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Electronic and Electrical
Engineering
Principles and Practice
Third edition

Lionel Warnes
© L. A. A. Warnes 1994, 1998, 2003
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of
this publication may be made without written permission.
No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or
transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with
the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988,
or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court
Road, London W1T 4LP.
Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this
publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil
claims for damages.
The author has asserted his right to be identified
as the author of this work in accordance with the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First edition 1994
Second edition 1998
Third edition 2003
Published by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10010
Companies and representatives throughout the world
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave
Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd.
Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom
and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European
Union and other countries.
ISBN 978-0-333-99040-7 ISBN 978-0-230-21633-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-0-230-21633-4
This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully
managed and sustained forest sources.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03
Dedicated to Alexis Warnes
Contents

Physical constants ix 6 Semiconductors 129

6.1 Electrons and holes in
Unit prefixes ix semiconductors 129
6.2 Electrical conductivity 130
6.3 The p-n junction 133
Units x 6.4 A glossary of terms 134
Problems 136
1 Circuit analysis 1
1.1 Sources 1 7 Diodes 137
1.2 Passive circuit elements 3
7.1 Junction diodes 137
1.3 Practical circuit elements 8
7.2 Schottky diodes 143
1.4 Circuit analysis and Kirchhoff’s laws 13
7.3 Zener diodes 145
1.5 Circuit theorems and transformations 18
7.4 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 147
1.6 Power and energy 27
7.5 Solar cells 149
1.7 Mesh analysis and nodal analysis 30
7.6 Applications for ordinary p-n
Problems 35
junction diodes 151
Problems 157
2 Sinusoidally-excited circuits 39
2.1 Sinusoidal excitation 39 8 Bipolar junction transistors 161
2.2 Phasors 47
8.1 Theory of operation 161
2.3 Circuit analysis with AC 50
8.2 The common-emitter amplifier 163
2.4 Power in AC circuits 58
8.3 The emitter follower, or common-
2.5 Resonant circuits 62
collector amplifier 174
Problems 67
8.4 BJT switches 176
8.5 BJT specifications 177
3 Operational amplifiers 71 Problems 178
3.1 The golden rules 71
3.2 Some common op amp circuits 72 9 Field-effect transistors 181
3.3 Analogue computing 75
9.1 The junction field-effect transistor
3.4 Practical op amps 76
(JFET) 182
3.5 Comparators 80
9.2 The practical common-source
3.6 Schmitt triggers 81
amplifier 184
Problems 82
9.3 MOSFETs 187
9.4 Specifications of some popular
4 Transients 85 FETs 189
4.1 Transients in RC and RL circuits 85 Problems 190
4.2 Transient analysis by the Laplace
transformation 91 10 Integrated circuits 193
4.3 Transients in RLC circuits 104
10.1 Integrated circuit fabrication 194
Problems 109
10.2 Hybrid circuits 198
Problems 199
5 Bode diagrams and 2-port
networks 111 11 Analogue circuits 201
5.1 The steady-state frequency 11.1 Filters 201
response of circuits 111 11.2 Oscillators 211
5.2 Two-port networks 119 11.3 Phase-locked loops 216
Problems 126 11.4 Waveform-generator ICs 219

v
vi Contents

11.5 Voltage regulators 220 17.3 Slip 320

11.6 Analogue-to-digital (A/D) and 17.4 The equivalent circuit of an
digital-to-analogue (D/A) converters 221 induction machine 322
Problems 224 17.5 Torque and slip in an induction
machine 323
12 Power amplifiers, power 17.6 Evaluating the components of the
supplies and batteries 227 equivalent circuit 324
12.1 Class-A amplifiers 227 17.7 Power and efficiency 327
12.2 Class-B amplifiers 231 17.8 Practical induction machines 330
12.3 Class-C amplifiers 233 17.9 Domestic-supply induction motors 333
12.4 Class-D amplifiers 235 Problems 335
12.5 Power supplies 236
12.6 Switch-mode power supplies 238 18 Synchronous machines 337
12.7 Batteries 241 18.1 Synchronous generators 337
12.8 Cooling 245 18.2 Synchronous torque 338
Problems 248 18.3 The equivalent circuit of a
synchronous generator 338
13 Magnetism and 18.4 Per-unit values and the short-
circuit ratio 339
electromagnetism 249
18.5 The generator under load 340
13.1 Magnetic units and quantities 249
18.6 The generator on an infinite bus 341
13.2 The magnetic circuit 251
18.7 The construction of synchronous
13.3 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
machines 343
induction 253
18.8 Synchronous motors 345
13.4 Hysteresis 256
Problems 349
13.5 Eddy currents 258
13.6 Inductors 259
Problems 259 19 Power electronics 350
19.1 The three-phase bridge rectifier 350
19.2 Power semiconductor devices 352
14 DC machines 261
19.3 Power-control circuits using
14.1 A prototype generator 261
thyristors 358
14.2 DC generators 264
19.4 Motor control with power
14.3 DC motors 273
electronics 362
14.4 Efficiency and losses 282
Problems 368
Problems 285
20 Combinational logic 369
15 Three-phase systems 287
20.1 Binary and hexadecimal numbers 369
15.1 The generation of three-phase
20.2 Logic functions and Boolean
electricity 287
algebra 372
15.2 Balanced loads 290
20.3 Logic ICs 376
15.3 Unbalanced loads 293
20.4 De Morgan’s theorems 377
15.4 Power measurement in three-
20.5 Minterms and maxterms 379
phase circuits 295
20.6 Karnaugh mapping and circuit
Problems 297
minimisation 381
20.7 Practical examples 385
16 Transformers 298 20.8 Logic families 390
16.1 The ideal transformer 298 20.9 Practical aspects of logic
16.2 Transformer testing 302 integrated circuits 393
16.3 Practical transformers 308 20.10 Multiplexers and demultiplexers 397
16.4 Transformer design 310 20.11 Programmable logic arrays 399
16.5 Special types of transformer 312 Problems 400
Problems 315
21 Sequential logic 403
17 Induction motors 317 21.1 Unclocked flip-flops 403
17.1 Construction of a squirrel-cage 21.2 Clocked flip-flops 405
motor 318 21.3 Counters and shift registers 407
17.2 The rotation of the stator field 318 21.4 The monostable multivibrator 414
 Contents vii

21.5 Timers 415 26 Fibre-optic communications 519

Problems 417 26.1 Pros and cons of fibre-optics 519
26.2 The transmitter 520
22 Computers 419 26.3 The channel: optical fibres 522
22.1 Computer architecture 421 26.4 Optoelectronic signal detectors 529
22.2 The CPU 421 26.5 The ultimate performance of
22.3 Memory 424 optical receivers 532
22.4 Input and output devices 428 Problems 533
22.5 Computer networks 436
22.6 Programming languages 439 27 Telephony 535
27.1 Signalling 536
23 Microprocessors and micro- 27.2 Transmission systems 537
controllers 443 27.3 Multiplexing 539
27.4 Companding 540
23.1 The 8051 microcontrollers 445
27.5 Telephone exchanges 541
23.2 The 8051 clock and the machine
27.6 Telephone-traffic theory 542
cycle time 448
27.7 SPC exchanges 545
23.3 The special-function registers
27.8 The integrated-services digital
(SFRs) 449
network (ISDN) 547
23.4 Moving data 456
27.9 Mobile telephony 548
23.5 Logical operations 460
Problems 550
23.6 Arithmetic operations 463
23.7 Jumps 467
23.8 Calls and subroutines 470 28 Electromagnetic compatibility 551
23.9 Look-up tables 471 28.1 Sources of electromagnetic
23.10 Interfacing 472 interference 552
28.2 Conductor shielding 553
24 Analogue communications 478 28.3 Grounding 557
28.4 Shielding with sheet conductors 559
24.1 The elements of a communications
28.5 EMI filtering 563
system 478
28.6 Legal requirements for EMC 566
24.2 The electromagnetic spectrum 479
Problems 567
24.3 Amplitude modulation 480
24.4 Frequency modulation 484
24.5 AM and FM compared 490 29 Measurements and
24.6 Pulse modulation 491 instruments 569
24.7 Noise 492 29.1 Accuracy 569
Problems 503 29.2 Standards and transducers for
measurements 572
25 Digital communications 505 29.3 Instruments 574
25.1 Binary modulation 505 Problems 585
25.2 Pulse-code modulation 511
25.3 The theoretical maximum channel Index 587
capacity 516
Problems 517
Physical constants
The speed of light in a vacuum, c 3 × 108 m/s
The permeability of free space or the magnetic constant, 0 4% × 107 H/m
The permittivity of free space or the electric constant, 0 8.85 × 1012 F/m
Planck's constant, h 6.626 × 1034 J.s
Boltzmann's constant, k 1.38 × 1023 J/K
The magnitude of the electronic charge, q 1.6 × 1019 C
The ice point 273.2 K

Notes: c = 1/R(00). Impedance of free space, Z0 = R(0 /0) = 377 6. The above, where
approximated, are accurate to ±0.14%.

Unit prefixes
a atto 1018
f femto 1015
p pico 1012
n nano 109
 micro 106
m milli 103
k kilo 103
M mega 106
G giga 109
T tera 1012
P peta 1015
E exa 1018

Notes: Order is important, so that 1 ms.V = 1 millisecond-volt while 1 V.m.s = 1 volt-metre-

second; for clarity a dot may be used to separate the different units. Lower and upper
case styles for units and prefixes must be carefully followed: 1 K.gm = 1 Kelvin-gram-
metre, while 1 kg.m = 1 kilogram-metre and 1 kg = 1 kilogram; 1 mS = 1 millisiemens,
1 ms = 1 millisecond. Note also that 1 mm2 = 1 square mm = 106 m2 . Submultiples
in denominators should be removed to the numerator, so that 1 pF/mm2 becomes
1 F/m2.

ix
Units

Base units

quantity unit symbol dimension

Mass kilogram kg M
Length metre m L
Time second s T
Current ampere A I

Derived units

quantity unit symbol dimensions

frequency hertz Hz T1
speed metre/second m/s LT1
acceleration metre/sec/sec m/s2 LT2
force newton N MLT2
work, energy joule J ML2T2
power watt W ML2T3
charge coulomb C TI
potential volt V ML2T3I1
resistance ohm 6 ML2T3I2
conductance siemens S M1L2T3I2
capacitance farad F M1L2T4I2
inductance henry H ML2T2I2
magnetic field ampere/metre A/m L1I
flux density tesla T MT2I1
magnetic flux weber Wb ML2T2I1

x
1 Circuit analysis

B
EFORE any use can be made of electricity or of any electrical machine or device, it
must form part of an electrical circuit. Even complex machines may be modelled by
simple elements that, when assembled into a circuit in the right way, can be analysed
and so predict the machine’s behaviour. Accordingly, circuits are the foundation of any study
of electrical or electronic engineering. We begin by defining simple circuit elements, then we
shall incorporate them into circuits for analysis with the help of a number of laws and
theorems. There are not many laws to remember  Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws are
almost the only ones  but from these a number of theorems have been deduced to assist in
circuit analysis. In this chapter we shall primarily be concerned with direct currents and
voltages (DC for short), but the principles developed will serve for analysing circuit
behaviour with alternating currents and voltages (or AC).
The five circuit elements considered initially are voltage and current sources and three
passive elements: resistance, inductance and capacitance. Though simple these can be
combined to form powerful equivalent circuits.

1.1 Sources

No electricity can flow continuously in a circuit lacking a source, because sources are
essential for supplying power. Practical sources include batteries, radio antennas and
electromechanical generators, all of which can be modelled by ideal sources in combination
with other circuit elements. Two sources are defined: the voltage source and the current
source, the symbols for which are shown in Figure 1.1; the small circles, A and B, represent
terminals.

Figure 1.1

Ideal sources. (a) An ideal voltage source and

(b) An ideal current source. Both send positive
current in the direction of the arrow

Polarity signs are usually omitted and the strength of the source is written next to the
arrow. An ideal voltage source always maintains the voltages across its terminals at the value
indicated. An ideal current source always drives the stated current out of the positive terminal
(A) and it returns to the source at the negative terminal (B). A car battery makes a good
approximation to an ideal voltage source. Constant-current sources  within limits  can be

1
2 Circuit analysis

made from transistors or operational amplifiers, but the simplest form when small currents
are required is a voltage source in series with a large resistance.

1.1.1 Sign conventions

The head of a voltage arrow points to the positive terminal when the voltage is positive. A
current arrow on the black line representing a resistanceless conductor indicates the direction
of positive current flow. With the polarities as in Figure 1.1, the positive (conventional)
current from each source will flow from the positively marked terminal. In reality electrons,
being negatively-charged particles, will flow the other way. If the arrows on the sources are
reversed, the voltage and current values become negative. Thus the voltage sources in Figure
1.2a and the current sources in Figure 1.2b are identical.

Figure 1.2

Sign conventions
(a) Voltage
(b) Current

1.1.2 Power

When the current and voltage arrows of a source point in the same direction the source is
delivering power (VI) to the circuit1; if they are opposed, the source is consuming power. For
example, in Figure 1.3, the 3V source is sending out a current of 2 A, so delivers 2 × 3 = 6
watts (W) to the rest of the circuit. The 2 V source receives a current of 2 A (the 2 A arrow
opposes the 2 V arrow), so the power it consumes is 2 × 2 = 4 W: the rest of the power is
consumed by the resistance. If power delivered has a positive sign and power consumed a
negative sign, the algebraic sum of all the power in any circuit must be zero.

