ENGR. JENNY M.

BERMIDO, CE, ME
[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

MODULE 1 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, and CONTINUITY

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, the students’ were able to:
1. Define functions, domain and range & function concept.
2. Interpret relation of a function, domain and range.
3. Simplify functions.
4. Evaluate functional notations and solve for the domain and range.
5. Graph functions.
6. Define limits & continuity.
7. Calculate limit of a function.
8. Determine the continuity and discontinuity of a function.

Introduction
In this module, we’re going to make sure that you’re familiar with functions and
functions notation. Both will appear in almost every section in a Calculus class and so you
will need to be able to deal with them.
First, what exactly is a function? An equation will be a function if for any x in the
domain of the equation (the domain is all x’s that can be plugged into the equation) the
equation will yield exactly one value of y.
In a function f(x) = x², where a is a constant, is called a power function. Power in
mathematics is also known as the exponent. When we wish to multiply a number by itself
several times, we make use if index or power notation.
A function is a relationship between variables such that to each value of the
independent variable corresponds exactly one vale of the independent variable.
Consider y = f(x), which is the relationship between two variables x and y, where f(x)
is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable.

Let us recall some definitions:

• A SET is a collection of elements. The elements that make up a set can be any kind of
mathematical objects: numbers, symbols, points in space, lines, other geometrical
shapes, variables, or even other sets. The set with no element is the empty set; a set
with a single element is a singleton.
• Sets are represented as a collection of well-defined objects or elements and it does not
change from person to person. A set is represented by a capital letter. The number of
elements in the finite set is known as the cardinal number of a set.

What are the Elements of a Set

Let us take an example:

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }

Since a set is usually represented by the capital letter. Thus, A is the set and 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 are the elements of the set or members of the set. The elements that are written in the

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[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
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set can be in any order but cannot be repeated. All the set elements are represented in small
letter in case of alphabets. Also, we can write it as 1 ∈ A, 2 ∈ A etc. The cardinal number of
the set is 5. Some commonly used sets are as follows:

N: Set of all natural numbers

Z: Set of all integers

Q: Set of all rational numbers

R: Set of all real numbers

Z+: Set of all positive integers

Order of Sets
The order of a set defines the number of elements a set is having. It describes the size of a
set. The order of set is also known as the cardinality.

The size of set whether it is is a finite set or an infinite set, said to be set of finite order or
infinite order, respectively.

Representation of Sets
The sets are represented in curly braces, {}. For example, {2,3,4} or {a,b,c} or {Bat, Ball,
Wickets}. The elements in the sets are depicted in either the Statement form, Roster Form or Set
Builder Form.

Statement Form
In statement form, the well-defined descriptions of a member of a set are written and
enclosed in the curly brackets.

For example, the set of even numbers less than 15.

In statement form, it can be written as {even numbers less than 15}.

Roster Form
In Roster form, all the elements of a set are listed.

For example, the set of natural numbers less than 5.

Natural Number = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,……….

Natural Number less than 5 = 1, 2, 3, 4

Therefore, the set is N = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }

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[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

Set Builder Form

The general form is, A = { x : property }

Example: Write the following sets in set builder form: A={2, 4, 6, 8}

Solution:

2=2x1

4=2x2

6=2x3

8=2x4

So, the set builder form is A = {x: x=2n, n ∈ N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 4}

Also, Venn Diagrams are the simple and best way for visualized representation of sets.

Types of Sets
We have several types of sets in Maths. They are empty set, finite and infinite sets, proper
set, equal sets, etc. Let us go through the classification of sets here.

• Empty Set

A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set or void set or null
set. It is denoted by { } or Ø.

A set of apples in the basket of grapes is an example of an empty set because in a

grapes basket there are no apples present.

• Singleton Set

A set which contains a single element is called a singleton set.

Example: There is only one apple in a basket of grapes.

• Finite set

A set which consists of a definite number of elements is called a finite set.

Example: A set of natural numbers up to 10.

A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

• Infinite set

A set which is not finite is called an infinite set.

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Example: A set of all natural numbers.

A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9……}

• Equivalent set

If the number of elements is the same for two different sets, then they are called
equivalent sets. The order of sets does not matter here. It is represented as:

n(A) = n(B)

where A and B are two different sets with the same number of elements.

Example: If A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {Red, Blue, Green, Black}

In set A, there are four elements and in set B also there are four elements.
Therefore, set A and set B are equivalent.

