ZAMBIA SECONDARY EDUCATION COURSE

REVISION BOOK
GRADE 10 – 12

𝟐
𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒂 +𝒃 =𝒄
−𝒃 ± √𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄
𝒙=
𝟐𝒂

I.K. LIKUJI
MEGA MATH
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I.K. LIKUJI
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
MEGA MATH
A Secondary School Mathematics Handbook

GRADES 10-12

I.K. Likuji
 © Isaac K. Likuji, 2013

All rights seserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording
or any information storage or transmission system, without any prior written
permission from the publisher or copyright owner.

First published in February 2013 by

Isaac K. Likuji

This reprint 2015 by

Zambia Educational Publishing House
Light Industrial Area
Chishango Road
P.O. Box 32708
Lusaka, Zambia

ISBN 9982-00-582-0

Printed by
Zambia Educational Publishing House

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I shall always remain thankful to the LORD GOD Almighty for His abundant grace and mercy
by and through which I found the means to seek His divine strength and encouragement to
enable me embark on this project and work it to completion.

I appreciate the support and counsel I received from Mr. F. Simulunga, Director , Simfex
Academy, without which my efforts would have borne no positive result.

I also wish to share the joy of the success of this project with my good friend and colleague,
Webster Moonga and his family, all staff and students at Simfex Academy, my family and all
relatives and friends, whom I may have deprived necessary or expected attention while I got
so involved in this endeavour.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
INTRODUCTION
Mega Math is a preparatory handbook for students taking the Ordinary Level Syllabus. It is
structured in a self-study style with concept objectives, examples and exam-type exercises, as
well as support notes for the major topics covered at Senior Secondary Level (Grade 10 – 12).
Students should attempt the exercises before referring to the suggested solutions in the
Answers Section.

I very much hope that this handbook will add value to your study and learning of
Mathematics, and be an aid in your preparation for the Leaving Examinations. Teachers, as
well as college and university students taking an introductory Mathematics course, will also
find some valuable reference notes in this handbook.

ISAAC KAHILU LIKUJI

SIMFEX ACADEMY
P.O. BOX 32959
CHELSTONE
LUSAKA
SUNDAY 03/02/2013
17:00HRS

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 CONTENTS
OUTLINE OF TOPICS PAGE
1. Real Number System……………………………………………………………… 8
2. Approximations…………………………………………………………………….. 27
3. Set Theory…………………………………………………………………………….. 32
4. Algebra………………………………………………………………………………….. 40
5. Indices…………………………………………………………………………………… 50
6. Linear Equations……………..……………………………………………………… 54
7. Quadratics……………………………………………………………………………… 61
8. Formulae and Literal Equations….………………….….…………………… 70
9. Variations…………………….………………………………………………………… 77
10. Relations and Functions………………………………………………………… 87
11. Linear Inequations………………………………………………………………… 96
12. Linear Programming……………………………………………………………… 102
13. Commercial Arithmetic……………………………………………….………… 109
14. Sequences and Series……………………………………………………………. 121
15. Matrices……………………………………………………………………………….. 129
16. Angles…………………………..…………………………………………………….… 141
17. Shapes and Symmetry……………………………………………………………. 153
18. Trigonometry…………………………………………………………………………. 159
19. Bearings…………………………………………………………………………………. 178
20. Circle Theorems……………………………………………………………………… 185
21. Similarity and Congruence……………………………………………………… 197
22. Mensuration…………………………………………………………………………. 203
23. Construction and Locus…………………………………………………………. 214
24. Graphs of Polynomials…………………………………………………………… 229
25. Travel Graphs………………………………………………………………………… 243
26. Statistics………………………………………………………………………………... 249
27. Probability……………………………………………………………………………… 263
28. Vector Geometry………………………………………………………………….. 278
29. Transformational Geometry…………………………………………………… 293
30. Earth Geometry…………………………………………………………………….. 309
31. Introduction to Calculus………………………………………………………… 327
Exam-type Exercises……….…………………………………………………….. 339
Answers to Revision Exercises……………………………………………….. 357
Answers to Exam-type Exercises.……………………………………………. 367

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 1. REAL NUMBER SYSTEM .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
1.1 Sets of numbers
1.2 Operations on Real Numbers
1.3 Factors and Multiples
1.4 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages
1.5 Order on the Real Number Line

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.1 SETS OF NUMBERS

There are many different categories of numbers. Here are some examples of these sets of
numbers:

Natural Numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, …}

Whole Numbers W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, …}

Integers Z = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, …}

Even Numbers = {…, -6, -4, -2, 0, +2, +4, +6, +8, …}

Odd Numbers = {…, -5, -3, -1, +1, +3, +5, +7, +9, …}

Prime Numbers = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, …}

Composite Numbers = {4, 6, 8, 9, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, …}

Rational Numbers Q = {3/5, 1/2, 4, 15, 200/5, √10 000, …}

Irrational Numbers Irr = {22/7, 1/3, √2, √5, …}

All these numbers belong to one set called the set of Real Numbers denoted by the symbol R.
Other numbers, called complex numbers, include the square roots of negative numbers such
as √-4, √-25, etc. These give two roots which include a real number and a complex part
denoted by “i” or “j”. For example,

√-4 = √(-1 X 4) or √-4 = √(-1 X 4)

= √-1 X √4 = √-1 X √4
=iX2 =jX2
= 2i = 2j
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
1.2 OPERATIONS ON REAL NUMBERS

The four mathematical operations of Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division may
be applied on real numbers following three principal laws known as the C.A.D Laws.

COMMUTATIVE LAW
Commutative Law applies to addition and multiplication of real numbers. We can change the
position of real numbers when adding or multiplying them without affecting the answer.

For example:

2 + 4 = 6 and 4 + 2 = 6

28 X 3 = 84 and 3 X 28 = 84

This principle is not true for subtraction or division. For example:

8–5=3 but 5 – 8 = -3; the answers 3 and -3 are not the same.

16 ÷ 4 = 4 but 4 ÷ 16 = 0.25; the answers 4 and 0.25 are not the same.

ASSOCIATIVE LAW
Associative Law also applies to addition and multiplication of real numbers. This is when
three terms are added or multiplied by associating two terms at a time.

For example:

3 + 4 + 5 = 12 This result is true in any order of association.

(3 + 4) + 5 or 3 + (4 + 5)
=7+5 =3+9
= 12 = 12

5 X 2 X 3 = 30 This result is also true in any order of association.

(5 X 2) X 3 or 5 X (2 X 3)
= 10 X 3 =5X6
= 30 = 30

This principle is not true for subtraction or division. For example:

10 – 5 – 3
If we associate two terms at a time,
(10 – 5) – 3 but 10 – (5 – 3)
=5–3 = 10 – 2
=2 =8
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
And also 100 ÷ 10 ÷ 2
If we associate two terms at a time,
(100 ÷ 10) ÷ 2 but 100 ÷ (10 ÷ 2)
= 10 ÷ 2 = 100 ÷ 5
=5 = 20
As can be seen, when terms are associated differently for subtraction or division, the answer
is not the same.

DISTRIBUTIVE LAW OF MULTIPLICATION

The distributive law of multiplication is applicable under addition and subtraction but not
under multiplication or division.

EXAMPLE 1
2(8 + 6) = (2 X 8) + (2 X 6) or 2(8 + 6) = 2(14)
= 16 + 12 = 2 X 14
= 28 = 28

EXAMPLE 2
4(10 – 6) = (4 X 10) – (4 X 6) or 4(10 – 6) = 4(4)
= 40 – 24 =4X4
= 16 = 16

This is not the same for multiplication or division.