Figure 1.3

The 3V source is delivering power, while the 2V

source is consuming it. Resistances, however, always
consume power

1
Direct (unidirectional) voltages and current are written in upper-case (capitals) italic: V, I. Instantaneous values
are written in lower-case (small) italic: v, i. Sometimes the distinction is blurred.
 Chapter 1 3

1.2 Passive circuit elements

In this chapter we shall look at only three ideal passive circuit elements: resistance,
capacitance and inductance. When combined with ideal sources these are sufficient to enable
us to model the behaviour of many practical systems, once we know the appropriate voltage-
current relationships.

1.2.1 Resistance2

A resistor is a practical device that ideally possesses only resistance. An ideal resistor obeys
Ohm’s3 law:
V = IR (1.1)

That is, the voltage across a resistance is directly proportional to the current through it,
resistance being the constant of proportionality. When I is in amperes (A) and V in volts (V),
then R is in ohms (6).

Figure 1.4

Ohm’s law: current and voltage arrows are

opposed when both current and voltage are
positive

In Figure 1.4, if the current through the resistance is in the direction shown, the voltage
arrow on the resistance must be opposed to it as indicated. If the arrow is reversed the voltage
must be negative, following the sign convention previously described for sources. Ohm’s law
has been generalised and extended far beyond the scope originally intended, making it one
of the most important laws  if not the most important  in electrical engineering.

1.2.2 Capacitance

A capacitor is said to be a device for storing electric charge. Ideally it possesses only
capacitance and no resistance or inductance. In Figure 1.5, the current, I, flows into the
positive plate and charges up the capacitance to a potential, V. The charge on the capacitance
is said to be Q coulombs (C). In reality the total charge is zero as positive and negative
charges are equal.
2
The terms resistor, inductor and capacitor will be used to describe the actual device and the terms resistance, etc.
to mean either the ideal device, or its characteristic property. In a circuit diagram all the elements are assumed to
be ideal, and are described as resistances, etc.
3
Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854). A schoolteacher of modest means, Ohm published his law in its modern form
in 1827, after suggesting several more complicated formulations of 1825 and 1826. It was greeted with near-
universal scepticism. Not until 1849 was Ohm rewarded with a professorial chair at Munich.
4 Circuit analysis

Figure 1.5

A capacitance with charge +Q on the positive

plate and Q on the negative. The total charge on
the plates is zero. Charging results in the separ-
ation of positive and negative charges

Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on the positive plate to the potential across the capaci-
tance:
(1.2)

When Q is in coulombs (C) and V in volts, C is in farads (F). (Note that the unit of charge,
the coulomb, is abbreviated to upper-case C, while the symbol for the value of a capacitance
is upper-case italic: C.) A 1 F capacitor was once thought large, but new technology has
produced cylindrical 1 F capacitors rated at 5 V that are 20 mm in diameter and 10 mm high.
Current is the rate of flow of charge past a point in a circuit:
(1.3)

Here i and q are the instantaneous current and charge respectively. Substituting Cv for q using
Equation 1.2 yields
(1.4)

which may be integrated to give the voltage across the capacitance:

(1.5)

Equation 1.5 shows the voltage across a capacitance is the area under its current-time (i-t)
graph divided by C. The area under the i-t graph is the charge, Q.

Example 1.1

If the i-t graph for a capacitance of 1 F looks like that of Figure 1.6a, what will the V-t graph look like?
(Assume that the capacitance was uncharged at t = 0.)
The current is at first positive (the capacitance is therefore being charged positively) and constant
at 5 A for 1.5 s, so the area under the i-t graph is 5 × 1.5 = 7.5 C at t = 1.5 s, and the potential drop
across the capacitance is

The voltage increases linearly with time from 0 to 1.5 s because the current is constant. After 1.5 s
the current becomes negative and constant at 3 A until t = 4 s, consequently the capacitance is
discharging and the voltage across it is declining at a constant rate. The area under the i-t graph for
1.5  t  4 s is 2.5 × 3 = 7.5 C, so the change in the capacitance’s voltage during this time must
be 7.5 V. Since the voltage was +7.5 V at t = 1.5 s, it must be zero at t = 4 s. The areas above and
below the time axis are equal so the charge on the capacitance must be zero at t = 4 s. The v-t graph
must appear like Figure 1.6b.
 Chapter 1 5

Figure 1.6 (a) The current through the 1F capacitance (b) The resulting voltage across it

The calculation of capacitance

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor can be found from the formula

C = JA/d (1.6)

where A is the area of one plate (the other is assumed to be identical), d is the plate separation
(assumed uniform) and J (= JrJ0) is the permittivity of the medium between the plates. Jr is the
relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) of the medium, being unity for a vacuum (or air),
about 2.3 for polystyrene and 1000 or more for PZT. The permittivity of free space (or a
vacuum or air), J0 , is numerically 8.85 × 1012 F/m. It arises from the choice of the SI unit for
capacitance. In some books it is called the electric constant. In many cases the capacitance
of a system can be calculated if its geometry (layout and dimensions) is known.

1.2.3 Inductance

An ideal inductor possesses only inductance, which is sometimes called self inductance to
distinguish it from mutual inductance. Figure 1.7 shows the circuit symbol for an ideal
inductor carrying a current, i, and with a voltage across it of v.

Figure 1.7

An ideal inductance. The voltage and current arrows are

opposed so that v = Ldi/dt. If i is increasing, v is positive;
if i is decreasing v is negative

The voltage and current arrows are opposed, and the voltage is given by
(1.7)
Equation 1.7 indicates that there is no voltage across an inductance unless the current through
it is changing. It also shows that if the current into the inductance is increasing, then the
6 Circuit analysis

opposing voltage increases also. If the current is decreasing, the voltage is negative  in other
words, the voltage arrow is reversed.

The calculation of inductance

The inductance of a long solenoid (coil of uniformly wound wire of circular cross-section)
is given by
L = N2A/5 (1.8)

where N is the number of turns or wire, A is the cross-sectional area of the solenoid and 5 is
its length.  (= r0) is the permeability of the medium inside the solenoid. r is the relative
permeability of the medium (unity for a vacuum or air) and 0 has the numerical value 4% ×
107 H/m and is known as the permeability of free space (or a vacuum or air), sometimes as
the magnetic constant. It arises because of the choice of the SI unit for inductance.
Inductance, like capacitance, can be calculated from the geometry of the system.

Example 1.2

The current through an inductance of 5 mH is given in Figure 1.8. Derive the v-t graph. We must use
Equation 1.7. From Figure 1.9 we can see that the current at first goes linearly from 0 to 5 A in 2 ms,
so d i /d t is 5/2.5 × 103 = 2000 A/s. As L = 5 × 103 H,

Because d i/d t is constant, v must be constant also during this period. From t = 2 ms to 3.5 ms, the
current is constant, meaning both di /dt and v are zero. From 3.5 ms to 6 ms, the current increases
linearly from 5 A to 5 A, a rate of change of current of 10 A in 2.5 ms, or 4000 A/s. Therefore
(1.9)
From then on i is constant, and the v-t graph is as in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.8

The current-time graph for the 5 mH

inductance of Example 1.2

The current-voltage relations for capacitances and inductances involve time differentials, and in
consequence neither the voltage across a capacitor nor the current through an inductor can change
instantaneously: the capacitor current or the inductor voltage would have to be infinite for that to
happen. This is not true for a resistance because it stores no energy, whereas a capacitor stores
energy in its electric field and an inductor in its magnetic field.
 Chapter 1 7

Figure 1.9

The voltage-time graph for the

5 mH inductance

1.2.4 Mutual inductance

When two coils are wound onto a ferromagnetic core, or are in close proximity to each other,
some of the magnetic flux produced by a one coil will link with the other coil, which is called
coupling. In Figure 1.10 a changing current, i1, in coil 1 induces a voltage, v2, in coil 2. The
current and voltage are related by

(1.10)

where M is the mutual inductance of the coils. A changing current, i2, in coil 2 would
similarly produce a voltage, v1, in coil 1 of magnitude Mdi2 /dt. The dots indicate the winding
direction, which is such that a positive, increasing current going into the dotted terminal will
produce a positive voltage at the other dotted terminal.

Figure 1.10

Coupled coils have mutual inductance. Here, the

changing current, i1, in coil 1 produces a voltage in
coil 2 of magnitude M di 1 /d t

When all the magnetic flux of one coil links with the other coil, it can be shown that
(1.11)
where L1, L2 are the self inductances of the coils. The coils are then said to be perfectly
coupled, which is very nearly true in large transformers (see Chapter 15). If the coupling is
not perfect then
(1.12)

k, the coefficient of coupling, lies between 0 (no coupling) and 1 (perfect coupling).
8 Circuit analysis

1.3 Practical circuit elements

The circuit elements discussed so far have been ideal but practical circuit elements can be
modelled from them. Some circuit elements are more nearly ideal than others; ideal sources,
for example, cannot exist. Were we to short-circuit the terminals of an ideal voltage source,
the current flowing would be infinite; and were we to open circuit the terminals of an ideal
current source, the voltage across its terminals would be infinite. But at comparatively low
frequencies capacitors and resistors are for practical purposes ideal.

1.3.1 The practical voltage source

With a practical voltage source such as a torch battery, the terminal voltage varies according
to the current drawn from it, as in Figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11

The terminal voltage of a

battery on load

What can be deduced from this? Firstly, when the current is zero the terminal voltage is
2.5 V, which is the open-circuit voltage. However, when the current drawn is 0.5 A, the
terminal voltage has dropped to 1.5 V. The V-I graph is also a straight line, within
experimental error, having a slope with dimensions of ohms. These observations suggest that
the model of a practical voltage source should be a resistance in series with an ideal voltage
source as in Figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12

A model of a practical voltage source. If the

resistance were zero the source would be ideal

The ideal source’s e.m.f. must be 2.5 V  the same as the open-circuit voltage of the
 Chapter 1 9

battery  while the resistance value must be given by the slope of the V-I graph (with the sign
changed), or 2 6. This resistance is known as the internal resistance of the source. Then when
the current drawn is 0.5 A, the internal resistance has a voltage across it of
(1.13)
The terminal voltage differs from the open-circuit voltage by this much when the battery is
delivering 0.5 A.

1.3.2 The practical current source

Figure 1.13 shows the results of current and voltage measurements made at the terminals of
a practical current source. The experimental data suggest that some of the source current is
being diverted through an internal resistance in parallel with the load across the terminal.

Figure 1.13

The voltage-current
relationship for a
practical current
source

Here it can be seen that the current supplied when the terminal voltage is zero  the short-
circuit current  is 1.25 A, but when a load is connected across the terminals, the current falls
and as it does so the voltage across the terminals rises in step apart from experimental error.
The slope of the graph has dimensions of conductance, 61 or siemens, S.
The value of this resistance is the reciprocal of the slope of the graph (with change of
sign). When the terminal voltage is 1.5 V, the terminal current is 0.5 A, so the graph’s slope
is (1.25  0.5)/1.5 = 0.5 S. Taking the reciprocal gives a resistance of 2 6. The value of the
ideal current source must be the short-circuit current of 1.25 A, so the model developed for
this practical current source is that shown in Figure 1.14.

Figure 1.14

A practical current source. When the resistance

is infinite (or the conductance is zero), the current
source is ideal
10 Circuit analysis

We shall see later when discussing circuit theorems that practical voltage and current
sources are just two different ways of describing the same observations. Were someone to be
given a ‘black box’ with two terminals at which currents and voltages could be measured, he
is at liberty to choose whether he wishes to model it as a practical voltage source or a practical
current source. The two examples given are different sets of measurements on the same
source.

1.3.3 Practical resistors

Table 1.1 gives a few of the readily-available, low-wattage, resistor types. Metal-film or
carbon-film resistors commonly used in circuits and rated from 0.125 W to 2 W have very
little capacitance or inductance  virtually negligible up to 100 kHz; wirewound resistors of
higher wattage generally have a few H of inductance and may be modelled as a small
inductor in series with a resistance.

