Task 1

1. Taxonomic Approach:

Grammar = Categorizes words (e.g., nouns, verbs) without focusing on meaning.

Example:

• Noun: cat

• Verb: is sleeping

2. Cognitive Approach:

Grammar = Explains how we express thoughts.

Example: Time is money → Shows how we think about time.

3. Competence & Performance:

• Competence: Language knowledge (mental).

Example: You know “He likes apples” is correct.

• Performance: Actual usage (can have mistakes).

Example: Saying “He like apples” when tired.

4. I-language:

Internal grammar knowledge that works automatically.

Example: You know The dog runs fast is correct, but Dog the fast runs sounds wrong.

5. Universal Grammar (UG):

All humans are born with a “language blueprint.”

Example: English: She is happy, French: Elle est heureuse → Similar underlying structures.

6. Criteria of Adequacy:
 1. Observational: Identify rules (cat → cats).

2. Descriptive: Explain why (She eats is correct due to subject-verb agreement).

3. Explanatory: Show how children learn (Is she happy? → UG explains this).

Task 2

1. Morphological Criteria:

Word type = How it changes.

Example:

• Verbs: play → played

• Nouns: dog → dogs

2. Classes of Nouns:

1. Proper: Tom, Paris

2. Common: dog, house

3. Countable: apple, chair

4. Uncountable: water, rice

3. Forms of Verbs:

1. Base: eat

2. Past: ate

3. Present participle: eating

4. Past participle: eaten

4. Inflection Rule:

Certain endings go with specific word types.

Example:

• Nouns: dog → dogs

 • Verbs: walk → walked

5. Syntactic Criteria:

Word position determines type.

Example:

• The car → car = noun

• Big car → big = adjective

6. Adjective Types:

1. Attributive: a big house

2. Predicative: The house is big.

7. Substitution:

Replace a word with a shorter form.

Example:

• The red car is fast → It is fast.

8. Contentives vs Functors:

• Contentives: Carry meaning (dog, eat).

• Functors: Connect structure (and, the).

9. Test for Contentives/Functors:

• Meaning lost → Contentive.

• Meaning intact → Functor.

10. Functional Categories:

• Determiners: the, a

• Auxiliaries: is, has

• Conjunctions: and, but

11. Determiners vs Adjectives:

Determiner = Points out (the dog).

Adjective = Describes (big dog).

12. Pronoun:

Replaces a noun to avoid repetition.

Example: Tom → he.

13. Quantifiers:

• Prenominal: Some apples

• Pronominal: Some are red.

Task 3

1. “help you” Analysis:

• Category: VP

• Head: help

• Complement: you

2. Binary Merger:

Structures combine two elements at a time.

Example: help + you → VP.

3. “to help you” Analysis:

• Category: Infinitive VP

• Head: help

• Complement: you

4. “should” and “ought” Selection:

• Should → Requires a verb (should eat).

• Ought → Often requires to (ought to help).

5. “trying to help you” Analysis:

• Category: VP
 • Head: trying

• Complement: to help you

6. Recursion:

Repeating structures within structures.

Example:

• Sentence: He said [she thought [he was late]].

7. Headness & Binarity Principles:

• Headness: Every phrase has a head (help → VP).

• Binarity: Built in pairs (help + you).

8. UG Violations:

Incorrect structure breaks UG rules.

Example: He is coming? → Should be Is he coming?

9. Intermediate/Maximal Projection:

• Intermediate: Partially built structure (help + you).

• Maximal: Fully built (to help you).

10. EPP:

Every sentence must have a subject.

Example: It is raining.

11. Functional Head Constraint:

Functional heads must connect properly.

Example:

• Correct: She is running.

• Incorrect: She running is.

12. Binding Theory:

1. Reflexives (himself) → Refer to same clause (John hurt himself).

2. Pronouns (him) → Refer outside clause (Mary likes him).

 3. Names (John) → Cannot be replaced unnecessarily (He thinks John is
smart).

13. Tree Diagrams:

• They have arrived directly in Italy.

1. arrived + directly → VP

2. VP + have

3. Add They as subject.

Task 4 - Syntax:

1. Null Constituents: Unspoken but meaningful elements.

Ex: “John tried [ ] to leave.”