EXAMPLE 3
2(5 X 4) = (2 X 5) X (2 X 4) but 2(5 X 4) = 2(20)
= 10 X 8 = 2 X 20
= 80 = 40

EXAMPLE 4
2(20 ÷ 4) = (2 X 20) ÷ (2 X 4) but 2(20 ÷ 4) = 2(5)
= 40 ÷ 8 =2X5
=5 = 10
As can be seen, the distributive law of multiplication gives us the same answer when applied
under addition or subtraction but not under multiplication or division.

ORDER OF OPERATION
In general, where the order of application of the four operations is not specified, we apply
the order commonly known as BODMAS, which stands for:
B - Brackets
O - Of
D - Division
M - Multiplication
A - Addition
S - Subtraction

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
Another important concept for the operation on real numbers is expressed in formula.

EXAMPLE 1
If the operation * means “add the first number to 5 and subtract the second number,” we can
simplify and work out

6 * 10 = (6 + 5) – 10
= 11 – 10
=1

EXAMPLE 2
If the operation X * Y = X2 + Y/4, then the value of 50 * 60 = (50)2 + (60)/4
= 2500 + 15
= 2515

1.3 FACTORS AND MULTIPLES

FACTORS
A factor is a number that divides into another number without remainder. It is easier to
determine factors by considering the pair of numbers that multiply to get another number.
For example,
Pairs of factors of 24 = 1 X 24
= 2 X 12
=3X8
=4X6
Therefore, factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24. Similarly,

Pairs of factors of 200 = 1 X 200

= 2 X 100
= 4 X 50
= 5 X 40
= 8 X 25
= 10 X 20
Therefore, the factors of 200 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20, 25, 40, 50, 100 and 200.

As can be seen,
1 is a factor of every other number, of which it is the smallest factor
The number itself is one of its own factors, of which it is the greatest factor

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
PRIME NUMBERS
Some numbers have only two factors, 1 and the number itself. These numbers are called
prime numbers.

The set of prime numbers includes

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, ….
Note that 1 is not a prime number.

PRIME FACTORS
We express a number as a product of its prime factors by finding the factors of that number
which are prime numbers. The process is to find the smallest prime factor of the number. We
then express that prime factor as a pair by multiplication. If the other paired factor is not
itself a prime factor, we also express it as a product of its smallest prime factor. We repeat
this exercise until both factors obtained are prime numbers.

EXAMPLE
Express 240 as a product of its prime factors.
240 = 2 X 120
= 2 X (2 X 60)
= 2 X 2 X (2 X 30)
= 2 X 2 X 2 X (2 X 15)
= 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X (3 X 5)
Therefore, 240 = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 3 X 5
= 24 X 3 X 5

THE HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR

When we compare the factors of two or more numbers, we can find their Highest Common
Factor or the H.C.F. The greatest common factor is found by listing the factors then selecting
the highest common factor, or by multiplying common prime factors.

EXAMPLE
Find the H.C.F of 100 and 320

Method 1:
Factors of 100 = 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 100
Factors of 320 = 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 16, 20, 32, 40, 64, 80, 160, 320
Common Factors = 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20
H.C.F = 20

Method 2:
100 = 2 X 50
= 2 X (2 X 25)
= 2 X 2 X (5 X 5)
=2X2X5X5
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 320 = 2 X 160
= 2 X (2 X 80)
= 2 X 2 X (2 X 40)
= 2 X 2 X 2 X (2 X 20)
= 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X (2 X 10)
= 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X (2 X 5)
=2X2X2X2X2X2X5

Common prime factors = 2 x 2 x 5

H.C.F = 2 X 2 X 5
= 20

NOTE: It is easier to use Method 1, but Method 2 is more accurate.

MULTIPLES
A multiple is a number into which a given number can divide without remainder. We obtain
the list of multiples of a given number by multiplying the number by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and so on.
For example:
Multiples of 13 = (13 X 1), (13 X 2), (13 X 3), (13 X 4), (13 X 5), ….
= 13, 26, 39, 52, 65, ….

Multiples of 300 = (300 X 1), (300 X 2), (300 X 3), (300 X 4), (300 X 5), (300 X 6), ….
= 300, 600, 900, 1 200, 1 500, 1 800, ….

As can be seen,
The number itself is one of its own multiples of which it is the smallest.
The list of multiples of any number does not end; we say it is infinite.

THE LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE

We can also find the Lowest Common Multiple or L.C.M of two or more numbers. The
exercise requires finding the smallest number into which all the given numbers can divide
without remainder. Like for the H.C.F we can do this either by listing out the multiples or by
expressing the numbers as products of their prime factors.

EXAMPLE
Find the L.C.M of 20, 25 and 30

Method 1:
Multiples of 20 = 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300,….
Multiples of 25 = 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 275, 300, 325, ….
Multiples of 30 = 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270, 300, 330, 360, ….

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 Common multiples = 300, ….

L.C.M = 300

Method 2:
20 = 2 X 10
= 2 X (2 X 5)
=2X2X5
= 22 X 5

25 = 5 X 5
= 52

30 = 2 X 15
= 2 X (3 X 5)
=2X3X5

We find the L.C.M in this method by collecting the different prime factors, in each case
picking out the factor in its greatest power. The factors in this example are 2, 3 and 5. The
highest power of 2 is 2, of 3 it’s 1 and of 5 it’s 2. Therefore,
L.C.M = 22 X 31 X 52
= 4 X 3 X 25
= 300

APPLICATION OF THE HCF AND LCM

The concept of finding H.C.F and L.C.M is very useful in some applications.

EXAMPLE 1
The workers in a school are using square paving stones to cover an area measuring 1650cm
by 1275cm. If the stones are of the same size and only whole ones are used,
(a) what is the greatest possible size of each stone?
(b) how many stones are required to cover the area?

(a) We need to get the H.C.F of 1650 and 1275

1650 = 2 X 825
= 2 X (3 X 275)
= 2 X 3 X (5 X 55)
= 2 X 3 X 5 X (5 X 11)
= 2 X 3 X 5 X 5 X 11

1275 = 3 X 425
= 3 X (5 X 85)
= 3 X 5 X (5 X 17)
= 3 X 5 X 5 X 17
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 H.C.F = 3 X 5 X 5
= 75

This implies that each stone must have 75cm length of sides.

(b) To find how many stones will be required, we calculate the area of each stone and
divide that into the total area to be covered with paving stones.
Area of each stone = 75cm X 75cm
= 5625cm2
Area to be covered with stones = 1650cm X 1275cm
= 2103750cm2
Number of stones required = 2103750cm2
5625cm2
= 374 whole stones

EXAMPLE 2
A number of apples can be divided into equal heaps, each containing either 10, 15 or 24
apples. Find the smallest number of apples for which this is possible.

The situation requires us to find the L.C.M of the three numbers 10, 15 and 24. The L.C.M
would be the smallest possible number of apples that can be divided into the three heaps.
Expressing each number as a product of its prime factors:

10 = 2 X 5
15 = 3 X 5
24 = 2 X 2 X 2 X 3

L.C.M = 23 X 3 X 5
=8X3X5
= 120

1.4 FRACTIONS, DECIMALS AND PERCENTAGES

FRACTIONS
A fraction is a part of one whole. It is a number that may be expressed in the form a/b and
b ≠ 0. The a in the fraction is called the numerator and the b the denominator. There are
three kinds of fractions.

