination of electronics

and different other techniques to monitor the activities in
agriculture,such as for measuring the moisture level, nutrition level
in soil and also salinity of soil,etc.

• Electronic devices and systems are used for the processing, storage,
display, analysis, protection, and transfer of information.

• Electronics equipment used in guns and airplanes which help soldiers

to target his enemy during frontline war.

• Night vision device, people sniffer, infrared detector and night vision
camera, drones, etc. are some electronic gadgets used by military.

End unit questions

1. What determines whether a semiconductor material, when doped, is an

N-type or P-type?

2. How does doping support current flow in a semiconductor material?

3. What is a P-N junction?

4. Define a half-wave rectifier and full-wave rectifier.

5. How should collector-base and emitter-base junctions be biased?

 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

176 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

6. What are transistors used for?

7. In which direction does the arrow point on an NPN transistor?

8. To properly bias an NPN transistor, what polarity voltage is applied to

the collector, and what is its relationship to the base voltage?

9. In the NPN transistor, what section is made very thin compared with the
other two sections?

10. What is the name of the device that provides an increase in current,
voltage, or power of a signal without appreciably altering the original
signal?

11. In the common emitter transistor amplifier, what is the phase

relationship between the input and output signals?

12. What is the current gain for a common-base configuration where

I E = 4.2 mA and IC = 4.0 mA?

13. What two symbols are used in digital electronics, to represent a “high”
and a “low”? What is this system known as?
Figure 5.34 A logic gate circuit
14. What is the difference between a digital signal and an analog signal?

15. What is a logic gate?

16. Write out the truth table for the circuit shown in Figure 5.34. Which
single gate is this circuit equivalent to?

17. Write out the truth table for the circuit shown in Figure 5.35. Which
single gate is this circuit equivalent to?

18. What logical operations are performed by an AND gate and an OR gate?
Figure 5.35 A logic gate circuit
19. What negative logic and positive logic mean?

20. Draw the symbol for a NAND gate and write the Boolean expression for
it.
 Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website

Index

Anechoic, 22 Physics and Engineering, 14

Application of Physics, 1 Physics and other sciences, 1
Applications of Radar, 25 Physics in Communication, 28
Astronomy, 9 Physics of atoms and Astronomy, 12
Astrophysics, 9 Physics of atoms and subatomic
particles, 2
Ballistic missile defense systems, 26
Physics of electricity and biology, 6
Basic Principle of Radar, 24
physics of energy, 3
Biomechanics , 4
Physics of fluid flow and biology, 5
Electrical and Electronic Physics of Newtonian mechanics
engineering, 16 and biology, 4
Physics of sound wave and biology, 6
Fiber optic transmission system, 30
Fiber Optics Cable, 30 Radar Technology, 24
Fiber Optics Communication, 29 Radiation Therapy, 23
Relation of physics and biology, 4
Hyperechoic, 22 Relation of Physics with chemistry, 2
Hypoechoic, 22 Relation of Physics with Geology, 13

Infra-red wave detection, 27 Satellite communication, 28

Spectroscopy, 3
Kinesiology, 4
Stethoscope, 21
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI),
Technology Generating New Physics,
19
17
Mechanical Engineering, 16
Medical physics, 18 Ultrasound, 21
Military applications of Radar, 25
Wireless Communication, 29
Newtonian mechanics, 4, 5
X-Ray, 20
Physics and chemistry, 2
Physics and Defense Technology, 23

177
Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website
Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website
Ethiofetena.com Ethiopian No 1 Educational Website