2. Null-subject Parameter: Some subjects are omitted in certain cases.

Ex: “Go to the store!” (subject is implied).

3. Local Antecedent and Reflexive Anaphors:

Reflexives (e.g., “himself”) refer to a subject in the same clause.

Ex: “John saw himself.”

4. Ellipsis and Gapping:

• Ellipsis: Missing but understood parts.

Ex: “She likes cats; he [likes] dogs.”

• Gapping: Omission of verbs.

Ex: “John plays guitar, Mary [plays] piano.”

5. Semantic and PF Components:

• Semantic: Meaning.

• PF: Sound/pronunciation.

6. Null T: Missing but understood tense.

Ex: “He goes.”

 7. Null C: Missing complementizers.

Ex: “I think [ ] he is right.”

Task 5 - Syntax:

1. Auxiliary Inversion: The auxiliary verb moves before the subject.

Ex: “She is reading.” → “Is she reading?”

2. T-to-C Movement: The auxiliary verb moves from Tense (T) to

Complementizer (C).

Ex: “You can swim.” → “Can you swim?”

3. Copy Theory: A copy of the moved element stays in its original position.

Ex: “What did she buy?” → “[What] did she buy [what]?”

4. Head Movement: A head (e.g., verb) moves to a higher position.

Ex: “Is John working?”

5. Head Movement Constraint: A head can only move to the closest higher
position.

6. BE-raising: The verb “be” moves to a higher position.

Ex: “She is happy.”

7. “Have” and “Be”: Both are auxiliaries that agree with the subject.

8. DO-support: “Do” is added when no auxiliary is present.

Ex: “Do you like apples?”

9. Affix Hopping: Inflectional endings attach to the nearest verb.

Ex: “She walk + s” → “She walks.”

Task 6

Here are the simplified answers for FLED 107 Task 6:

1. Describe the following and give examples for each:

• Simple sentence: A sentence with one subject and one predicate.

Ex: “She runs.”

• A sentence: A group of words that express a complete thought.

Ex: “The cat is sleeping on the bed.”

• A clause: A group of words with a subject and a predicate.

Ex: “He left when it rained.”

• Independent clause: A clause that can stand alone as a sentence.

Ex: “She sings.”

• Finiteness: Indicates tense or agreement in a verb.

Ex: “He eats” (finite), “to eat” (non-finite).

• Main verbs: Carry the main meaning of the sentence.

Ex: “She runs.”

• Verbal auxiliaries: Help the main verb express tense or mood.

Ex: “She is running.”

• Modal auxiliaries: Express possibility, necessity, or permission.

Ex: “She can sing.”

• Aspectual auxiliaries: Show the completion or continuation of an action.

Ex: “She has finished her homework.”

• Aspect: Indicates the timing of an action (e.g., perfect, progressive).

Ex: “She is running” (progressive).

2. Ways to express grammatical categories for verbs:

• Tense: Past, present, or future.

Ex: “He plays” (present), “He played” (past).

• Aspect: Progressive or perfect.

Ex: “He is playing” (progressive).

 • Mood: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative.

Ex: “Close the door!” (imperative).

3. Explain non-finite verbs and their types:

Non-finite verbs don’t show tense.

• Infinitives: “To play.”

• Gerunds: “Playing is fun.”

• Past participles: “He has played.”

4. Possible distributional test for English infinitives:

Infinitives often follow certain verbs or words like “to.”

Ex: “He wants to run.”

5. Distinction between past participle and past tense:

• Past tense: Shows completed action in the past.

Ex: “He walked.”

• Past participle: Used with auxiliaries in perfect tenses.

Ex: “He has walked.”

6. What is a complex sentence?

A sentence with one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause.

Ex: “She left because it was late.”

7. What is coordination? Exemplify:

Combining clauses or phrases using conjunctions like “and,” “or,” “but.”

Ex: “She sings, and he dances.”

8. Define the following through examples:

• Main/matrix clause: A clause that can stand alone.

Ex: “He said [she is coming].”

• Subordinate clause: Cannot stand alone; depends on a main clause.

Ex: “She left [because it rained].”

 • Complement clause: Functions as an object of the verb.

Ex: “I think [that he is kind].”

• Complementizer: Introduces a complement clause.

Ex: “She knows that he is here.”

