Chapter 8 - Programming logic control

8.1 Introduction: A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a digital electronic device that uses
a programmable memory to store instructions and to implement functions such as logic,
sequence, timing, counting, and arithmetic in order to control machines and processes. Such
controllers have been specifically designed to make programming easy. The term ‘logic’ is used
because the programming is primarily concerned with the implementation of logic and switch
operations. Input devices such as switches and output devices such as motors being controlled
are connected to the PLC and then the controller monitors the input and output according to the
program stored in the PLC by the operator and so controls the machine or process. The PLC has
the great advantage that it is possible to modify a control system without having to remove the
connections to the input and output devices, the only requirement being that an operator has to
key in a different set of instructions. PLCoperated systems are much faster than relay operated
systems. A PLC is smaller than a computer, but has certain features given below that are specific
to their use as controllers.
1. They are rigid and designed to withstand vibration, temperature, humidity, and noise.
2. The interfacing circuit for input and output is inside the controller.
3. They are easily programmed and have an easy programming language. Programming is
primarily concerned with logic and switching operations.
Examples of applications in process industries include chemical processing, paper mill
operations, and food production. PLCs are primarily associated with discrete manufacturing
industries to control individual machines, machine cells, transfer lines, material handling
equipment, and automated storage systems. Before the PLC was introduced around 1970,
hardwired controllers composed of relays, coils, counters, timers, and similar components were
used to implement this type of industrial control. Today, many older pieces of equipment have
been retrofitted with PLCs to replace the original hardwired controllers, often making the
equipment more productive and reliable than when it was new.
There are significant advantages to using a PLC rather than conventional relays, timers, counters,
and other hardwired control components. These advantages include
(1) Programming the PLC is easier than wiring the relay control panel;
(2) The PLC can be reprogrammed, whereas conventional controls must be rewired and are often
scrapped instead;
(3) PLCs take less floor space than relay control panels;
(4) Reliability is greater, and maintenance is easier;
(5) The PLC can be connected to computer systems more easily than relays; and
(6) PLCs can perform a greater variety of control functions than relay-based controls.
8.2 Components of the PLC: A schematic diagram of a PLC is presented in Figure 8.1. The
basic components are the following: (1) processor, (2) memory unit, (3) power supply, and (4)
I/O module. These components are housed in a suitable cabinet designed for the industrial
environment. In addition, there is (5) a programming device that can be disconnected from the
PLC when not required.
The processor is the central processing unit (CPU) of the PLC. It executes the various logic and
sequence control functions by operating on the PLC inputs to determine the appropriate output
signals. The typical CPU operating cycle is described in Section 8.3. The CPU consists of one or
more microprocessors similar to those used in personal computers and other data processing
equipment. The difference is that they have a real-time operating system and are designed to
facilitate I/O transactions and execute ladder logic functions. In addition, PLCs are built so that
the CPU and other electronic components will operate in the electrically noisy environment of
the factory.

Figure 8.1 Components of a PLC.

