Chapter 2

Network
Models

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 OBJECTIVES

■ Internet layering model

■ Function of each Layers
■ OSI Model

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 2.1 Layered Tasks

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier

Work must be done

Hierarchically

Services: Use services of the

layer immediately below it
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 Figure 2.1 Sending a Letter

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 2.2 Internet Model

Peer-to-Peer Processes

Functions of Layers

Summary of Layers

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 Figure 2.2 Internet layers

■ Five-layer Internet Model TCP/IP protocol suite

■ Designers distilled the process of transmitting data to
its most fundamental elements. They identified which
networking functions had related uses and collected
those functions into discrete groups that became the
layers.
■ Layer functions are distinct.

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 Peer-to-peer processes
■ The Processes on each machine that communicate at a given
layer are called peer-to-peer processes.
■ Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the
message it receives from the layer above it and passes the
whole package to the layer just below it.
■ At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by
layer, with each process receiving and removing the data meant
for it.
■ Passing of the data and network information down through the
layers of the sending device and back up through the layers of
the receiving device is made possible by an interface between
each pair of adjacent layers.
■ Each interface defines what information and services a layer
must provide for the layer above it. Thus, provide modularity.

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 Figure 2.3 Peer-to-peer processes

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 An exchange using the Internet model

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 Figure 2.5 Physical Layer
■ Deals with mechanical and electrical specifications of the
interface and transmission media.
■ Defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.
■ Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
■ Representation of bits
■ Data rate: Transmission rate – number of bits sent per second
■ Synchronization of bits
■ The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits
from one node to the next.

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 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

■ Transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable

link.
■ Makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network
layer).
■ Framing: divide the stream of bits from network layer into frames
■ Physical addressing
■ Flow control: Prevent overwhelming the receiver.
■ Error control: Detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames; Prevent
duplication of frames; using trailer.
■ Access control: Determine which device has control over the link at any
given time.
■ The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one
node to next.

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 Figure 2.7 Node-to-node delivery

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 Example 1
In Figure 2.8 a node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link. At the data link level this frame
contains physical addresses in the header. These are the
only addresses needed. The rest of the header contains
other information needed at this level. The trailer usually
contains extra bits needed for error detection

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 Figure 2.8 Example 1

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 Figure 2.9 Network layer

■ Responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of

a packet possibly across multiple networks.
■ Data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet
between two systems on the same network.
■ Network layer ensures that each packet gets from its
point of origin to its final destination.
■ If two systems are connected to the same link, there is
usually no need for a network layer.

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 The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from
the original source to the final destination.

Logical addressing: Physical addressing in data link layer handles

the addressing problem locally.

Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to

create an internetwork (network of networks) or a large network,
the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch
the packets to their final destination.

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 Figure 2.10 Source-to-destination delivery

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 Example 2
In Figure 2.11 we want to send data from a node with
network address A and physical address 10, located on
one LAN, to a node with a network address P and
physical address 95, located on another LAN. Because
the two devices are located on different networks, we
cannot use physical addresses only; the physical
addresses only have local jurisdiction. What we need here
are universal addresses that can pass through the LAN
boundaries. The network (logical) addresses have this
characteristic.

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 Figure 2.11 Example 2

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 Figure 2.12 Transport layer

■ Process-to-Process delivery
■ Network layer oversees host-to-destination delivery
of individual packets, it does not recognize any
relationship between those packets.
■ Ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in
order, overseeing both error control and flow control
at the process-to-process level.

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 The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message from
one process to another.

•Port addressing: indicating a process

•Segmentation and reassembly: divide into segments having

sequence number.

•Connection control: connection-oriented and connectionless

•Flow control: end to end rather than across a single link.

•Error control: End to end rather than across a single link.

Sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message
arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage,
loss, or duplication).

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 Figure 2.12 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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 Example 3
Figure 2.14 shows an example of transport layer
communication. Data coming from the upper layers have
port addresses j and k (j is the address of the sending
process, and k is the address of the receiving process).
Since the data size is larger than the network layer can
handle, the data are split into two packets, each packet
retaining the port addresses (j and k). Then in the network
layer, network addresses (A and P) are added to each
packet.

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 Figure 2.14 Example 3

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 Figure 2.15 Application layer

■ Enables the user, whether human or software, to

access the network.
■ Provides user interfaces and support for services such
as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer,
access to WWW, and so on.

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 The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
• Mail services
• File transfer and access
• Remote log-in
• Accessing the WWW

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 Figure 2.16 Summary of duties

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 2.3 OSI Model

A comparison
• Seven-layer model
• Never seriously implemented as a protocol
Stack
• Theoretical model designed to show how a
Protocol stack should be implemented
• Session & Presentation layer

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 Figure 2.17 OSI model

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