Table 1.1 Low-wattage resistor types

Technology PA RangeB Tol.C Tco.D VE Ins. R.F SizeG PriceH

carbon filmJ 0.25 2R2-4M7 ±5 400 250 1 G6 3.2L × 1.7D 4

0.33 1R-10M ±5 500 250 1 G6 5.6L × 2.3D 2.9
0.66 10R-10M ±5 500 350 1 G6 8L × 3D 3.9
1 10R-1M ±5 500 500 1 G6 12.1L × 4.2D 5.7
metal film 0.125 10R-1M ±1 +50 200 10 G6 4.1L × 1.8D 5.5
0.25 R10-R15 ±5 +200 250 10 G6 6.4L × 2.4D 34
0.25 R22-R68 ±5 +200 250 10 G6 6.4L × 2.4D 22
0.25 1R-9R1 ±1 +200 250 10 G6 6.4L 2.4D 8.7
0.25 10R-1M ±1 +100 250 10 G6 6.4L × 2.4D 3.4
0.25 51R1-1M ±0.1 +15 200 10 G6 7.2L × 2.5D 7.9
0.5 10R-1M ±1 +100 350 10 G6 10L × 3.4D 4.8
SMTK 0.063 1R-1M ±1 ±100 50 1.6 × 0.8 × 0.45 3.1
0.1 100R-100k ±0.1 ±10 100 2 × 1.25 × 0.5 85
0.125 1R-1M ±1 +50 100 2 × 1.25 × 0.55 3.1
0.125 15M-100M ±20 +500 100 2 × 1.2 × 0.4 50
0.25 1R-1M ±1 ±100 200 3 × 1.55 × 0.55 2.5
0.25 25R-10k ±0.01 < 0.6 54 6 × 3.2 × 2.5 750
1 1R-1M ±5 ±200 250 6.3 × 3.1 × 1.1 19.5
metal oxide 1 1R-1M ±5 +300 350 1 G6 9L × 3D 14.5
cermet 0.4 10M-100M ±1 ±100 1000 8 × 12.5 × 2 126
wirewound 0.25 10R-100k ±0.1 ±5 300 9.5L × 4.75D 328
0.5 10R-100k ±0.1 ±5 400 12.7L × 6.35D 300

Notes: Working temperature range from 55°C to 125°C mostly. A Max power in W at 70°C. B R = 6,
k = k6, M = M6, placed at decimal point, so that R10 = 0.10 6 and 2M2 = 2.2 M6. C
Tolerance in %. D Tempco in ppm/°C. E Max. DC voltage. F Insulation resistance G In mm,
cylindrical: L = length, D = diameter; otherwise rectangular: height × width × thickness. H In
pence per piece in small quantities (1-10). J Temperature coefficient (tempco) varies from
100 to 900 ppm/°C, value given is average. K Thick-film or thin-film
 Chapter 1 11

Often of more serious concern is the temperature coefficient of resistance (sometimes

known as the tempco) and the tolerance, that is the most the actual value of the resistance can
differ from the nominal value given by the colour-band code on the resistor. Practical
resistors also have rated voltages and temperatures that must not be exceeded. Quite recently
surface mount technology (SMT) resistors  chips without leads that can be soldered directly
onto printed-circuit boards (PCBs) or thin-film circuits (see Chapter 10)  have become
widely used, though they have lower voltage ratings than conventional wire-lead resistors.

Preferred values

In order to improve equipment maintenance and reduce costs, manufacturers use only
preferred values wherever possible. There were six of these per decade4 of resistance, spaced
in geometric progression, for example: 10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68 and 100 6. Increasingly,
interpolated values are as readily available also, for example: 12, 18, 27, 39, 56 and 82 6.
Most in-house stores will stock all of these.

Example 1.3

A ¼W resistor has a nominal resistance of 2.2 k6 at 20°C. If it has a tolerance of 5% and must work
at 100°C, what is the maximum percentage deviation from the nominal resistance for those resistor
types listed in Table 1.1? What is the maximum current and voltage for the nominal-value resistor?
The only ¼W resistors with this tolerance listed in Table 1.1 are carbon-film and SMT types. These
have tempcos of 400 and +200 ppm/°C respectively. At 100°C the temperature is 80°C above
nominal, so that the resistance changes are 400 × 80 = 32000 ppm = 3.2%, and +200 × 80 =
+16000 ppm = +1.6%. If the carbon-film type is 5% below its nominal value then the total deviation is
8.2%, that is the resistance is (1  0.082) × 2.2 = 2.02 k6. If the metal-film resistor is +5% from
nominal then the total is +6.6% at 100ºC, making the resistance (1 + 0.066) × 2.2 = 2.345 k6.
The power dissipation (see Sections 1.1.2 and 1.6) is 0.24 W, and that is given by

P = VI = I2R = V2 /R = 0.25 W

As R = 2.2 k6, we find V 2 = 0.25 × 2200, so V(max) = 23.5 V, and I 2 = 0.25/2200, making I(max) =
10.7 mA. This assumes that the ambient temperature is not higher than it should be.

1.3.4 Practical capacitors

A practical capacitor has some leakage resistance which can be modelled as a resistance in
parallel with a capacitance, as in Figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15

A model of a practical capacitor. In a low-value,

high-quality capacitor at low frequencies, Rp
could be as much as a G6

4
A decade means over a range of 1:10, such as from 3 6 to 30 6.
12 Circuit analysis

Leakage resistance is of two origins: surface leakage and internal (dielectric leakage); the
latter is more fundamental but may be less important that the former: both are dependent on
frequency. The capacitor’s inductance must also be considered at frequencies above about a
MHz. The physical size of a capacitor depends on the type of construction, the capacitance
and the working voltage. Electrolytic and tantalum capacitors are polar (the terminal marked
+ must be connected to the more positive voltage, else the capacitor can explode) and have
relatively high leakage (that is a lower parallel leakage resistance); however, they are small
and cheap for high capacitance values. They are usually restricted to low-frequency operation
with DC bias. Rp is not always given by manufacturers but can be found from Rp = 1/(2%fC
tan ), where f is the frequency and tan is the loss tangent of the capacitor. For a polystyrene
capacitor with C = 1 nF, f = 1 kHz and tan = 0.0005, Rp = 318 M6.

Table 1.2 A selection of capacitors

TypeA F Tolerance Vmax B Rp C Size D Frequency Price

E 22 ±20% 6.3 5 7L × 4D DC + low 5p

E 104 ±20% 100 0.01 105L × 40D DC + low £18
SMTE 1 ±20% 50 100 5.4L × 4D DC + low 16p
EM 106 20% +80% 5.5 0.02 6L × 20D DC + low £2.79
TA 68 ±20% 16 0.7 15.5 × 9 DC + low £1.57
SMTA 10 ±10 25 10 6 × 3.2 ×2.6 DC + low £1.61
CD 102 ±20% 750 104 E 5L × 16D < 1 MHz 41p
PP 103 ±20% 1000 20 20L × 9D < 100 kHz 28p
PC 1 ±5% 100 0.1 18L × 7.5D < 10 kHz 68p
PE 1 ±10% 400 104 E 32L × 13.5D < 100 kHz £1.17
PS 102 ±1% 63 106 E 13L × 7.5D < 10 MHz 54p

A
Notes: E = electrolytic, SMTE = surface-mount technology electrolytic, EM = electrolytic, memory
back-up, TA = tantalum, SMTA = surface-mount tantalum, CD = ceramic disc, PP =
polypropylene, PC = polycarbonate, PE = polyethylene, PS = polystyrene. B Maximum DC
voltage. For non-electrolytic types the maximum working r.m.s. alternating voltage is
approximately one third of this.C Leakage resistance in M6. D Cylindrical capacitors, L = length,
D = diameter. E Insulation resistance: internal leakage resistance will be much less.

Table 1.2 gives some specifications for commonly obtainable capacitors. Prices do not fall
much with increasing quantities ordered. Temperature coefficients of capacitance are usually
in the range 100/+200 ppm. More costly than resistors, capacitors are available in preferred
values, usually six per decade of capacitance, such as 100, 150, 220, 330, 470 and 680 pF.

1.3.5 Practical inductors (see also Section 13.6)

For many purposes it is possible to treat capacitors and resistors as ideal, but one can seldom
do so with inductors: they must be modelled as an ideal inductor in series with a resistance
as in Figure 1.16. Rc is the resistance of the inductor to DC. Specifications for some com-
mercial small inductors (all of which are made from a coil of insulated copper wire wound
round a ferrite core) are given in Table 1.3.
 Chapter 1 13

Figure 1.16

A practical inductor. RC cannot

always be ignored in circuit
analysis

Table 1.3 Some small, ferrite-cored, commercial inductors

LA tol. Rc (6) IB fC SizeD Price E

0.0001 ±20% 0.44 0.45 100 MHz 4.5 × 3 × 3F 37p

0.001 ±20% 0.5 0.45 8 MHz 4.5 × 3 × 3F 25p
0.1 ±10% 40 0.03 250 kHz 4.5 × 3 × 3F 23p
1 ±10 30 0.1 800 kHz 11.4L × 5.4D £2.57
10 ±10 105 0.04 250 kHz 10L × 5D 32p
100 ±5 1200 0.02 80 kHz 12L × 5.2D 40p

A
Notes: In mH. Temperature range 20°C to 70°C. B Maximum DC in A. C Frequency for max Q
(approximates to optimal frequency of operation). D In mm, for a cylindrical shape, L = length,
D = diameter. E Price for one. Unit price falls little with increasing quantity. F Rectangular,
surface-mount technology.

Generally speaking, inductors are used as little as possible; though they are often found
in passive filters. They are almost impossible to incorporate into integrated circuits (unlike
resistors and capacitors), consequently they are habitually ‘designed out’, even at the expense
of component count. Large inductors (sometimes called chokes) are normally constructed as
required from a ferromagnetic core, coil former and insulated copper wire.

1.4 Circuit analysis and Kirchhoff’s laws5

Circuit analysis is designed to find the voltage across or the current through any circuit
element, and if need be the power consumed by its resistances or supplied by its sources. By
far the most important aids to this analysis are Kirchhoff’s two laws. They are fundamental
to circuit analysis, and with them, and the current and voltage relations for circuit elements
given in the previous sections, it is possible in principle to deduce the current in any branch6
of a circuit, or the voltage at any point. The two laws are:

1. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of the voltages at any instant around any loop in a circuit is zero

5
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–87) was Professor of Physics at Berlin. He enunciated his laws c. 1848.
6
A branch of a circuit is a path containing one circuit element. In Figure 1.17 AB is a branch, EF is not.
14 Circuit analysis

Symbolically,
(1.14)

Kirchhoff’s voltage law is a consequence of the principle of energy conservation; so

frequent is its use in circuit theory that it is usually abbreviated to KVL.

2. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

The algebraic sum of the currents at any instant at any node7 in a circuit is zero.

Symbolically,
(1.15)

KCL  its usual abbreviation  is a result of the principle of charge conservation.

An example will show how the laws can be applied: let us find all the currents and voltages
in the circuit of Figure 1.17.

Figure 1.17

Illustrating Kirchhoff’s laws. The

voltage law is used on loops
ABCDEFA and ABEFA. The
current law is used at node B

Selecting loop ABEFA, and taking clockwise-pointing voltages as positive and anticlock-
wise voltages as negative, we find:
(1.16)
The choice of positive for clockwise voltages is arbitrary. Once you have assigned voltage
arrows to the circuit elements (with voltage arrows on passive elements opposing the currents
through them) you must wait until the analysis is complete to discover whether the polarity
is ‘right’ (in which case the voltage will turn out to be positive) or ‘wrong’ (in which case the
voltage will turn out to be negative). For loop ABCDEFA, KVL yields

(1.17)
and loop BCDEB produces

7
A node is a point in a circuit where branches join. In Figure 1.17, A and B are nodes, but F is not. There is also
a node between the 46 resistance and the 4V source.
 Chapter 1 15

(1.18)

Note that subtracting Equation 1.16 from Equation 1.17 gives Equation 1.18  the application
of KVL to this circuit produces only two independent equations. Voltages across the
resistances can be found from Ohm’s law; V36, for example, is 3I1. Using this method
Equations 1.16 and 1.18 become
(1.19)

(1.20)

KCL is now needed to find a third equation for the unknown currents. If in Figure 1.17 we
consider node B and take currents into the node as positive and currents out of the node as
negative, then
(1.21)

The three independent equations produced by application of Kirchhoff’s and Ohm’s laws to
the circuit of Figure 1.18 are numbers 1.19, 1.20 and 1.21, and solving these gives I1 =
1.017 A, I2 = 0.279 A, I3 = 0.738 A. The voltages across the resistances may be found from
these currents with Ohm’s law.
If inductances and capacitances are present Kirchhoff’s laws can still be applied using the
appropriate v-i relationships (vL = L d i /d t and vC = C1 , i d t), which yield instantaneous
values. (Note that Kirchhoff’s laws apply to direct (DC), sinusoidal (AC) and instantaneous
voltages and currents.) Many useful results are soon deduced from Kirchhoff’s laws, starting
with the addition of resistances, capacitances and inductances in series and in parallel.

1.4.1 Resistances in series

The vital point about resistances in series is that the same current passes through each
resistance.

Figure 1.18

Resistances in series:
Req = R1 + R2 + R3

Examining Figure 1.18a  three resistances in series  and applying KVL we find
(1.22)
But V1 = IR1 and V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3, and substitution into Equation 1.22 yields

(1.23)
16 Circuit analysis

where Req = R1 + R2 + R3. The circuit simplifies to that of Figure 1.18b. Since I = V/Req, then

V1 = IR1 = V × R1 /Req (1.24)

which illustrates the voltage-divider rule: the voltage across resistances in series divides in
proportion to the value of each.

1.4.2 Conductances in parallel

The vital point about parallel circuit elements is that the voltage is the same across each one.
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance:
G = 1/R = R1 (1.25)

The units of conductance are siemens (S). A conductance of 0.1 S is exactly the same as a
resistance of 10 6.

Figure 1.19 Conductances in parallel: Geq = G1 + G2 + G3 , or 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Taking the circuit in Figure 1.19, which has three conductances in parallel, we can apply
KCL at node A to obtain
(1.26)
But the voltage across each conductance is the same, and Ohm’s law gives
(1.27)
Thus I1 = V/R1 = VG1, I2 = V/R2 etc., and substitution into Equation 1.26 leads to

(1.28)

where Geq = G1 + G2 + G3. We can add parallel conductances.

If we let the equivalent resistance be Req (= 1/Geq), then Equation 1.28 gives
(1.29)
To combine parallel resistances you add the reciprocal resistances and take the reciprocal
of the result.
In the special case where only two resistances are in parallel, 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2, so that
 Chapter 1 17

(1.30)

This is sometimes called the product-over-sum rule.