9. Properties of subordinate clauses:

• Depend on a main clause.

• Introduced by complementizers (e.g., “that,” “because”).

Ex: “She left [because it rained].”

10. What is a clausal subject? Give an example:

A subject in the form of a clause.

Ex: “[That he is late] annoys me.”

11. What is recursion? Give an example:

A structure can repeat within itself.

Ex: “I think [that she knows [that he left]].”

12. Hierarchical structure of clauses:

Clauses are nested within one another in a structured way.

Ex: “She said [he believes [they are late]].”

13. Adjunct/adverbial clauses and how they differ from subordinate clauses:

• Adjunct clauses add extra information and can be omitted.

Ex: “He left [when it rained].”

• Subordinate clauses are necessary for meaning.

Ex: “She thinks [that he is right].”

14. What is a root clause? What are properties of root clauses in English?

• A root clause is an independent clause.

• Properties: Can stand alone, carries main information.

Ex: “He is sleeping.”

Task7

Here are simplified and direct English answers for Task 7:

1. What is an expletive pronoun?

A pronoun with no specific meaning, used to satisfy grammar rules.

Ex: “It is raining.”

2. What is A-movement?

Movement of an argument (e.g., subject) to a higher position in the sentence.

Ex: “John seems [ _ to be happy].”

3. Define idioms and give examples.

Fixed expressions with non-literal meanings.

Ex: “Kick the bucket” = “Die.”

4. Can the auxiliary in idioms be changed?

No, changing the auxiliary usually breaks the idiom’s meaning.

5. Define propositions, predicate, and arguments.

• Proposition: The statement made by a sentence.

• Predicate: Describes the action or state.

• Arguments: The entities involved.

Ex: “John reads books.”

• Predicate: “reads,” Arguments: “John” (subject) and “books” (object).

6. What is a one-place predicate?

A predicate with one argument.

Ex: “She sleeps.”

Two-place predicate: A predicate with two arguments.

Ex: “She reads books.”

 7. What is a thematic role?

The role an argument plays in a sentence (e.g., agent, patient).

Ex: “John broke the glass.”

• John = Agent, Glass = Patient.

8. Explain Predicate-Internal Theta Marking Hypothesis.

Arguments are assigned roles within the predicate’s VP (Verb Phrase).

Ex: “Mary baked a cake.” → The VP “baked a cake” assigns roles.

9. Example of internal and external argument:

• Internal: Inside the verb phrase.

Ex: “John read a book.”

• External: Outside the verb phrase.

Ex: “John read a book.”

10. Explain unaccusative predicates.

Verbs whose subjects are affected by the action.

Ex: “The vase broke.”

11. Difference between unaccusative and unergative verbs:

• Unaccusative: Subject = Patient.

Ex: “The door opened.”

• Unergative: Subject = Agent.

Ex: “He runs.”

12. How do passive sentences differ from active ones?

• The object of the active becomes the subject of the passive.

Ex: Active: “She wrote the letter.”

Passive: “The letter was written by her.”

13. Explain Raising, Raising predicates, and Control predicates:

• Raising: Subject moves to a higher clause.

Ex: “John seems [ _ to be happy].”

• Raising predicates: Allow subject movement.

Ex: “Seems, appears.”

• Control predicates: Subject controls another argument.

Ex: “John promised [ _ to leave].”

FLED 107 Task 8:

1. Taxonomic Approach in traditional grammar:

Focuses on classifying words and sentences based on their forms and functions.

Ex: Nouns, verbs, adjectives.

2. Cognitive Approach to grammar:

Emphasizes how grammar reflects thought processes and categorizes meaning.

Ex: Metaphors and schemas in language.

3. “Language is tacit rather than explicit”

We use grammar without being consciously aware of its rules.

Ex: Native speakers form correct sentences without knowing formal grammar rules.

4. Key concepts:

• Competence: Knowledge of language rules.

• Performance: Actual use of language.

• Performance errors: Mistakes in speaking or writing due to fatigue or

distraction.

Ex: Saying “I goed” instead of “I went.”

• I-language: Internalized, mental grammar unique to each speaker.

5. Universal Grammar (UG):

A theory suggesting humans are born with innate principles of language structure.

Criteria of adequacy for UG:

 • Explains language universals.

