Chapter 1

Introduction to Computer Network

1.0 Introduction

The word networking appears in many spheres of life: a road network linking
towns; a business network of companies and clients; a social network; a water
network; an electrical power-grid network; telecommunication network;
computer network; etc.
All the above networks always have something in common; it contains nodes
(people, things, town, etc) linked (related, connected, associated, etc) to one
another, a various fashions.
The purpose of having networks is generally to share information; receive or
send information; ensure favours; and so on and so forth.
In this course we shall limit our study to computer networks, which is widely
used today. One of the greatest outcomes of computer networking in the
Internet?

What Is The Internet?

In the broadest terms, people often view the Internet as a cloud. You put your data in one
place, and it comes out the place you want it to on the other side, with what happens in
between obscured in the fog. The internet is a global network. That is, a computer network
which links nodes (computers) across the entire globe.

In reality the internet is tens of thousands kilometers of fiber optic cable, hundreds of thousands to
millions of kilometers of copper wire, and hardware and software connecting them all together in
a redundant, fast, and self-sufficient network. But not to worry, it’s not that bad: you only have to
worry about a very small portion of the network, you can let someone else worry about the rest.

1.1 What is a computer network?

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 1

A collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network devices, peripherals, or various
other devices connected to one another allowing for data to be shared and used. A great
example of a network is the Internet, connecting millions of people all over the world
together.

Below is an example image of a network with some standard networking devices.

Other examples of network devices

Any device capable of connecting to a network is considered a network device, below are
just a few of the more commonly connected network devices you're likely to find on a
home network.

• Computer (e.g. desktop, laptop, or server computer)

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 2

 • Firewall
• Hub
• Router
• Smartphone
• Switch
• Webcam

More details will be discussed by the end of the chapter.

1.2 Network topologies and types of networks

A network can be setup in dozens of different ways known as network topologies. Common
configurations include the bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star topology, tree
topology and hybrid topology. Most home users will have a home network with a tree
topology that is connected to the Internet. Many corporate networks also use the tree
topology setup but will have many more star networks and may have an Intranet for
employees only.

Ring topology

Alternatively referred to as a ring network, the ring topology is a computer network

configuration where each network computer and device are connected to each other
forming a large circle (or similar shape). Each packet is sent around the ring until it reaches
its final destination. Today, the ring topology is seldom used. Below is a visual example of
a simple computer setup on a network using a ring topology.

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 3

Star topology

Alternatively referred to as a star network, a star topology is one of the most common
network setups where each of the devices and computers on a network connect to a
central hub. A major disadvantage of this network topology is that if the central hub fails,
all computers connected to that hub would be disconnected. Below is a visual example of
a simple computer setup on a network using the star topology.

Bus topology

A bus topology is a type of network setup where each computer and network device is
connected to a single cable or backbone. Below, is a visual example of a simple computer
setup on a network using the bus topology.

Mesh topology

A network setup where each computer and

network device is interconnected with
one another, allowing for most transmissions to be distributed, even if one of the
connections go down. This topology is not commonly used for most computer networks as

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 4

it is difficult and expensive to have redundant connection to every computer. However, this
topology is commonly used for wireless networks. Below is a visual example of a simple
computer setup on a network using a mesh topology.

Tree topology

Alternatively referred to as a star bus topology, tree topology is one of the most
common network setups that is similar to a bus topology and a star topology. A tree
topology connects multiple star networks to other star networks. Below is a visual example
of a simple computer setup on a network using the star topology.

In the above example picture, if the main cable or trunk between each of the two star
topology networks failed, those networks would be unable to communicate with each other.
However, computers on the same star topology would still be able to communicate with
each other.

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 5

Hybrid topology

A hybrid topology is a network topology that uses two or more network topologies.

1.2.2 Network Types

• Depending upon the geographical area covered by a network, it is classified as:

– Local Area Network (LAN)

– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• – Wide Area Network (WAN)

• – Personal Area Network (PAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)

• A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices,

usually within an office building or home.
• LAN’s enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may
be needed by multiple users

• Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters, and no more than a mile
• Is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps
• Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device
• Has lower cost compared to MAN’s or WAN’s

Local Area Network (LAN)

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 6

 • LAN’s can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fibre optic cable can
be used in wired LAN’s.
• Every LAN uses a protocol – a set of rules that governs how packets are configured
and transmitted.
• Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain

topology. These topologies include: – Bus

– Ring
– Star

• LANs are capable of very high transmission rates (100s Mb/s to G b/s).