It is a straightforward matter to show that the division of current between parallel
resistances is given by
(1.31)

where In is the current through Gn, and (G is the sum of the parallel conductances. The
current through parallel conductances divides in proportion to each conductance.

1.4.3 Capacitances in parallel

In Figure 1.20 the voltage is the same across each capacitance and KCL produces
(1.32)
Then using the i-v relation for capacitances, i = C dv / d t, in Equation 1.32 yields

(1.33)

where Ceq  C1 + C2 + C3, and it can be seen that capacitances in parallel add.

Figure 1.20

Capacitances
in parallel:
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3

1.4.4 Capacitances in series

In Figure 1.21a KVL can be used to obtain v = v1 + v2 + v3 which, differentiated with respect
to t, gives
(1.34)

Now the current is the same in all three capacitors, thus

i = C1 dv1 /dt = C2 dv2 /dt = C3dv3 /dt (1.35)

so that dv1/dt = i/C1 etc., and Equation 1.34 becomes

dv /dt = i/C1 + i/C2 + i/C3 = i/Ceq (1.36)

where
18 Circuit analysis

(1.37)

The rules for adding inductances are left as exercises (see also Problem 1.5). We shall see
later how to use Kirchhoff’s laws systematically to minimise the likelihood of errors.

Figure 1.21

Capacitances in series are

like reistances in parallel:
1/Ceq = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3

1.5 Circuit theorems and transformations

Many theorems and transformations (all derived from Kirchhoff’s laws) can be used to assist
with circuit analysis, but we shall use only a few, the first being the most useful:

1.5.1 Thévenin’s theorem8

Thévenin’s theorem states

Any two-terminal, linear network of sources and resistances may be replaced by a

single voltage source in series with a resistance. The voltage source has a value equal
to the open-circuit voltage appearing at the terminals of the network. The resistance
value is the resistance that would be measured at the network’s terminals when all the
sources have been replaced by their internal resistances.

Thévenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 1.22. To replace complex networks by

such a simple equivalent circuit can be highly convenient.

Figure 1.22

Thévenin’s equivalent circuit. Any 2-terminal

network of resistances and sources may be
reduced to this

8
L Thévenin was a French telegraphist, as was the eminent English electrical engineer, Oliver Heaviside. He
published his theorem in 1883, though Helmholtz’s work in 1853 foreshadowed both it and Norton’s theorem.
 Chapter 1 19

For example, let us find the Thévenin equivalent of the two-terminal network of Figure
1.23a. There are three steps in essence. First, what is the voltage across AB?  just the voltage
across the 46 resistance, which may be found by the voltage-divider rule as the resistances
are in series with the voltage source:
(1.38)
9
This is the open-circuit voltage across AB , and consequently the source voltage, VT, in the
Thévenin equivalent circuit.

Figure 1.23 (a) The original circuit. VAB is the Thévenin source voltage (b) The voltage source is
‘killed’ by short-circuiting it (c) The Thévenin equivalent of Figure 1.23(a)

Secondly, the voltage source must be replaced by its internal resistance. Because the
voltage source is ideal and thus has zero internal resistance by definition, all this means is
replace the voltage source by a short circuit. The circuit then becomes that of Figure 1.24b
 simply two resistances in parallel when looked at from AB. So, thirdly, we combine them
by the product-over-sum rule:
(1.39)
And so the Thévenin equivalent of the network in Figure 1.23a is that of Figure 1.23c.
It is important to realise that the circuits of Figures 1.23a and 1.23c are equivalent only for
measurements of current and voltage made at terminals A and B, and nowhere else. Having
found the Thévenin equivalent we can put it in the network’s place, connect any other
network across AB, then go ahead and calculate all the currents and voltages in that network.
However, we cannot calculate the power developed within a network by considering the
power developed in its Thévenin equivalent (see Problem 1.11).
Example 1.4

A second 46 resistance is connected across AB in Figure 1.23a. What is the current in it?
We can calculate the current through it by using the Thévenin circuit of Figure 1.23c, as in Figure
1.24a. The 46 resistance is in series with the 1.3336 Thévenin resistance, so the current through
them is 2/(4 + 1.333) = 0.375 A, while the voltage across AB will be 4 × 0.375 = 1.5 V (by the voltage-
divider rule it will be 2 × 4/(4 + 1.333) = 1.5 V too).

9
The voltage across AB is written VAB in double-suffix notation, implying that the head of the arrow points to A and
the tail to B. By reversing the arrow we get VBA, so that VAB = VBA.
20 Circuit analysis

Figure 1.24 (a) Using Thévenin’s equivalent circuit. The 46 resistance across AB is the same
as (b) Connecting the 46 resistance across the original circuit

Looking at the original circuit in Figure 1.23a, we can connect the 46 resistance across AB (Figure
1.24b), and find the current from the source by combining the two parallel 46 resistances using the
product-over-sum rule, making 2 6 (Figure 1.24c). This result can be added to the 26 resistance in
series to give 4 6, so the current from the 3V source is 3/4 = 0.75 A. This current passes through the
26 resistance and divides equally between the 46 resistances, 0.375 A each. The voltage across the
46 resistances is 4 × 0.375 = 1.5 V, as found previously using the Thévenin circuit.

1.5.2 Norton’s theorem10

Norton’s theorem is a useful complement to Thévenin’s:

Any two-terminal, linear network of sources and resistances may be replaced by a

single current source in parallel with a resistance. The value of the current source is
the current flowing between the terminals of the network when they are short-cir-
cuited. The value of the resistance is the resistance measured at the terminals of the
network when all sources have been replaced by their internal resistances.

Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 1.25.

Figure 1.25

Norton’s equivalent circuit. Any two-terminal network of

sources and resistances may be replaced by this

Since Thévenin’s theorem applies to any two-terminal network, it must apply to Norton’s
equivalent circuit too. The Thévenin equivalent of Norton’s circuit can be derived as follows:
In Figure 1.25 the open-circuit voltage is that across RN, which must be INRN, since all the
current from the source flows through it. Therefore
VT = INRN (1.40)

10
E L Norton worked for Bell Telephone Laboratories in the USA. He published his theorem in 1926.
 Chapter 1 21

The next step is to replace the source by its internal resistance  infinity for an ideal
current source by definition  which amounts to open-circuiting an ideal current source. On
doing this we are left with RN alone connected across AB, so the Thévenin resistance is
identical to the Norton resistance:
(1.41)

Figure 1.26 shows the transformation, which requires only the calculation of VT (= INRN),
the open-circuit voltage of Norton’s equivalent circuit. Whether to use the Norton or the
Thévenin form of equivalent circuit is for each to decide. As a general rule one should use the
Norton circuit to combine parallel sources and the Thévenin circuit to combine series sources.

Figure 1.26

The derivation of Thévenin’s equivalent

circuit from Norton’s equivalent circuit

Example 1.5

For example, consider the three generators in parallel in Figure 1.27a. What is the open-circuit voltage
and the source resistance? In other words, what is the Thévenin equivalent?

Figure 1.27 To transform a source (a) Cut the circuit at XY (b) Isolate the voltage source
(c) Transform the voltage source into a current source

We proceed by cutting the circuit at XY and looking at the source on the left by itself, as in Figure
1.27b. This source is in Thévenin form and must be transformed to the Norton form to enable us to add
the parallel sources. The Norton source current is the current flowing through a short circuit across XY,
which is 120/8 = 15 A, by Ohm’s law; and the Norton resistance is equal to the Thévenin resistance,
8 6. So the Norton form of the 120V source is as in Figure 1.27c. Note that the current arrow in Figure
1.27c has the same direction as the voltage arrow of the original source. It is a good idea if in doubt
to check this by examining which way current would flow through the short-circuited terminals. Having
transformed the source we can re-attach it to the network at XY as in Figure 1.28a.
The next voltage source is then transformed (it makes no difference which way round the voltage
source and its series resistance are placed), and finally the one nearest to AB. In the latter case the
Norton equivalent must have its current arrow pointing down, like the voltage source it replaced. Figure
22 Circuit analysis

1.28b shows the circuit at this stage.

Figure 1.28 (a) Current source re-attached at XY (b) The other voltage sources are turned
into current sources

The three parallel current sources can now be added algebraically to give a single source of 15
+ 15  8 = 22 A. The third current source’s value is subtracted from the other two as its direction is
down not up. Then the three parallel resistances in Figure 1.28b are combined to give a single 26
resistance (by adding the reciprocals and taking the reciprocal of the result), giving the Norton circuit
of Figure 1.29a. Finally, the Norton circuit is turned into the Thévenin circuit of Figure 1.29b, using VT
= INRN.

Figure 1.29

(a) The Norton circuit is turned

into (b) The Thévenin circuit
required

Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems enable us to take any circuit inside a ‘black box’, make
a measurement of the open-circuit voltage at its terminals, then the short-circuit current
between them and from this represent the unknown contents of the box in the form of either
equivalent circuit. It is not necessary to take a look inside the ‘box’  which might be neither
possible nor desirable  to deduce its effect on an external circuit.

1.5.3 The superposition theorem

Sometimes it is helpful to consider separately the effects of sources on a particular part of the
circuit; the superposition theorem lets us do that. It states

The current in any branch of a circuit, or the voltage at any node, may be found by the
algebraic addition of the currents or voltages produced by each source separately.
When the effect of one source is considered, the other sources are replaced by their
internal resistances.

Superposition is most useful when the sources are alternating sources of differing
 Chapter 1 23

frequency, or a combination of direct and alternating sources, but we can illustrate the use of
superposition with direct sources alone.

Example 1.6

Consider once more the circuit of Figure 1.27a, in which we wish to find VAB using superposition. For
this we must add the voltages produced across AB by each source in turn. Taking the 120V source
first, we replace the other voltage sources by short circuits to obtain the circuit in Figure 1.30a.

Figure 1.30 The effect of the 120V source alone

The parallel 46 and 86 resistances may be combined to give one of 2.67 6, which is in series with
the remaining 86 resistance, for a total resistance of 10.67 6. By the voltage-divider rule therefore,
V1 must be given by V1 = (2.67/10.67) × 120 = 30 V, as in Figure 1.30b.
Proceeding in the same way to examine the effect of the 60V source we ‘kill’ the other two sources
by replacing them with short circuits as in Figure 1.31a. The two 86 resistances are in parallel as far
as the 60V source is concerned, so they may be combined into a 46 resistance. This is in series with
the 46 resistance next to the source, as in Figure 1.31b, so the voltage divider rule gives V2 as 30 V.

Figure 1.31 The effect of the 60V source alone

The last step is to examine the effect of the 64V source, as in Figure 1.32. V3, the required voltage,
is that across the parallel combination of 86 and 46 resistances, but as the 64V source points to B
and not A like the other two, V3 must be negative. Once again the parallel resistances combine to give
one of 2.67 6, so V3, calculated by the voltage divider rule, is (2.67/10.67) × (64) V, or 16 V.
Summing:

VAB = V1 + V2 + V3 = 30 + 30  16 = 44 V (1.42)

The result agrees with that found by source transformations. In general the superposition theorem is
not very useful for solving many problems; it is too lengthy when three or more sources are present.
24 Circuit analysis

Figure 1.32

The effect of the 64V source

by itself

1.5.4 The star-delta transformation

Networks containing components that are neither in series nor in parallel are frequently
encountered; the star-delta transformation enables us to change the form of networks like
these so that they may be more readily analysed. In Figure 1.33a is shown a 3-terminal
network in delta form, while the star form is in Figure 1.33b.

Figure 1.33

Delta (or %) and star

(or Y or T) networks.
These are equivalent
as far as voltage and
current measurements
at the terminals are
concerned

In North America, principally, this transformation is called the T-% (Tee-Pi), or Y-% (Wye-
Pi) since it can be drawn in these shapes too, as in Figure 1.34. Although this form looks like
a four-terminal network, terminals C and C1 are common. The networks are equivalent if we
can find the values of one set of resistances in terms of those of the other.

Figure 1.34

Pi (%) and tee (T) equi-

valent circuits. Terminals
C and C1 are common

To calculate the resistance of the network of Figure 1.34a between terminals A and C1, we
see that it comprises RCA in parallel with the series resistances, RAB and RBC. In symbols, RCA
// (RAB + RBC), to give (by the product-over-sum rule)
 Chapter 1 25

(1.43)

where (R = RAB + RBC + RCA.

Looking into the same terminals in Figure 1.34b we see the resistance is RA + RC and this
must be the same for both networks, that is
Then the resistance between terminals B and C is

(1.45)

and looking into terminals A and B the final equation is obtained

(1.46)

Subtracting Equation 1.45 from 1.44 gives

(1.47)

Adding this to Equation 1.46 yields

(1.48)

Solving for RB and RC similarly leads to

(1.49)

These transformations are easier to remember than it may appear. For instance the formula
for RA (the resistance attached to terminal A of the star form) is just the product of the two
resistances attached to terminal A of the delta form, divided by the sum of all three
resistances. RB and RC are found the same way.
It is left as an exercise (Problem 1.29) to show that the reverse transformation from star
to delta requires

(1.50)

Remembering this is also easy, since each formula involves just the conductances between
a pair of terminals. The letters DSR are a helpful mnemonic  Delta to Star: use Resistances
 the reverse transformation must then employ conductances.
The star-delta transformation is very useful when it is necessary to analyse networks
such as that in Figure 1.35a, an unbalanced bridge circuit.