• Accounts for language acquisition.

• Predicts variations across languages.

6. Components of grammar:

• Phonology: Sounds of a language.

• Morphology: Word formation.

• Syntax: Sentence structure.

• Semantics: Meaning.

• Pragmatics: Language use in context.

7. Language Faculty and critical period:

The brain’s innate capacity for language, best developed during the critical period (early
childhood).

8. Principles of UG:

Universal rules common to all languages.

Ex: All languages distinguish subjects from objects.

9. Parameters of UG:

Options within UG that vary across languages.

Ex: Word order: SVO (English) vs. SOV (Japanese).

10. Parameter setting:

Children set language-specific parameters based on input.

Ex: Learning subject-verb order in English.

11. Inflectional vs. derivational properties:

• Inflectional: Changes tense, number, etc., without altering word meaning.

Ex: “Walk → Walks.”

• Derivational: Creates new words.

Ex: “Happy → Happiness.”

12. Substitution:
Replacing a word or phrase to test grammatical roles.

Ex: Replace “the cat” with “it” in “The cat is sleeping.”

13. Contentives and functors:

• Contentives: Words with meaning (nouns, verbs).

Ex: “House,” “run.”

• Functors: Grammatical words (prepositions, articles).

Ex: “On,” “the.”

14. Definitions:

• Determiners: Modify nouns.

Ex: “The car.”

• Quantifiers: Indicate quantity.

Ex: “Many books.”

• Pronouns: Replace nouns.

Ex: “She is here.”

• Prenominals: Modifiers before nouns.

Ex: “Red car.”

• Pronominals: Pronoun-like words.

Ex: “His book.”

• D-pronouns: Demonstratives.

Ex: “This is mine.”

15. How auxiliaries differ from main verbs:

Auxiliaries support main verbs (e.g., tense, mood).

Ex: “Is running” (auxiliary: “is”).

16. Functions of complementizers:

Introduce subordinate clauses.

Ex: “She said that he left.”

FLED 107 Task 9:

1. Merging:

Combining two elements (e.g., words or phrases) to form a larger structure.

Ex: “She” + “runs” → “She runs.”

2. Head:

The central word of a phrase that determines its type.

Ex: In “runs quickly,” the head of the verb phrase is “runs.”

3. Verb Phrase:

A group of words centered around a verb.

Ex: “She runs quickly.”

4. Constituent:

A group of words that function as a unit.

Ex: In “She runs,” “She” is a constituent.

5. Projection:

The expansion of a head into a phrase.

Ex: N → NP: “Book” → “The book.”

6. Complement:

A word or phrase that completes the meaning of a head.

Ex: “He reads books” (Complement: “books”).

7. Transitive Verb:

A verb that requires a direct object.

Ex: “She eats apples.”

8. Accusative Case:

Marks direct objects.

Ex: “Him” in “I saw him.”

9. Node:

A point in a syntactic tree representing a word or phrase.

10. Binary:

Each node in a syntactic tree has at most two branches.

11. Tense Phrase (TP):

A syntactic structure centered on tense.

Ex: “She will run.”

12. Sectional Properties:

How phrases interact with surrounding elements (e.g., subcategorization).

13. Recursion:

Structures that repeat within themselves.

Ex: “I think [she knows [he left]].”

14. Headness Principle:

Every phrase has a head that determines its type.

Ex: In “runs quickly,” “runs” is the head of the VP.

15. Binarity Principle:

Syntactic structures are binary, with two elements merging at each step.

16. Intermediate and Maximal Projection:

• Intermediate Projection: Between a head and a full phrase.

Ex: V’ in VP: “runs quickly.”

• Maximal Projection: The complete phrase.

Ex: VP: “runs quickly.”

17. Extended Projection Principle (EPP):

Every sentence must have a subject.

Ex: “It is raining” (“It” satisfies EPP).

18. Expletive Pronouns:

Pronouns with no specific meaning, used to fill a subject position.

Ex: “It is cold.”

19. Complementizer Phrase (CP):

Introduces subordinate clauses.

Ex: “I know that she is here.”

20. Terminal and Non-terminal Nodes:

• Terminal Nodes: Words at the tree’s bottom.

Ex: “runs.”

• Non-terminal Nodes: Phrases higher in the tree.