Proper fraction has a numerator less than the denominator.

Example: 2/5, 23/50, 1/7, ….

Improper fraction has a denominator less than the numerator.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
Example: 8/3, 25/6, 9/8, ….

Mixed fraction has a whole number and a proper fraction. We get a mixed fraction from the
division of an improper fraction.
For example,

15/ = 33/4
4

769/ = 1124/645
645

We change a mixed fraction to an improper fraction by multiplying the denominator by the

whole number, and adding the product to the numerator. The improper fraction will have the
same denominator as that of the mixed fraction.
For example,

611/12 = (12 X 6) + 11
12

= 72 + 11
12

= 83
12

COMPARING FRACTIONS
We compare fractions by converting them to the same denominator. This is done by finding
an appropriate factor or multiple of the denominators.

EXAMPLE
Arrange the following fractions in ascending order

2/ 8/ 1/ 5/
3, 11, 2, 6

The idea is to find a common denominator for the denominators 3, 11, 2 and 6. That common
denominator is their lowest common multiple, 66. So we will multiply each fraction by an
appropriate factor such that the denominators are 66, as follows:

2/ = (2 x 22)/(3 x 22) = 44/66 We can now easily identify the order of the
3
8/ = (8 x 6)/ 48
11 (11 x 6) = /66 fractions by comparing their numerators.
1/ = (1 x 33)/ 33
2 (2 x 33) = /66
5/ = (5 x 11)/ 55 1 / , 2/ , 8/ , 5/
6 (6 x 11) = /66 2 3 11 6

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS
Fractions are added and subtracted in the same way. The two examples below show this
principle.

EXAMPLE 1
Add 52/3 + 21/4

52/3 + 21/4 OR 52/3 + 21/4 OR 52/3 + 21/4

= (5 + 2) + (2/3 + 1/4) = 17/3 + 9/4 = 17/3 + 9/4
= 7 + (8/12 + 3/12) = (17 X 4) + (9 X 3) = (17 X 4) + (9 X 3)

= 7 + 11/12 12 (3 X 4) (4 X 3)

= 711/12 = 68 + 27 = 68/12 + 27/

12
12

= 95/12 = 95/12
= 711/12 = 711/12

EXAMPLE 2
Subtract 83/4 – 52/3
83/4 – 52/3 OR 83/4 – 52/3
= (8 – 5) + (3/4 - 2/3) = 35/4 - 17/3
= 3 + (9/12 - 8/12) = (35 X 3) - (17 X 4)
= 3 + 1/12 12

= 31/12 = 105 – 68
12
37/
= 12
= 31/12

There are several ways of simplifying fractions. In the above examples, the procedure is:
- First change the mixed fractions to improper fractions. If the fractions are proper, this
is not required
- Express the fractions to their equivalent form, with a common denominator
- Add or subtract the numerators
- Simplify the result, by changing an improper fraction to a mixed fraction, or a proper
fraction to its equivalent with the smallest denominator possible

MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS
Multiplication of fractions is direct. We multiply the numerator by the numerator and the
denominator by denominator. So the only task is to change mixed fractions to improper
fractions before multiplying. If the fractions are proper, go straight to multiply.
For example,
Multiply 52/7 X 3 4/5
52/7 X 34/5 = 37/7 X 19/5
= (37 X 19)
(7 X 5) = 703/35 = 203/35
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
DIVISION OF FRACTION
We divide fractions by changing the operation to multiplication and inversing the divisor. In
other words, when dividing, we actually multiply, except that we have to interchange the
components of one fraction, its denominator we make the numerator and its numerator we
make the denominator.
For example,
Divide 105/6 ÷ 83/5
105/6 ÷ 83/5
= 65/6 ÷ 43/5
= 65/6 X 5/43
= (65 X 5)
(6 X 43)

= 325/258
= 167/258

When dealing with fractions, there are two important points to remember:
1. Any whole number can be treated as an improper fraction with denominator 1. For
example, 24 = 24/1, 16 = 16/1, 3 = 3/1
2. The multiplication of a fraction by its inverse or reciprocal gives the answer 1. The
reciprocal of any fraction is the fraction whose numerator is the denominator of the
other fraction, and whose denominator is the numerator of the other fraction. For
example, the reciprocal or multiplicative inverse of
2/ is 3/ therefore 2/3 x 3/2
3 2
-9 or -9/1 is -1/9 = 6/6
1/ is 25 /1 or 25 =1
25

DECIMAL NUMBERS
A decimal is another form of fraction in which we express it with a decimal point and
denominators of tenths, hundredths, thousandths and so on. Another way of looking at a
decimal number is to divide the denominator into the numerator. When the denominator can
no longer go into the numerator, we introduce the decimal point and multiply the remainder
numerator with 10. We repeat this without writing several points until we get the last
division. For some fractions however, the division does not terminate, it continues infinitely.
We get either recurring or irrational decimal units or non-recurring or a rational decimal. The
following examples show the different types of decimal numbers.

Decimals less than 1

1/ 5
2 = /10 = 0.5

13/ = 52/ = 0.52

25 100

12/ = 96/ = 0.096

125 1000

64/ = 256/10000 = 0.0256

2500

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
Decimals greater than 1
5/ = 2 1/
2 2
= 2 + 1/2
= 2 + 5/10
= 2 + 0.5
= 2.5

104/5 = 10 + 4/5
= 10 + 8/10
= 10 + 0.8
= 10.8

In general, decimal numbers follow the following place value system:

101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4

Decimal point

To the left of the decimal point we have whole numbers with place values Ones, Tens,
Hundreds and so on. On the right we have the decimal places with place values Tenths,
Hundredths, Thousandths and so forth.

We can change a decimal number to a fraction by converting the number to a numerator with
an appropriate denominator depending on how many decimal places it has. A decimal
number with one decimal place, such as 0.9, 12.3, 0.1 and so on, will have a denominator 10.
Similarly, a decimal number with two decimal places will have a denominator 100.

EXAMPLE 1
0.0005 = 5/10000
= 1/2000

EXAMPLE 2
2.341 = 2341/
1000

Recurring decimals

EXAMPLE 3
1/
3 = 0.333333….
= 0.3

EXAMPLE 4
1/
54 = 0.0185185185…. = 0.0185
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
When unit values after the decimal point repeat, we write them once and draw a bar or dash
above them, as shown in examples 3 and 4 above.

COMPARING DECIMALS
We can compare the value of decimal numbers by arranging them in order of place values,
that is, we put the numbers in a vertical column such that the decimal point falls in the same
position. By comparing the units in each place value, we can easily identify which decimal is
smaller than the other.

EXAMPLE
Arrange the following decimal numbers in descending order, that is, beginning with the
largest
0.0043, 1.0001, 0.9901, 0.9911, 0.0099, 0.9

0.0043
1.0001
0.9901
0.9911
0.0099
0.9
The value of numbers increases from the right to the left. That means place values on the left
are greater in value than those on the right. So we begin from the left. The order of the given
numbers, beginning with the largest, would be
1.0001, 0.9911, 0.9901, 0.9, 0.0099, 0.0043

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS

Addition and subtraction of decimals follows one principle. The numbers must be arranged in
order of place value, with the decimal point always aligned in the same position.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the sum 4500 + 2.32 + 0.000065
4500.
2.32
+ 0.000065
4502.320065

Note that every whole number has the decimal point after the last digit on the right.