Local Area Network (LAN)

Advantages of LAN

• Speed
• Cost
• Security
• E-mail
• Resource Sharing

Disadvantages of LAN

• Expensive To Install
• Requires Administrative Time
• File Server May Fail
• Cables May Break

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans
a city or a large campus.

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 7

 • A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from
several blocks of buildings to entire cities.
• A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will
be used by many individuals and organizations.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources.
• A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.
• Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high speed DSL
to customers and cable TV network.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)

• WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole of
the world.
• A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many miles
apart.

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 8

 • To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high-speed phone
lines or wireless links such as satellites.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

• Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges, routers,
or gateways, which enable them to share data.
• The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN)

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 9

 • A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and
computer devices (including telephones) in close proximity of around a few meters
within a room
• It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for
connecting to a larger network such as the internet.
• PAN’s can be wired or wireless

Personal Area Network (PAN)

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among
computer devices, including telephones and personal digital assistants, in proximity to an
individual's body.

The devices may or may not belong to the person in question. The reach of a PAN is
typically a few meters.

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 10

1.3 Network Media

Transmission media are the physical pathways that connect computers, other devices, and
people on a network—the highways and byways that comprise the information
superhighway. Each transmission medium requires specialized network hardware that has
to be compatible with that medium. You have probably heard terms such as Layer 1, Layer
2, and so on. They encompass the physical entity and describe the types of highways on
which voice and data can travel.
It would be convenient to construct a network of only one medium. But that is impractical
for anything but an extremely small network. In general, networks use combinations of
media types. There are three main categories of media types:
• Copper cable—Types of cable include unshielded twisted-pair (UTP), shielded twisted-
pair (STP), and coaxial cable. Copper-based cables are inexpensive and easy to
work with compared to fiber-optic cables, but as you'll learn when we get into the
specifics, a major disadvantage of cable is that it offers a rather limited spectrum
that cannot handle the advanced applications of the future, such as teleimmersion
and virtual reality.

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 11

• Wireless—Wireless media include radio frequencies, microwave, satellite, and infrared.
Deployment of wireless media is faster and less costly than deployment of cable,
particularly where there is little or no existing infrastructure (e.g., Africa, Asia-
Pacific, Latin America, eastern and central Europe). Wireless is also useful where
environmental circumstances make it impossible or cost-prohibitive to use cable
(e.g., in the Amazon, in the Empty Quarter in Saudi Arabia, on oil rigs).
• There are a few disadvantages associated with wireless, however. Historically, wireless
solutions support much lower data rates than do wired solutions, although with new
developments in wireless broadband, that is becoming less of an issue (see Part IV,
"Wireless Communications"). Wireless is also greatly affected by external
impairments, such as the impact of adverse weather, so reliability can be difficult
to guarantee. However, new developments in laser-based communications—such
as virtual fiber—can improve this situation. (Virtual fiber is discussed in Chapter
15, "WMANs, WLANs, and WPANs.") Of course, one of the biggest concerns with
wireless is security: Data must be secured in order to ensure privacy.

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 12

Fiber optics—Fiber offers enormous bandwidth, immunity to many types of interference
and noise, and improved security. Therefore, fiber provides very clear communications and
a relatively noise-free environment. The downside of fiber is that it is costly to purchase
and deploy because it requires specialized equipment and techniques.

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 13

Advantages and Disadvantages of Twisted-Pair
Twisted-pair has several key advantages:
• High availability—More than 1 billion telephone subscriber lines based on twisted-pair
have been deployed, and because it's already in the ground, the telcos will use it.
Some say that the telcos are trapped in their copper cages; rather than build an
infrastructure truly designed for tomorrow's applications, they hang on to protecting
their existing investment. It is a huge investment: More than US$250 billion in
terms of book value is associated with the twisted-pair deployed worldwide. This
can be construed as both an advantage and a disadvantage.
• Low cost of installation on premises—The cost of installing twisted-pair on premises
is very low.
• Low cost for local moves, adds, and changes in places—An individual can simply pull
out the twisted-pair terminating on a modular plug and replace it in another jack in

