Grade 12 Physics

Unit 11.5 Electricity Principle

11.5.1 Electrostatics them.
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2
Mass, Charge and polarity of electrons and 𝐹∝ 𝐹=k
𝑟2 𝑟2
protons
Where
𝑘 = 9.0 𝑥 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2
𝑞1 = charge on mass 1
𝑞1 = charge on mass 1
𝑟 = the distance between the two-charge
object
❖ The electrostatic force is much greater than
gravitational force
❖ Electrostatics is the charge at rest
❖ Charge is property of matter that causes it Example 1
to experience a force when kept in an Two 40 g masses each with a charge of 3𝜇𝐶 are
electric placed 50 cm apart. Calculate the electric force
❖ SI unit of charge is Coulombs (C) between the two masses.
❖ 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
❖ Three properties of charge are
i) Charge is always conserved
ii) Charge comes in packets i.e.,
1𝑒 = −1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝐶 or Solution
18
1𝐶 = 6.25 𝑥 10 𝑒
iii) Charge objects exert electrostatic force
on each other (electrostatic law) i.e., like
charge repel and unlike charge attracted
❖ Two types of charges are positive and Example 2
negative charges In the diagram below, calculate the force on
❖ Electroscope is used to detect the presence charge 𝑄3 due to charges 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 . The charges
of electric charge on a body are 𝑄3 = +65𝜇𝐶,
❖ Charge is proportional to voltage 𝑄2 = +50𝜇𝐶, 𝑄1 = −86𝜇𝐶. The distances and
❖ Conductors carries charge whilst insulator the angles between the charges are as shown in the
(non – conductor) do not allow charge figure.
carries to move through them, (e.g.,
polymers and ceramics)
❖ Electricity can be caused in three (3) ways
1. Friction – charge by rubbing
2. Conduction – charge by contact
3. Induction – charging at distance
Coulombs law
- The force of attraction and repulsion between
two-point charge is directly proportional to the
product of the two charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between
DOUR 1
Solution steps For you to try
i) Direction of force [𝐹1 &𝐹2 ] Three charged objects are placed as shown. Find
– due to charge the net force on the object with the charge of
ii) Angle of forces [𝐹1 &𝐹2 ] −4𝜇𝐶.
iii) Magnitude of forces [𝐹1 &𝐹2 ]
iv) Component of [𝐹1 &𝐹2 ]
– sum of [𝐹𝑥 &𝐹𝑦 ]
v) Net force [𝐹𝑛 ] – (vector form)
𝐹𝑦
vi) Angle of net force – 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝐹 )
𝑥

−5𝜇𝐶

DOUR 2
 ❖ Review Questions
1) Define coulombs law?
2) What is a charge
3) state the difference between conductors and
insulators
4) what are static electric charge and how are they
produced
Example 4
5) List some properties that enable a conductor to
What is a force on a 3C charge in a field of 10
conduct electricity
N/C?
6) Define net force on a charge?
𝑭 = 𝑸𝑬 = 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎 𝑵
Electric field
Electric potential
Electric Field is a field of force that surrounding a
Electric potential of a point charge is
charged particle within which another charged 𝒒
particle experiences a force ∆𝑽 = 𝒌𝚺
𝒓
❖ Is defined as force per positive charge It is the energy per charge called voltage or
❖ It is a vector quantity electric potential
𝟏⁄ 𝒎𝒗𝟐
❖ Any charge will set up an electric field ∆𝑽 =
𝑾
=
∆𝑲
= 𝟐
𝒒 𝒒 𝒒
around it
❖ It exerts an electric force on any other 𝑾 = 𝒒𝑬𝒅
𝑾
object within the field = 𝑬𝒅
𝒒
❖ To test an electric field a positive point ∆𝑽 = 𝑬𝒅
charge is used and not negative. Electric potential is a scalar, and electric field is a
vector
Example 5
What is the voltage 5.00 cm away from the center
of a 1-cm diameter metal sphere that has a
−3.00nC static charge?

❖ Drawing electric field

Example 6
A pair of oppositely charged, parallel plates are
separated by 5.33 mm. A potential difference of
600 V exists between the plates.
𝑘𝑞 a) What is the electric field between plates
❖ 𝐸̅ = | 2 | b) What is the force on an electron between the
𝑟
plates?
Force, charge and electric field are related by
❖ 𝑭 = 𝑸𝑬
Example 3
What is the electric field 20.00 m to the right of a
(+) 0.0025 C point charge?