Example 1.7

If the galvanometer in Figure 1.35a has a resistance of 1 6, what is the current through it?
The redrawn circuit is as shown in Figure 1.35b, where the galvanometer has been replaced by
its internal resistance and the delta networks have been replaced by % networks. We then transform
26 Circuit analysis

the % network between A, B and D of Figure 1.35a into the inverted Y network in Figure 1.35c. It is
important not to lose sight of which resistance is attached to which terminal at this stage: make a
sketch and carefully label the terminals when you do this! The network in Figure 1.35c now has no
bridging resistance and hence we have lost sight of IG; notice also that the 66 and 3.16 resistances
have retained their identities. We next find the current in the 3.16 resistance, then the current in the
36 resistance between A and B, and thence IG.

Figure 1.35 The star-delta transformation used on a bridge network

The resistance attached to A in Figure 1.35c is found by taking products of resistances attached
to A in Figure 1.35b (3 × 6 = 18), and dividing by the sum of the resistances in the delta network
between A, B and C (6 + 3 + 1 = 10), to give 1.8 6 attached to A in Figure 1.35c; then likewise for
those attached to B and D. Now the 66 and 0.66 resistances can be added to make 6.6 6, and the
3.1 6 added to the 0.3 6 to make 3.4 6. The 6.6 6 and 3.4 6 are in parallel so may be combined
(product/sum) to give 2.244 6 as in Figure 1.35d. So the total resistance in Figure 1.35d is 4.044 6,
and the current, I1, is 2/4.044 = 0.4946 A.
Going back to Figure 1.35c, we see that I1 splits to form I2 and I3. We can use the current divider
rule to obtain I3: 0.3264 A. I3 must flow through the 3.16 resistance in Figure 1.35a, since it is
unaffected by the transformation. Thus the voltage across it by Ohm’s law is V3.16 = 3.1 × 0.3264 =
1.0118 V. Looking at the loop ABCA in Figure 1.35a that includes the 2V source, we can use KVL:

(1.51)

to find V36 = 0.9882 V and the current through it, I4, as 0.9882/3 = 0.3294 A. By KCL at B (in Figure
1.35a), I4 = I3 + IG, so IG = I4  I3 = 0.3294 A  0.3264 A = 3 mA.
 Chapter 1 27

1.6 Power and energy

The instantaneous electric power is given by

p = vi (1.52)

p is in watts (W) if v is in volts and i in amperes. This enables us to find the power sent out
by a voltage or current source, or the power dissipated in a resistance.
Energy is given by
E = ,pdt = ,vidt (1.53)

In electrical engineering v and i are the quantities usually measured, calculated or otherwise
known, so Equation 1.53 is more useful than the converse relation p = dE/dt. From Equations
1.52 and 1.53 we can derive others: for example, the voltage across a resistance is iR by
Ohm’s law, so the power dissipated in it as heat will be
(1.54)

Only resistances dissipate energy, while inductances and capacitances store it: Equation 1.53
can be used to find the amount stored. In the case of a capacitance, C, the current is given by
i = Cdv/dt, therefore

(1.55)

(1.56)

In a like manner we may deduce that energy stored by an inductance of L henries carrying a
current, I amps, is
(1.57)

Example 1.8

For example, suppose in the circuit of Figure 1.36a that the current waveform is as shown in Figure
1.36b. What is the maximum energy stored in the capacitor, the inductor and the whole circuit, if the
capacitor was initially uncharged? What energy is dissipated by the circuit?

Figure 1.36 (a) The circuit for example 1.8 (b) The current-time graph for the source
28 Circuit analysis

To find the maximum energy stored in the capacitance using E = ½CV 2 we must find the maximum
voltage across it. The voltage across the capacitance is given by

VC = C1,idt (1.58)

which is simply the area under the i-t graph, and this will be a maximum at t = 3 s. The area is made
up of a triangle of area ½ × 2 A × 1 s (= 1 C), then a rectangle of area 2 A × 1.5 s (= 3 C), and finally
a triangle of area ½ × 2 A × 0.5 s (= 0.5 C). These add up to 4.5 C, so the maximum voltage across
C is 2.25 V, and the energy stored is then ½ × 2 × 2.252 = 5.0625 J.
The energy stored in the inductance is maximum when the current is maximum, that is 2 A, then

Emax = 0.5 × 3 × 22 = 6 J (1.59)

There is no energy stored in the resistance, so to find the maximum energy stored in the circuit we
need only consider the inductor and the capacitor. However, we cannot just add the two maxima
together as they occur at different times. After 2 s the inductor carries less than maximum current, so
its stored energy declines, while that of the capacitor increases.
The analytical solution is complicated and it is best to use a numerical approach. What is the
circuit’s stored energy at t = 2.5 s? The voltage across the capacitor is 2 V, so its stored energy is ½ ×
2 × 22 = 4 J, while the inductor stores 6 J, for a total of 10 J. At t = 3 s the stored energy is just in the
capacitor: 5.0625 J. What happens at t = 2.501 s? The inductor’s current is 2  0.004 A, or 1.996 A,
so its stored energy is

(1.60)

The capacitor’s voltage increases by 1 mV (nearly 2 A for 1 ms), so its stored energy is

(1.61)

The total is 9.98 J, hence for 2.5 < t < 3 s the inductor is losing energy faster than the capacitor gains
it; we therefore conclude that the maximum stored energy is 10 J at 2.5 s.
The resistance is the only element that dissipates energy, the quantity being given by E = , i2R d t.
The i-t graph has three parts which require individual integrations. From t = 0 to t = 1 s, the current is
given by i = 2t A. When 1 < t < 2.5 s, i is constant at 2 A. And for 2.5 s < t < 3 s, the current is 2  4t1
A, where t1 = t  2.5 s. This substitution means that the last integral is for the time interval 0 < t1 < 0.5
s, and the limits change accordingly. The energy dissipated is therefore

(1.62)

(1.63)

that is, E = 4[4/3] + 4[10  4] + 4[2  2 + 2/3] = 32 J

1.6.1 The maximum-power-transfer theorem

This theorem shows how to match networks to loads for maximum power output. It states:

Maximum power is transferred to a load resistance connected between two terminals

of a network when the load resistance is equal to the resistance of the network. The
network resistance is measured between the same two terminals with the sources of
the network being replaced by their internal resistances.
 Chapter 1 29

The proof is as follows. Any two-terminal network can be reduced to a single voltage
source in series with a resistance (Thévenin’s theorem) as in Figure 1.37.

Figure 1.37

Maximum power is transferred to RL

when RT and RL are equal

If a resistance, RL, is attached across the network’s terminals, AB, the current through it
by Ohm’s law is
(1.64)
The power in RL is

(1.65)

Differentiating with respect to RL and equating to zero for turning points in PL ,

(1.66)

so that

(1.67)

(1.68)

It is left as an exercise to check that this condition leads to maximum power in the load by
deciding if d2PL /dRL2 is negative. The maximum power transfer theorem reduces to

Maximum power is transferred from a resistive network when the load resistance is
equal to the Thévenin resistance of the network.

When RT = RL, the current through the load must be VT/2RL, so the maximum power devel-
oped will be Imax2RL , or

(1.69)

Later, we shall see how transformers can be used to achieve load matching in AC circuits.
It is worth emphasising here that transferring maximum power to a load will not result in max-
30 Circuit analysis

imum efficiency of power use, since at least half of the power consumed by the whole system
must be lost in the source network (see Problem 1.11). Maximum power transfer is most
needed when the source is weak, such as the signal from a radio or TV aerial, as it allows
maximisation of the signal-to-noise ratio. Other theorems will be introduced as required.

1.7 Mesh analysis and nodal analysis

Until now we have made use of Kirchhoff’s laws only in very simple circuits, for a good
reason: without systematic use they rapidly generate a large number of unknown quantities
(though also equations by which they may be found). Mesh and nodal analyses are
complementary ways of making systematic the application of Kirchhoff’s laws to circuits, so
that fewer errors are likely.

1.7.1 Mesh analysis

Mesh analysis applies KVL systematically to a circuit and produces simultaneous equations
which may be solved to give the mesh currents. A mesh is a loop in a circuit with no loops
inside it. Consider the circuit of Figure 1.38, which represents a domestic 2-phase supply
common in North America.
It contains three meshes: ABCDA, ADEFA and CEDC; numbered 1, 2 and 3: the large
loop ABCDEFA is not a mesh as it can be divided into smaller loops. Meshes one and two
represent low-voltage circuits for lighting and appliances such as vacuum cleaners, hair-
driers, etc., while mesh three represents a two-phase circuit for supplying relatively large
loads such as a cooker or a heater. The 0.16 resistances represent the wiring resistance.

Figure 1.38

Mesh analysis. The circuit repres-

ents a domestic 2-phase supply in
North America. The 166 load is
connected to both phases, so the
voltage across it is almost doubled.
AD is the common, or return wire

The first step in the analysis is to assign clockwise currents to each mesh: in this case I1, I2
 Chapter 1 31

and I3 to meshes 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The next step is to use KVL to find these currents.
Around mesh 1 KVL gives, taking clockwise voltages as positive and anticlockwise negative:
(1.70)

V1 is the voltage across the 0.16 resistance, which is 0.1I1 by Ohm’s law. V2 is the voltage
across the 146 resistance, which is not 14I1, since the 146 resistance is shared between
meshes 1 and 3, so that the resultant current flow from C to D is I1  I3.Therefore V2 must be
14(I1  I3). V3 is the voltage across the middle 0.16 resistance (the common wire for the two
phases), which is shared between meshes 1 and 2. Therefore V3 is 0.1(I1  I2) and Equation
1.70 becomes
(1.71)

< 14.2I1  0.1I2  14I3 = 120 (1.72)

after rearranging the terms.

The use of KVL in mesh 2 yields
(1.73)
The 120V source points anticlockwise and is written (120) in Equation 1.73 (if in doubt,
reverse the arrow and the sign on this source, which leaves its value unchanged). V4, the
voltage across the middle 0.16 resistance, is 0.1(I2  I1) by Ohm’s law (V4 is obviously just
V3, but it is best to give it a separate identity in a different mesh). V5 is the voltage across
the 206 resistance, and must be 20(I2  I3) by Ohm’s law, while V6 is 0.1I2, so that Equation
1.73 becomes
(1.74)

which rearranges to
(1.75)

Mesh 3 gives
(1.76)

Again the voltages are found by using Ohm’s law: V7 = 14(I3  I1), V8 = 16I3 and V9 =
20(I3  I2). Then Equation 1.76 after substitution and rearrangement is
(1.77)
Three meshes have produced three equations, numbered 1.72, 1.75 and 1.77:

(1.78)

Solving gives the three unknown mesh currents: I1 = 23.1 A, I2 = 20.6 A and I3 = 14.7 A.
The currents through the 146 and 206 loads are I1  I3 (= 8.4 A) and I2  I3 (= 5.9 A),
while the common wire carries the relatively small current I1  I2 (= 2.5 A). The power
consumed by the 146 load is 14 × 8.42 = 990 W, by the 206 load is 20 × 5.92 = 700 W, and
32 Circuit analysis

the 166 load consumes 16 × 14.72 = 3.5 kW.

Take note of the form of Equations 1.78: the first comes from applying KVL to mesh 1,
so the coefficient of I1 is opposite in sign to those of the other two currents. The second
equation arises from application of KVL to mesh 2 so the coefficient of I2 is positive and the
rest negative. And the third equation comes from mesh 3, so the coefficient of I3 is positive,
the others negative. If the unknown currents and voltages are assigned in the systematic way
described, the signs of the current coefficients should always follow this pattern  check if
they do not! With a little practice the student will find it superfluous to put voltages across
resistances and will be able to write down the current equations directly. Aided by computer
solution of simultaneous equations, an experienced student can solve a 7-mesh problem in
two to three minutes, and get it right first time.
Current sources may cause trouble in mesh analysis. Sometimes they can be turned into
voltage sources and dealt with as such, but there are circumstances when one cannot do so.
Take for example the circuit of Figure 1.39: there is no resistance in parallel with the 2A
source, making its transformation into a voltage source impossible.

Figure 1.39

The current source is a supernode.

Current sources have voltages across
them which must be included in the
KVL mesh equations

We assign currents to the numbered meshes as before, and also a voltage, V, to the current
source, to generate the mesh equations
3I1 + 2I2  V = 0 (1.79)
7I2 + 3I3 + V = 0 (1.80)
2I1 + 3I2  5I3 + 5 = 0 (1.81)
Equations 1.79 and 1.80 can immediately be added to give
(1.82)
The voltage across the current source has been eliminated (such a source is called a super-
node), leaving two equations and three unknown currents. The third equation comes from the
fact that 2 A must flow through the current source, making I2  I1 = 2 (make sure the sign is
correct here). The solution of the three simultaneous equations

(1.83)
 Chapter 1 33

then yields I1 = 0.6 A, I2 = 1.4 A and I3 = 1.6 A. From these currents we can find any
current or voltage readily, for example the current through the 36 resistance is I3  I2 = 0.2 A,
and the voltage across it must be 3 × 0.2 = 0.6 V.

1.7.2 Nodal analysis

While mesh analysis employs KVL systematically, nodal analysis uses KCL to derive a set
of simultaneous equations from which all the nodal voltages may be found. Voltages are
assigned to each principal node of a network, principal nodes being points where three or
more branches of a circuit join.