• Equal sets

The two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements,
the order of elements do not matter.

Example: A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {4,3,2,1}

A=B

• Disjoint Sets

The two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if the set does not contain any common
element.

Example: Set A = {1,2,3,4} and set B = {5,6,7,8} are disjoint sets, because there is no
common element between them.

• Subsets

A set ‘A’ is said to be a subset of B if every element of A is also an element of B,

denoted as A ⊆ B. Even the null set is considered to be the subset of another set. In general,
a subset is a part of another set.

Example: A = {1,2,3}

Then {1,2} ⊆ A.

Similarly, other subsets of set A are: {1},{2},{3},{1,2},{2,3},{1,3},{1,2,3},{}.

Note: The set is also a subset of itself.

If A is not a subset of B, then it is denoted as A⊄B.

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• Proper Subset

If A ⊆ B and A ≠ B, then A is called the proper subset of B and it can be written as A⊂B.

Example: If A = {2,5,7} is a subset of B = {2,5,7} then it is not a proper subset of B = {2,5,7}

But, A = {2,5} is a subset of B = {2,5,7} and is a proper subset also.

• Superset

If set A is a subset of set B and all the elements of set B are the elements of set A, then A is
a superset of set B. It is denoted by A⊃B.

Example: If Set A = {1,2,3,4} is a subset of B = {1,2,3,4}. Then A is superset of B.

• Universal Set

A set which contains all the sets relevant to a certain condition is called the universal
set. It is the set of all possible values.

Example: If A = {1,2,3} and B {2,3,4,5}, then universal set here will be:

U = {1,2,3,4,5}

Operations on Sets
In set theory, the operations of the sets are carried when two or more sets combine to form a
single set under some of the given conditions. The basic operations on sets are:

• Union of sets

• Intersection of sets

• A complement of a set

• Cartesian product of sets.

• Set difference

Basically, we work more on union and intersection of sets operations, using Venn diagrams.

Union of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then A union B is the set that contains all the elements of set
A and set B. It is denoted as A ∪ B.

Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A union B is:

A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5,6}

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 ENGR. JENNY M. BERMIDO, CE, ME
[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

Intersection of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then A intersection B is the set that contains only the
common elements between set A and set B. It is denoted as A ∩ B.

Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A intersection B is:

A ∩ B = { } or Ø

Since A and B do not have any elements in common, so their intersection will give null set.

Complement of Sets
The complement of any set, say P, is the set of all elements in the universal set that are not
in set P. It is denoted by P’.

Properties of Complement sets

1. P ∪ P′ = U

2. P ∩ P′ = Φ

3. Law of double complement : (P′ )′ = P

4. Laws of empty/null set(Φ) and universal set(U), Φ′ = U and U′ = Φ.

Cartesian Product of sets

If set A and set B are two sets then the cartesian product of set A and set B is a set
of all ordered pairs (a,b), such that a is an element of A and b is an element of B. It is
denoted by A × B.

We can represent it in set-builder form, such as:

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

Example: set A = {1,2,3} and set B = {Bat, Ball}, then;

A × B = {(1,Bat),(1,Ball),(2,Bat),(2,Ball),(3,Bat),(3,Ball)}

Difference of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then set A difference set B is a set which has elements of A
but no elements of B. It is denoted as A – B.

Example: A = {1,2,3} and B = {2,3,4}

A – B = {1}

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[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

Sets Formulas
Some of the most important set formulas are:

For any three sets A, B and C

n ( A ∪ B ) = n(A) + n(B) – n ( A ∩ B)

If A ∩ B = ∅, then n ( A ∪ B ) = n(A) + n(B)

n( A – B) + n( A ∩ B ) = n(A)

n( B – A) + n( A ∩ B ) = n(B)

n( A – B) + n ( A ∩ B) + n( B – A) = n ( A ∪ B )

n ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n ( A ∩ B) – n ( B ∩ C) – n ( C ∩ A) + n ( A ∩ B ∩ C)

CONCEPT MAP

SETS SETS - A well-defined collection of objects

CARTESIAN Ex. Set A & B AxB

PRODUCT {(a,b) a ϵ A , b ϵ B}

AxB=
a {(1,a),(1,b),(1,c),(1,d)
1
RELATION 2
b (2,a),(2,b),(2,c),(2,d)
c (3,a),(3,b),(3,c),(3,d)}
3
d
R A→B
A B R  A B
FUNCTION Ex. R “all ordered pairs
beginning with an odd no.”
R = {(1,a),(1,b),(1,c),(1,d)
(3,a),(3,b),(3,c),(3,d)}

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 ENGR. JENNY M. BERMIDO, CE, ME
[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

FUNCTION

Functions are one of the very important concepts in mathematics which have got numerous
applications in the real world. Be it the mega skyscrapers or the superfast cars, their modelling
requires methodical application of functions. Almost all the real-world problems are formulated
interpreted and solved using real functions.

