MeE-404.

ndustrial engineering Module 6

Module:6 Quality control and Inspection- Destructive and non-destructive testing methods-
process capability- Statistical quality control –causes of variation in quality- control charts for
X and R. Reliability-causes of failures- Bath tub curve.-System reliability- life testing-
Introduction to concepts of, TQM, ISO, Six Sigma and Quality circles (Brief description only).

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WHAT IS QUALITY
 Quality is fitness for use. ”
 “The totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its
ability to satisfy a given need.”
 “Quality involves meeting customers need, preferences and exceeding it.”
 “Quality also involves people, process and environment.”
WHY QUALITY CONTROL
 Manufacturing process is a repetitive process depending on both controllable and non-
controllable factors.
 This produces deviation in the quality of the product.
 QC is the process of verification , or correction of the quality of the product when
deviations are found to be more than expected.
 Those planned and systematic actions which provides a mean to control and
measure the characteristics of a product, process or a service to established
requirements.”
QUALITY CONTROL AS PER ISO
 The operational techniques and activities that are used to satisfy quality
requirements.”
 The quality control system verifies and maintains desired level of quality in an
existing product or service by careful planning, use of proper equipments and
continued inspection and corrective action as required
WHAT IS QC INSPECTION
 The ISO standard defines inspection as “activity of measuring, examining, testing
one or more characteristics of a product or service and comparing the results with
specified requirements in order to establish whether conformity is achieved for each
characteristic.”

1 | Sonia S. Raj (9400913224) , Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Marian Engineering College

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QUALITY CONTROL PROCESS

 The quality control process is divided into three separate processes, ensuring that
specialized expertise is applied to each stage of our operation.

1.Incoming Quality Control

 To decrease quality risk, the inputs can be inspected prior to production.
 Samples are randomly taken and checked.
 An experienced inspector examines the sample/prototype to make sure that the raw
materials meet the specified standards
 Whether development team has clearly communicated the requirements to the
manufacturing team.
 Whether equipments for mass production is similar to that for making prototypes.
2.In-Process Quality Control
 IPQC process governs our quality systems during the assembly process in order to
detect and handle any problems that may arise during assembly.

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 The first products that got out of the line are inspected for conformity.
 If issues are raised at this stage, the factory can immediately take actions and avoid
delays.
 In-process products are rarely checked as it takes technician to reliably detect errors
on unfinished products.

3.Outgoing Quality Assurance

 It is also known pre-shipment inspection.
 This is the most popular type of QC inspection for importers.
 It takes place once all the products are finished and ready for shipment.
 The samples are drawn in a random manner and thus can be representative of the
whole batch
*Destructive & Non destructive Testing
Study yourself

Process capability
 Process Capability means the ability to do a particular work without producing or
producing least defects.
 It measures the “goodness of a process” comparing the “voice of the process” with the
“voice of the customer
 Process capability is the repeatability and consistency of a manufacturing process
relative to the customer requirements in terms of specification limits of a product
parameter. This measure is used to objectively measure the degree to which your
process is or is not meeting the requirements.
 The process capability index or process capability ratio is a statistical measure of
process capability, the ability of a process to produce output within specification
limits.
 Process capability Ratio =USL-LSL/6σ

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Measures of Process Capability - Process Capability Indices

 Cp, Cpl, Cpu, and Cpk are the four most common and timed tested measures of
process capability.
 Process capability indices measure the degree to which your process produces output
that meets the customer's specification.
 Process capability indices can be used effectively to summarize process capability
information in a convenient unitless system.
 Cp and Cpk are quantitative expressions that personify the variability of your process
(its natural limits) relative to its specification limits (customer requirements).
 Cp (Process Capability),
 Cpk (Process Capability Index
 Pp (Preliminary Process Capability)
 Ppk (Preliminary Process Capability Index),

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Statistical Quality Control (SQC)

 Statistical Quality Control (SQC) is the term used to describe the set of statistical
tools used by quality professionals.
 SQC is used to analyze the quality problems and solve them.
 Statistical quality control refers to the use of statistical methods in the monitoring and
maintaining of the quality of products and services.
SQC uses different tools to analyze quality problem.
1) Descriptive Statistics
2) Statistical Process Control (SPC)
3) Acceptance Sampling
1.Descriptive Statistics are used to describe quality characteristics and relationships
 The Mean- measure of central tendency
 The Range- difference between largest/smallest observations in a set of data
 Standard Deviation measures the amount of data dispersion around mean

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1.The Mean: To compute the mean we simply sum all the observations and divide by the
total no. of observations

2.The Range: Range, which is the difference between the largest and smallest observations

3.Standard Deviation:
 Standard deviation is a measure of dispersion of a curve.
 It measures the extent to which these values are scattered around the central mean.

