1

ALTERNATING CURRENT

An alternating current is that current whose magnitude changes continuously with

time and direction reverses periodically.

The instantaneous value of the voltage or current is given by

𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 and 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

Or

𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 and 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡

Where 𝑉 or 𝐼 ----------instantaneous value

𝑉0 or 𝐼0 ---- maximum value or amplitude or peak value

𝜔------------- angular frequency

Where 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝝑 and 𝝑 is the frequency

 2

𝟐𝝅 where 𝑻 is the time period

𝝑=
𝑻

Average Value of a.c

The average value of a.c over a complete cycle is zero. But over a half cycle, it is
not zero.

The average value is defined as that value of direct current which sends the same
charge in a circuit in the same time as is sent by the given alternating current in its
half time period.

We know that the instantaneous value of current is 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

The amount of charge produced by this current during a small interval dt is given by

𝑑𝑞 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡

Therefore the total charge sent during the half time period
𝑇 𝑡
𝐼0 𝑇
,𝑞 = ∫02 𝑑𝑞 = ∫02 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 =
𝜋

The steady current which send the same charge during a time interval equal to T/2 is termed
as average value Iav
𝟐𝑰𝟎
Therefore, 𝑰𝒂𝒗 = 𝝅
= 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝑰𝟎

𝑉𝑎𝑣 2𝑉0
Also, =
𝑅 𝑅𝜋
 3

𝟐𝑽𝟎
Therefore, 𝑽= = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝑽𝟎
𝝅

RMS ( Root mean square) or Virtual or Effective value of A.C.

It is defined as that value of steady current which produces the same heating effect
in a given resistor as is produced by the given alternating current in the same circuit
during the same time.

We know that the instantaneous value of current is 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

The amount of heat produced by this current during a small interval dt in a resistor
is given by

𝑑𝐻 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼02𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡

Therefore the total heat produced over a complete cycle,

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐻 = ∫0 𝑑𝐻 = ∫𝑜 𝐼02 𝑅sinωtdt = 𝐼02 𝑅 ---------------(1)
2

The steady current which produces the same heat over this time period is termed as
RMS value.
,
𝑟𝑚𝑠

Equating (1) and (2)

𝑇
𝐼2𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼20 𝑅
2

2 𝐼20
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2

𝑰𝟎
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = = 0.707I0
√𝟐
 4

𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝟎
Also 𝑹
=
𝑹√𝟐

𝑽𝟎
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = = .707𝑽𝟎
√𝟐

Phasor Diagram

A rotating vector that represents a sinusoidally varying quantity is called a phasor.

The phasor OA represents the voltage. The length of the phasor represents the
amplitude. The projection of the phasor on y- axis represents the instantaneous
value. ( in case of cosine function, the projection is taken along the x-axis)

AC voltage applied to a Resistor

Let the AC voltage applied be

𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (1)

But, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉0 = 𝐼0𝑅

Therefore, 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼0𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (2)

From (1) and (2) , we can see that current and voltage are in phase when AC is passed
through a resistor.
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Average power dissipated in a Resistor

The instantaneous power dissipated in the Resistor, 𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅

The average power over a complete cycle,

𝑃𝑎𝑣 = < 𝐼2𝑅 > = < 𝐼2𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 > = 𝐼2𝑅 < 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 >
0 0

But < 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 > = 1/2

1
Therefore, 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝐼02 𝑅 2
= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
2
 6

AC voltage applied to an Inductor

Let the AC voltage applied be

𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (1)

This alternating voltage induces a back emf in the inductor given by

𝑑𝐼
𝑒 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡

The applied voltage should be equal and opposite to this in order to maintain current
in the circuit
𝑑𝐼
Therefore, 𝑉 = − − 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 𝑉0
𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = − −𝐿 Or, 𝑑𝐼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

𝑉0
Therefore 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝐿

𝑉0 𝑉0 𝜋
𝐼= (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡) = − sin( − 𝜔𝑡)
𝐿𝜔 𝐿𝜔 2