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 14

 the enterprise, without requiring the intervention of a technician. Of course, this
assumes that the wiring is already in place; otherwise, there is the additional cost
of a new installation.
Twisted-pair has the following disadvantages:
• Limited frequency spectrum—The total usable frequency spectrum of twisted-pair
copper cable is about 1MHz.
• Limited data rates—The longer a signal has to travel over twisted-pair, the lower the
data rate. At 30 feet (100 m), twisted-pair can carry 100Mbps, but at 3.5 miles (5.5
km), the data rate drops to 2Mbps or less.
• Short distances required between repeaters—More components need to be
maintained, and those components are places where trouble can arise, which leads
to higher long-term operational costs.
• High error rate—Twisted-pair is highly susceptibility to signal interference such as
EMI and RFI.
Although twisted-pair has been deployed widely and adapted to some new applications,
better media are available to meet the demands of the broadband world.

Table 1.3. Traditional Transmission Media Characteristics

Media Type Bandwidth Performance:

Typical Error Rate

Twisted-pair for analog voice 1MHz Poor to fair (10–5)

applications

Coaxial cable 1GHz Good (10–7 to 10–9)

Microwave 100GHz Good (10–9)

Satellite 100GHz Good (10–9)

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 15

 Fiber 75THz Great (10–11 to 10–13)

The frequency spectrum in which a medium operates directly relates to the bit rate that can
be obtained with that medium. You can see in Table 2.1 that traditional twisted-pair affords
the lowest bandwidth (i.e., the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies
supported), a maximum of 1MHz, whereas fiber optics affords the greatest bandwidth,
some 75THz.
Another important characteristic is a medium's susceptibility to noise and the subsequent
error rate. Again, twisted-pair suffers from many impairments. Coax and fiber have fewer
impairments than twisted-pair because of how the cable is constructed, and fiber suffers
the least because it is not affected by electrical interference. The error rate of wireless
depends on the prevailing conditions, especially weather and the presence of obstacles,
such as foliage and buildings.
Yet another characteristic you need to evaluate is the distance required between repeaters.
This is a major cost issue for those constructing and operating networks. In the case of
twisted-pair deployed as an analog telephone channel, the distance between amplifiers is
roughly 1.1 miles (1.8 km). When twisted-pair is used in digital mode, the repeater spacing
drops to about 1,800 feet (550 m). With twisted-pair, a great many network elements must
be installed and subsequently maintained over their lifetime, and they can be potential
sources of trouble in the network. Coax offers about a 25% increase in the distance between
repeaters over twisted-pair. With microwave and satellite, the distance between repeaters
depends on the frequency bands in which you're operating and the orbits in which the
satellites travel. In the area of fiber, new innovations appear every three to four months,
and, as discussed later in this chapter, some new developments promise distances as great
as 4,000 miles (6,400 km) between repeaters or amplifiers in the network.
Security is another important characteristic. There is no such thing as complete security,
and no transmission medium in and of itself can provide security. But using encryption and
authentication helps ensure security. For example, with fiber, an optical time domain
reflectometer (OTDR) can be used to detect the position of splices that could be the result
of unwanted intrusion. (Some techniques allow you to tap into a fiber cable without splices,
but they are extremely costly and largely available only to government security agencies.)

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 16

Finally, you need to consider three types of costs associated with the media types:
acquisition cost (e.g., the costs of the cable per foot [meter], of the transceiver and laser
diode, and of the microwave tower), installation and maintenance costs (e.g., the costs of
parts as a result of wear and tear and environmental conditions), and internal premises costs
for enterprises (e.g., the costs of moves, adds, and changes, and of relocating workers as
they change office spaces).
The following sections examine these five media types—twisted-pair, coaxial cable,
microwave, satellite, and fiber optics—in detail.

Twisted-Pair
The historical foundation of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) lies in twisted-
pair, and even today, most people who have access to networks access them through a local
loop built on twisted-pair. Although twisted-pair has contributed a great deal to the
evolution of communications, advanced applications on the horizon require larger amounts
of bandwidth than twisted-pair can deliver, so the future of twisted-pair is diminishing.
Figure 2.1 shows an example of four-pair UTP.