2) Statistical Process Control (SPC)

 It is an industry-standard methodology for measuring and controlling quality during
the manufacturing process.
 Quality data in the form of Product or Process measurements are obtained in real-time
during manufacturing.
 This data is then plotted on a graph with pre-determined control limits.
 Control limits are determined by the capability of the process, whereas specification
limits are determined by the client's needs.

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3.ACCEPTANCE
CEPTANCE SAMPLING
 Acceptance sampling is an inspection procedure used to determine wh
whether
ether to accept
or reject a specific quantity of material.
 Acceptance sampling is a form of testing that involves taking random samples of
“lots,” or batches, of finished products and measuring them against predetermined
standards
 The basic procedure is
 A random sample is taken from a large quantity of items and tested or
measured relative to the quality characteristic of interest.
 If the sample passes the test, the entire quantity of items is accepted.
 If the sample fails the test, either
(a)) the entire quantity of items is subjected to 100 percent inspection and all
defective items repaired or replaced
(b) the entire quantity is returned to the supplier.
Acceptance Sampling Used in
 When testing is destructive
 When the cost of 100% inspection is extremely high and it is not
technologically feasible
Sampling Plans

Sampling
plans

Attribute Variable
sampling sampling

Single Double Multiple Sequential

sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

Single Sampling Plan

 A representative sample of n items is drawn from a lot size of N items.
 Each item in the sample is examined and classified as good/defective
 If the number of defective exceeds a specified rejection number (C - cut off point) the
whole lot is rejected; otherwise the whole lot is accepted

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Double Sampling Plan

 A Double Sampling Plan allows the opportunity to take a second sample if the results
of the original sample are inconclusive.
 Specifies the lot size, size of the initial sample, the accept/reject/inconclusive criteria
for the initial sample (CL - lower level of defectives, CU - upper level of defectives)
 Specifies the size of the second sample and the acceptance rejection criteria based
on the total number of defective observed in both the first and second
sample (CT- total allowable defectives)
 Compare number of defective found in the first random sample to CL and CU and
make appropriate decision.
Multiple Sampling Plans
 Multiple sampling is an extension of double sampling, with smaller samples used
sequentially until a clear decision can be made.
 When units are randomly selected from a lot and tested one by one, with the
cumulative number of inspected pieces and defects recorded, the process is called
sequential sampling.
 If the cumulative number of defects exceeds an upper limit specified for that sample,
the whole lot will be rejected. Or if the cumulative number of rejects is less than or
equal to the lower limit, the lot will be accepted
 Selection of the best sampling approach depends on —
 the types of products being inspected
 expected quality level.
OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC (OC) CURVES
 The operating characteristic (OC) curve describes how well an acceptance plan
discriminates between good and bad lots.
 A curve pertains to a specific plan, that is, a combination of n (sample size) and c
(acceptance level). It is intended to show the probability that the plan will accept lots
of various quality levels.
 This ideal OC curve for a single-sampling plan is shown in Figure. However, such
performance can be achieved only with 100 percent inspection
 A typical OC curve for a single-sampling plan, plotted in red, shows the probability a
of rejecting a good lot (producer’s risk) and the probability of accepting a bad lot
(consumer’s risk).

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 An Operating Characteristic Curve (OCC) is a probability curve for a sampling plan

that shows the probabilities of accepting lots with various lot quality levels
(%defectives).
Customers Acceptance Levels
 Most customers understand that 100% inspection is impractical and are generally
willing to accept that a certain level of defectives will be produced.
 The Acceptable Quality Level (AQL) is the percentage level of defects at which a
customer is willing to accept as lot as “good”.
 The Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (LTPD) is the upper limit on the percentage of
defectives that a customer is willing to accept.
 Customers want lots with quality better than or equal to the AQL but are willing to
live with some lots with quality as poor as the LTPD, but prefer not to accept lots
with quality levels worse than the LTPD.
 Therefore the sampling plan must be designed to assure the customer that they will be
receiving the required AQL and LTPD.
 The Consumer’s Risk is the probability that an unacceptable lot (e.g. above the
LTPD) will be accepted.
 The Producer’s Risk is the probability that a “good” lot will be rejected

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MeE-404.ndustrial engineering Module 6

