LAN Design and IEEE 802 Standards (Simplified Explana on)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a system that connects mul ple devices to communicate and share
resources efficiently. The design of a LAN follows a structured model with different layers that handle
data transmission and network access.

1. LAN Layers and Data Transmission

LANs follow the OSI model, which includes seven layers, but the most cri cal ones for LAN design are:

 Physical Layer: Defines the hardware and transmission medium (cables, wireless signals, etc.).

 Data Link Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer between devices and is divided into:

o Logical Link Control (LLC): Manages communica on, flow, and error control.

o Medium Access Control (MAC): Governs how mul ple devices share the network.

The MAC layer is separated because different networks use different methods to control access, such as
Ethernet (CSMA/CD) or Token Ring.

When sending data, the process follows these steps:

1. User data moves from the Applica on Layer to TCP/IP Layer and then to the LLC Layer.

2. The LLC Layer adds control informa on, forming an LLC Protocol Data Unit (PDU).

3. The MAC Layer adds more details to create a MAC Frame, which is transmi ed over the
network.

4. On recep on, the process is reversed to reconstruct the original data.

2. IEEE 802 Standards

The IEEE 802 commi ee developed widely used LAN standards, later adopted by ISO (Interna onal
Organiza on for Standardiza on). These standards define different transmission mediums, such as:

 Coaxial cables

 Twisted pair cables (shielded/unshielded)

 Op cal fiber

 Wireless networks (Wi-Fi, spread spectrum, etc.)

Each network type has its own access method:

 Ethernet (CSMA/CD) – Devices compete to send data.

 Token Ring – Devices take turns using a token.

 Wireless LANs (Wi-Fi, DQDB, etc.) – Use different protocols for wireless communica on.

Conclusion
LAN design ensures efficient and reliable communica on by organizing data transmission through
structured layers. The IEEE 802 standards provide various networking op ons, allowing flexibility in how
data is transmi ed and accessed across different mediums.
LAN Topologies (Simple Explana on)

A LAN topology is the way computers and devices are connected in a network. There are four common
types: bus, tree, ring, and star.

1. Bus Topology

 All devices are connected to a single main cable (called the bus).

 Devices send data to everyone, but only the intended recipient reads it.

 Terminators at both ends of the bus absorb signals to prevent interference.

 Example: Like a public announcement (PA) system where one person speaks, and everyone
listens.

Advantages:
Simple and cheap to set up
Uses less cable
Works well for small networks

Disadvantages:
If the main cable breaks, the en re network stops working
Only one device can send data at a me (or else signals will collide)

2. Tree Topology
  Similar to a bus topology but with branches.

 A central point (headend) connects mul ple cables that branch out.

 Devices follow the same rules as the bus topology.

Advantages:
Can cover a larger area
Easier to expand than a bus network

Disadvantages:
If the main cable fails, the en re network is affected
Requires more cable than a simple bus

How Data Flows in Bus and Tree Networks

1. A device sends a message (frame) to another device.

2. The message travels along the cable.

3. Each device checks if the message is for them (by looking at the address).

4. The correct device receives the message; others ignore it.

5. The signal disappears when it reaches the terminator.

To prevent collisions, devices take turns sending messages. This is like raising your hand in class before
speaking.

Ring Topology (Simple Explana on)

In a Ring Topology, all devices are connected in a closed loop (a ring). Each device is linked to exactly
two neighbors.

How It Works

One-way Data Flow:

 Data moves in one direc on (clockwise or counterclockwise).

 A device sends data as a frame.

 The frame circulates through all devices un l it reaches the correct one.

 The des na on device copies the data and lets it con nue moving.

 When the frame returns to the sender, it is removed from the ring.

Repeaters Help Signal Strength

 Each device has a repeater, which boosts the signal before passing it to the next device.

 No buffering → Data is forwarded immediately, bit by bit.

Medium Access Control

 Since all devices share the ring, they must take turns sending data.

 A system controls who can send at any given me.

Advantages of Ring Topology

No data collisions → Only one device sends data at a me.

Be er performance than bus topology in large networks.
No need for a central hub (unlike star topology).

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

Single point of failure → If one device or link fails, the whole network stops.
Slower than Star Topology → Data must pass through mul ple devices.
Difficult to expand → Adding or removing a device disrupts the network.

Where is Ring Topology Used?