DOUR 3
 11.5.2 Current Electricity
11.5.2.1 Electrical Conduction
Current (I)
❖ Electric current is the flow of charge
𝑄
❖ 𝐼=𝑡
❖ SI units is Ampere (Amps) symbol A
Example 1
A wires carry a current of 1.5 A
a) how much charge flows through a point in the
Example 7 wire in 5.0 s?
Calculate the speed of a proton that is accelerated
from rest through a potential difference of 120 V. b) How many electrons cross a given area of the
wire in 1.0 s?

There are two types of current:

i) Direct current – electrons flows in same
direction in a wire (DC)
ii) Alternating current – electrons flows in
For you to try different direction in a wire (AC)
A gold nucleus has a radius of 3 × 10−15 m and
carries a charge of 79e?
(a) What is the electric field strength at its
surface?
(b) What is the potential at its surface?
(c) How much energy in electron volts would be
required to bring a proton from a large distance up
to the surface of the gold nucleus.
(d) What would the initial velocity of the proton
need to be in order to come this close to the gold
Voltage (V)
nucleus?
❖ The reasons electric current flows from
one place is voltage.
❖ Voltage is the push that makes electric
charge move.
❖ It is measured in volts (V)
Resistance
❖ is the force opposing the flow of electrons.
❖ It is measured in ohms (Ω)
❖ Thick and short wire – less resistance
❖ Longer and thin wire – more resistance
❖ Conductors – low resistance
❖ Insulators – high resistance
11.5.2.2 Ohms Law and Resistivity
Ohms law states that electric current is
DOUR 4
proportional to voltage and inversely proportional b) what is its conductivity
to resistance, if temperature are constant.

Example 4
A pure copper wire has radius of 0.5 mm, a
resistance of 1 MΩ, and is 4680 km long. What is
the resistivity of copper?
Example 2
What voltage will be measured across a 1000 – Ω Example 5
resistor in a circuit if we determine that there is a A material has a conductivity of 106 Ω−1 𝑚−1 .
current of 2.50 mA flowing through it? What is its resistivity?

11.5.2.3 Variation of resistance with

Resistivity temperature
❖ Is a measure of a materials ability to The resistance of a metal (conductor) depends on
oppose the flow of electric current through i) Nature of material (resistivity)
the material ii) size of the conductor
𝑹𝑨
❖ Formula: 𝝆 = Where iii) temperature of the conductor
𝒍
Resistance of a metal can be represented as:
𝑙 = length of conductor (m) 𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 [𝟏 + 𝜶(𝚫𝑻)] , 𝑹 − 𝑹𝟎 = 𝚫𝑹
𝐴 = Area of cross section of the conductor (𝑚2 ) 𝚫𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 + 𝜶𝚫𝑻
𝑅 = resistance of conductor
The temperature coefficient of a resistance, 𝛼 is
❖ Its unit is Ω𝑚 defined as the fractional change in resistance per
degree Celsius
𝚫𝑹⁄
Conductivity 𝑹𝟎
𝜶= 𝚫𝑻
❖ Conductivity of a material is actually the
Example 6
reciprocal of its resistivity, that is
1 𝑙
A platinum wire has a resistance of 0.50Ω at 0℃ .
𝜎=𝜌 or 𝜎 = 𝑅𝐴 it is placed in a water bath, where its resistance
❖ Unit of 𝜎 is Ω−1 𝑚−1 rises to a final value of 0.60 Ω. What is the
temperature of the bath? (𝛼 = 3.93 𝑥 10−3 ℃−1 )
Example 3
A wire (length = 2.0 m, diameter = 1.0 mm) has a
resistance of 0.45 Ω.
a) What is the resistivity of the material used to
make the wire?

Example 7
A narrow rod of pure iron has a resistance of
0.10Ω at 20℃. What is the resistance at 50℃?
(𝛼 = 5.0 𝑥 10−3 ℃−1 )

DOUR 5
For you to try
The resistance of a nichrome wire at 0℃ is 10Ω. If
its temperature coefficient of resistance is
0.004/℃, find its resistance at boiling point of
water.
11.5.2.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal 𝜀 = 𝐼𝑟 + 𝑉𝑎𝑏
resistance and potential difference. 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
Electromotive force (emf)
❖ The e.m.f of a source is the work done per
unit charge
❖ E.m.f is the p.d across a terminal of the
source in open circuit (no current is
flowing, I = 0)
❖ The e.m.f of a battery is the potential
difference across its terminal when it is not
connected to a circuit. Example 8
❖ E.m.f of a source is the electrical energy A battery with a terminal voltage of 11.5 V when
that allow charge to flow delivering 0.50 A has an internal resistance of
❖ E.m.f has its SI unit volts (V) 0.10Ω ? what is its emf?