EXAMPLE 2
Subtract 98.546 – 6.2151
98.546
– 6.2151
92.3309

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS
Multiplication of decimals is direct. We can arrange the numbers in any convenient way.
However, after the multiplication, the product must have as many decimal places as the sum
of decimal places in the numbers being multiplied. If one number has two decimal places and
the other has three decimal places, the answer must have five decimal places. For example,
2.21 X 1.4 = 2 . 2 1 (2 d.p)
X 1 . 4 (1 d.p)
8 8 4
+ 2 2 1
3. 0 9 4 (3 d.p)

DIVISION OF DECIMALS
Division of decimals begins with expressing the division as fraction equivalent and rewriting
the fraction with a whole number denominator. We then divide the denominator into the
numerator just like we divide ordinary fractions. For example,
0.064 ÷ 0.08
= 0.064/0.08

= (0.064 x 100)
(0.08 x 100)

= 6.4/8
= 0.8

As a general rule, the decimal point moves to the right, or we add a place value each time we
multiply a decimal number by the decimal base 10. When dividing by the decimal base, we
move the point to the left. Thus, multiplying a decimal number by 10 moves the point one
place to the right, by 100 it moves two places, by 1000 it moves three places and so forth; and
dividing by 10 moves it one place to the left, by 100 two places to the left, by 1000 three
places and so on.

PERCENTAGES
A percentage is simply a fraction of 100. We can change whole numbers, general fractions
and decimals by expressing them as fractions of 100. The following examples demonstrate
how we can apply percentages.

EXAMPLE 1
Find 25% of 6000
25/
100 X 6000
= /100 X 6000/1
25

= (25 X 6000)
(100 X 1)

= (25 X 60)
(1 X 1)

= 1500
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE 2
Express 0.085 as a percentage
0.085 = 85/1000
= 85/1000 X 100
= 85/1000 X 100/1
= (85 X 100)
(1000 X 1)

= 85/
10
= 8.5%

EXAMPLE 3
Express 152/5% as fraction
152/5% = 152/5
100
= 152/5 ÷ 100
= 77/5 ÷ 100/1
= 77/5 X 1/100
= 77/500

EXAMPLE 4
What percentage of 200 is 180?
180/
200 X 100
= 180/200 X 100/1
= 180/2
= 90%

1.5 ORDER ON THE REAL NUMBER LINE

Another way to compare the value of real numbers is to place them in their respective
positions on the real number line. A real number line has all possible members of the set of
real numbers.

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

The arrow heads at the ends of the number line show that the line is infinite to the negatives
and positives. We can then determine the position of a real number on the line and compare
it with another. In general, a real number on the left on the number line is smaller than that
on the right. The value of real numbers increases from left to right.
We use the symbols:
22
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 < number on the left is ‘less than’ number on the right
> number on the left is ‘greater than’ number on the right
≤ number on the left is ‘less than or equal to’ number on the right
≥ number on the left is ‘greater than or equal to’ number on the right
= number on the left is ‘equal to’ number on the right
≠ number on the left is ‘not equal to’ number on the right

Before we look at some examples, it is also important to learn about intervals of numbers.
Most of the sets that we deal with contain more than just a single element. Often these
elements will be given as a range from a certain minimum value to a particular maximum
value. The collection of all values within that range provides the solution set.
Here is a summary of the notations of intervals and the description and symbols used.

Inequality notation Interval notation Description and line graph

a < x < b (a , b) open interval

a b

a ≤ x ≤ b [a , b] closed interval

a b

a ≤ x < b [a , b) half-open interval

a b

a < x ≤ b ( a , b] half-open interval

a b

x > a (a , ∞) open-infinite interval, positive

x < a ( -∞ , a ) open-infinite interval, negative

a
x ≥ a [a , ∞) closed-infinite interval, positive

a
x ≤ a ( -∞ , a ] closed-infinite interval, negative

a
23
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
When the interval is finite within two values, it is closed if the limit values a and b are part of
the solution. This is shown by shading the rings on the line interval. If the limit values are not
part of the solution, the rings are left unshaded. The infinite intervals extend from one known
limit value, either the minimum if the interval extends to the right, the positive real numbers,
or the maximum if the interval extends to the left, the negative real numbers.

EXAMPLE 1
Determine the position of 51/2 on the real number line.

51/2

3 4 5 6 7
1 1 1
As can be seen, 5 /2 is /2 more than 5 and /2 less than 6. It is between 5 and 6.

EXAMPLE 2
Show the notation -3 ≤ x < 5 on a real number line. List down the elements of this interval
given that x є Z.

-3 5
{ x : -3 ≤ x < 5, x є Z } = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 }

EXAMPLE 3
Show the notation x > 10 on a real number line. List down the elements of this interval given
that x є Even.

10
{ x : x > 10, x є Even } = { 12, 14, 16, 18, …}

24
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Express 28 𝟏𝟒% as a decimal.

2 The operation m * n = 2(m3 + 1) – n2 . Find the value of 2 * 3 .

3 Two security companies, Nshimbi Guard and Wise Choice, sends their officers for
retraining every 2 years and 3 years respectively. The last time the companies sent their
officers for retraining at the same time was in 2011. In which year will the two companies
again send their officers the same time?
4 Arrange the following numbers in descending order:
𝟑
4, , 95% , 0.79, 8.2
𝟒

SOLUTIONS

𝟏𝟏𝟑
1 28 𝟏𝟒 % = % 2 m * n = 2(m3 + 1) – n2
𝟒
= 28.25% 2 * 3 = 2(23 + 1) – 32
𝟐𝟖.𝟐𝟓
= = 2(8 + 1) – 9
𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 0.2825 = 2(9) – 9
= 18 – 9
= 9

3 We need to find the LCM of 4 We change all numbers to decimals and

2 years and 3 years. compare.
2 : 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, … 4 = 4.0
𝟑
3: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, … = 0.75
𝟒
𝟗𝟓
LCM = 6 years 95% = = 0.95
𝟏𝟎𝟎
The companies send their officers at the 0.79
same time every 6 years. 8.2
2011, 2017, 2023, 2029, … The decimals in descending order are:
After 2011, the next time will be in 2017. 8.2, 4, 0.95, 0.79, 0.75
𝟑
= 8.2, 4, 95%, 0.79, 𝟒

25
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Which of the following numbers are both odd and composite?

23, 1, 5, 9, 13, 12, 15, 21, 6, 3, 27

2 Express 0.035 as a fraction in its lowest terms.

3 Angela wishes to use the same measure to determine the unit prices and expected income
from her sale. She has a total of 60kg of rice, 28kg of finger millet and 36kg of
sorghum to sell. What standard measure would she use for the three quantities of crop?

4 A survey was conducted in which 20 000 youths were asked about what they thought was
the lasting solution to the problem of HIV/AIDS. Their responses were as follows:
5 000 thought more jobs for the unemployed youth
10% thought more sensitisation on the use of condoms
Three fifth thought abstinence
The rest thought there is no lasting solution
(a) What percentage of the youths interviewed thought the lasting solution to the problem
of HIV/AIDS was provision of employment to young people?
(b) How many youths were in support of abstinence as a possible lasting solution?
(c) What percentage of the youths thought there is no possible solution?