Used in older network designs, especially in token-based networks like Token Ring.
Some fiber-op c networks use a dual-ring setup for redundancy.
Star Topology Summary

In a star topology, all devices connect to a central node (hub or switch) via individual links for
transmission and recep on.

Two opera onal modes:

1. Broadcast Mode: The central node forwards incoming data to all connected devices, making it
logically similar to a bus topology. Only one device can transmit at a me.

2. Switching Mode: The central node buffers and directs data only to the intended recipient,
improving efficiency and reducing collisions.

Advantages: Easy troubleshoo ng, be er performance, and reduced collisions.

Disadvantage: Central node failure disrupts the en re network.
Medium Access Control

Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols manage how devices share the network’s transmission capacity.
There are two main approaches to control:

1. Centralized Control:

o A single controller manages access.

o Pros: Greater control, simpler access logic, no coordina on issues.

o Cons: Single point of failure, poten al bo leneck.

2. Decentralized Control:

o Sta ons collec vely determine the transmission order.

o Pros: No single point of failure, be er scalability.

o Cons: Complex coordina on, increased overhead.

Regarding synchronous vs asynchronous access:

 Synchronous: Fixed, dedicated capacity (e.g., TDM, circuit switching), not ideal for LANs due to
unpredictable traffic.

 Asynchronous: Dynamic alloca on of capacity based on demand, more efficient for LANs, and
further divided into:

1. Round Robin: Equal me slices for sta ons.

2. Reserva on: Sta ons reserve slots.

3. Conten on: Sta ons compete for access.

In general, asynchronous and decentralized methods offer be er scalability and adaptability for modern
networks.
In Round Robin access control, each sta on takes turns to transmit data. Each sta on can either transmit
data during its turn or skip it, but once it's done (or skips), the next sta on in the sequence gets its turn.
The sequence can be controlled either by a central controller or by the sta ons themselves (distributed).

 Efficient for many sta ons: If many sta ons have data to send, Round Robin works well because
it ensures each gets a fair chance to transmit.

 Not efficient for few sta ons: If only a few sta ons have data, it becomes inefficient because
many sta ons will just pass their turn without transmi ng, causing unnecessary overhead.

Round Robin works be er for different types of data traffic:

 Stream traffic (e.g., voice calls, file transfers) works well with Round Robin because it requires
con nuous transmission.

 Bursty traffic (e.g., terminal-host interac ons) might not be efficient with Round Robin, as
transmissions are short and sporadic.

Reserva on

For stream traffic, reserva on techniques are well suited. In general, for these tech- niques, me on the
medium is divided into slots, much as with synchronous TDM. A sta on wishing to transmit reserves
future slots for an extended or even an in- definite period. Again, reserva ons may be made in a
centralized or distributed fashion.

Conten on techniques are used for bursty traffic, where devices need to send small, irregular bursts of
data. In this method, there is no control over which sta on gets to send data first. Instead, all devices try
to send data at the same me, leading to poten al conflicts or collisions, which can cause problems if
many devices try to transmit at once.

 Advantages: It's simple and works efficiently when there are only a few devices trying to
transmit at the same me (light to moderate network traffic).

 Disadvantages: Performance can become poor if many devices compete to send data
simultaneously, leading to delays or conges on.

The MAC (Medium Access Control) layer handles data transmission and medium access in networking,
using a MAC frame as the Protocol Data Unit (PDU). Here's a summarized breakdown:

1. Role of MAC Layer:

o The MAC layer receives data from the LLC (Logical Link Control) layer and is responsible
for managing access to the network medium, as well as transmi ng the data.

o It encapsulates the data into a MAC frame.

 2. MAC Frame Format:

o MAC Control: Contains protocol control informa on, such as priority levels.

o Des na on MAC Address: Specifies where the frame is to be delivered on the LAN.

o Source MAC Address: Indicates where the frame originated.

o LLC PDU: Carries data from the LLC layer.

o CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check): Used to detect errors in the transmi ed frame. If errors
are found, the MAC layer discards the frame.

3. Error Handling:

o The MAC layer is responsible for detec ng errors using the CRC and discarding
erroneous frames.

o The LLC layer is op onally responsible for retransmi ng any frames that were not
successfully received.

4. Topologies and MAC Protocols:

o Ring Topology: Used in Token Ring (IEEE 802.5) and FDDI.

o Switched Topology: Includes protocols like Request/Priority (IEEE 802.12) and

CSMA/CD (IEEE 802.3).