𝑉0 𝜋
𝐼= sin (𝜔𝑡 − ) ----------------(2)
𝐿𝜔 2
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𝜋
When sin (𝜔𝑡 − ) = 1, current becomes maximum I0
2

𝑉0
Therefore, 𝐼0 = 𝐿𝜔
- --------------------------- (3)

Substituting in (2)
π
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ) ---------------------------------- (4)
2

Therefore, from (1) and (4), it is clear that voltage and current are not in phase. The
current lags behind voltage by an angle Π/2
 8

Inductive Reactance (𝑿𝑳)

It is the opposition offered by the inductor to the flow of current.

𝑉𝐿
𝑋𝐿 =
𝐼
From equation (3)

𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝜔

❖ 𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝝑 𝑳 (𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝝑)

❖ 𝑿𝑳 ∝ 𝝑

For d.c, 𝜗 = 0, therefore 𝑋𝐿 = 0

Therefore, d.c can easily flow through the inductor.

Unit: Ω

Average power over a complete cycle through an inductor

The instantaneous power,

𝜋
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
2

𝜋
𝑃 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
2
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Therefore the average power during the complete cycle

P = < π >
𝜋
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 < 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 − ) > = 0
2

π
Because < 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ) > = 0
2

Therefore the inductor consumes no power

AC voltage applied to a Capacitor

Let the AC voltage applied be

𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉

𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑞 𝑑(𝐶𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝐼= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

(𝐶𝑉0 )𝑑 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
𝐼 = 𝜔𝐶 𝑉0𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
 10

𝑉0
𝐼= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
1⁄
𝑐𝜔

𝑉0
𝐼=
1⁄
𝑐𝜔
𝜋
When sin (𝜔𝑡 + )=1
2

𝑉0
𝐼0 = 1⁄ - -------------------------- (3)
𝑐𝜔

𝜋
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin (𝜔𝑡 + ) ------------------(4)
2

From equation (2) and (3) it is clear that current are voltage are no in phase. The
current leads voltage by an angle 𝜋/2

Capacitive reactance(𝑿𝒄)

It is the opposition offered by the capacitor to the flow of current.

𝑉𝑐
𝑋𝑐 =
𝐼
1
From equation (3) 𝑋𝑐 = 𝐶𝜔

1
𝑋𝑐 =
𝐶2𝜋𝜗
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1
𝑋𝑐 ∝
𝜗

For d.c, 𝜗 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑋𝑐 = ∞

i.e., d.c cannot flow through the capacitor.

Unit:Ω

Average power over a complete cycle through Capacitor

The instantaneous power P = VI

π
= 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝐼0 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2)
π
= 𝑉0 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2)

Therefore the average power over the complete cycle

P = < π >
𝑉0 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2)
π
= 𝑉0 𝐼0 < 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 sin (𝜔𝑡 + ) >
2

= 0
π
Because < 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 sin (𝜔𝑡 + ) > = 0
2

Therefore the capacitor consumes no power.

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AC Voltage applied to a series LCR circuit

Consider a series LCR circuit. Since the elements are in series, the current through
each of them is same. But the net voltage across the three cannot be obtained by
taking the algebraic sum, because current and voltage across the three are not in
phase.

Let VL, VC and VR be voltages across the inductor, capacitor and resistor
respectively. If I0 is the maximum current through the circuit, then

VL = I0 X L ; VC = I0 Xc ; VR = I0 R
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In the phasor diagram, let OE represents the current phasor I0. Since VR is in phase
with the current, it can be marked along the same direction as OA. The voltage across
the inductor VL leads current by an angle ℼ/2. Hence VL is marked along OL. The
voltage across capacitor VC lags behind current by an angle ℼ/2. Therefore, it is
marked along OC.

If VC > VL, the net voltage across Capacitor and Inductor is given by V C + VL,
which is marked across OB. Now OA and OB represent the two sides of a
parallelogram. Therefore the resultant of these two phasors, VR and VC + VL can
be obtained from the diagonal of the parallelogram.