Ex: VP: “runs quickly.”

21. C-command:

A node c-commands another if it dominates its sibling.

22. Null Subject Parameter:

Some languages allow sentences without explicit subjects.

Ex: Spanish: “Está lloviendo” (It is raining).

23. Control Verbs:

Verbs that control another verb’s subject.

Ex: “She promised to leave” (subject of “leave” is “she”).

24. Local Antecedent:

The closest noun a pronoun refers to.

Ex: “John saw himself.”

25. Coreferential:

Two elements refer to the same entity.

Ex: “John said he would come” (John = he).

26. Affix Hopping:

Inflectional endings attach to the nearest verb.

Ex: “She walk + s” → “She walks.”

FLED 107 Task 10:

1. How are Wh- questions constructed?

Wh- questions are formed by:

1. Placing the Wh-word at the beginning of the sentence.

2. Auxiliary inversion (moving the auxiliary verb before the subject).

3. Maintaining tense and agreement.

Examples:

• Statement: “She is reading a book.”

• Question: “What is she reading?”

• Statement: “He will leave.”

• Question: “When will he leave?”

2. How are wh-in-situ questions constructed?

Wh-in-situ questions leave the Wh-word in its original position (common in informal English
or some languages like Chinese).

Examples:

• “She is reading what?”

• “He went where?”

3. How are multiple Wh- questions constructed?

Questions with more than one Wh-word are constructed by placing one Wh-word at the
beginning while keeping the others in situ or moving them both.

Examples:

• “Who said what?”

• “What did John give to whom?”

4. Define relative clauses and their function:

Relative clauses describe or add information about a noun (the head noun).

Example:

• “The girl who is reading is my sister.”

(Relative clause: “who is reading,” Head noun: “girl”).

5. Order of relative clauses and the head noun in English:

In English, relative clauses follow the head noun.

Example:

• “The book that she wrote is famous.”

(Head noun: “book,” Relative clause: “that she wrote”).

6. Different relativization strategies:

1. Relative Pronouns: Use “who,” “which,” “that,” etc.

Ex: “The boy who is running is fast.”

2. Omission of Relative Pronoun: In informal speech, the pronoun can be

omitted.

Ex: “The book [she wrote] is famous.”

3. Preposition Stranding: The preposition stays with the verb.

Ex: “The person who I talked to.”

4. Pied-piping: The preposition moves with the Wh-word.

Ex: “The person to whom I talked.”

FLED 107 Task 11:

1. Different types of complementizers and examples:

Complementizers introduce subordinate clauses.

• “That”: Used in declarative clauses.

Ex: “I know that she is here.”

 • “If” / “Whether”: Used in interrogative clauses.

Ex: “I wonder if she is coming.”

• “For”: Used before infinitive clauses.

Ex: “It is important for him to come.”

2. Complementizers selecting different TPs (Tense Phrases):

Complementizers determine the type of TP they attach to.

• “That”: Selects a finite TP.

Ex: “She said that he runs.”

• “For”: Selects a non-finite TP.

Ex: “She arranged for him to leave.”

• “If”: Selects a finite interrogative TP.

Ex: “I asked if she knows him.”

3. Different determiners and their complements:

Determiners take complements (nouns or noun phrases) to form a DP (Determiner Phrase).

• “The”: Takes a singular or plural noun.

Ex: “The cat,” “The cats.”

• “Some”: Takes plural or uncountable nouns.

Ex: “Some people,” “Some water.”

• “Every”: Takes singular nouns.

Ex: “Every student.”

4. What is tense?

Tense expresses the time of the action.

• Past: Describes completed actions.

Ex: “She walked.”

• Present: Describes current or habitual actions.

Ex: “She walks.”

 • Future: Describes actions that will happen.

Ex: “She will walk.”

5. What is aspect?

Aspect shows whether an action is completed or ongoing.

• Progressive: Indicates ongoing action.

Ex: “She is walking.”

• Perfect: Indicates completed action.

Ex: “She has walked.”

6. What is voice?

Voice shows the relationship between the subject and the action.

• Active: The subject performs the action.

Ex: “She wrote the book.”

• Passive: The subject receives the action.

Ex: “The book was written by her.”

7. What is mood, and how is it expressed in English?

Mood shows the speaker’s attitude.