In summary, the MAC layer formats data into a frame, manages access to the transmission medium,
handles error detec on, and works with the LLC layer for error recovery if necessary.

Logical Link Control (LLC) - Simplified Explana on

The Logical Link Control (LLC) layer is a part of the data link layer in LANs. It helps in transmi ng data
between two devices without needing an intermediate switch.

Key Features of LLC:

 1. Supports shared-medium networks (mul ple devices sharing the same network).

2. Works with the MAC layer, which handles physical network access.

LLC Services

LLC helps in addressing devices and managing data exchange. (hdlc)It provides three types of services:

1. Unacknowledged Connec onless Service:

o Works like sending a simple message (datagram).

o No confirma on or error checking.

o Used in cases where occasional data loss is acceptable (e.g., sensor readings, monitoring
systems).

2. Connec on-Mode Service:

o Like a phone call – establishes a connec on before sending data.

o Ensures reliable delivery using error control and flow control.

o Useful for simple devices with no advanced so ware.

3. Acknowledged Connec onless Service:

o A mix of the above two.

o Sends data without establishing a connec on but requires an acknowledgment.

o Used for important messages (e.g., emergency alarms) that must be confirmed quickly.

LLC Protocol

LLC is based on the HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) protocol and follows a similar structure. It has
three types of opera ons:

1. Type 1: Supports unacknowledged connec onless service. No acknowledgment or error control.

2. Type 2: Supports connec on-mode service. Ensures error-free data delivery using
acknowledgments.

3. Type 3: Supports acknowledged connec onless service using special messages.

How LLC Works

 Uses Service Access Points (SAPs) to address devices.

 Uses different message types (PDUs) for sending, receiving, and managing connec ons.

 In connec on-mode service (Type 2), a connec on is requested, accepted, used, and then
closed when done.
  In acknowledged connec onless service (Type 3), each message is confirmed using small
sequence numbers (0 and 1) to ensure delivery.

Conclusion

LLC helps LAN devices communicate efficiently, providing op ons based on reliability and speed needs.
It ensures flexibility and efficiency while working with the MAC layer to manage network access.

IEEE 802

Physical:

• Encoding/decoding

• Preamble genera on/removal

• Bit transmission/recep on

• Transmission medium and topology

ALOHA Protocol (MAC) - Summary

ALOHA is a random access protocol used for wireless and satellite communica on. It allows mul ple
devices to share a common channel without coordina on.

Types of ALOHA

1. Pure ALOHA

o Devices transmit any me, leading to high collision chances.

o Maximum efficiency: 18.4%.

o High delay due to frequent retransmissions.

2. Slo ed ALOHA

o Transmission allowed only at the start of me slots, reducing collisions.

o Maximum efficiency: 36.8% (double that of Pure ALOHA).

o Lower delay and be er performance.

Applica ons

 Satellite communica on, RFID, and wireless sensor networks.

Limita ons

 High collision probability.

 Low efficiency compared to modern MAC protocols like CSMA/CD (Ethernet) and CSMA/CA (Wi-
Fi).

Steps in ALOHA Protocol

1. Pure ALOHA Steps

1. A device transmits data whenever it wants, without checking the channel.

2. If no collision occurs, the receiver sends an ACK (Acknowledgment).

3. If a collision occurs, the sender waits for a random me and retransmits.

4. Steps repeat un l the data is successfully transmi ed.

2. Slo ed ALOHA Steps

1. Time is divided into fixed slots equal to the frame transmission me.

2. A device can only transmit at the beginning of a me slot.

3. If no collision occurs, the receiver sends an ACK.

4. If a collision occurs, the sender waits for a random me and retries in the next slot.

5. Steps repeat un l successful transmission.

Slo ed ALOHA reduces collisions by allowing transmission only at specific me slots.

Carrier Sense Mul ple Access (CSMA) – Explana on

CSMA is a network access method used in shared communica on channels where mul ple devices
compete to transmit data. The key idea is "listen before talk" to reduce collisions.

How CSMA Works?

1. A device checks if the channel is free before transmi ng.

2. If the channel is busy, the device waits un l it becomes free.

3. If the channel is idle, the device transmits data.

4. If a collision occurs (in some CSMA variants), the device takes correc ve ac on.

Why is CSMA Used?

 Prevents mul ple devices from sending data simultaneously.

 Reduces collisions and improves network efficiency.

 Used in wired and wireless networks (Ethernet, Wi-Fi).