Connected to the CPU is the memory unit, which contains the programs of logic, sequencing,
and I/O operations. It also holds data files associated with these programs, including I/O status
bits, counter and timer constants, and other variable and parameter values. The memory unit is
referred to as the user memory because its contents are entered by the user. In addition, the
processor also contains the operating system memory, which directs the execution of the control
program and coordinates I/O operations. The operating system is entered by the PLC
manufacturer and cannot be accessed or altered by the user.
A power supply of 120 VAC is typically used to drive the PLC (some PLCs operate on 240
VAC). The power supply converts the 120 VAC into direct current (DC) voltages of {5 V. These
low voltages are used to operate equipment that may have much higher voltage and power
ratings than the PLC itself. The power supply often includes a battery backup that switches on
automatically in the event of an external power source failure.
The input/output module provides the connections to the industrial equipment or process that is
to be controlled. Inputs to the controller are signals from limit switches, push-buttons, sensors,
and other on/off devices. Outputs from the controller are on/off signals to operate motors, valves,
and other devices required to actuate the process. In addition, many PLCs are capable of
accepting continuous signals from analog sensors and generating signals suitable for analog
actuators. The size of a PLC is usually rated in terms of the number of its I/O terminals.
The PLC is programmed by means of a programming device, which is usually detachable from
the PLC cabinet so that it can be shared among multiple controllers. Different PLC
manufacturers provide different devices, ranging from simple teach-pendant type devices, similar
to those used in robotics, to special PLC programming keyboards and displays. Personal
computers can also be used to program PLCs. A PC used for this purpose sometimes remains
connected to the PLC to serve a process monitoring or supervisory function and for conventional
data processing applications related to the process.
8.3. PLC Operating Cycle: As far as the PLC user is concerned, the steps in the control
program are executed simultaneously and continuously. In truth, a certain amount of time is
required for the PLC processor to execute the user program during one cycle of operation. The
typical operating cycle of the PLC, called a scan, consists of three parts: (1) input scan, (2)
program scan, and (3) output scan. During the input scan, the inputs to the PLC are read by the
processor and the status of each input is stored in memory. Next, the control program is executed
during the program scan. The input values stored in memory are used in the control logic
calculations to determine the values of the outputs. Finally, during the output scan, the outputs
are updated to agree with the calculated values. The time to perform the scan is called the scan
time, and this time depends on the number of inputs that must be read, the complexity of control
functions to be performed, and the number of outputs that must be changed. Typical scan times
are measured in milliseconds.
One of the potential problems that can occur during the scan cycle is that the value of an input
can change immediately after it has been sampled. Since the program uses the input value stored
in memory, any output values that are dependent on that input are determined incorrectly. There
is obviously a potential risk involved in this mode of operation. However, the risk is minimized
because the time between updates is so short that it is unlikely that the output value being
incorrect for such a short time will have a serious effect on process operation. The risk becomes
most significant in processes in which the response times are very fast and where hazards can
occur during the scan time. Some PLCs have special features for making “immediate” updates of
output signals when input variables are known to cycle back and forth at frequencies faster than
the scan time.
8.4 Programming the PLC: Programming is the means by which the user enters the control
instructions to the PLC through the programming device. The most basic control instructions
consist of switching, logic, sequencing, counting, and timing. Virtually all PLC programming
methods provide instruction sets that include these functions. Many control applications require
additional instructions to accomplish analog control of continuous processes, complex control
logic, data processing and reporting, and other advanced functions not readily performed by the
basic instruction set. Owing to these differences in requirements, various PLC programming
languages have been developed. A standard for PLC programming was published by the
International Electrotechnical Commission in 1992, entitled International Standard for
Programmable Controllers (IEC 61131–3). This standard specifies three graphical languages
and two text-based languages for programming PLCs, respectively:
(1) ladder logic diagrams, (2) function block diagrams, (3) sequential functions charts, (4)
instruction list, and (5) structured text. Table 8.1 lists the five languages along with the most
suitable application of each. IEC 61131–3 also states that the five languages must be able to
interact with each other to allow for all possible levels of control sophistication in any given
application. Table 8.1
8.4.1 Ladder Logic Diagram: The most widely used PLC programming language today
involves ladder diagrams (LDs), examples of which are shown in several previous figures.
Ladder diagrams are very convenient for shop personnel who are familiar with ladder and circuit
diagrams but may not be familiar with computers and computer programming. To use ladder
logic diagrams, they do not need to learn an entirely new programming language.
Direct entry of the ladder logic diagram into the PLC memory requires the use of a keyboard and
monitor with graphics capability to display symbols representing the components and their
interrelationships in the ladder logic diagram. The symbols are similar to those presented in
Figure 8.2. The PLC keyboard is often designed with keys for each of the individual symbols.
Programming is accomplished by inserting the appropriate components into the rungs of the
ladder diagram. The components are of two basic types: contacts and coils. Contacts represent
input switches, relay contacts, and similar components. Coils represent loads such as motors,
solenoids, relays, timers, and counters. In effect, the programmer inputs the ladder logic circuit
diagram rung by rung into the PLC memory with the monitor displaying the results for
verification.

Figure 8.2 Symbols for

8.4.2 Function Block Diagrams: A function block diagram (FBD) provides a means of
inputting high-level instructions. Instructions are composed of operational blocks. Each block
has one or more inputs and one or more outputs. Within a block, certain operations take place on
the inputs to transform the signals into the desired outputs. The function blocks include
operations such as timers and counters, control computations using equations (e.g., proportional-
integral-derivative control), data manipulation, and data transfer to other computer-based
systems.
8.4.3 Sequential Function Charts. The sequential function chart (SFC, also called the Grafcet
method) graphically displays the sequential functions of an automated system as a series of steps
and transitions from one state of the system to the next. It has become a standard method for
documenting logic control and sequencing in much of Europe. However, its use in the United
States is more limited, and the reader is referred to the cited reference for more details on the
method.
8.4.4 Instruction List. Instruction list (IL) programming also provides a way of entering the
ladder logic diagram into PLC memory. In this method, the programmer uses a low-level
computer language to construct the ladder logic diagram by entering statements that specify the
various components and their relationships for each rung of the ladder diagram. This approach
can be demonstrated by introducing a hypothetical PLC instruction set, which is a composite of
various manufacturers’ languages. It contains fewer features than most commercially available
PLCs. The programming device typically consists of a special keyboard for entering the
individual components on each rung of the ladder logic diagram. A monitor capable of
displaying each ladder rung (and perhaps several rungs that precede it) is useful to verify the
program. The instruction set for the PLC is presented in Table 8.2 with a concise explanation of
each instruction.

Table 8.2

The low-level languages are generally limited to the kinds of logic and sequence control
functions that can be defined in a ladder logic diagram. Although timers and counters have not
been illustrated in the two preceding examples, some of the exercise problems at the end of the
chapter require the reader to use them.
8.4.5 Structured Text. Structured text (ST) is a high-level computer-type language likely to
become more common in the future to program PLCs and PCs for automation and control
applications. The principal advantage of a high-level language is its capability to perform data
processing and calculations on values other than binary. Ladder diagrams and low-level PLC
languages are usually quite limited in their ability to operate on signals that are other than on/off
types. The capability to perform data processing and computation permits the use of more
complex control algorithms, communication with other computer-based systems, display of data
on a monitor, and input of data by a human operator. Another advantage is the relative ease with
which a complicated control program can be interpreted by a user. Explanatory comments can be
inserted into the program to facilitate interpretation.