Advantages
 It is usually less expensive because there is less inspection.
 There is less handling of the product, hence reduced damage.
 It is applicable to destructive testing.
 Fewer personnel are involved in inspection activities.
 The rejection of entire lots are opposed to the sample return of defectives often
provides a stronger motivation to the vendor for quality improvements.
Disadvantages
 There are risk of accepting “bad” lots and rejecting “good” lots.
 Less information is usually generated about the product or about the process that
manufactured the product.
 Acceptance sampling requires planning and documentation of the acceptance
sampling procedure whereas 100% inspection does not

Reliability Engineering
 Reliability is defined as the probability that a device will perform its required function
under stated conditions for a specific period of time.
 It can be said that reliability is quality over time.
 Reliability engineering has both quantitative and qualitative aspects; measurements of
reliability are necessary for customer requirements compliance

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MeE-404.ndustrial engineering Module 6

 Reliability engineering is the discipline of ensuring that a system will function as

required over a specified time period when operated and maintained in a specified
manner
 However measuring reliability does not make a product reliable, only by designing in
reliability can a product achieve its reliability targets.
 Reliability is associated with unexpected failures of products or services and
understanding why these failures occur is key to improving reliability.
 It is clear that to ensure good reliability the causes of failure need to be identified and
eliminated.

The bath tub curve

 The bath-tub curve is a representation of the reliability performance of components or
non repaired items.
 It observes the reliability performance of a large sample of homogenous items
entering the field at some start time (usually zero).
 If we observe the items over their lifetime without replacement then we can observe
three distinct shapes or periods.
 Figure shows the bath-tub curve and these 3 periods.
 Infant mortality
 Useful life
 End of life(wear out stage)

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Failure
Rate

1.Infant mortality
 Many components fail very soon after they are put into service.
 failures within this period are caused by defects and poor design that cause an item to
be relatively bad.
 these are called infant mortality failures and the failure rate in this period is relatively
high.
 good system vendors will perform an operation called "burn in" where they put
together and test a system for several days to try to weed out these types of problems
so the customer doesn't see them.
2.chance failure / normal operating life:
 if a component does not fail within its infancy, it will generally tend to remain
trouble-free over its operating lifetime.
 the failure rate during this period is typically quite low. this phase, in which the
failure rate is constant, typically represents the useful life of the product.
3. wear out / ageing:
 after a component reaches a certain age, it enters the period where it begins to wear
out, and failures start to increase.
 the period where failures start to increase is called the wear out phase of component
life.

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International Organization for Standardization(ISO)

 ISO is an international agency consisting of 156 member countries including Kenya.
 ISO was formed in 1947 and is based in Geneva, Switzerland .
 It develops international standards to foster increased trade of products and services.
 By July 2005, ISO had published over 15,000 standards .
 Bureau of Indian standards(BIS) represents ISO in India.
ISO STANDARDS
 ISO International standards ensure that products and services are safe, reliable and of
good quality.
 The International organization for standardization is a worldwide federation of
national standard bodies.
 The official purpose for the issuance of ISO standards is to facilitate world trade
through standardization.
 For business they are strategic tools that reduce costs by minimizing wastes and
errors, and increasing productivity
SOME POPULAR STANDARDS
 ISO 9001 – Quality management
 ISO 14001- Environmental management
 ISO 3166- Country codes
 ISO 26000- Social responsibility
 ISO 50001- Energy management
 ISO 31000- Risk management
 ISO 22000- Food safety management
Types of ISO standards
 Generic standards
 Specific standards
Generic standards:
 Generic means that the same standards can be applied:
◦ to any organization, large or small, whatever its product or service,
◦ in any sector of activity, and

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◦ whether it is a business enterprise, a public administration, or a government

department.
Specific standards :
• It can be applied in specific sectors.
ISO 9001 AND 14001 STANDARDS
 ISO 9001 AND 14001 are the most popular standards amongst all others.
 They are implemented by more then a million organizations.
 ISO 9001 helps organizations to implement quality management.
 ISO 14001 helps organizations to implement environmental management.
 Both ISO 9001 and 14001 are generic standards.
Standards in the ISO 9000 family include:
 ISO 9001:2008 - sets out the requirements of a quality management system
 ISO 9000:2005 - covers the basic concepts and language
 ISO 9004:2009 - focuses on how to make a quality management system more
efficient and effective
 ISO 19011:2011 - sets out guidance on internal and external audits of quality
management systems
ISO 50001 - Energy management
 ISO 50001 supports organizations in all sectors to use energy more efficiently,
through the development of an energy management system (EnMS).
 ISO 50001:2011 provides a framework of requirements for organizations to:
◦ Develop a policy for more efficient use of energy
◦ Fix targets and objectives to meet the policy
◦ Use data to better understand and make decisions about energy use
◦ Measure the results
◦ Review how well the policy works, and
◦ Continually improve energy management
ISO 22000 - Food safety management
 The ISO 22000 family of International Standards addresses food safety management.
 • The consequences of unsafe food can be serious and ISO’s food safety management
standards help organizations identify and control food safety hazards