Non-Persistent CSMA

Non-Persistent CSMA is a collision avoidance technique where a device checks the channel before
transmi ng and waits a random me if the channel is busy, instead of con nuously sensing it.

Working Steps of Non-Persistent CSMA

 1. Sense the channel: The device checks if the channel is free.

2. If idle: The device transmits the data immediately.

3. If busy: The device waits a random me before rechecking the channel.

4. Repeat the process un l successful transmission.

Advantages

Reduces network conges on by avoiding con nuous sensing.

Fewer collisions compared to Persistent CSMA.

1-Persistent CSMA – Detailed Explana on

Overview

1-Persistent CSMA is a medium access control (MAC) protocol where a device con nuously senses the
communica on channel and transmits immediately when the channel becomes idle. It is called "1-
Persistent" because the device has a 100% (i.e., 1.0 probability) chance of transmi ng as soon as the
channel is free.

This protocol is aggressive and works well in low-traffic networks, but in high-traffic condi ons, it
increases the risk of collisions due to mul ple devices trying to send data at the same me.

Working Steps of 1-Persistent CSMA

1. Sense the channel:

o The device listens to the communica on medium to check if it is idle or busy.

2. If the channel is idle:

o The device immediately transmits its data without wai ng.

3. If the channel is busy:

o The device keeps sensing con nuously (i.e., it does not wait randomly).

o As soon as the channel becomes idle, it immediately starts transmi ng.

4. If a collision occurs:

o Since mul ple devices may try to transmit at the same me (as they all sense the idle
channel), collisions can happen.

o The device then waits for a random backoff me before rea emp ng transmission.

Advantages of 1-Persistent CSMA

Lower wai ng me: Since devices transmit immediately when the channel is idle, there is minimal
delay.
Efficient in low-traffic condi ons: When there are few devices, collisions are rare, and the protocol
works efficiently.
p-Persistent CSMA – Detailed Explana on

Overview

p-Persistent CSMA is a probabilis c channel access method used in slo ed me networks to reduce
collisions while maintaining efficiency. It is a hybrid of 1-Persistent and Non-Persistent CSMA, offering a
balance between collision probability and channel u liza on.

It is mainly used in slo ed- me systems like Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), where me is divided into slots, and
transmission decisions are based on probability.

Working Steps of p-Persistent CSMA

1. Sense the channel: The device checks if the channel is idle.

2. If idle, the device transmits with a probability p.

o With probability (1 - p), the device waits for the next me slot and checks again.

3. If busy, the device waits un l the next me slot and repeats the process.

4. If a collision occurs, the device applies a random backoff me and retries a er some me.

Why is p-Persistent CSMA Called a Hybrid?

 Similar to 1-Persistent CSMA → It listens con nuously and transmits if the channel is idle.

 Similar to Non-Persistent CSMA → It does not always transmit immediately, reducing collision
chances.

 Unique Feature → Uses a probability factor (p) to decide when to transmit, balancing speed and
efficiency.

Advantages

Reduces collisions compared to 1-Persistent CSMA.

Higher efficiency than Non-Persistent CSMA.
Works well in slo ed networks like Wi-Fi.

Disadvantages

Increased delay due to probability-based wai ng.

Not ideal for unslo ed channels.

Best suited for slo ed- me networks, such as IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi).

p Selec on in p-Persistent CSMA

 To avoid collisions, the probability of transmission p should be chosen so that:

np<1

where n is the number of sta ons ready to send.

  Under heavy load:
Use small p to reduce collisions.
Too small → Longer delays for transmission.

 Under light load:

Use larger p for faster transmission.
Too large → Higher risk of collisions if traffic increases.

 Dynamic p adjustment is used in some networks (e.g., Wi-Fi) to op mize performance based on
network load.

CSMA/CD

 CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Mul ple Access with Collision Detec on) is used in wired Ethernet
(IEEE 802.3) to detect and manage collisions.

 Devices listen before transmi ng and stop if a collision occurs.

 Steps:

1. Carrier Sensing (CS) – Check if the channel is free.

2. Transmission (MA) – If idle, transmit data.

3. Collision Detec on (CD) – If a collision occurs, stop and send a jamming signal.

4. Backoff & Retry – Wait for a random me (Binary Exponen al Backoff) before
retransmi ng.

Used in wired Ethernet (hubs & shared networks).

Not used in Wi-Fi (uses CSMA/CA) or full-duplex Ethernet (switches eliminate collisions).
Summary of Binary Exponen al Backoff (BEB)

 A er a collision, devices wait for a random me before retrying.