5 Express 268 as a product of its prime factors.

6 Work out the following

(a) 2.0087 x 3.01
(b) 52 + 8.35 – 16 + 3.99
(c) 6 𝟑𝟕 ÷ 2.5

7 Write out the interval -3 < x ≤ 9 on a real number line and list down its elements.

26
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 2. APPROXIMATIONS .

CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
2.1 Significant figures
2.2 Decimal places
2.3 Rounding off
2.4 Standard form

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2.1 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Significant figures are digits that have the greatest value of a given number. What determines
the value of a digit is its place value. For example, the unit digit 2 is smaller than the unit
value 8. But if the 2 is in the place value of thousands and the 8 in tens, the 2 becomes more
significant over the 8. In order to determine the significance of a number, we follow the
principles below:

WHOLE NUMBERS
- Zeros after the last non-zero digit are not significant
- Zeros between non-zero digits are significant
- Place values have greater value from right to left

For example,
25 000 has two significant figures, the unit value 2 and the unit value 5
68 050 has four significant figures, the 6, 8, 5 and the zero between 8 and 5

DECIMAL NUMBERS
- Zeros after the last non-zero digit are significant
- Zeros between non-zero digits are significant
- Zeros before the first non-zero digit are not significant

For example,
0.0000371 has three significant figures, the 3, 7 and 1
0.040036 has five significant figures, the 4, 3, 6 and the two zeros between 4 and 3
0. 5000 has four significant figures, the 5 and the three zeros after 5

In general, all digits in a number are significant except zero. The significance of zero depends
on the place value or the position it has in the number, as the principles outlined above
state.

27
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
2.2 DECIMAL PLACES
The number of decimal places is the number of digits that come after the decimal point in a
decimal number. For example,
0.9 has one decimal place, usually written as 1 d.p.
12.3008 has four decimal places
0.0000003 has seven decimal places

2.3 ROUNDING OFF

Rounding off is a way of estimating or approximating the value of a number. This is usually
done on numbers that have more than one digit. To round off a number we refer to a
particular number of significant figures, decimal places, or place values. The principles for
rounding off are as follows:
- The round off digit increases by one unit if the digit after it is 5 or more
- The digits after the round off digit are represented by the place holder, zero, to ensure
the appropriate number of place values in the rounded off number are correct

EXAMPLE 1
Round off 0.07564 to
(a) 2 significant figures
(b) 2 decimal places
(a) 0.07564 = 0.076 to 2 s.f.
(b) 0.07564 = 0.08 to 2 d.p.

EXAMPLE 2
Round off 25 864 to
(a) 2 significant figures
(b) the nearest tens
(a) 25 864 = 26 000 to 2 s.f.
(b) 25 864 = 25 860 to the nearest tens

Note that the round off digit may be stated by place value, such as tens, ones, hundredths
and so forth, or by place value significance, in which case we count from left to right in
descending order of significance.

2.4 STANDARD FORM

Standard form, or scientific notation, is an easier way of expressing very large or very small
numbers. Every number written in standard form is between 0 and 10, that is, 1 ≤ x < 10,
multiplied by base 10 place values.
 For numbers greater than 1, the power of 10 representing place values is positive
 For numbers less than 1, the power of 10 representing place values is negative

The full notation for standard form is A X 10n .

28
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
A number written in standard form is the same as the unconverted one. The notation is only
a simplification in the presentation of the number.

EXAMPLE 1
Write 756 453 in standard form
The decimal point has to come to the left between 7 and 5 to make the decimal part more
than 7 but less than 8. We count the decimal places to determine the power of 10.
756 453 = 7.56453 X 105

EXAMPLE 2
Write 0.000000934526 in standard form
The decimal point has to come to the right between 9 and 3 to make the decimal part more
than 9 but less than 10. We count how many places we have moved the decimal point to
determine the power of 10.
0.000000934526 = 9.34526 X 10-7

EXAMPLE 3
Write 0.04253 in standard form correct to 2 significant figures
0.04253 = 4.253 X 10-2 in standard form
= 4.3 X 10-2 in standard form to 2 s.f.

EXAMPLE 4
Find the difference between the estimated and calculated area of a rectangle whose length is
0.26m and breadth is 0.21m.

Estimated area Calculated area

Length 0.26m ≈ 0.3m to the nearest tenth of a metre Length 0.26m
Breadth 0.21m ≈ 0.2m to the nearest tenth of a metre Breadth 0.21m

Area = l x b Area = l x b
= 0.3m x 0.2m = 0.26m x 0.21m
= 0.06m2 = 0.0546m2

The difference between the calculated and estimated area is

0.06m2 – 0.0546m2 = 0.0054m2

The value 0.0054 shows the error in our estimation of the area of the rectangle.

29
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 State the number of significant figures in the following numbers

(a) 0.001004
(b) 7.110
(c) 45 900 000
(d) 8. 0012
(e) 0.0000007

2 Round off the following numbers

(a) 157 800 to the nearest thousand
(b) 3.4473 to 2 decimal places
(c) 286 763 002 to 4 significant figures
(d) 0.002181 to 1 significant figure
(e) 54.097 kg to the nearest kilogram

3 Write the following numbers in standard form

(a) 26 763
(b) 0.0000765
(c) 40 000 000
(d) 123. 326
(e) 9 871 000

SOLUTIONS

1 (a) 0.001004 has 4 s.f. 2 (a) 157 800 = 158 000 3 (a) 26 763 = 2.6763 x 104
(b) 7.110 has 4 s.f. (b) 3.4473 = 3.45 (b) 0.0000765 = 7.65 x 10 -5
(c) 45 900 000 has 3 s.f. (c) 286 763 002 = 286 800 000 (c) 40 000 000 = 4 x 107
(d) 8. 0012 has 5 s.f. (d) 0.002181 = 0.002 (d) 123.326 = 1.23326 x 102
(e) 0.0000007 has 1 s.f. (e) 54.097 = 54 kg (e) 9 871 000 = 9.871 x 10 6

30
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 The Gobi Desert of north-eastern China has a total area of about 1 290 000 square kilometres.
(a) Write the area of Gobi desert in standard form
(b) Write the area of Gobi desert to the nearest hundred thousands of km2

2 The population of Zambia was stated in the 2010 census as 13 million.

(a) Write 13 million in standard form correct to 3 significant figures
(b) Write 13 million to the nearest millions

3 The average distance from the Earth to the Sun is 150 million kilometres.
(a) Write the distance in standard form correct to 1 significant figure
(b) Write 150 million kilometre to the nearest ten million

4 The speed of light through empty space is about 300 000 kilometres per second.
(a) Write 300 000 km/s in standard form
(b) Estimate the speed of light in empty space in metres per second

5 Astronomers measure the vast distances in space in light-years. A light-year is estimated to be

9 500 000 000 000 kilometres.
(a) How many significant figures does one light-year have?
(b) Write one light-year in standard form.

6 Write the following numbers to the degree of accuracy indicated.

(a) 0.0007685 in standard form correct to 3 significant figures
(b) 0.187602 in standard form correct to 1 decimal place
(c) 3.142857143 in standard form correct to 3 significant figures
(d) 75 299 000 in standard form correct to 3 decimal places
(e) 5 049.128 in standard form correct to 1 significant figure

7 A rectangle measures 2.34 cm by 5.18 cm. Calculate its area, leaving the answer in square
centimetres correct to two decimal places.

31
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 3. SET THEORY .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
3.1 Symbols and abbreviations
3.2 Definitions
3.3 Presentation of sets
3.4 Operations on sets

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3.1 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
The following are some of the basic symbols used in set theory.