What are Functions and Relations?

A relation is a rule that “relates” an element from one set to an element from another
set. A function is a special kind of relation. A relation F is said to be a function if each
element in set A is associated with exactly one element in set B., For example, a relation F
from set A to set B such that it associates a natural number to its square is a function
because for every element in set A, we will have exactly one association in set B.

Operations on Real Functions

Now that we understand what functions are let us discuss how we perform
mathematical operations on real functions such as the addition of two or more functions,
subtraction of two functions, multiplying a real function by a real number etc.

Adding Two Real Functions

For adding two real functions let us define the functions f and g such that f: X
⟶R and g: X ⟶R are two real functions such that X is a subset of R. Then (f + g): X
⟶R can be defined as:
(f + g)(x)=f(x) + g(x), for all x ϵ X

Subtracting Two Functions

For subtracting two real functions let us define the functions f and g such that f: X
⟶R and g: X ⟶R are two real functions such that X is a subset of R. Then (f – g): X
⟶R can be defined as:
(f – g)(x)=f(x) – g(x), for all x ϵ X

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[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

Multiplying a Real Function by a Scalar (Real Number)

Let us define a real function f such that f: X ⟶R, X⊆R and a ϒ be a real scalar
quantity. Then the product of scalar ϒ and the function f is also a function defined from X
to R as:
(ϒf)(x) = ϒf(x), for all x ϵ X

Multiplying Two Functions

For multiplying two real functions let us define the functions f and g such that f: X
⟶R and g: X ⟶R are two real functions such that X is a subset of R. Then fg: X ⟶R can be
defined as:
(fg)(x) = f(x)g(x), for all x ϵ X

Quotient of Two Functions

For determining the quotient of two real functions let us define the functions f and g
such that f: X ⟶R and g: X ⟶R are two real functions such that X is a subset of R. Then f/g:
X ⟶R can be defined as:
f f(x)
 ( x) =
 g g(x)
Functional Notation

The function concept is needed when we discuss the principles of calculus in general terms.
A function is a certain law of correspondence and associated with a formula.

For instance, the formula for the area of a circle: A = r2

For every value assigned to r, there corresponds a value of A.
We say that A is a function of r and in symbol, we write: A = f(r)

In general: y = f(x)
There is a relation between two variables x and y.
For each value of x, there corresponds a value of y.
We say that y is a function of x.
*The notation y=f(x) is due to Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler (1707-1783).

In case of more than two variables, consider the equation: z = f(x,y)

Implies that z is determined when x and y are given and
We say that z is a function of x and y.

For instance, the volume of a right circular cylinder is a function

Of the altitude h and radius r of the base, that is, V = f(r,h) = r2 h

A variable is a quantity which can have an unlimited number of values. A constant is a

quantity which has a fixed value. Numerical or absolute constants like 3,  , − 2 , have the same

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[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
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value in all problems. Arbitrary constants are those constants to which numerical values are to be
assigned. The constants A, B, C in the equation of a straight line Ax + By + C = 0 are arbitrary
constants.

Classification of Functions
The functions may be classified as follows:

o Polynomial or Integral Rational Function

This is a simplest type of function and includes polynomials of the form
a0 xn + a1xn−1 + ... + an−1x + an = 0

o Rational Function or Rational Fraction

This is the quotient of two polynomials, an example of which is
2x3 − 7x 2 + 5
x 2 − 2x + 3
where both the numerator and the denominator are polynomials.

o Algebraic Function
In general, y is said to be an algebraic function of x if it is not a root of an equation of
the nth degree in y whose coefficients are rational functions of x. For example, if
y = x + 2x
then squaring both members repeatedly, we obtain
y 2 − x = 2x

(y )
2
2
−x = 2x

y4 − 2xy2 + x2 − 2x = 0

o Transcendental Function
This function includes all other functions not included in the above-mentioned
categories. Examples of this function are the trigonometric, inverse trigonometric,
logarithmic, exponential and hyperbolic functions. Other examples from more
advanced mathematics are the elliptic, gamma, and Bessel functions.