 Wait me doubles a er each collision (exponen al increase).

 A er the 10th collision, the wait me stops increasing and remains at a maximum limit.

 A er the 16th collision, the device gives up and drops the packet (no retransmission).

Used in Ethernet (CSMA/CD) and Wi-Fi (CSMA/CA) to reduce repeated collisions and improve
network efficiency.

Ethernet

 10Base5 (Thick Ethernet)

 Medium: Coaxial cable (Thick Ethernet).

 Signaling: Baseband, Manchester encoding.

 Topology: Bus.

 Nodes: Supports up to 100 nodes per segment.

 10Base2 (Thin Ethernet)

 Medium: Coaxial cable (Thin Ethernet).

 Signaling: Baseband, Manchester encoding.

 Topology: Bus.

 Nodes: Supports up to 30 nodes per segment.

 10Base-T (Twisted-Pair Ethernet)

 Medium: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP).

 Signaling: Baseband, Manchester encoding.

 Topology: Star (uses hubs or switches).

 Nodes: Not specified (depends on hub/switch capacity).

 10Base-F (Fiber-Op c Ethernet)

 Medium: 850nm fiber-op c cable.

 Signaling: Manchester encoding with On/Off keying.

 Topology: Star (typically used with fiber switches).

 Nodes: Supports 33 nodes per segment.

Fast Ethernet (100BASE-T) Explained

Fast Ethernet refers to 100 Mbps Ethernet (IEEE 802.3u) and is an upgrade from 10 Mbps Ethernet. It
retains the same CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Mul ple Access with Collision Detec on) access method but
operates at 100 Mbps.

The 100BASE-T family includes mul ple standards based on different cabling types and signaling
methods, as shown in the diagram.

100BASE-T Categories:

1. 100BASE-X (Uses Two Pairs)

 100BASE-TX

o Uses Category 5 UTP or Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cables.

o The most widely used Fast Ethernet standard.

o Requires two twisted-pair cables (one for sending, one for receiving).

o Uses 4B/5B encoding for efficient data transmission.

 100BASE-FX

o Uses fiber op c cables (typically mul -mode fiber).

o Provides be er performance over longer distances.

o Mostly used in backbone connec ons due to reduced signal interference.

o Uses 4B/5B encoding like 100BASE-TX.

2. 100BASE-T4 (Uses Four Pairs)

 Uses Category 3, or 5 UTP cables.

 Requires four twisted-pair wires instead of two.

 Used in networks where only Category 3 cables are available, as it doesn't require all pairs to
support high-speed signaling.

 Less common today since 100BASE-TX (with Cat 5) became the standard.

Key Differences Between These Standards:

Standard Cable Type Wires Used Encoding Max Distance

100BASE-TX Cat 5 UTP/STP 2 pairs 4B/5B 100m

100BASE-FX Fiber Op c (850nm) 2 pairs 4B/5B 400m-2km

100BASE-T4 Cat 3, 4, or 5 UTP 4 pairs 8B/6T 100m

Conclusion:

 100BASE-TX is the most commonly used Fast Ethernet standard.

  100BASE-FX is used for long-distance, fiber-based networking.

 100BASE-T4 was an alterna ve for older Cat 3 cabling but is now obsolete.

Full Duplex Ethernet - Summary

 Half-duplex Ethernet: Can either transmit or receive, using CSMA/CD to handle collisions.

 Full-duplex Ethernet: Allows simultaneous transmission and recep on, effec vely doubling the
data rate.

 100-Mbps Ethernet in full-duplex achieves 200 Mbps theore cal throughput.

 Requires full-duplex adapter cards and a switching hub (Ethernet switch).

 Eliminates collisions, making CSMA/CD unnecessary.

 Uses the IEEE 802.3 MAC frame format, ensuring compa bility.

 Benefits: Higher efficiency, no collisions, lower latency, and be er performance in modern

networks.

Simple Explana on of Mixed Configura ons

 Fast Ethernet allows both old (10 Mbps) and new (100 Mbps) networks to work together.
  Example Setup:

o Old computers (10 Mbps) connect using 10BASE-T.

o Hubs link to switching hubs that support both 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps.

o Powerful computers and servers connect directly to fast switches (10/100 Mbps).

o Switches link to 100 Mbps hubs for faster communica on.

o 100 Mbps hubs act as the main network backbone and connect to a router for
internet/WAN access.