The diagonal of the parallelogram OABD represent the net voltage V0.

Therefore, 𝑂𝐷 = √𝑂𝐴2 + 𝑂𝐵2

❖ 𝑽𝟎 = √𝐕𝑹𝟐 + (𝐕𝐜 − 𝐕𝐋)𝟐 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- (1)

𝑉0 = √(𝐼0𝑅)2 + (𝐼0𝑋𝑐 − 𝐼0𝑋𝐿) 2------------------------------------------------------------------ (2)

❖ 𝑽𝟎 = 𝑰𝟎√(𝑹)𝟐 + (𝑿𝒄 − 𝑿𝑳) 𝟐---------------------------------------------------------- (3)

❖ 𝑽𝟎 = 𝑰𝟎𝒁 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4)

Where Z = √(𝑹)𝟐 + (𝑿𝒄 − 𝑿𝑳) 𝟐 is called the impedance of the LCR circuit.

From the phasor diagram it is clear that the current and voltage through the LCR
circuit are not in phase.

When VC > VL , the current lags behind voltage by an angle ∅, given by

𝑿𝑪−𝑿𝑳
❖ 𝒕𝒂𝒏∅ =
𝑹
 14

𝑿𝑪−𝑿𝑳
❖ ∅ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝑹

Impedance(Z)

It is the opposition offered by the series LCR circuit (CR or LR) to the flow of
current.
𝑽𝟎
❖Z = = √(𝑹)𝟐 + (𝑿𝒄 − 𝑿𝑳 ) 𝟐
𝑰𝟎
❖ Unit - Ω

Impedance Triangle

𝑋𝐶−𝑋𝐿
Z = √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋𝐿 ) 2 Also, 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ =
𝑅
 15

Special cases

(i) If XC > XL, then VC > VL, the circuit is said to be capacitive.

𝑋𝐶−𝑋𝐿
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = ; 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin (𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑅

(ii) If XL > XC, then VL > Vc, the circuit is said to be inductive
𝑋𝐿−𝑋𝐶
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = ; 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ∅)
𝑅

(iii) If XL = XC, then VL = Vc, the circuit is said to be purely resistive

𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = 0 The current and voltage will be in phase.

Resonance

A series LCR circuit is said to be in resonance if the current flowing through it is

maximum.

We know that 𝑉0 = 𝐼0√(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋𝐿) 2

𝑉0 𝑉0
Therefore, 𝐼0 = =
√(𝑅)2+(𝑋𝑐− 𝑋𝐿) 2 𝑍

i.e 𝐼0 becomes maximum, when the Z becomes minimum.

We know that,
1
𝑋𝑐 ∝ and 𝑋𝐿 ∝ 𝜗
𝜗

Therefore at a particular frequency XL = XC

Then Z = √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋𝐿) 2 = R

𝑉0
𝐼0 = 𝑅
and current becomes maximum.
 16

Resonant Frequency (𝝑𝒓 )

It is the frequency of a.c at which current admitted
by the circuit becomes maximum.

We know that at resonace,

𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝑐

1
𝜔𝑟 𝐿 =
𝜔𝑟 𝐶 1
𝜔𝑟 = -Resonant angular
√𝐿𝐶
1
frequency
𝜔𝑟2 =
𝐿𝐶

1
𝜗𝑟 = - resonant frequency
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
 17

Resonant circuits have a variety of application in the tuning mechanism of a radio or

a TV set. The antenna of a radio accepts signal form many broadcasting stations
which acts as the source. When we tune, the capacitance of the capacitor in the
tuning circuit is varied such that the resonant frequency of the circuit becomes equal
to the frequency of the radio signal received. When this happens, the amplitude of
current with the frequency of the signal of the particular station becomes maximum.

Quality factor or Q-factor

The sharpness of tuning at resonance is called Q-factor.

 18

It is defined as the ratio of the resonant frequency to the band width.