Figure 1.40

Nodal analysis on the same circuit as

Figure 1.38. The principal nodes are A, C,
D
and E. Node A has been chosen as the
reference node

Consider the circuit of Figure 1.40 (which is the same circuit as Figure 1.38). The
(principal) nodes are A, C, D and E, node A being chosen as the reference node. (The
reference node need not be at ground potential, nor at any particular place in the circuit: the
choice is arbitrary.) Voltages are then assigned to the other nodes11 representing the potential
differences between them and the reference node: these are V1, V2 and V3 in Figure 1.40. We
then apply KCL at nodes C, D and E. At node C, taking current out of the node to be positive,
we see that
(1.84)
Now I1 is the current through the uppermost 0.16 resistance, which is given by Ohm’s law
as (V1  120)/0.1 (make sure the sign is correct here!), since the voltage across the resistance
is V1  120. Similarly, I2 is (V1  V3)/16 and I3 is (V1  V2)/14. Equation 1.84 then becomes

11
Strictly a node is the point at which two or more branches join and a principal node one where three or more
branches join. In this sense A and B are both nodes but A is a principal node. However, if only two branches join,
the current is the same in each and use of KCL is redundant; so principal node is implied when the word ‘node’ is
used.
34 Circuit analysis

(1.85)

At node D,
(1.86)

Now I4 = V2 /0.1, as the middle 0.16 resistance lies between the reference node A and
node D, then I5 = (V2  V1)/15 (note that I5 = I3, but one should always give the currents at
each node new identities, and work out afresh what they are) and I6 = (V2  V3)/ 20. Thus
Equation 1.86 is

(1.87)

Finally, at node E
(1.88)

where I7 = (V3  (120))/0.1 (take great care here!!), I8 = (V3  V2)/20 and I9 =
(V3  V1)/16. Substituting these values into Equation 1.88 gives

(1.89)

Rearranging Equations 1.85, 1.87 and 1.89 produces the three simultaneous equations

(1.90)

The form of these equations is worth remarking: the first comes from using KCL at node C,
where the voltage relative to node A is V1, and the only positive coefficient is that of V1. The
same pattern is followed in the other two equations. Any mistakes in sign should soon be
noticed and put right if the equations are written in this systematic way. The solution to the
equations is V1 = 117.7 V, V2 = 0.24 V and V3 = 118 V. The voltage across the 146 load is
117.7  0.24 = 117.5 V, and the current through it is 117.5/14 = 8.4 A, as before. The voltage
across the 206 resistance is 0.24  (118) = 118.2 V, so the current through it is 5.9 A, and
finally the voltage across the 166 resistance is 117.7  (118) = 235.7 V and the current
through it is 14.7 A. The solution is, as it must be, the same as that found by mesh analysis
earlier.
Whether in a particular case nodal or mesh analysis is preferable is largely a matter of
individual taste; in the example given above, neither method has a clear advantage. However,
the topology of most networks is such that nodal analysis produces fewer unknowns, and may
be preferred for that reason. In simple examples there is seldom a great difference in
complexity. Though we have dwelt on DC analysis here, we more frequently require AC
analysis; however, all of the DC techniques and circuit theorems may be applied to AC cir-
cuits, simply by using impedances instead of resistances.
 Chapter 1 35

Problems

1. In the circuits of Figure P1.1 what power is delivered (+), or consumed () by each source?
[(a) +8 W (b) + 24 W (c) +8 kW (d) 12 mW (e) 99 MW (f) 800 W]

Figure P1.1

Figure P1.2

2. Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals of the networks of Figure P1.2.
[(a) 3 6 (b) 3 6 (c) 1.62 6 (d) 1.5 6]
3. In the circuit of Figure P1.3 the battery has an internal resistance of 2 6, the ammeter one of 0.1 6
and the voltmeter one of 1 k6. What are the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter? What would
the voltmeter read if it were to be reconnected across XY? [0.897 A, 7.117 V, 7.206 V]

Figure P1.3 Figure P1.4

36 Circuit analysis

Figure P1.5 Figure P1.6

4. Find the equivalent capacitance between AB of the circuit of Figure P1.4. [4.714 F]
5. Find the equivalent inductance between AB of the circuit of Figure P1.5. [6 mH]
6. What must C be for the equivalent capacitance between the terminals AB in Figure P1.6 to be equal
to C? [0.414 F]
7. You are given an ohmmeter of infinite accuracy and a large number of resistors of which all but
one have exactly the same (given) resistance. How can the odd resistor (also of known resistance)
be found with just two measurements?[Hint: connect in series/parallel twice]
8. Use Kirchhoff’s laws and the v-i relationship for inductors to show that inductors in series may be
added like resistors to find the equivalent inductance. Also show that inductors in parallel behave
like resistors in parallel when their equivalent is required.
9. What is the resistance of the circuit formed by placing a resistance of 6 6 along each edge of a cube
and joining them at all eight corners? The resistance is measured between two corners at the
opposite ends of the longest (body) diagonal. [5 6]
10. A capacitance of 1 F is charged up to 5 V and then is connected to an initially uncharged capaci-
tance of 2 F in series with a 16 resistance. (a) What is the voltage across each capacitance after the
connection is made? (b) What energy is stored in the circuit before and after the connection is
made? (c) What energy is lost in the resistance?
(d) Does the resistance affect the answer to (c)? (e) What happens to the energy if the resistance
is zero? [(a) 1.67 V and 1.67 V (b) 12.5 J and 4.17 J (c) 8.33 J (d) No]
11. Show using a Thévenin equivalent circuit and a resistive load, that maximum power transfer does
not result in maximum efficiency for energy transfer, and that for the latter the load resistance
should be infinite.
12. If all the energy stored in a 32F capacitor charged to 24 kV is transferred to an inductance of
0.5 H, what is the current? (This is an exploding-wire experiment, but in practice the resistance
slightly reduces the current.) [192 kA]
13. A superconducting magnet has been proposed for storing energy. If the current in the magnet is to
be 200 kA when the stored energy is 5 GWhr, what is its inductance? If the maximum allowable
voltage across its terminals is 5 kV, what is the maximum rate of change of current? What is the
minimum time needed to discharge all the stored energy? What is the average power delivered in
this time? What is the maximum output power? How practical is this proposal?
[900 H, 5.56 A/s, 10 hrs, 500 MW, 1 GW]
14. Find the Thévenin and the Norton equivalents of the circuit between AB in Figure P1.14. Find
the maximum power transferable from these terminals. What power is consumed internally by
the circuit when delivering maximum power (that is excluding the load) and when unloaded?
[VT = 2 V, RT = 1.11 6, IN = 1.8 A. 0.9 W. 6.9 W and 12 W]
15. Use the star-delta transformation to find I in Figure P1.15. [I = 0.7 A]
16. Use mesh analysis to find the current from the 18V source in Figure P1.15. [0.815 A]
 Chapter 1 37

17. Use nodal analysis to find the voltage across the 2A source in Figure P1.15. [15.6 V]
18. Use Kirchhoff’s laws and a full branch-current analysis to confirm the answers to Problems 1.15,
1.16 and 1.17.
19. Use the superposition theorem to find all the currents in Figure P1.14. Hence show that the power
dissipated in the resistances is equal to the power from the sources.
[I16 = 2 A; P5V = 10 W; P2V = 2 W; P3A = 0 W]

Figure P1.14 Figure P1.15

20. Show that the power consumed by the resistances in Figure P1.15 is equal to the power from the
sources. [P2A =31.2 W, P45V = 65.475 W; P18V = 14.67 W]
21. Use successively Norton’s and Thévenin’s theorems to find the voltage across AB in the ladder
network of Figure P1.21. [VT = 4 V]
22. In the infinite network of Figure P1.22 what must R and RL be for the resistance to be 2 6 between
terminals AB? [1 6 and any resistance]

Figure P1.22
Figure P1.21

23. Find the power delivered by (a) the 121V (b) the 120V and (c) the 119V source in Figure P1.23.
Repeat this problem when the source resistances are 0.3 6 for the 121V, 0.2 6 for the 120V and
0.1 6 for the 119V source. [(a) 1.692 kW (b) 478 W (c) 716 W, 812 W, 608 W and 15 W]
24. In the circuits of Figures P1.21 and P1.24 use the superposition principle to find VAB and VT
[VAB = 4 V, VT = 6 V]
25. A capacitance of 200 F carries a current of (2 + 3 sin 2t) mA. What is the voltage across it as a
function of time, t, if it was initially uncharged? [(10t  7.5 cos 2t) V]
26. What is the energy consumed by a resistance of 583 6 from time t = 0 to t = 10 ms if the current
through it is 0.63exp(100t) A? What are the average power and r.m.s. current during this time?
[1 J, 100 W, 0.414 A]
27. The bridge circuit of Figure P1.27 is used to measure the value of R using a resistance-less galva-
38 Circuit analysis

nometer to detect imbalance. If the galvanometer’s minimum detection current, IG, is 0.1 A, what
is the percentage error in R? [0.05 %]

Figure P1.23 Figure P1.24

28. In the circuit of Figure P1.28 no energy is stored at time t = 0. IC is 20t mA and starts from zero at
t = 0. What is the voltage across AB at t = 0.3 s? [0.42 V]
29. Show that the transformation from star form to delta form requires that the equations numbered
1.50 be satisfied.

Figure P1.27 Figure P1.28

2 Sinusoidally-excited
circuits

H
ITHERTO techniques for circuit analysis  and various useful theorems and
transformations  have been illustrated using only direct voltages and currents.
However, nearly all electricity is generated and consumed in the form of AC. In order
to continue to use the methods devised originally for DC circuits, Heaviside1 developed the
use of complex numbers for currents, voltages and impedances. This has proved to be the
most powerful tool ever put into the hands of electrical engineers.

2.1 Sinusoidal excitation

Conventional, rotating generators naturally produce sinusoidal voltage waveforms so that the
most important circuits in practice are those which are sinusoidally excited (sometimes called
‘AC circuits’). Besides, the Fourier theorem states that any repetitive waveform may be
synthesised from purely sinusoidal components. A study of circuit behaviour with sinusoidal
excitation at a single frequency can then be extended to complex waveforms, though in many
instances only a single frequency may be of interest.
Figure 2.1 shows a graph of the voltage sinusoid, v(t) = Vmsin(7t + 1) V.

Figure 2.1

A graph of
Vmsin(7t + 1)

1
Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925) was a self-taught telegraphic engineer until he gave up work in his twenties and
devoted himself to research, making outstanding contributions to mathematics, physics and above all electrical
engineering. He coined the terms resistivity, impedance and inductance among others in the 1880s; his complex
notation for impedance, Z = R + jX, became standard in 1911.

39
40 Sinusoidally-excited circuits

Its peak amplitude is Vm and the time between successive peaks, the period, is T, making its
frequency, f, 1/T. When T is in seconds, f is in hertz (Hz). Its angular frequency is 7, where
(2.1)
7 is in radians per second when f is in Hz. At the origin, v(0) = 0.5Vm, but when t = 0, v = Vm
sin 1, so according to Equation 2.1, 1, the phase angle is 30° (or %/6 rad) in this case. In
terms of time the sinewave here is advanced by 1/7 seconds, if 1 is in rads. When this
voltage appears across a resistance, R, by Ohm’s law the instantaneous current is

(2.2)

where Im = Vm/R. The current waveform is precisely the same as the voltage waveform  same
frequency, 7, same phase, 1  only its amplitude is scaled by a factor of 1/R.

2.1.1 The effect of inductance

When a sinusoidal current, i = Im sin 7t, flows in an inductance, L, the v-i relation v = L di /dt
can be used to find v, that is

(2.3)

Writing v in the form Vm sin (7t + 1) we obtain

(2.4)
where 1 = 90° and Vm = 7LIm. The voltage and current are no longer in phase; in fact the
phase of the current is 0°, while the phase of the voltage is +90°. The current through an
inductance is said to lag the voltage by 90°, or the voltage to lead the current by 90°.
Equation 2.4 shows that Vm = 7LIm for an inductance, which is a form of Ohm’s law, with
7L replacing R. The inductance behaves as if it had a resistance 7L, called the reactance of
the inductance and given the symbol XL. This is an important finding:
(2.5)
where XL  7L. If 7 is in rad/s and L is in henries (H), XL is in 6.
There are two principal consequences of applying sinusoidal excitation to an inductance:

! it behaves as if it had a resistance of 7L

! the current lags the voltage by 90°

2.1.2 The effect of capacitance

What happens to the current when a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitance? Using i
= C dv /dt for a capacitance, C, and taking v = Vm sin 7t we find
 Chapter 2 41

which can be written

(2.6)

Letting Im = 7CVm, it follows that i = Im sin (7t + 90°); the current leads the voltage by 90°.
Rearranging Im = 7CVm in the form V = IR gives
(2.7)
where XC (= 1/7C) is the reactance of the capacitance, C. If C is in farads and 7 in rad/s, then
XC is in 6. Again there are two main consequences of applying sinusoidal excitation to a
capacitance:
! it behaves as if it had a resistance of 1/7C
! the current leads the voltage by 90°

A useful mnemonic for remembering whether voltage or current leads or lags in inductive or
capacitive circuits is
C I V I L
With C, I leads V; V leads I with L.