Implicit Function
The equation y = f(x) expresses y as an explicit function of x. However, it may happen that
the variables x and y are connected by an equation of the form f (x,y) = 0. In this case, y is said to be
an implicit function of x. For example, the equation of an ellipse: 4x 2 + 9y2 = 1 expresses y as an
implicit function of x.

In general, A variable y is said to be a function of another variable x, if to every value of x

there is a corresponding value of y. In symbols, y = f(x). The variable x to which any value may be
assigned is the independent variable or argument, while y is the dependent variable or function.

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[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

Illustrative Examples:

1. Determine if each of the following are functions:

y = x2 + 1
Solution: This is a function. Given an x there is only one way to square it and then add 1
to the result and so on no matter what value of x you put into the equation there is only
one possible value of y.

y2 = x + 1
Solution: The only difference between this equation and the first is that we moved the
exponent off the x and onto the y. This small change is all that is required, in this case,
to change the equation from a function to something that isn’t a function.

To see that this isn’t a function is fairly simple. Choose a value of x, say x=3 and plug
this into the equation.
y2 = 3 + 1 = 4
Now, there are two possible values of y that we could use here. We could use y=2 or y=-
2. Since there are two possible values of y that we get from a single x this equation isn’t
a function.

Note that this only needs to be the case for a single value of x to make an equation not
be a function. For instance we could have used x=-1 and in this case we would get a
single y (y=0).

However, because of what happens at x=3 this equation will not be a function.

To determine if an equation defines a functional relationship between its variables, isolate the
independent variable on the left side and the independent variable on the right side.

In this case, consider y as the dependent variable and x as the independent variable.
y =  3−x
This is not a function since there are two values of y for some values of x.

y=2–x
This is a function since there is only one value for y for every values of x.

y = 1 – x2
This is a function.

y =  5 − x2
This is not a function.

In this case, consider x as the dependent variable and y as the independent variable.

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[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
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x = 3 – y2
This is a function.
x=2–y
This is a function.

x =  1− y
This is not a function.

x =  5 − y2
This is not a function.

2. The area of a rectangle is 6 sq. in. Express the Perimeter P of the rectangle as a function of
length x of one side.
6
Solution: Since the area is 6 sq. in., then the length of the other side is and the perimeter is
x
 6
P = 2 x + 
 x

3. Consider the function f(x) = x + 2 .

2

Solution: (a) Rewrite the function

y = x2 + 2
(b) Assign values of x
If x = 3, then y = 11
y = x2 + 2
y = 32 + 2
y = 11
If x = 6, then y = 38
y = 62 + 2
y = 38
*The independent variable is x and the dependent variable is y.

4. Let g(x) = x²-3x+7. Find the following:

a. g(10)
b. g(a+1)
c. g(r²)
d. g(x+h)
g(x − h) − g(x)
e.
h

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Solution:

a. g(10) = 10²-3(10)+7
= 77
b. g(a+1) = (a+1)²-3(a+1)+7
= (a²+2a+1)-3a-3+7
= a²-a+5
c. g(r²) = (r²)²-3(r²)+7
= r 4 − 3r + 7
d. g(x+h) = (x+h)²-3(x+h)+7
= x²+2xh+h²-3x-3h+7

g(x + h) − g(x) ( x + h) − 3( x + h) + 7 − ( x − 3x + 7 )
 2
 2

e. =
h h

=
(x 2
+ 2xh + h2 − 3x − 3h + 7 ) − x 2 + 3x − 7
h
2xh + h2 − 3h
=
h
= 2x+h-3

Domains and Ranges of Functions

DOMAIN – 1st elements in the ordered pairs of R A = {1,2,3,5} B = {4,6,9, etc}

{1,2,3,5} R A→B
RANGE – 2 elements in the ordered pairs of R
nd R  A B
{4,6,9} Ex. R ={(x,y} difference between x & y is ODD,
CO-DOMAIN – B (entire) x  A,y  B
R = {(1,4),(1,6),(2,9),
(3,4),(3,6),(5,4),(5,6)}

✓ To describe a function f, sometimes we just write down the rule defining f, omitting its
domain and co-domain.
✓ The co-domain is always taken to be unless otherwise stated.
✓ For the domain, it can be determined from the rule defining the function. For example,
f(x) = x is defined for all real numbers x  0 but undefined for x<0. Therefore we take
[0, ) as the domain of f. The domain obtained in this way is called natural domain of
the function. For a function that is described by formula, we always take its domain to be
the natural domain unless otherwise stated.