Internal resistance (𝒓)

❖ Is the resistance in the cell

Example 9
A battery with an emf of 9.00 V delivers 117 mA
when connected to a 72.0Ω resistor. Calculate the
internal resistance of the battery.

Example 10
❖ Total resistance in the circuit is (𝑅 + 𝑟) The battery in a circuit has an emf of 9.0 V. it is
❖ The e.m.f of this battery is given as attached to a resistor and an ammeter that shows a
current of 0.10 A. if a voltmeter across the
battery’s terminal reads 8.9 V, what is its internal
resistance?

DOUR 6
11.5.2.5 Electrical energy and Power Example 15
How much electrical energy is converted into heat
The electrical (potential) energy, W is the energy
and light if a 100 W lamp is turned on for 5
gained by the charge Q from a voltage source
minutes?
(battery) having a terminal voltage V.
𝑊 = 𝑄𝑉 but 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
The unit is Joule (J)
Cost is calculated as
The rate of energy delivered to the external circuit
Cost = kWh(E) x cost/kWh
by the battery is called the electric POWER given
by Example 16
𝑊 𝑄𝑉 𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑡 , 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 What is the cost of running a fridge at 150 W for 1
day. A unit cost (kWh) cost K0.12.
𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽 @ 𝑃 = 𝐼𝜀
Since 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉
𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅 and 𝐼 = 𝑅
𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅
𝑉2 Example 17
𝑃= Electric heater operates at 240 V and has a
𝑅
The unit is watt (1W = 1J/s) resistance of 120 Ω.
Example 11 a) What current flows through the heater?
Calculate the resistance of a 40 W automobile
headlight designed for 12 V

b) What power is it operating?

Example 12
The current through a refrigerator of resistance 12
c) If a kilo-watt-hour cost 15 toea. What will it
Ω is 13 A. What is the power consumed by the
cost to operate this heater for 8 hours?
refrigerator?

Example 13
An electric iron with a 15 – ohm heating element
operates at 120 V. How many joules of energy
does the iron convert to heat in 1.0 h?

Example 14
A lamp rated at 5.0 W is connected to a 9V
battery. What is the current through the lamp?

DOUR 7
11.5.2.6 Resistors in Series and Parallel
Resistors are used to control the amount of current
flowing in a circuit
Resistor symbol

Calculate the resistor value of the following Resistors in Series

a) brown, black, red

b) Red, red, red

c) Red, violet, yellow

d) Green, blue, Orange

Resistors in series The same current 𝐼 flows through each resistor
where 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑
The sum of the voltages around a circuit loop is
zero

DOUR 8
𝑉 − ∑𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 0
𝑉 = ∑𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑
The equivalence (effective) resistance is
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑

Resistors in Parallel

There are same potential difference V across each

resistor where
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑
Charge is conserved, therefore the total current 𝐼
in the circuit is given by
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑
The equivalent resistance is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=𝑹 +𝑹 +𝑹
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
When adding two resistances, the equivalent
resistance can be calculated as
𝑹 𝐱𝑹
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹 𝟏+𝑹𝟐
𝟏 𝟐

Examples 1

a. Calculate the total resistance

b. the total current in the circuit

c. the potential difference across 4.0 Ω resistor

DOUR 9
Example 4
Calculate the current shown by the ammeter A in
the circuit shown in figure 3.42

3. Find the Total resistance for the circuit below.

11.5.2.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s first law (junction/current law) states
the algebraic sum of the current at any junction of
For you to try a circuit is zero.
The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving the node
∑𝑰 = 𝟎
or
∑𝑰𝒊𝒏 = ∑𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕

DOUR 10
Example 1. Example 3
Find the currents and voltages shown in the
circuit.

Kirchhoff’s second law (loop/voltage law) states

that the algebraic sum of voltages across all of the
elements of any closed loop is zero.
or
it states that in any closed loop, the algebraic sum
of e.m.fs is equal to the algebraic sum of the
products of current and resistance.
∑𝜺 = ∑𝑰𝑹
Sign convention

Example 4
Determine the values of the current flowing
through each of the resistors.

