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EM Chapter3

The document is a comprehensive overview of engineering materials, focusing on their classification, properties, structure, and selection for design. It details various types of material structures, including crystalline and amorphous forms, and discusses the solidification process and imperfections in crystals. Additionally, it covers metallography and the impact of defects on material properties.

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23 views47 pages

EM Chapter3

The document is a comprehensive overview of engineering materials, focusing on their classification, properties, structure, and selection for design. It details various types of material structures, including crystalline and amorphous forms, and discusses the solidification process and imperfections in crystals. Additionally, it covers metallography and the impact of defects on material properties.

Uploaded by

pratheesh k
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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MIME2204

Engineering Materials
Dr. Tabassum Sadik
Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering
MIE Section

Office:ME209
CHAPTERS

CHAPTER 1: CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

CHAPTER 3: STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS

CHAPTER 4: SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR DESIGN

CHAPTER 5: STANDARDS, SPECIFICATIONS AND CODES


STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS

 It refers to the study of the internal arrangement of


atoms, molecules or other minute particles
 The properties of a material are directly influenced by
the structure of the material
 The properties can be altered by altering the structure
Structure of materials
TYPES OF STRUCTURES

1. Crystal structure: orderly arrangement of atoms or


molecules in complete areas
2. Partial crystal structure: orderly arrangement of
atoms or molecules only in some areas
3. Amorphous/ non crystalline structure: no order in
the arrangement (random arrangement) of atoms or
molecules
TYPES OF SOLIDS BASED ON STRUCTURE

 Crystalline materials
 Polycrystalline (Partially crystalline )materials
 Amorphous (Non-crystalline) materials
Crystalline Materials
Pure Metals, Alloys, and Semiconductors
Partially Crystalline Materials
Polymers
Non-Crystalline (Amorphous) Materials
Wood, Composite materials, ceramics
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS MATERIALS

Crystalline Materials Amorphous Materials


1. High strength 1. Low strength
2. Heavy in weight 2. Generally light in weight
3. Generally ductile 3. Generally brittle
4. Conductors of heat and 4. Insulators of heat and
electricity electricity
5. Isotropic- they have 5. They do not have definite
constant properties in all value of properties in all areas
directions
TERMS OF CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURES

Unit cell: The simplest repeating unit in a crystal is


called a unit cell.
unit cell parameters: is represented in terms of its
lattice parameters which are the lengths(length x
width x height) of the cell edges (a, b and c) and
the angles between them (α, β and γ)
Shape: cubic structure
Coordination Number: The coordination number of a
central atom in crystal is the number of its nearest
neighboring atoms.
For the following, Coordination number= 6
Atomic Packing Factor (APF):
The fraction of volume in a crystal structure that is
occupied by constituent particles (atoms).
It is dimensionless and always less than unity
APF value <1
Side=a, a=b=c, then volume of unit cell =a^3
TYPES OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
 Simple Cubic (SC)
 Body Centered Cubic (BCC)
 Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
 Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP)
SIMPLE CUBIC (SC)

Examples : Pollonium and NaCl


Number of effective atoms in unit cell =
8 * (1 / 8 )= 1
Co-ordination number

Coordination number = 6
Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Total number of atoms = 8 x 1/8 = 1
Volume of atoms = 4/3·π·r3
Length of each edge, a = 2r
Volume of unit cell = a3 = (2r)3 = 8r3

4
no.of atoms in unit cell x 3 ×π 𝑟 3
= 8 𝑟 3
BODY CENTERED CUBIC (BCC)

Examples : Sodium, Potassium Alpha iron, Chromium

Number of effective atoms = 1 + 8 * 1 / 8 = 2


Co-ordination number

Coordination number = 8
Atomic Packing Factor (APF) in BCC
Total number of atoms = 1 + 8 x 1/8 = 2
Volume of atoms = 2 * 4/3·π·r3
(Edge length)² + (Face length)² = (Cube diagonal)²
(a)2 + (√2a)2 = (4r)2
3a2 = (4r)2