Band width is the difference between two frequencies on either sides of the resonant
frequency where the current amplitude becomes 1 times the maximum value.
√2

𝜔𝑟
𝑄=
𝜔2 −𝜔1

Where 𝜔2 = 𝜔𝑟 + ∆𝜔 and 𝜔1 = 𝜔𝑟 − ∆𝜔

𝜔2 − 𝜔1 = 2∆𝜔

𝝎𝒓
𝑸=
𝟐∆𝝎
 19

Q-factor is also defined as the ratio of voltage drop across inductor(capacitor) to

applied voltage at resonance.
VL IXL Vc IXc
Q= = Q= =
V IR V IR
XL ωrL Xc 1
= = = =
R R R ωrCR

1 L √LC
= =
√LC R CR

𝟏 𝐋 𝟏 𝐋
𝐐= √ 𝐐= √
𝐑 𝐂 𝐑 𝐂

Average power over a complete cycle in AC circuit (LCR circuit)

The instantaneous power P = VI

= 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝐼0 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ∅)

= 𝑉0 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ∅)

= 𝑉0 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ∅)

Therefore the average power the complete cycle

𝑃𝑎𝑣 = < 𝑉0 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ∅) >

= 𝑉0 𝐼0 < 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ∅) >

𝑏𝑢𝑡, < 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ∅) > = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

2

𝑽𝟎 𝑰𝟎
❖ 𝑷𝒂𝒗 =
𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅
 20

𝑉0 𝐼0
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
√2√2

❖ 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒔∅

Special cases:

(i) Resistive Circuit: In this current and voltage are in phase

Therefore, ∅ = 0 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 1
Therefore, 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔

(ii) For inductor, ∅ = 90 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 0

Therefore, 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 0

(iii) For capacitor, ∅ = 90 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 0

Therefore, 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 0

(iv) At resonance, current and voltage are in phase

Therefore, ∅ = 0 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 1
Therefore, 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔

Power factor

𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Here 𝑃𝑎𝑣 is called the true power,

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 is called the apparent power

The term 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ is called the power factor

Therefore, the power factor is defined as the ratio of true power to the apparent
power.
𝑷𝒂𝒗
❖ 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ =
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔
 21

From the impedance triangle,

𝑹
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ =
𝒁
Special cases,

(i) Resistive Circuit: In this current and voltage are in phase

Therefore, ∅ = 0 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 1

(v) For inductor, ∅ = 90 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 0

(vi) For capacitor, ∅ = 90 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 0

(vii) At resonance, current and voltage are in phase

Therefore, ∅ = 0 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 1

Wattless Current (Idle Current)

The current in an a.c circuit is said to be wattless if the average power consumed in
the circuit is zero.

Eg: Capacitor and inductor

∅ = 90 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 0

Therefore, 𝑷𝒂𝒗 =0

LC oscillations

When a capacitor is connected to an inductor as shown, the charge /current in the

circuit exhibit electrical oscillation, similar to the oscillations in mechanical systems.

Let a capacitor is charged to ‘q’ and is connected to amd inductor. As the circuit is
completed, the capacitor starts discharging, giving rise to a current in the circuit.
𝑑𝐼
This induce an emf (𝑒 = −𝐿 ) in the inductor.
𝑑𝑡
 22

From Kirchhoff’s loop rule

𝑑𝐼
𝑞 − 𝐿 = 0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑞
But 𝐼 = − ( the negative sign indicates that as q decreases, i increases)
𝑑𝑡

Therefore,
𝑑 𝑑𝑞
𝑞 − 𝐿 (− ) =0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2𝑞 1
+ 𝑞 = 0 ------------------------ (1)
𝑑𝑡2 𝐿𝐶

𝑑2𝑥
This equation has the form + 𝜔2𝑥 = 0 for a simple harmonic oscillator,
𝑑𝑡2

where 𝜔 is the angular frequency

Comparing with (1)

1 1
𝜔 = and 𝜗 =
√𝐿𝐶 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Thus the charge oscillates in the circuit with the above frequency.

...................................
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