• Indicative: States facts.

Ex: “She is here.”

• Imperative: Gives commands.

Ex: “Close the door!”

• Subjunctive: Expresses wishes or hypothetical situations.

Ex: “I wish she were here.”

8. Main verbs vs. auxiliary verbs:

• Main verbs: Carry the main meaning.

Ex: “She runs every day.”

• Auxiliary verbs: Support the main verb (e.g., tense, aspect).

Ex: “She is running.”

9. How do modal verbs differ from other auxiliaries?

Modal verbs express necessity, possibility, or permission and are not inflected for tense or
agreement.

Ex: “She can run” (no “s” for 3rd person).

10. Different types of auxiliaries:

• Modal auxiliaries: Express mood (e.g., can, must).

Ex: “She can sing.”

• Aspectual auxiliaries: Show aspect (e.g., have, be).

Ex: “She has sung.”

• Dummy auxiliary (Do): Used for questions or emphasis.

Ex: “Do you like it?”

FLED 107 Task 12:

1. Difference between a sentence and a clause:

• Clause: A group of words with a subject and predicate. It can be independent

or dependent.

Ex: “He runs.”

• Sentence: A complete thought, which may include one or more clauses.

Ex: “He runs, and she walks.”

2. Canonical and non-canonical constructions:

• Canonical: Follows the standard Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) word order.

Ex: “She eats an apple.”

• Non-canonical: Deviates from the standard word order (e.g., questions,

passives).

Ex: “What is she eating?” (Question), “The apple was eaten by her.” (Passive).
3. Inflectional forms verbs may take:

Verbs change form to show tense, number, aspect, mood, or voice.

• Base form: “Run.”

• Past tense: “Ran.”

• Past participle: “Run.”

• Present participle: “Running.”

• 3rd person singular present: “Runs.”

4. Finiteness:

Finiteness indicates if a verb shows tense or agreement.

• Finite verb: “She runs.” (Shows tense/agreement).

• Non-finite verb: “To run is fun.” (No tense).

5. Auxiliary verbs vs. lexical verbs:

• Auxiliary verbs: Help the main verb (e.g., “be,” “have,” “do”).

Ex: “She is running.”

• Lexical verbs: Carry the main meaning.

Ex: “She runs.”

6. Processes:

• Tense and time: Tense shows when an action happens (past, present, future).

Ex: “She runs” (present), “She ran” (past).

• Aspect and aspectuality: Shows if the action is ongoing or completed.

Ex: “She is running” (progressive), “She has run” (perfect).

• Mood and modality: Shows attitude or possibility.

Ex: “She might run” (possibility), “Run faster!” (command).

7. Predicative complements:

Follow linking verbs and provide information about the subject or object.

Ex: “She is a teacher” (subject complement), “They made her happy” (object complement).
8. Ascriptive and specifying uses of “be”:

• Ascriptive: Describes a property of the subject.

Ex: “She is kind.”

• Specifying: Identifies or specifies something about the subject.

Ex: “She is the teacher.”

9. Brief elaboration:

• Nouns: Name people, places, or things.

Ex: “Dog.”

• Noun phrases: Noun + modifiers.

Ex: “The black dog.”

• Adjectives: Describe nouns.

Ex: “Beautiful.”

• Adjective phrases: Adjective + modifiers.

Ex: “Very beautiful.”

• Adverbs: Describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Ex: “Quickly.”

• Adverb phrases: Adverb + modifiers.

Ex: “Very quickly.”

• Prepositions: Show relationships (e.g., direction, location).

Ex: “In,” “on.”

• Prepositional phrases: Preposition + object.

Ex: “In the room.”

10. Negative vs. positive clauses:

• Positive clause: States something affirmative.

Ex: “She is running.”

• Negative clause: Includes “not” or a negative word.

Ex: “She is not running.”

11. Content clauses and types:

A clause that functions as a subject, object, or complement.

• Declarative: “I know that she is here.”

• Interrogative: “I wonder what she is doing.”

12. Coordination and supplementation:

• Coordination: Combines elements of equal rank with conjunctions.

Ex: “She sings and dances.”

• Supplementation: Adds extra information, often set off by commas or

parentheses.

Ex: “She sings, which is her passion.”