Additional Materials /Videos: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=52tpYl2tTqk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=za0QJRZ-yQ4

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 ENGR. JENNY M. BERMIDO, CE, ME
[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

For each of the following functions, find its natural domain.

1. f(x) = x2 + 3
1
2. g(x) =
x −2
3. h(x) = 1 + 5x

Solution:
1. Since f(x) = x + 3 is defined for all real numbers x, the domain of f is R.
2

2. Note that g(x) is defined for all real numbers x except 2.

The domain of g is { x  : x  2 }= \ {2}
Remark The domain can also be written as { x  : x  2 or x  2 } = (-  ,2)  (2,-  )
3. Note that 1 + 5x is defined if and only if 1 + 5x  0 .
1
The domain of h is { x  :1 + 5x  0 } = { x  : x  − }
5
1
= [- ,  )
5
For the following functions, find its range.

Steps to find range of function:

1. Put y=f(x)
2. Solve x in terms of y.
3. The range of f is the set of all real numbers y such that x can be solved.

1. f(x) = x2 + 2
1
2. g(x) =
x −2
3. h(x) = 1 + 5x

Solution:
1. Put y = f(x) = x + 2
2

Solve for x.
x2 = y − 2
x =  y −2
Note that x can be solved if and only if y − 2  0 . The range of f is
{ y  : y − 2  0 } = { y  : y  2 } = [2,  )
1
2. Put y = g(x) =
x −2
Solve for x.
1
y=
x −2
1
x −2 =
y

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1
x = +2
y
Note that x can be solved if and only if y  0 . The range of g is { y  : y  0 }= \ {0} .

3. Put y = h(x) = 1 + 5x
Solve for x.
y = 1 + 5x , y0
y2 = 1 + 5x , y0
y2 − 1
x= , y0
5
Note that x can always be solved for every y  0 . The range of h is { y  : y  0 }={0,  )
Remark y = 1 + 5x  y = 1 + 5x but the converse is true only if y  0 .
2

1
4. Determine the domain and range for the function defined by y =
x −3
Solution: The domain is all real numbers, x  3
The function has a zero denominator when x = 3, thus, the domain Is restricted to all
real numbers except x = 3. The range is all real numbers, y  0
5. Determine the domain and range of the equation, y = x − 1
Solution: The domain is all real numbers, x  1
The equation y = x − 1 defines y as a function of x. the function has negative values
inside the square root if y = x − 1 , thus, the domain of the function is all real numbers
greater than or equal to 1. The range of the function is never negative, therefore, the range is
all real numbers, y  0 .

RECALL
PROPERTIES (LAW OF EXPONENTS)

x+y
a. a = a  a
x y

Ex. 25 = 2  2  2  2  2 = 23  22 , x = 3, y = 2
b. (a )
x y
= axy
Ex. 36 = 3  3  3  3  3  3 = 32  32  32 , 2 3
= (3 )
c. ax  bx = (ab)x
23  33 = 2  2  2  3  3  3 = (2  3)(2  3)(2  3) = (2  3)
3
Ex.
am m−n
d. =a provided that a  0
an
n
a a
n
e.   = n provided that b  0
b b

Here, a & b are called the base and x & y are called index or power.

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 ENGR. JENNY M. BERMIDO, CE, ME
[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

These laws hold for any a and x,y  N .

Now we want to generalize the notation for the power to include whole numbers,
fractions and irrational numbers, so that ax makes sense for most values of a and all a .
The idea is to make laws of exponents hold generally.

ALGEBRAIC IDENTITIES AND EXPRESSIONS

Let a and b be real numbers. Then we have

1. (a + b) = a + 2ab + b
2 2 2

2. (a − b) = a − 2ab + b
2 2 2

3. (a + b)(a− b) = a − b
2 2

Illustrative Examples:
Expand the following.