E or U Universal set
Ф or {} Empty set
∈ ‘belongs to’ or ‘is a member of’
∈ ‘does not belong to’ or ‘is not a member of’
∪ Union set
∩ Intersection set
n(A) Number of elements in set A
A′ Complement of set A
⊂ ‘is a subset of’
~ Equivalent sets
= Equal sets
LHS Left Hand Side of the equation
RHS Right Hand Side of the equation
∴ Therefore

3.2 DEFINITIONS
3.2.1 SET
A set is a collection or group of well defined objects. We can have a set of subjects taken in
Zambian Secondary Schools, set of countries of Africa, set of names of members of one family
and so forth. A set is usually denoted by an upper case letter like A, B, P, Q and so on. If
letters are used as members of a set, they are always written as small letters.

3.2.2 MEMBERSHIP
An object that belongs to a given set is called its member, element or point. For example,
A = {Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry, Physics} is a set of secondary school subjects. In this
set, Mathematics is a member. We write this as Mathematics ∈ A. If an object does not
belong to this particular set, such as Psychology, a college subject, we write
Psychology ∈ A.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
3.2.3 EMPTY SET
An empty set is a set that has no elements. For example, the set P = {human babies
weighing 50kg at birth} is an empty set. We denote this by P = ф or P = { }.

3.2.4 NUMBER OF ELEMENTS

We can count how many members in a given set. For example, E = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12} is a
set of even numbers from zero to twelve. But there are only seven members in the set. We
write this as n(E) = 7. Note that the ‘7’ must not be enclosed in brackets.

3.2.5 EQUAL SETS

Sets are equal if and only if they have the same objects and equal in number. For instance,
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {3, 1, 5, 2, 4}. Set A and set B have exactly the same objects, the
natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Each set has five members in it. We write this as
A = B or B = A

3.2.6 EQUIVALENT SETS

When sets have the same number of elements but different objects in each set, we call them
equivalent sets . Equal sets are also equivalent sets, though equivalent sets are not always
equal. Given H = {blue, green, grey, orange} and K = {Lusaka, Zambezi, Kasama, Choma},
each set has four members. Set H is a set of colours and set K is a set of towns in Zambia.
The two sets are not equal but equivalent. We write this as
H ~K

3.2.7 FINITE AND INFINITE SETS

If all the elements in a set can be listed, it is called a finite set. If, however, not all its elements
can be listed it is called an infinite set. For example,
X = {Natural numbers less than 8} and Y = {Whole numbers greater than 5}
We can list set X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and Y = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, …}
We can list all the members of set X. It is not possible to list all the elements in set Y.
Therefore, set X is finite whereas set Y is infinite.

3.2.8 UNIVERSAL SET

A universal set contains all the possible elements under discussion. Let’s look at the following
sets:
P = {Whole numbers less than 6}
Q = {Natural numbers less than 4}
R = {0, 2, 4}

If we list sets P and Q we have

P = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Q = {1, 2, 3}

33
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
As can be seen, all elements in set Q and set R are found in set P. We can refer to set P as the
universal set. It contains set Q and set R, and other elements that could be considered if the
three sets were under discussion.

3.2.9 SUBSET
This is a set whose elements are all contained in another set. There are two types of subsets.
A proper subset contains at least one but not all the elements in another set. An improper
subset is either an empty set, containing no elements, or an equal set, containing all the
elements in the other set. For example,
F = {0, 1, 2, 3}
G = {}
H = {0, 1, 2}
I = {0, 1, 2, 3}

G ⊂ F Improper subset
H ⊂ F Proper subset
I ⊂ F Improper subset

3.2.10 NUMBER OF SUBSETS

We can determine all possible subsets of any set. For example,
Given set A = {a, b, c}
The list of possible subsets of set A is
{}, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c} and {a, b, c}
As it has been stated, {} and {a, b, c} are improper subsets of set A. we can see that set A has
eight subsets.
The formula for the number of subsets of any set is given as

2n, where n is the number of elements in the set.

Set A above has three elements. We could have found how many subsets it contains by
simply calculating,
2n, n = 3
= 23
=2X2X2
= 8 subsets

EXAMPLE
If a set has 30 proper subsets, how many elements does it have?
Proper subsets contain at least one but not all the elements in the set. This means this
particular set has a total of 32 subsets, that is, 30 proper subsets plus one subset, the empty
set and the other subset the equal set containing all the elements in the set. We calculate for
the number of elements as follows:

34
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 2n = 30 + 2
2n = 32
2n = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2
2n = 25
n=5

Note that the empty set and the equal set are two of every set’s subsets.

3.2.11 POWER SET

A set containing all the subsets of another set is called the power set. For example,
Given K = {1, 2}
Subsets of K are {}, {1}, {2} and {1, 2}
If we have a set P such that
P = { {}, {1}, {2}, {1, 2} }
Set P is called the power set of set K.

3.2.12 COMPLEMENT OF A SET

Complement of a set is a set containing elements that are in the universal set but are not
contained in the set itself. For example,
Given E = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 4}
Then,
A′ = {0, 2, 4}
B′ = {0, 1, 3, 5}

3.3 PRESENTATION OF SETS

There are several ways of presenting a set. We can present a set by
- Description
- Listing
- Set builder notation
- Number line
- Venn diagram

For example,

A = {whole numbers less than 9} description

A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} listing
A = {x: x < 9, x є W} set builder notation, read as ‘set A contains any
35
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 element x such that x is less than 9, x belongs to
the set of Whole numbers.

Set A number line

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Venn diagram

E A
.0 .1
.2 .3 .4
.5 .6 .7
.8

3.4 OPERATIONS ON SETS

We have two operations on sets, the intersection of sets and union of sets.

3.4.1 INTERSECTION OF SETS

The intersection set is a set containing common elements found in different sets. For
example,
Let A = { a, b, c, d, e} and B = {c, d, e, f, g, h}
Then,
A ∩ B = {c, d, e}

3.4.2 UNION OF SETS

The union set is a set containing all the elements found in different sets. For example,
Let M = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and N = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Then,
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Note that common elements are not repeated in the union set.

3.4.3 COMBINED OPERATIONS

We can have the intersection and union of sets involved in the same situation. Let’s look at
the following example.
Given that E = {natural numbers less than 10}, and that A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 3,5, 7} and
C = {1, 2, 5, 8}
(a) Find
(i) A∩B ∩C
(ii) A′ ∩ ( B ∪ C) (iii) n(A ∪ B ∪ C)′
(b) Illustrate this information on a well labelled Venn diagram
36
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
(a) (i) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {1, 3, 5, 7}
C = {1, 2, 5, 8}
A ∩ B ∩ C = {1}

(ii) E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
A′ = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
B ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8}
A′ ∩ ( B ∪ C) = {5, 7, 8}

(iii) E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
A ∪ B ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8}
(A ∪ B ∪ C)′ = {6, 9}
n(A ∪ B ∪ C)′ = 2

(b) The procedure for presenting information may be outlined as follows

- first identify the intersection of all sets
- then identify the intersection of pairs of sets
- identify elements not belonging to any intersection of sets
- lastly, identify elements in the universal set not contained in any other set
We fill in the elements from first to last, ensuring that no element is repeated in the
Venn diagram

E B A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {1, 3, 5, 7}
A .7 C = {1, 2, 5, 8}
A ∩ B ∩ C = {1}
.4 .3 A ∩ B = {1, 3}
A ∩ C = {1, 2}
.1 .5 B ∩ C = {1, 5}
.2 (A ∪ B ∪ C)′ = {6, 9}

.8
C
.6 .9

Note that the complement of the three sets appears within the universal set.
37
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Given that E = {x : 0 ≤ x < 10, x ∈ W} , A = {x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 10, x ∈ Even}, and

B = {x: 5 < x ≤ 8, x ∈ Natural}.
(a) Find
(i) n(A)
(ii) n(A ∩ B)
(iii) (A ∪ B)′
(b) Illustrate this information on a well labelled Venn diagram

2 Draw Venn diagrams representing the following sets

(a) Sets A, B and C such that B and C are subsets of A and B ∩ C ≠ { }.
(b) Sets X, Y and Z . Show by shading the set X ∩ (Y ∪ Z)′ , where
X ∩ Y ∩ Z ≠ { }.