Length of each edge,


Volume of unit cell = a3
FACE CENTERED CUBIC (FCC)

Examples : Copper, Aluminium, Iron, Gold, Silver

Number of effective atoms


= 8 corner atoms × 1/8 + 6 face atoms × ½ = 4
Co-ordination number

Coordination number = 12
Atomic Packing Factor (APF) in FCC
Total number of atoms = 8 x 1/8 + 6 x 1/2 = 4
Volume of atoms = 4 * 4/3·π·r3
(edge length)² + (edge length)² = (face length)²
a2 + a2 = (4r)2
2 a2 = 16r2
Length of each edge, a = 2√2 r
Volume of unit cell = a3
HEXAGONAL CLOSE PACKED (HPC)

Examples : Beryllium, Cadmium, Magnesium, Zinc

Number of effective atoms


= 12 corner atoms × 1/6 + 2 face atoms × ½ + 3 centre atoms = 6
Coordination number = 12
APF = 0.74
Examples of Materials belongs to..
SOLIDIFICATION PROCESS
Solidification takes place when a molten metal or
alloy in liquid form is cooled.
 Formation of Nuclei
 Nuclei grow to form crystals and finally
grain structure
Solidification Process
IMPERFECTIONS IN CRYSTALS

The imperfections ( DEFECTS) may result from the


following factors.

 Rapid cooling from high temperature

 Deformation of solid

 High energy radiation striking the solid

Properties of materials are affected by the defects or


imperfections
CLASSIFICATION OF IMPERFECTIONS
1. Point Imperfections

Vacancy – missing of an atom


Self Interstitial atom –
extra atom of the same element
present in an interstitial
position
Interstitial impurity atom –
extra impurity atom present in
an interstitial position.
Substitution impurity atom –
an impurity atom substitutes an
original atom
 Impurities may be added intentionally to improve
the properties
 24 Ct gold (99.99%) is pure gold which is not
suitable for making jewelry. 22 Ct gold (91.2%) are
added with impurities (2 Ct copper) to increase its
strength.
 Carbon added in small amounts to iron makes steel,
which is stronger than pure iron.
 Boron is added to silicon to improve its electrical
properties
2. Line Imperfections

 Linear defects are commonly called dislocations.


 Groups of atoms are in irregular positions. i.e.
Serious atoms are out of position in the crystal
structure.
 Dislocations are generated when a stress is applied.
 The motion of dislocations allows slip – plastic
deformation to occur.
Types of line defects
 Edge dislocation
 Screw dislocation
Edge dislocation

Edge dislocation occurs when an


extra plane (series) of atoms is
inserted in a crystal structure
Screw dislocation forms when one layer of crystal
lattice is shifted (through shear) relative to the other
crystal layer. The atomic planes form a spiral surface
around the dislocation line
3. Surface Imperfections

 These arise from the clustering of line defects into


a plane
 The different types of surface imperfections
 External surface imperfection
 Stacking fault
 Grain Boundaries (internal surface defect)
External surface imperfection
 Surface atoms have neighbors on one side only.
Whereas the atoms inside the crystal have
neighbors on either sides.
 These surface atoms possess higher energy than
that of internal atoms
Stacking Fault
 A stacking fault is a one or two layer interruption in
the stacking sequence
 For example, if the sequence ABCABABCAB were
found in an FCC structure instead of ABCABCABC
Grain Boundaries (internal surface defect)
 Polycrystalline material comprise of many small
crystals or grains.
 The grains have different crystallographic orientation
 There exist atomic mismatch within the regions where
grains meet. These regions are called grain boundaries
 Depending on misalignments of atomic planes
between adjacent grains, there are low and high
angle grain boundaries.
4. Volume Imperfections
 Includes pores, blow holes, cracks, foreign
inclusions, etc.
 Normally introduced during processing and
fabrication steps.
METALLOGRAPHY
 Study of the structure of metals and alloys
 Optical microscopy is used for microstructure analysis

Steel Grey Cast Iron

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