2.1.3 Power

Instantaneous power is given by

(2.8)

If v is in volts (V) and i in amperes (A), p is in watts (W). For a resistance subject to
sinusoidal excitation, v and i are in phase, so that

(2.9)

Equation 2.9 shows that pR has a minimum value of zero: the power (which is lost as heat)
produced in a resistance carrying a sinusoidal current is always positive. It has a direct
component of 0.5VmIm and a sinusoidal component of twice the current’s frequency. Figure
2.2 shows the relationships of the waveforms.
The average power is seen from Equation 2.9 to be
(2.10)
since the average value of cos27t is zero over a cycle (See the next section on root-mean-
square values).
As Vm = ImR, Equation 2.10 can be written, dropping the subscript on P,
(2.11)
2
This form should be compared to the power, I R, developed by a direct current, I.
 Another Random Document on
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Harper's Round Table,
August 11, 1896
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Title: Harper's Round Table, August 11, 1896

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPER'S ROUND TABLE, AUGUST 11,
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 AN AMERICAN THERMOPYLÆ.
THE PRESIDENT'S PRIVATE LIFE.
AN EXPLANATION.
THE VOYAGE OF THE "RATTLETRAP."
A VIRGINIA CAVALIER.
CROSSING THE XUACAXÉLLA.
THE WAR IN CUBA.
THE PIPER.
WHAT THE BEE TOLD ME.
INTERSCHOLASTIC SPORT.
STAMPS.
BICYCLING.
THE CAMERA CLUB.
CAPTAIN JACK AND THE CANNIBALS.

Copyright, 1896, by Harper & Brothers. All Rights Reserved.

published weekly. NEW YORK, TUESDAY, AUGUST 11, 1896. five cents a copy.
vol. xvii.—no. 876. two dollars a year.
 AN AMERICAN THERMOPYLÆ.
BY KIRK MUNROE.
"My!" exclaimed Bryce Gordon, with a deep sigh, as he softly closed the Greek history
over which he had been intently poring for the last fifteen minutes, "I want to go and see
that place some time."
"What place?" asked his army uncle, Captain Frank Gordon, looking up from the evening
paper.
"The Pass of Thermopylæ," answered Bryce, who had just been reading of Leonidas and
his wonderful battle with the hosts of Xerxes. "That is the kind of place I want to visit
whenever I have a chance to travel," he continued, with flashing eyes, "and I should
think Greek boys would be awfully proud of it. I only wish we had a Thermopylæ in this
country; but there doesn't seem to be any such thing nowadays."
"Doesn't there?" replied his uncle, laying down the paper. "Then I am afraid you are
better posted concerning old Greek history than in that of the United States; for I know
of a Thermopylæ in which, only sixty years ago, a handful of Americans made as glorious
and heroic a defence against overwhelming numbers as was ever recorded."
"You do?" cried Bryce, excitedly. "Where is it? Tell me about it, quick! Please do!"
"Yes, tell us," pleaded Jackanapes, May, and little Miss Blue, who, scenting a story from
afar, had made a magic appearance, and were now clustered about Captain Gordon's
chair like so many hungry bees about a honeycomb.
"Well," laughed their uncle, good-naturedly, "I see that I am in for it, and suppose I must
do as my tyrants command. So here goes. To begin with, did any of you ever hear of the
Alamo?"
"Seems to me I have," answered Bryce; "but I can't remember what it is."
The faces of the others were so blank that it was evident the word held no meaning for
them.
"I didn't much think you would know anything about it," continued their uncle; "for it
belongs to American history, which, of course, is not half so important as that of the old
Greeks and Romans. The Alamo, then, is, or rather was, an old Spanish mission located
in a cottonwood grove that gave it its name—for Alamo means cottonwood—near the San
Antonio River in southwestern Texas. On an opposite bank of the stream stood the
Mexican town of San Antonio, built of low flat-roofed adobe or stone houses, and
containing at the time of my story very few Americans, though in other parts of Texas
these already formed an important part of the population. Texas was then a Mexican
state, and Mexico itself had but recently thrown off the yoke of Spain. In its struggle for
liberty the American residents had rendered such splendid service, that when freedom
was finally gained they were granted many especial privileges by the Mexican
government. These were highly prized, and everything went smoothly, until General
Santa Aña headed a revolution, overthrew the existing government, and made himself
Dictator.
"Hating Americans, and jealous of their increasing power, Santa Aña began to withdraw
their privileges, and declared that Texas, disappearing as a separate territory, should
thereafter belong to the older Mexican state of Coahuila. Worst of all, he replaced the
civil with a military government, and ordered that all citizens should be disarmed. Of
course the free-born sons of fathers who had fought at Lexington and Yorktown—for
these things happened in 1834—would not submit to such oppression, and the first thing
Santa Aña knew the state of Texas was in open revolt, declaring itself to be an
independent republic. As San Antonio was its most important city, the Mexican General
Cos was ordered to fortify and hold it against the rebels; but one thousand Texans under
General Edward Burleson marched against him; and three hundred of them, led by brave
old Ben Milam, captured the place after a three days' fight from house to house, and
from street to street. General Cos and his two thousand soldiers were allowed to retire to
Mexico as paroled prisoners of war, who solemnly promised never again to take up arms
against the Texans.
"Soon after this, General Burleson's army scattered to different points where there
seemed a chance of more fighting, until only eighty troops, under command of Colonel
James Bowie, inventor of the famous bowie-knife and son-in-law of the Mexican
Governor, remained to defend the city. These troops had not received one cent of pay,
were poorly clad, and possessed but little ammunition. Early in February, 1835, Colonel
Bowie, worn out by his efforts to obtain re-enforcements and make adequate provision
for the defence of his important post, fell sick of a fever, and Colonel William Travis, who
had just arrived with thirty-five men, assumed command. Soon afterwards the renowned
David Crockett arrived from Tennessee with thirty more men, so that the garrison now
numbered one hundred and forty-five.
"On the 22d of February the Mexican Dictator appeared before San Antonio with an army
of 4000 regular troops, and marched straight into the town, the Texans crossing the river
and retiring before him to the ruinous old Alamo Mission, which they hastily barricaded,
and so converted into a rude fortress. They carried fever-stricken Bowie with them, and,
as they retreated, gathered up a few bushels of corn and a few beef cattle, which formed
their sole stock of provisions.
"From this place of refuge, when Santa Aña demanded its unconditional surrender, Travis
replied with a cannon-shot. He knew that the longer he could hold the Mexican army in
check the more time would be allowed the men of Texas to gather and organize for the
defence of their homes. Upon receiving this defiant reply, Santa Aña displayed blood-red
flags from every church-tower in the town, to signify death without quarter to the rebels,
and began a furious bombardment of the Alamo. This was continued almost without
intermission, by night as well as by day, until the 6th of March, or through two weary
weeks. During that time Travis managed to despatch several couriers in different
directions, with urgent messages imploring assistance. In every message he wrote, 'We
are determined neither to surrender nor retreat, but will maintain our position to the
bitter end.'
"Every now and then the little garrison made desperate sorties for the destruction of
some galling battery or to seize a few supplies, and during those twelve fearful days
whenever a Texas rifle was fired a Mexican soldier fell dead. In the early morning of the
1st of March a great shout of rejoicing rang out from the battered mission, for Captain
John Smith, who, with thirty men, had hastened from Gonzales to the assistance of his
friends, had succeeded in passing the enemy's line and gaining the shelter of the fort.
Now the bombardment became so fierce that all the outlying walls of the mission were
demolished, and only its stout stone church remained standing. Into it the Texans retired,
barricading every entrance and repairing every breach.
"Shortly before sunset on the evening of the 3d the fire of the batteries suddenly ceased.
Two thousand fresh troops, the army of General Cos, which had been captured and
paroled at this very place, had retraced their steps, and now, in violation of their pledged
word, were prepared once more to fight against their conquerors. While they were being
welcomed with acclamations and every form of rejoicing by the Mexicans, the grim walls
of the Alamo were witnessing one of the most solemn and pathetic scenes of history. In
their dim shadow Colonel Travis paraded his handful of heroes in single file, and
addressed them in substantially these words:
"'My brave comrades, stern necessity compels me to employ the moments afforded by
this probably brief cessation of conflict in making known to you the most interesting, yet
the most solemn, melancholy, and unwelcome fact that humanity can realize. Our fate is
sealed. Within a few days, perhaps a few hours, we must all be in eternity. Our provisions
are gone, our ammunition is nearly spent, and our strength is almost exhausted. My calls
for assistance remain unanswered, and the probabilities are that our couriers have been
cut off. The enemy surrounds us in overwhelming and ever-increasing numbers. Then we
must die, and have only to choose such method of death as may best serve our country.
Shall we surrender, and be deliberately shot? Shall we try to cut our way out through the
Mexican ranks, and be butchered before we can kill twenty of our adversaries? I am
opposed to either plan, but leave every man of you to his own decision. Should any one
choose to surrender, or attempt to escape, he is at liberty to do so. My own choice is to
remain in this place, and die for my country, fighting so long as breath shall remain in my
body. This will I do even if you leave me alone. Do, then, as you think best; but
remember that no one of you can die with me without affording me comfort in the hour
of death.'
"Here Colonel Travis drew his sword, and with its point traced a line on the earthen floor
extending the whole length of the motionless file. Then resuming his position in front of
the centre, he said:
"'Now let every man who is willing to remain here and die with me cross to this side of
that line. Who will be the first? Forward! March!'
"Tapley Holland leaped the line at a bound, exclaiming, 'I am ready to die for my
country!' And in another instant every man, save one, of that heroic file had followed him
and stood beside their gallant leader. Every wounded man who could move crawled or
tottered across the fatal mark. Colonel Bowie, too weak to lift his head, called out feebly,
'Don't leave me behind, boys!' and in a moment four men had lifted his cot over the line.
The other helpless ones begged that they too might be lifted across, and finally only
Moses Rose remained behind. He stood alone, with his face buried in his hands. Travis,
Bowie, and Crockett all spoke to him kindly, and asked him if he were afraid to die. When
he answered that he was, and believed in the possibility of an escape, they bade him go
in peace. So he left them, scaling a rear wall of the church, dropping to the ground
outside, and finally escaping, after eluding innumerable dangers. It is from him alone that
we have a description of that memorable scene, for of all that devoted band whom he
left in that gloomy fortress no man was ever again seen alive beyond its walls."
"Then he was the Aristodemus of your American Thermopylæ," interrupted Bryce, who
was listening with breathless attention to this tale of modern heroism.
"Yes," replied Captain Gordon, "only he was more of a coward than Aristodemus, for the
latter did not escape until after his comrades had been killed, and, if you remember, was
himself killed in battle the following year, after performing more valorous deeds than any
of his fellow Spartans."
"I suppose Moses Rose was more truly a coward," admitted Bryce; "but lot's not stop to
talk about him now, Uncle Cap. What became of the splendid fellows he left in the fort?
Did they finally surrender, or were they captured, or what?"
"They neither surrendered nor were made prisoners, but fought with the stubbornness of
desperation for three days longer. At length, on the 5th of March, Santa Aña, believing
the Americans to be too exhausted to offer a serious resistance, ordered the Alamo to be
carried by assault at daylight of the following morning. At that hour the thunder of
bombardment was again stilled, and as though the silence were a signal, dark masses of
Mexican infantry, provided with scaling ladders, and driven to their deadly work by a
pitiless cavalry pressing close on their rear, rushed at the walls of the devoted church.
"Less than one hundred of the defenders were left to resist those thousands; but three
times did this handful of dauntless fighters repel their swarming assailants, and three
times did the furious Mexican General drive them back to the assault. At length the
defenders had fired away their last grain of powder, the crowding Mexicans forced an
entrance, and after another hour of the most terrific hand-to-hand fighting and awful
slaughter, the Alamo was theirs. At nine o'clock two murderous discharges of double-
shotted grape and canister from a cannon planted in the doorway of the room used as a
hospital, and filled with helplessly wounded Americans, ended the bloody tragedy, for of
Travis's noble band no man remained alive. So terribly had they fought that five hundred
and twenty Mexicans were killed in that final assault, and as many more were wounded,
while, including all who had fallen beneath the unerring Texas rifles during the siege, the
Alamo had cost Santa Aña over two thousand men.
"In his rage at this stubborn resistance the Mexican General ordered the bodies of the
heroic defenders to be burned just outside the Alamo, and so thoroughly was this work
accomplished that by sunset of that dreadful day naught was left of them save a mound
of wind-blown ashes and an undying memory."
"I think that is the very finest thing I ever heard of!" cried Bryce, nearly choked with
emotion; "and now I know that I am prouder of being an American than any Greek boy
can be of his country. But what happened after that, Uncle Cap? Did Santa Aña keep
right on and conquer the whole of Texas?"
"How could he when the Texans had such a glorious example to follow as that of Travis
and Bowie and Crockett, and those who fell with them, and such a battle-cry as
'Remember the Alamo'? No, indeed, he did not conquer Texas, and I think your history
will tell just how long it took the Texans to sweep everything before them, and win an
independence that they maintained for nine years before joining themselves to the great
American republic, and becoming one of the United States."
"And what became of the Alamo?"
"It still stands, or rather the old church does, facing the principal plaza of the beautiful,
wide-spread city that has grown around it since Travis and his men won for it a glorious
immortality."
"Can any one see it, and go inside and touch its walls?"
"Certainly he may."
"Then," said Bryce, glowing with enthusiasm, "that is the very first place in all the world
that I mean to visit just as soon as I set out on my travels."
 THE PRESIDENT'S PRIVATE LIFE.
Aside from the arduous official duties of the President of the United States, it is
interesting to note some of the pleasure and profit that accrue from his term of four
years. With an income of $138 a day, or $50,000 a year, paid by the strongest bank in
the country, the United States Treasury, he may or may not leave office with a snug
fortune of perhaps $100,000, depending on whether his expenditures have been of an
extravagant nature. Many Presidents have taken office as poor men, but with the money
they have saved during their term, and the influence that the office has brought them in
business pursuits afterwards, they have died comparatively rich.
The country instals the President in the White House—a magnificent residence—and
surrounds him with every convenience. With an appropriation that Congress makes every
year most of the expenses of this establishment are paid.
The following is a fair idea of the many incidentals that come free to a President: Every
bit of linen, bedding, towels, and such things is furnished. He is shaved by the White
House barber. His table is spread with the finest, daintiest damask, set with the most
exquisite china, and bountifully supplied with flowers from the White House
conservatories. If he sends a telegram, it is done from an instrument in the White House,
for which the government pays. His stationery, postage, etc., cost him nothing. Should he
desire a game of billiards, there is a beautiful table at hand; or if he wants to take a
drive, his stables, which the government pays the rent for and takes care of, are amply
equipped. When he enters his business office, a man is stationed at the door to open and
close it; and a private secretary, to whom the government pays a salary of $5000 a year,
assists him with his correspondence. The services of a type-writer are also furnished. He
is protected from the curious by a number of private watchmen. Should he want a cruise,
a magnificent steam-ship from the navy is placed at his disposal.
There are many other things that cost him nothing, such as the culinary arrangements,
his steward, who does the marketing, the many fancy delicacies sent him by enterprising
firms. This, by-the-way, is a sort of nuisance, for it seems to be the desire of every
manufacturer of some new eatable or drinkable to get it into the White House. Things of
value that find their way there are never accepted.
Lately the bicycle manufacturers have tried to get President Cleveland to ride a wheel,
and have offered the most extravagant inducements to both the President and Mrs.
Cleveland. One firm said they would present Mrs. Cleveland with a gold bicycle studded
with gems if she would ride it.
The President has to give state dinners and state receptions, but the expenses of these
yearly probably do not exceed $7000 or $8000. The Marine Band always supplies the
music, and the flowers come from the conservatory. It is seldom necessary to decorate
the reception-rooms of the White House, so that these affairs, although of elaborate and
ceremonial nature, are still inexpensive.
Upon his retirement to private life, the influence that his Presidential office has given him
enables him to secure large sums in payment for whatever he may do, such as a lecture,
an article in a periodical, or, if he practises law—which most of our ex-Presidents have
done—such fees as $10,000 are no uncommon thing.
AN EXPLANATION.
"I do not smile when I'm in bed,"
The little baby softly said,
"Because my smile's so very wide,
'Tis sure to fall out on one side,
And oh, how madly I should scold
To find my smile out in the cold!"
 THE VOYAGE OF THE "RATTLETRAP."
BY HAYDEN CARRUTH.