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 As many of today's food products repeatedly cross national boundaries, International

Standards are needed to ensure the safety of the global food supply chain
ISO 14000 - Environmental management
 ISO 14001:2004 sets out the criteria for an environmental management system and
can be certified to.
 It does not state requirements for environmental performance, but maps out a
framework that a company or organization can follow to set up an effective
environmental management system

Quality Circles
• The concept of quality control originated in the U.S. and was taken to Japan by W.
Edwards Deming who marked the beginning of revolution in quality control.
• One of the mechanisms used by these companies to improve the quality not only of
their products but also the personnel was quality circles which is in practice even
today.
• Rather than developing technical staff that works with management and workers,
quality circles train the workers who identify and solve the problems they face during
the production process.
• Quality circle is “an approach to improving quality and reducing the cost of producing
a product or service by the voluntary efforts of small groups of workers
Objectives of Quality Circles
• To improve the quality of products.
• To improve productivity of the firm.
• To develop sense of confidence in the workers that they can solve their own
problems.
• To improve employees’ morale.
• To improve employees’ job satisfaction.
• To develop the personality of employees by making them aware of their importance
in the work related areas and work atmosphere.
• To improve interpersonal relationship between management and workers.
• To improve employees’ motivation and communication within the organisation.

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Total Quality Management(TQM)

• According to this concept quality is not the job of quality control department only but
other department like sales, procurement, material handling, accounting industrial
relations, design, production, for casting, marketing, stores, after sales service have
also to contribute substantially.
• That means quality is the responsibility of all the employees, output of every
department and every employee.

• Cleanliness,customer service, standardization of works and continuous effects for

their improvement are part of TQM.
• It is defined both a philosophy and a set of guiding principles that represent the
foundation of a continuously improving organization.
• It is the application of quantitative methods and human resources to improve all the
processes within an organization and exceed customer needs now and in the future.
• It integrates fundamental management techniques, existing improvement efforts, and
technical tools under a disciplined approach
Objectives of TQM
• Meeting the customers requirements is the primary objective and the key to
organizational survival and growth.
• The second objective of TQM is continuous improvement of quality. The
management should stimulate the employees in becoming increasingly competent and
creative.
• Third, TQM aims at developing the relationship and trust among the employees at all
levels in the organisation
Advantages of TQM:
• Greater customer satisfaction
• fever defaults
• less waste
• reduced costs
• improved profitability
• increased productivity
• customer satisfaction is the most important of TQM.

Six Sigma

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 Six Sigma is a defined and disciplined business methodology to increase customer

satisfaction and profitability by streamlining operations, improving quality and
eliminating defects in every organization-wide process
 Sigma represents the population standard deviation, which is a measure of
the variation in a data set collected about the process. If a defect is defined by
specification limits separating good from bad outcomes of a process, then a six
sigma process has a process mean (average) that is six standard deviations from
the nearest specification limit. This provides enough buffer between the process
natural variation and the specification limits.

 For example, if a product must have a thickness between 10.32 and 10.38 inches to
meet customer requirements, then the process mean should be around 10.35, with a
standard deviation less than 0.005 (10.38 would be 6 standard deviations away from
10.35), assuming a normal distribution.
 Six Sigma can also be thought of as a measure of process performance, with Six
Sigma being the goal, based on the defects per million. Once the current performance
of the process is measured, the goal is to continually improve the sigma level striving
towards 6 sigma. Even if the improvements do not reach 6 sigma, the improvements
made from 3 sigma to 4 sigma to 5 sigma will still reduce costs and increase customer
satisfaction.
Advantages

o It is an improving Process.
o It is used to lower Defects.
o It reduces process variability
o It also reduces costs
o Application of Six Sigma enhances customer satisfaction
o Its use increases profits

17 | Sonia S. Raj (9400913224) , Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Marian Engineering College

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18 | Sonia S. Raj (9400913224) , Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Marian Engineering College