Benefit: Allows older and newer devices to work together smoothly while upgrading to faster
speeds.

Gigabit Ethernet (1Gbps) - Explana on & Types

Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) is a high-speed networking standard that provides 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps) data
transfer rates. It is widely used in enterprise networks, data centers, and home networking for fast and
reliable communica on.

Types of Gigabit Ethernet:

1⃣ 1000BASE-SX (Short-range)

 Uses 850 nm wavelength on mul mode fiber

 Maximum distance: 220m to 550m

2⃣ 1000BASE-LX (Long-range)

 Uses 1310 nm wavelength on single-mode fiber

 Maximum distance: 5km to 10km

3⃣ 1000BASE-CX (Short copper cable)

 Uses shielded twisted-pair (STP) copper cables

 Maximum distance: 25m

4⃣ 1000BASE-T (Twisted Pair - Ethernet Cable)

 Uses Category 5e, 6, or 7 twisted-pair cables (RJ-45 connectors)

 Maximum distance: 100m

Key Takeaway: Gigabit Ethernet supports both fiber op c and copper cables, offering flexibility for
short- and long-distance networking needs.

IEEE 802.5 Medium Access Control (MAC) Protocol - Token Ring

Overview
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring is a MAC protocol that uses a token-passing technique for network access. It
operates in a round-robin fashion, ensuring fair access to all sta ons.

How It Works:

1⃣ Token Circula on:

 A small frame (token) con nuously circulates the network when no sta on is transmi ng.

2⃣ Token Seizing & Transmission:

 A sta on that wants to transmit waits for the token.

 It modifies the token into a start-of-frame sequence.

 It appends data and sends the frame.

3⃣ Frame Circula on & Absorp on:

 The frame travels around the ring and is received by the intended sta on.

 The sender absorbs the frame a er confirming its circula on.

4⃣ Token Re-inser on:

 A new token is generated a er transmission is complete and the original frame returns.

 This ensures only one frame at a me is on the ring.

Advantages:

Fair & Efficient Under Heavy Load – Uses a round-robin mechanism.

Controlled Access – Ensures smooth data transmission.
Supports Priority & Guaranteed Bandwidth – Can be regulated.

Disadvantages:

Token Maintenance Required – Loss or duplica on of the token disrupts the network.
Delays Under Light Load – Sta ons must wait for the token.
Requires a Monitor Sta on – To prevent token loss and duplica on.

Conclusion: The token ring protocol ensures fair access and efficiency under heavy loads, but it
requires strict token management to func on properly.

IEEE 802.5 MAC Frame Format (Token Ring Protocol)

The IEEE 802.5 MAC frame consists of several fields used for controlling data transmission in a Token
Ring network.

Frame Structure
1⃣ Star ng Delimiter (SD)

 Indicates the start of a frame.

 Uses a unique pa ern JKOJKOOO (J and K are special symbols).

2⃣ Access Control (AC)

 Controls access to the token ring.

 Format: PPPTMRRR

o PPP (Priority Bits): Defines the priority of the frame.

o T (Token Bit):

 0 → Indicates a token frame (available for use).

 1 → Indicates a data frame (token seized).

o M (Monitor Bit): Ensures only one ac ve token exists.

o RRR (Reserva on Bits): Allows sta ons to reserve a token for later use.

3⃣ Frame Control (FC)

 Defines the type of frame (LLC data frame or MAC control frame).

4⃣ Des na on Address (DA)

 Specifies the intended recipient.

 Can be 2 or 6 bytes long (like in IEEE 802.3 Ethernet).

5⃣ Source Address (SA)

 Specifies the sender's MAC address.

 Can be 2 or 6 bytes long.

6⃣ Data Unit

 Contains the actual data being transmi ed.

7⃣ Frame Check Sequence (FCS)

 Error-detec on field (uses CRC for integrity checking).

8⃣ End Delimiter (ED)

 Marks the end of a frame.

 Contains:

o E (Error Bit): Set to 1 if an error is detected.

 o I (Intermediate Bit): Indicates that the frame is part of a mul -frame transmission.

9⃣ Frame Status (FS)

 Indicates whether the frame was received properly.

 Contains:

o A (Address Recognized Bit): Set to 1 if the des na on exists.

o C (Copied Bit): Set to 1 if the frame is copied by the recipient.

o Redundancy Check Bits: Ensures frame integrity.