( )
2
a. x +2
2
 5
b.  x − 
 x
c. ( x2 + 1 + 7 )( x2 + 1 − 7 )
Solution:

( ) ( x) ( x )(2) + 2
2 2
a. x +2 = +2 2

= x+4 x +4
2 2
 5  5  5
b.  x −  = x2 − 2(x)   +  
 x x x
25
= x2 − 10 + 2
x

( )( ) ( )
2
c. x2 + 1 + 7 x2 + 1 − 7 = x2 + 1 − 72

(
= x + 1 − 49
2
)
= x2 − 48

GRAPH OF FUNCTION
The study of graphs is an essential aspect of calculus. A graph offers the opportunity to
visualize relationships. The graph of a function y = f(x) consists of all points (x,f(x)), where x is
directed distance from y-axis and f(x) is directed distance from the x-axis.
Each point in a plane corresponds to an ordered pair of numbers.

(2,5) is an ordered pair.

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 ENGR. JENNY M. BERMIDO, CE, ME
[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

The first number is called the first coordinate of the point, and the second number is called
the second coordinate. Together these are the coordinates of the point. The vertical line is often
called the y-axis, and the horizontal line often called the x-axis.

Illustrative Problems

1. Graph y = 2x + 1

2. Graph 3x + 5y = 10

3. Graph y = x −1
2

Most of the functions we consider are functions whose domains and co-domains are
subsets of . A variable that represents the “input numbers” for a function is called an
independent variable. A variable that represents the “output numbers” is called the
dependent variable because its value depends on the value of the independent variable.

Suppose f is a function described by a formula. Then the domain of f is the set of all
real numbers x such that f(x) is defined.

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 ENGR. JENNY M. BERMIDO, CE, ME
[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

If a and b are positive numbers, x and y are any real numbers, then we have
x+y
a. a = a  a
x y
am m−n
d. =a
b. (a ) = a
x y xy
an
c. ax  bx = (ab)x n
a a
n
e.   = n
b b
Limits
The first problem is to “find” the velocity of an object at a particular instant. The idea
is related to differentiation. The second problem is to “find” the area under the graph of a
curve (and above the x-axis). The idea is related to integration.
Both concepts of differentiation and integration are based on the idea of limit.
Familiarity with the limit concept is absolutely essential for a deeper understanding of
the calculus.

Limit of a Function

Consider the function defined by the equation

f(x) = 3x + 1

Assign some values to “x” near, but not equal, to a specific number, say 2.
For each value of x in the neighbourhood of 2, we compute the corresponding value of y.
To get an idea of what is happening, we construct a table of values as shown below:

X 1.5 1.89 1.909 2.009 2.05 2.16 2.3

f(x) 5.5 6.67 6.997 7.027 7.15 7.48 7.9

The table shows that when x is near to 2, whether a little less or little greater
than 2, f(x)=3x+1 is nearer 7. In other words, 3x+1 approaches the number 7 as a
limit when x approaches 2.

3x + 1 → 7 as x →2

We may also write, “The limit of 3x + 1 as x approaches 2 is 7”.

lim(3x + 1) = 7
x →2

Definition: Let f(x) be any function and let a and L be numbers. If we can make
f(x) as close to L as we please by choosing x sufficiently close to a then we say that the limit
of f(x) as x approaches a is L or symbolically.

limf(x) = L
x →a

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 ENGR. JENNY M. BERMIDO, CE, ME
[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

THEOREMS ON LIMITS

limc = c
1. x →a c = constant
limx = a
2. x →a a = any real number
limcf(x) = climf(x)
3. x →a x →a

lim f(x)  g(x) = limf(x)  limg(x)

4. x →a x →a x →a

lim f(x) g(x) = limf(x) limg(x)

5. x →a x →a x →a

f(x) limf(x)
lim = x →a
x →a g(x) limg(x)
6. x →a

lim n f(x) = n limf(x)

7. x →a x →a n = any positive integer and f(x)  0 if n is even.
n
lim f(x) = limf(x)
n

8. x →a  x →a 

Illustrative Problems:
lim (x2 + 3x + 4) lim lim lim
1. x →2 = x →2 x2 + x →2 3x + x →2 4
2
limx  limx
=  x →2  + 3 x →2 + 4
= [2]² + 3(2) + 4
= 14

lim lim lim

2. x →2 (x + 4) 2x + 5 = x →2 (x + 4) x →2 2x + 5

=
(limx + lim4 )
x →2 x →2
lim (2x + 5)
x →2

=
(limx + lim4 )
x →2 x →2
lim2x + lim5
x →2 x →2

=
(limx + lim4 )
x →2 x →2
2limx + lim5
x →2 x →2

= (2 + 4) 2(2) + 5
= 18

2
lim lim(3x + 4)
3. x →3 (3x + 4)² =  x →3 
2
lim3x + lim4 
=  x →3 x →3 

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 ENGR. JENNY M. BERMIDO, CE, ME
[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