SOLUTIONS

1 E = {x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 10, x ∈ W} , ∴ E = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

A = {x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 10, x ∈ Even} , ∴ A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {x : 5 < x ≤ 8 , x ∈ Natural} , ∴ B = {6, 7, 8}
(a) (i) A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, ∴ n(A) = 6
(ii) A ∩ B = {6, 8}, ∴ n(A ∩ B) = 2
(iii) A ∪ B = {0, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10}, ∴ (A ∪ B)′ = {1, 3, 5, 9}
(b) E .5
A .10 B
.0 .6
.2 .7
.4 .8
.9
.1 .3
X Y
A
B C
2 (a) (b)
X ∩ (Y ∪ Z)′
(B ∩ C) ⊂ A Z

38
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 A survey was conducted among 30 athletes about the time of the day they did their fitness
exercises. The Venn diagram below shows their responses.

E
Afternoon
Night

1 10
x
x
6
2

Morning

Given that 19 athletes exercised in the afternoon,

(a) Find the value of x.
(b) Copy and complete the Venn diagram.
(c) How many athletes exercised once a day?
(d) How many athletes exercised in the morning only?

2 A set has 62 proper subsets. Find the number of elements in the set.

3 A set has 128 subsets. Find the number of elements in the set.

4 Label P, Q, R and S the regions representing the following operations on the sets given.
P = (A ∪ B ∪ C)′ A B
Q = A ∩ B ∩ C
R = A′ ∩ (B ∩ C′)
S = A ∩ (B′ ∩ C)

39
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 4. ALGEBRA .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
4.1 Algebraic expressions and terms
4.2 Expansion by Distributive Law
4.3 Addition and Subtraction
4.4 Substitution
4.5 Further Factorisation
4.6 Quadratic Expressions
4.7 Difference of Two Squares
4.8 Simplification of Algebraic Fractions

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4.1 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS AND TERMS
A numerical statement such as 5 + 6 is called an arithmetic expression. If instead of numbers
we use letters or symbols, like a + b , such a statement is called an algebraic expression. a
and b are called terms. The letters or symbols used to represent numbers in algebra are
called variables.

Algebraic terms that have the same letter or symbol are known as like terms. If they have
different letters or symbols, they are called unlike terms. Therefore,
a + a are like terms
a + b are unlike terms

Like and unlike terms also apply to the coefficients and powers. A coefficient is a real number
that shows how many times the same term is adding up. For example,
a + a + a + a + a = 5a
The expression 5a is a single term.
Note that the coefficient 1 is never indicated before a variable. Therefore,
1x = x
On the other hand, if a term multiplies itself a number of times, the expression gives us a
power. For example,
a X a X a X a X a = a5

Similarly,
q2 + q2 + q2 = 3q2

But note that the same variable with different powers makes unlike terms. For instance,
4d – 3d are like terms in the variable d
3
2a + 5a 4 are unlike terms of the same variable a
Multiplication or division of variables gives us single terms. Thus,
a X b = ab the expression ab is a single product term
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 ab ÷ cd = ab/ the expression ab/ is a single fractional term
cd cd

4.2 EXPANSION BY DISTRIBUTIVE LAW

We can employ the distributive law of multiplication under addition and subtraction to
expand and simplify algebraic expressions.

EXAMPLE 1
p(q + r) = (p X q) + (p X r)
= pq + pr

EXAMPLE 2
a(a – b) = (a X a) - (a X b)
= a2 – ab

The reverse of the process of expansion is called factorisation. To factorise we first identify
the common factor of the algebraic terms and collect that outside the distributive brackets.

EXAMPLE 3
mh + m3h2 = m X h + m X m X m X h X h
= mh(1 + m2h)
EXAMPLE 4
a2b – c/a = a X a X b – 1/a X c
= 1/a(a3b – c)

Note that any fraction of the form a/b may be written as a factor product a X 1/
b

4.3 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

We can add or subtract algebraic fractions to simplify them. The principle is that only like
terms may be added or subtracted. Unlike terms are only simplified by factorisation. The idea
is that we can never have a unit sum, for example, for 5 chickens ‘plus’ 3 goats! But we can
say 7 pigs ‘plus’ 5 pigs is 12 pigs.

EXAMPLE 1
2x + 3x = 5x

EXAMPLE 2
10y + 4x - 2y + 3x = 10y - 2y + 4x + 3x
= 8y + 7x

EXAMPLE 3
5p2 - 2p - 3p2 + 8p = 5p2 - 3p2 + 8p - 2p
= 2p2 + 6p
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 =2X p X p + 2 X 3 X p
= 2p(p + 3)
It is very important to revise the concept of integers as it applies to addition and subtraction
of like terms. Remember that:
 Terms with the same integer signs sum up to the same sign. For example,
-3r – 2r = -5r
t + 4t = 5t
 Terms with different integer signs subtract to the sign of the bigger term. For example,
-8n + 5n = -3n
16m - 35m = -19m
4k - 3k = k

4.4 SUBSTITUTION
To substitute is to replace a variable with a number value. For example,

EXAMPLE 1
Given that v = 3, s = -1 and r = 5, find the value of vs3 + 2r2
vs3 + 2r2 = (3)(-1)3 + 2(5)2
= 3 X -1 X -1 X -1 + 2 X 5 X 5
= -3 + 50
= 47

EXAMPLE 2
Find the value of y - x4 given that x = 2 and y = 5
y - x4 = (5) - (2)4
= 5 – (2 X 2 X 2 X 2)
= 5 – 16
= - 11

4.5 FURTHER FACTORISATION

Another technique of factorisation requires factorising in pairs of terms or by grouping terms
that have a common factor. This factorisation involves four algebraic terms.

EXAMPLE 1
Factorise 3ax + 2ay + 6bx + 4by
3ax + 2ay + 6bx + 4by = (3ax + 2ay) + (6bx + 4by)
= a(3x + 2y) + 2b(3x + 2y)
= (a + 2b)(3x + 2y)
EXAMPLE 2
Factorise qu – pv + pu – qv
qu – pv + pu – qv = qu + pu – pv – qv
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 = (qu + pu) – (pv – qv)
= u(q + p) – v(p + q)
= u(p + q) – v(p + q)
= (p + q)(u – v)

Note that when a negative is factored out, a positive appears in the brackets. This is in
accordance with the two principles of multiplying and dividing integers:
 Same integer signs result in a positive
 Different integer signs result in a negative
The table below summarises these two rules

X and ÷
-(-) = +
+(+) = +
-(+) = -
+(-) = -
This means that if the operation between two terms is + and we factor out – we remain
with another ‘ – ’ following the relation -(-) = +

4.6 QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS

A quadratic expression is an algebraic expression of the form ax2 + bx + c
This is the general form of a quadratic expression in the variable x. In the expression, a, b
and c are real constant coefficients. In this section we are only interested in the technique of
factorising a quadratic expression that has factors in the set of integers.