Figure 1.10 Twisted-pair

Characteristics of Twisted-Pair
The total usable frequency spectrum of telephony twisted-pair copper cable is about 1MHz
(i.e., 1 million cycles per second). Newer standards for broadband DSL, also based on
twisted-pair, use up to 2.2MHz of spectrum. Loosely translated into bits per second (bps)—
a measurement of the amount of data being transported, or capacity of the channel—
twisted-pair cable offers about 2Mbps to 3Mbps over 1MHz of spectrum. But there's an
inverse relationship between distance and the data rate that can be realized. The longer the
distance, the greater the impact of errors and impairments, which diminish the data rate. In

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 17

order to achieve higher data rates, two techniques are commonly used: The distance of the
loop can be shortened, and advanced modulation schemes can be applied, which means we
can encode more bits per cycle. A good example of this is Short Reach VDSL2 (discussed
in Chapter 12, "Broadband Access Alternatives"), which is based on twisted copper pair
but can support up to 100Mbps, but over a maximum loop length of only 330 feet (100 m).
New developments continue to allow more efficient use of twisted-pair and enable the
higher data rates that are needed for Internet access and Web surfing, but each of these new
solutions specifies a shorter distance over which the twisted-pair is used, and more
sophisticated modulation and error control techniques are used as well.
Another characteristic of twisted-pair is that it requires short distances between repeaters.
Again, this means that more components need to be maintained and there are more points
where trouble can arise, which leads to higher costs in terms of long-term operation.
Twisted-pair is also highly susceptible to interference and distortion, including
electromagnetic interference (EMI), radio frequency interference (RFI), and the effects of
moisture and corrosion. Therefore, the age and health of twisted-pair cable are important
factors.
The greatest use of twisted-pair in the future is likely to be in enterprise premises, for
desktop wiring. Eventually, enterprise premises will migrate to fiber and forms of wireless,
but in the near future, they will continue to use twisted-pair internally.

Categories of Twisted-Pair
There are two types of twisted-pair: UTP and STP. In STP, a metallic shield around the
wire pairs minimizes the impact of outside interference. Most implementations today use
UTP.
Twisted-pair is divided into categories that specify the maximum data rate possible. In
general, the cable category term refers to ANSI/TIA/EIA 568-A: Commercial Building
Telecommunications Cabling Standards. The purpose of EIA/TIA 568-A was to create a
multiproduct, multivendor standard for connectivity. Other standards bodies—including
the ISO/IEC, NEMA, and ICEA—are also working on specifying Category 6 and above
cable.
The following are the cable types specified in ANSI/TIA/EIA 568-A:

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 18

• Category 1—Cat 1 cable was originally designed for voice telephony only, but thanks
to some new techniques, long-range Ethernet and DSL, operating at 10Mbps and
even faster, can be deployed over Cat 1.
• Category 2—Cat 2 cable can accommodate up to 4Mbps and is associated with token-
ring LANs.
• Category 3—Cat 3 cable operates over a bandwidth of 16MHz on UTP and supports up
to 10Mbps over a range of 330 feet (100 m). Key LAN applications include 10Mbps
Ethernet and 4Mbps token-ring LANs.
• Category 4—Cat 4 cable operates over a bandwidth of 20MHz on UTP and can carry
up to 16Mbps over a range of 330 feet (100 m). The key LAN application is 16Mbps
token ring.
• Category 5—Cat 5 cable operates over a bandwidth of 100MHz on UTP and can handle
up to 100Mbps over a range of 330 feet (100m). Cat 5 cable is typically used for
Ethernet networks running at 10Mbps or 100Mbps. Key LAN applications include
100BASE-TX, ATM, CDDI, and 1000BASE-T. It is no longer supported, having
been replaced by Cat 5e.
• Category 5e—Cat 5e (enhanced) operates over a bandwidth of 100MHz on UTP, with
a range of 330 feet (100 m). The key LAN application is 1000BASE-T. The Cat 5e
standard is largely the same as Category 5, except that it is made to somewhat more
stringent standards. Category 5e is recommended for all new installations and was
designed for transmission speeds of up to 1Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet). Although Cat
5e can support Gigabit Ethernet, it is not currently certified to do so.
• Category 6—Cat 6, specified under ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B.2-1, operates over a
bandwidth of up to 400MHz and supports up to 1Gbps over a range of 330 feet (100
m). It is a cable standard for Gigabit Ethernet and other network protocols that is
backward compatible with the Cat 5/5e and Cat 3 cable standards. Cat 6 features
more stringent specifications for crosstalk and system noise. Cat 6 is suitable for
10BASE-T/100BASE-TX and 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet) connections.
• Category 7—Cat 7 is specified in the frequency range of 1MHz to 600MHz.
ISO/IEC11801:2002 Category 7/Class F is a cable standard for Ultra Fast Ethernet
and other interconnect technologies that can be made backward compatible with