I.
Perhaps we were pretty big boys—Jack and I. In fact, I'm afraid we were so big that we
haven't grown much since, though it was ten years or more ago that it all happened. But
Ollie was a boy, anyhow; he couldn't have been more than a dozen years old, and we
looked upon him as being a very small boy indeed; though when folks saw us starting off,
some of them seemed to think that we were as boyish as he, because, they said, it was
such a foolish thing to do; and in some way, I'm sure I don't know how, boys have got
the reputation of always doing foolish things. "They're three of a kind," said Grandpa
Oldberry, as he watched us weigh anchor. "Their parents oughter be sent fer."
Well, it's hard to decide where to begin this true history. We didn't keep any log on this
voyage of the Rattletrap. But I'll certainly have to go back of the time when Grandpa
Oldberry expressed his opinion; and perhaps I ought to explain how we happened to be
in that particular port. As I said, we—Jack and I—were pretty big boys, so big that we
were off out West and in business for ourselves, though, after all, that didn't imply that
we were very old, because it was a very new country, and everybody was young; after
the election the first fall it was found that the man who had been chosen for county
judge wasn't quite twenty-one years of age yet, and therefore, of course, couldn't hold
office; and we were obliged to wait three weeks till he had had his birthday, and then to
have a special election and choose him again. Everybody was young except Grandpa
Oldberry, and he really wasn't old.
But I was trying to account for our being in the port of Prairie Flower. Jack had a cheese-
factory there, and made small round cheeses. I had a printing-office, and printed a small
square newspaper. In my paper I used to praise Jack's cheeses, and keep repeating how
good they were, so people bought them; and Jack used, once in a while, to give me a
cheese. So we both managed to live, though I think we sometimes got a little tired of
being men, and wished we were back home, far from thick round cheeses and thin
square newspapers.
One evening in the first week in September, when it was raining as hard as it could rain,
and when the wind was blowing as hard as it could blow, and was driving empty boxes
and barrels, and old tin pails and wash-boilers, and castaway hats and runaway hats and
lost hats, and other things across the prairie before it, Jack came into my office, where I
was setting type (my printer having been blown away, along with the boxes and the
hats), and after he had allowed the rain to run off his clothes and make little puddles like
thin mud pies on the dusty floor, he said,
"I'm tired of making poor cheeses."
"Well," I answered, "I'm tired of printing a poor
newspaper."
"Let's sell out and go somewhere," continued
Jack.
"All right," I said. "Let's."
So we did.
Of course the Rattletrap wasn't a boat which
sailed on the water, though I don't know as I
thought to mention this before. In fact, a water
boat wouldn't have been of any use to us in
getting out of Prairie Flower, because there
wasn't any water there, except a very small
stream called the Sioux River, which wandered
along the prairie, sometimes running in one
direction and sometimes in the other, and at
other times standing still and wondering if it was
worth while to run at all. The port of Prairie "I'M TIRED OF MAKING POOR
Flower was in Dakota. This was when Dakota CHEESES."
was still a Territory, and before it had been cut
into halves and made into two States, and left on the map like a green paving-stone lying
on top of a yellow paving-stone. So, there being no water, we of course had to provide
ourselves with a craft that could navigate dry land; which is precisely what the Rattletrap
was—namely, a "prairie schooner."
"I've got a team of horses and a wagon," went on Jack, that rainy night when we were
talking. "You've got a pony and a saddle. We've both got guns. When we drive out of
town some stray dog will follow us. What more'll we want?"
"Nothing," I said, as I clapped my stick down in the space-box. "We can put a canvas
cover on the wagon and sleep in it at night, and cook our meals over a camp-fire, and—
and—have a time."
"Of course—a big time. It's a heavy spring-wagon, and there is just about room in it
behind the seat for a bed. We can put on a cover that will keep out rain as well as a tent,
and carry a little kerosene-oil stove to use for cooking if we can't build a fire out-doors for
any reason. We can take along flour, and—and—and salt, and other things to eat, and
shoot game, and—and—and have a time."
We became so excited that we sat down and talked till midnight about it. By that time
the rain had stopped, and when we went out the stars were shining, and the level
ground was covered with pools of water.
"If it was always as wet as this around here we could go in a genuine schooner," said
Jack.
"Yes, that's so. But what shall we call our craft?"
"I think Rattletrap would be a good name," said Jack.
"I don't think it is a very pretty name," I replied.
"You wait till you get acquainted with that wagon, and you will say it's the best name in
the world, whether it's pretty or not. You don't know that wagon yet. The tongue is
spliced, the whiffletrees are loose, the reach is cracked, the box is tied together with a
rope, the springs creak, and the wheels whobble, lean different ways, and never follow
one another."
"Do they all turn in the same direction?" I asked.
"I don't believe they do. It would be just like one to turn backward while the other three
were going forward."
"We'll call our craft the Rattletrap, then. Good-night."
"Good-night," said Jack; and we parted, each to dream of our approaching cruise.
In a week we were busy getting ready to
start. I found, when I looked over the
wagon as it stood back of the cheese-
factory, that it was much as Jack had
described it, only I noticed that the seat
as well as the springs creaked, and that a
corner was broken off the dash-board.
But we set to work upon it with a will. We
tightened up the nuts and screws all over
it, and wound the broken pole with wire.
We nailed together the box so that the
rope could be taken off, and oiled the
IN A WEEK WE WERE BUSY GETTING creaking springs. We had no trouble in
READY TO START. finding a top, as half the people in the
country had come in wagons provided
with covers only a year or so before. We
got four bows and attached them to the box, one at each end, and the other two at
equal distances between. These bows were made of hard-wood, and were a quarter of
an inch thick and an inch and a half wide. They ran up straight on either side for two or
three feet, and then rounded over, like a croquet-wicket, being high enough so that as we
stood upright in the wagon-box our heads would just nicely clear them. Over this
skeleton we stretched our white canvas cover, and tied it down tightly along the sides.
This made what we called the cabin. There was an ample flap in front, which could be let
down at night and fastened back inside during the day. At the rear end the cloth folded
around, and was drawn together with a "puckering-string," precisely like a button-bag. By
drawing the string tightly this back end could be entirely closed up; or the string could be
let out, and the opening made any size wanted. After the cover was adjusted we stood
off and admired our work.
"Looks like an elephant on wheels," said Jack.
"Or an old-fashioned sun-bonnet for a giantess," I added.
"Anyhow, I'll wager a cheese it'll keep out the rain, unless it comes down too hard," said
Jack. "Now for the smaller parts of our rigging, and the stores."
On the back end we fastened a feed-box for the horses, as long as the wagon-box was
wide, and ten or twelve inches square, with a partition in the middle. We put stout iron
rings in the corners of this, making a place to tie the horses. On the dash-board outside
we built another box, for tools. This was wedge-shaped, about five inches wide at the
top, but running down to an inch or two at the bottom, and had a hinged cover. We put
aboard a satchel containing the little additional clothing which we thought we should
need. Things in this line which did not seem to be absolutely necessary were ruled out—
indeed, for the sake of lightness we decided to take just as little of everything that we
could. We made another box, some two feet long, a foot deep, and fourteen inches wide,
with a hinged cover, which we called the "pantry," for our supply of food. This we stood
in the wagon with the satchel. Usually in the daytime after we started each of these rode
comfortably on the bed back of the seat. This bed was a rather simple affair, made up of
some bed-clothing and pillows arranged on a thick layer of hay in the bottom of the
wagon-box. Our small two-wick oil-stove we put in front next to the dash-board, a
lantern we hung up on one of the bows, and a big tin pail for the horses we suspended
under the wagon.
"Since you're going to be cook," I said to Jack, "you tend to getting the dishes together."
"They'll be few enough," he answered. "I don't like to wash 'em. Tin mostly, I guess;
because tin won't break."
So he put a few knives and forks and spoons, tin plates and cups, a frying-pan, a small
copper kettle, and a few other utensils in another box, which also found a home on the
bed. Other things which we did not forget were a small can of kerosene; two half-gallon
jugs, one for milk and one for water; a basket of eggs; a nickel clock (we called it the
chronometer); and in the tool-box a hatchet, a monkey-wrench, screw-driver, small saw,
a piece of rope, one or two straps, and a few nails, screws, rivets, and similar things
which might come handy in case of a wreck.
"Now for the armament and the life-boat," said Jack.
For armament Jack contributed a double-barrelled shot-gun and a heavy forty-five-calibre
repeating rifle, and I a light forty-four-calibre repeating rifle, and a big revolver of the
same calibre (though using a slightly shorter cartridge), with a belt and holster. This
revolver we stored in the tool-box, chiefly for use in case we were boarded by pirates,
while the guns we hung in leather loops in the top of the cover. In the tool-box we put a
good supply of ammunition and plenty of matches. We also each carried a match-box, a
pocket compass, and a stout jack-knife.
"Now, how's your life-boat?" asked Jack.
I led her out. She was a medium-sized brown Colorado pony, well decorated with brands,
and with a white face and two white feet. She wore a big Mexican saddle and a horse-
hair bridle with a silver bit.
"She'll do," said Jack. "In case of wreck, we'll escape on her, if possible. She'll also be
very handy in making landings where the harbor is poor, and in exploring unknown
coasts."
All of this work took several days, but
when it was done the Rattletrap was
ready for the voyage, and we decided to
start the next morning.
"She's as prairie-worthy a craft as ever
scoured the plain," was Jack's opinion;
"and if we can keep the four wheels from
starting in opposite directions we'll be all
right."
But where was Ollie all this while? The
fact is I had forgotten about Ollie. And
who was Ollie, anyhow? Ollie was Jack's
little nephew, and he lived back East
somewhere—I don't remember where.
The nearer we got ready to start, the
more firmly Jack became convinced that
Ollie would like to go along, so at last he
"THEY'LL ALL BE SCALPED BY INJUNS,"
sent for him to come, and he arrived the
SAID GRANDPA OLDBERRY.
night before our start. Ollie liked the idea
of the trip so much that he simply stood
and looked at the wagon, the guns, the pony, and the horses, and was speechless. At last
he managed to say,
"Uncle Jack, it'll be just like a picnic, won't it?"
The next morning we started as early as we could. But it was not before people were up.
"Where be they going?" asked Grandpa Oldberry.
"Oh, Nebraska, and Wyoming, and the Black Hills, and any crazy place they hear of,"
answered Squire Poinsett.
"They'll all be scalped by Injuns," said Grandpa Oldberry. "Ain't the Injuns bad this fall?"
"So I was a-reading," said the Squire. "And in the hills I should be afeared of b'ar."
"Right," returned Grandpa. "B'ar and sim'lar varmints. And more 'specially boss-thieves
and sich-like cut-throats. I disremember seeing three scalawags starting off on such a
fool trip since afore the war."

[to be continued.]
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