Example 2.
Using Kirchhoff’s rules, find the current in each
resistor.

DOUR 11
Example 5. 11.5.2.8 Potential Divider
is used to tap a fraction of the voltage supplied by
a source of e.m.f.

𝑅1 𝜌𝑙
𝑉1 = 𝑉 𝑅=
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝐴

Example 1
What is the potential difference in 𝑹𝟏

Example 6

Example 2
Resistors of 3.0 Ω and 6.0 Ω are connected in
series to a 12.0 V battery of negligible internal
resistance. What are the potential difference across
the
(a) 3.0 Ω and (b) 6.0 Ω
resistor?

DOUR 12
11.5.3.0 Wheatstone bridge and Potentiometer.
11.5.3.1 Potentiometer
A potentiometer can be used to
i. measure an unknown e.m.f of a cell
𝒍
𝜺 = 𝒍𝑨𝑪 𝑽
𝑨𝑩
ii. compare e.m.f of two cells
𝒍
𝜺𝟐 = 𝒍𝟏 𝜺𝟏
𝟐
iii. measure internal resistance of a cell
11.5.3.2 Wheatstone bridge
is used to measure the unknown resistance of the
resistor.
𝑅 𝜌𝑙
𝑅𝑥 = (𝑅2) 𝑅3 𝑅=
1 𝐴

Example 1.

Example 4
The figure below shows a cell A has e.m.f of 2.0
V and XY is uniform wire of length 100 cm. The
cell B has an e.m.f of 1.5 V.

Example 2.
A Wheatstone bridge has 𝑅1 = 𝑅3 = 1 𝑘Ω. 𝑅2 is
adjusted until no current flows through the
galvanometer. At that point, 𝑅2 = 3.2 𝑘Ω. what is
the value of the unknown resistance? Calculate the length XP required to produce zero
deflection in the galvanometer G.

Example 3
The circuit below is a Wheatstone bridge.
If 𝑅1 = 1Ω, 𝑅2 = 2Ω, 𝑅3 = 3Ω, to what value
should 𝑅3 be adjusted so to achieve a balanced
condition?

DOUR 13
11.5.4.0 Alternating current (AC) circuits 11.5.4.3 The effective [root – mean square
(rms)] values of current and voltage.
11.5.4.1 Explaining AC
The rms current is
Every time you turn on a television set, a stereo, or 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
any of a multitude of other electrical appliances in 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
√𝟐
a home, you are calling on alternating currents to
The average power is
provide the power to operate them. (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2
2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑅
Alternating current is a form of electricity where
charges move back and forth (vibrate) along a The rms voltage is
conductor 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
√𝟐

The rms value of sinusoidal waveform of

maximum amplitude and period is
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.707𝐼𝑝
√2
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.707𝑉𝑝
√2

11.5.4.2 Equation of current and voltage from Example 1

an AC generator. The voltage output of an AC source is given by
the expression ∆𝑣 = (200𝑉)sin (𝜔𝑡). Find the
The time varying current and voltage are given
rms voltage and rms current in the circuit when
respectively as follows:
this source is connected to a 100-Ω resistor.
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑝 sin (𝜔𝑡) Solution.

𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑝 sin (𝜔𝑡)

2𝜋
where: 𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 𝑇

𝑉𝑝 = 𝐼𝑝 𝑅

𝑉(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑝 Rsin (𝜔𝑡)

𝑉𝑝
𝐼𝑝 = Example 2
𝑅
Calculate the average power delivered to the
𝑉𝑝
𝐼(𝑡) = sin (𝜔𝑡) circuit described in example 1.
𝑅
Solution:
The AC resistance is
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝒑
𝑹= =
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒑
The power at any time t is
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉𝑝 sin(𝜔𝑡) x 𝐼𝑝 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑃 = (𝑉𝐼)𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡) 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 141 𝑥 1.41
= 198.81 𝑊

DOUR 14
Example 3.
An electric generator produces an AC peak
voltage of 120V. If the generator has a frequency
of 50Hz;
(a) What is the angular speed of the coil in radians
per second?

(b) What is the period of revolution of the

generator coil?

(c) What are the instantaneous voltage values at;

(i) 0.005s, (ii) 0.01s, (iii) 0.015s?

Example 4.
A 2kW electric jug operates directly from a power
main with an operating voltage of 240V RMS.
(a) What is the peak current that passes through
the jug’s element?

(b) What is the resistance of the jug’s element?

DOUR 15