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 19

 traditional Cat 5 and Cat 6 Ethernet cable. Cat 7, which is based on four twisted
copper pairs, features even more stringent specifications for crosstalk and system
noise than Cat 6. To achieve this, shielding has been added for individual wire pairs
and the cable as a whole.
The predominant cable categories in use today are Cat 5e and Cat 6.
Applications of Twisted-Pair
The primary applications of twisted-pair are in premises distribution systems, telephony,
private branch exchanges (PBXs) between telephone sets and switching cabinets, LANs,
and local loops, including both analog telephone lines and broadband DSL.

Analog and Digital Twisted-Pair

Twisted-pair is used in traditional analog subscriber lines, also known as the telephony
channel or 4KHz channel. Digital twisted-pair takes the form of Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) and the new-generation family of DSL standards, collectively referred to
as xDSL.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Twisted-Pair

Twisted-pair has several key advantages:
• High availability—More than 1 billion telephone subscriber lines based on twisted-pair
have been deployed, and because it's already in the ground, the telcos will use it.
Some say that the telcos are trapped in their copper cages; rather than build an
infrastructure truly designed for tomorrow's applications, they hang on to protecting
their existing investment. It is a huge investment: More than US$250 billion in
terms of book value is associated with the twisted-pair deployed worldwide. This
can be construed as both an advantage and a disadvantage.
• Low cost of installation on premises—The cost of installing twisted-pair on premises
is very low.
• Low cost for local moves, adds, and changes in places—An individual can simply pull
out the twisted-pair terminating on a modular plug and replace it in another jack in
the enterprise, without requiring the intervention of a technician. Of course, this

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 20

 assumes that the wiring is already in place; otherwise, there is the additional cost
of a new installation.
Twisted-pair has the following disadvantages:
• Limited frequency spectrum—The total usable frequency spectrum of twisted-pair
copper cable is about 1MHz.
• Limited data rates—The longer a signal has to travel over twisted-pair, the lower the
data rate. At 30 feet (100 m), twisted-pair can carry 100Mbps, but at 3.5 miles (5.5
km), the data rate drops to 2Mbps or less.
• Short distances required between repeaters—More components need to be
maintained, and those components are places where trouble can arise, which leads
to higher long-term operational costs.
• High error rate—Twisted-pair is highly susceptibility to signal interference such as
EMI and RFI.
Although twisted-pair has been deployed widely and adapted to some new applications,
better media are available to meet the demands of the broadband world.

1.4 Types of Network Architectures

Computer networks can be logically classified as 1) Peer-to-Peer networks and 2) Client-
Server networks

1.4.1 Peer-to-Peer networks

A Peer-to-Peer network has no dedicated Servers. Here in Peer-to-Peer network, a number
of workstations (or clients) are connected together for the purpose of sharing devices,
information or data. All the workstations are considered as equal. Any one computer can
act as client or server at any instance. This network is ideal for small networks where there
is no need for dedicated servers, like home networks, small business networks, or retail
shops. The Microsoft term for Peer-to-Peer network is “Workgroup”.

There is no limitation for the number of computers in a peer-to-peer network. But Peer-to-
Peer implementations are meant for small networks. Typically a Workgroup contain less

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 21

than 10 workstations. Nevertheless, peer to peer networks can be established over a WAN,
and in this case it could involve thousands of computers. A good example is the category
of softwares know as “Torrent”, which makes it possible for internet users to share files
concurrently amongst hundreds and thousands of users.

Normal Workstation Operating Systems are Windows 95/98 (obsolete), Windows ME

(obsolete), NT Workstation (obsolete), Windows 2000 professional (obsolete), Windows
XP, Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8/8.1, Ubuntu Desktop, RHEL Desktop etc.

1.4.2 Client-Server Networks

Peer-to-Peer computer networks are good for small business organizations. For example:
A small pharmacy outlet, an automobile service center, A small clinic. etc. The main
disadvantage of Peer-to-Peer networks are listed below.
• Everything is kept distributed in different computers.
• User generated files are stored in individual computers. Data backup is extremely
difficult.
• Each computer has its own user database. There is no centralized user & user
privilege management. Users need to remember their user ids and passwords in
every computers. Managing network users is extremely difficult.