2
3limx + lim4 
=  x →3 x →3 

3(3) + 4 
2

=
= 169

Infinity
Let f(x) be a function. If we can make f(x) as large as we please by making x close
enough, but not equal, to a real number a, then we describe this situation by writing.

lim
f(x) = 
x →a


Where the symbol is read as “infinity”

Consider the function

1
f(x) =
x

We write,
1
lim
x →0 x
= 

x 0.1000 0.0.100 0.0010 0.0001 →0

1 10 100 1,000 10,000 →
f(x) =
x

Limit at Infinity
A function f(x) may have a finite limit even when the independent variable x becomes infinite.
This statement “x becomes infinite” is customarily expressed in symbolism by “ x →  ”.
1
1
Consider again the function f(x) = . It can be shown (intuitively or formally) that x
x
approaches a finite limit (the number zero) as x increases without bound.
That is,
1
→0
x as x → 
1
lim
x →0 x
=0

Illustrative Problems

1 1 1 1
lim lim  
4. x →0 x = x → 0  x x x 
3

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 ENGR. JENNY M. BERMIDO, CE, ME
[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

1 1 1
lim lim lim
= x →0 x . x →0 x . x →0 x
=0

4 1
lim 2
lim 2
5. x →0 x = 4 x →0 x
1 1
lim  x x 
= 4 x →0  
1 1
lim lim
= 4 x →0 x . x →0 x
=0

1
1
lim  1 4
x →0 1 lim  
6. x 4 = x →0  x 
1
 14
lim
x →0 x 

=
=0

Continuity

A function f(x) is continuous at x=a if lim f(x) = f(a). Note that the condition lim f(x) = f(a) in
x →a x →a

the definition actually implies three continuous, namely

1) f(a) is defined
2) lim f(x) = L exists, and
x →a

3) L = f(a)

Illustrative Examples:

7. The function f(x) = x² is continuous at x = 2 because lim x² = f(a) = 4. In fact, it is continuous

x →2

for all finite values of x. The graph of the function as shown.

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 ENGR. JENNY M. BERMIDO, CE, ME
[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

1 1 1
8. The function f(x) = is continuous at x = 3 because lim = = f(3) = . It is, however,
x x → 3 x 3
1 
discontinuous at x = 0 since lim = = . Look at the graph below.
x →0 x

Additional Materials /Videos: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3DZ6Qot7GJs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z448e-j7gNE&t=1s

References:

1. Differential & Integral Calculus, Feliciano & Uy © Merriam & Webster

Bookstore, Inc. 1983
2. Calculus 1, Differential Calculus, Harold Jan R. Terrano, © Camarines Sur
Polytechnic Colleges 2015
3. Solutions to Problems in Differential Calculus SI (Metric Edition), Matias A.
Arreola, © KEN Incorporated 1995
4. Understanding Basic Calculus, S.K.C © CreateSpace Independent
Publishing Platform (2014)
5. Exercises and Problems in Calculus, John M. Erdman © Portland State
University 2010

STUDENT ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

1. Answer the short quiz, click on the link below.

TBA
2. Answer the Activity Exercise No. 1 – Functions, Limits & Continuity.

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 ENGR. JENNY M. BERMIDO, CE, ME
[EM111] CALCULUS I – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Instructor I
CSPC

Name: _____________________________________ Score: __________ Rating: ________

Course Yr. & Sec. ____________________________ Date Submitted: __________________

Activity Exercise No.1 Functions, Limits & Continuity

Direction. Simplify the following required. Use Bond Paper, take a picture then attach / send to the
Google Classroom. Copy & Answer (Show your solution)

x −5
1. Let f(x) = . Find the following.
x2 + 4
3
a. f(2) Ans: −
8

6
b. f(3.5) Ans: −
65

a−4
c. f(a+ 1) Ans:
a2 + 2a + 5

d. f ( a) Ans: a −5
a+ 4

a2 − 5
e. a2 Ans:
a2 + 4

2. Evaluate each of the following.

lim ( x 2 − 4x + 3 )
a. x →2

4x + 2
lim
b. x →3 x+4

c.
(
lim 2x + 3 x − 4
x →8 )

x3 − 64
lim 2
d. x → 4 x − 16

x2 − 9
lim
e. x →3 x − 3

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