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 22

As the organization's network grows, they must gradually upgrade their Peer-to-Peer
network to Client-Server based network.

The Client/Server computer network model is made-up of Client computers and Server
computers. Now we need to understand the terms Client and Server.

What is a Client? A computer which is seeking any resource from another computer is a
Client Computer. You can think a client as a computer in your network, where a network
user is performing some network activity. For Example: Downloading a file from a File
Server, Browsing Intranet/Internet etc. The network user normally uses a client computer
to perform his day-to-day work.

What is a Server? If a computer has a resource, which is served to another computer, it is

a Server computer. The client establishes a connection to a Server and accesses the services
installed on the Server. A Server is not meant for a network user to browse in internet or
do spreadsheet work. A Server computer is installed with appropriate Operating System
and related Software to serve the network clients with one or more services, continuously
without a break.

In a Client-Server network, high-end servers, installed with the Network Operating System
(Server Operating System) and the related software, serve the clients continuously on a
network, by providing them with specific services upon request.
Well known Server Operating System Products are Windows 2012 / Windows 2012 R2,
Unix (Oracle Solaris, IBM AIX, HP UX, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, SCO Unix etc),
GNU/Linux (RedHat Enterprise Linux, Debian Linux, SUSE Enterprise, Ubuntu Server,
CentOS Server, Mandriva, Fedora etc.

Client-Server networks require dedicated servers. Server hardware is more costly than
normal Desktop computers. Client-Server networks cost more than peer-to-peer networks.
Network Operating System (Server Operating System) are also more costly than Desktop
Operating Systems.

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 23

Different types of Servers used in networks are listed below.

File Server: File servers are used to store the user documents and files centrally. An ideal
file server should have a large amount of memory and storage space, fast hard-disks,
multiple processors, fast network adapters, redundant power supplies etc.
A File server runs FTP (File Transfer Protocol) in Windows, Linux or Unix Networks, or
SMBP (Server Message Block Protocol) in Windows Networks. Well known FTP software
products are Micrsoft IIS, vsftpd, Apache FTP Server, Filezilla, etc.

The main advantage of keeping network user files and electronic documents centrally in a
file server is that the network user files and documents can be managed (backup'd) easily.
Think about managing network user files and electronic documents kept distributed inside
user workstations in a network consists of thousands of computers! Nearly impossible.

Print Server: Print Server, which redirects print jobs from client computers to specific

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 24

printers.

Mail Server: Mail Servers are used to transmit emails using email protocols. Most widely
used email transmission protocol is SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol). Mail Servers
exchange emails between different domains.

Most widely used Mail Server software products are Microsoft Exchange Server,
SENDMAIL (now proofpoint), qmail, Postfix etc.

Application Server: Common computer applications or programs which are required by

different network users can be run in a central server, which enables multiple network users
to access common network applications from the network. Typically Application Servers
run business logic. Which means, every business is different and the Application Server is
the Server Software, which controls the business process. Some examples for Application
Server Software are SAP BASIS, WebLogic, WebSphere, etc.

Database Server: Database Server allows authorized network clients to create, view,
modify and/or delete an organization's data, stored in a common database. Examples of
Database Management Systems are Oracle 10g/11g, Microsoft SQL Server
2000/2005/2008/2012, PostgreSQL, IBM DB2, MySQL, Sybase, Informix, etc.

Directory Servers: Directory Servers allows the central administration and management
of network users and network resources. Directory Servers provide the basic functions of
network security, Authentication, Authorization and Accounting.
Examples of Directory Servers are Microsoft Active Directory, NetIQ eDirectory, Fedora
Directory Server, OpenLDAP , etc.

1.5 Network Devices

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 25

These are electronic devices which are used in computer network, and in establishing
connectivity or processing/storing information of some form. Below are some common
network devices.

1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the
length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point
to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes
weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port
device.

2. Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming
from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology, which connects
different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected
devices. In other words, collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains
one. Also, they do not have intelligence to find out best path for data packets, which leads
to inefficiencies and wastage.

3. Bridge – A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination.
It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single
input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

4. Switch – A switch is a multi port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. Switch is data link
layer device. Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very
efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to correct port only. In other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts,
but broadcast domain remains same.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 26

WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make
decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected
through it.

Optical Networks – Lecture Notes – Chapter 1: Introduction:: Achankeng P ©2023 27