Given a quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c

- Identify the constants a, b and c
- Find the product a X c
- Find factor pairs of the number a X c
- Indentify the pair of factors such that the two numbers can add or subtract to
get the constant b
- Rewrite the three-term quadratic to one with four terms, where the term bx
is split into the two factors selected
- Factorise the four-term expression by grouping

EXAMPLE 1
Factorise 2x2 + 6x + 4
a = 2, b = 6, c = 4
2x2 + 6x + 4 2 X 4 = 8
= 2x2 + 2x + 4x + 4 8: (1 X 8), (2 X 4)
= 2x(x + 1) + 4(x + 1)
= (2x + 4)(x + 1)
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
Not all quadratic expressions can be simplified using this method. Other techniques will be
covered in Unit 7.

4.7 DIFFERENCE OF TWO SQUARES

Another algebraic expression that has its own principle of factorisation is of the form
x2 – y2
The factors of this kind of an expression are given here without proof as

x2 – y2 = (x + y)(x – y)

The task of factorising difference of two squares involves identifying the expression in a less
obvious expression; difference of two squares is usually given in multiple form.

EXAMPLE 1
Factorise
x2 – 16
= x2 – 42
= (x + 4)(x – 4)

EXAMPLE 2
Factorise
4π2r – 16π4r3
= 4π2r(1 – 4π2r2)
= 4π2r(12 – 22π2r2)
= 4π2r(12 – (2πr)2)
= 4π2r(1 + 2πr)(1 – 2πr)

Note that simplification has to be made as far as possible until the difference of two squares
is clearly expressed before attempting to apply the general form of the factors (x + y)(x – y).

EXAMPLE 3
Factorise
1 – 0.0625m2
= 12 – 0.252m2
= 12 – (0.25m)2
= (1 + 0.25m)(1 – 0.25m)

It is important to note that difference of two squares applies to any combination of algebra
and real numbers.

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4.8 SIMPLIFICATION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
Here we will apply operations on fractions to algebra. We have looked at addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division of fractions. The principles covered apply to algebraic
fractions as well. Here is a set of examples.

EXAMPLE 1
Simplify -3 + 3w
w2 – 2w + 1
Note that the denominator is a quadratic. We will factorise the denominator and simplify the
fraction by dividing common factors of the numerator and the denominator.
-3 + 3w
2
w – 2w + 1

= 3w – 3
w2 –w–w + 1

= 3(w – 1)
w(w – 1) – 1(w – 1)

= 3(w – 1)
(w – 1)(w – 1)

= 3
w–1

EXAMPLE 2
Simplify -1 + a4
1 – a2

This fraction involves difference of two squares in both the numerator and the denominator.
We first factorise these components and then divide common factors.

-1 + a4
1 – a2

= a4 – 1
1 – a2

= (a2)2 – 12
1 2 – a2

= (a2 + 1)(a2 – 1)
(1 + a)(1 – a)

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 = (a2 + 1)(a + 1)(a – 1)
(1 + a)(1 – a)

= (a – 1)(a2 + 1)
(1 – a)
If we multiply the factor -1 on the numerator, the fraction becomes
= (1 – a)( – a2 – 1)
(1 – a)
Which now simplifies to
= (1 – a)(-a2 – 1)
(1 – a)
2
= -a –1

EXAMPLE 3
Express as a single fraction in its simplest form
3 – 4
a–5 a

= 3(a) – 4(a – 5)
a(a – 5)

= 3a – 4a + 20
a(a – 5)

= -a + 20
a(a – 5)

= 20 – a
a(a – 5)

Note that addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions follows the same principles as
arithmetic fractions.
 Determine the common denominator of the fractions, usually found by multiplying
out the denominators
 Divide the denominators into the common denominator and multiply the result by the
respective numerators
 Simplify the numerator
 Factorise the single fraction where factors exist

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EXAMPLE 4
Simplify the following fractions
(a) n2 – 49 X k – 5 (b) m – 2 ÷ m+2
k2 – 25 n+7 2 m 2m

= n2 – 72 X k–5 = m(m) – 2(2) ÷ m+2

k2 – 52 n+7 2m 2m

= (n + 7)(n – 7) X k – 5 = m2 – 22 X 2m
(k + 5)(k – 5) n+7 2m m+2

= (n + 7)(n – 7)(k – 5) = (m + 2)(m – 2)(2m)

(n + 7)(k + 5)(k – 5) (m + 2)(2m)

= n–7 =m–2
k+5

Algebraic fractions may involve difference of two squares and quadratics as the examples
have shown. We simplify them by applying the appropriate principles in the situation.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Given that m = 1, n = -1 and h = -2, find the value of

(a) m – n
(b) 2h + mn2 (c) h5 – m2 + mn

2 Factorise completely
(a) 3x3 – 12x (b) 25 – y2
x2 + 4x + 4 y2 + 2y – 15

3 Express as a single fraction in its simplest form

(a) 3 + 2x x – 1 (b) 4 2
5 2 m + 2 m – 1

SOLUTIONS

1 (a) m –n (b) 2h + mn2 (c) h5 – m2 + mn

= ( 1 ) – ( -1 ) = 2(-2) + ( 1 ) ( -1 )2 = (-2)5 – (1)2 + (1) (-1)
= 1 + 1 = -4 + 1 = -32 – 1 – 1
= 2 = -3 = -34

𝟑𝐱𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝐱 𝟐𝟓 − 𝐲𝟐
2 (a) (b)
𝐱𝟐 + 𝟒𝐱 + 𝟒 𝐲𝟐 + 𝟐𝐲 − 𝟏𝟓

𝟑𝐱 (𝐱𝟐 − 𝟒) 𝟓𝟐 − 𝐲𝟐
= =
𝐱𝟐 + 𝟐 𝐱 + 𝟐𝐱 + 𝟒 𝐲𝟐 + 𝟓 𝐲 − 𝟑 𝐲 − 𝟏𝟓

𝟑𝐱 (𝐱 − 𝟐 )( 𝐱 + 𝟐 ) (𝟓 − 𝐲 )( 𝟓 + 𝐲 )
= ( 𝐱 + 𝟐 )( 𝐱 + 𝟐 )
= (𝐲 − 𝟑 )( 𝐲 + 𝟓 )

𝟑𝐱 ( 𝐱 − 𝟐 ) 𝟓 − 𝐲
= =
𝐱 + 𝟐 𝐲 − 𝟑

𝟑 + 𝟐𝐱 𝐱 − 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐
3 (a) – (b) –
𝟓 𝟐 𝐦 + 𝟐 𝐦 − 𝟏

𝟐(𝟑 + 𝟐𝐱) − 𝟓(𝐱 − 𝟏) 𝟒(𝐦 − 𝟏) − 𝟐(𝐦 + 𝟐)

= = ( 𝐦 + 𝟐 )( 𝐦 − 𝟏 )
𝟏𝟎

𝟔 + 𝟒𝐱 − 𝟓𝐱 + 𝟓 𝟒𝐦 − 𝟒 − 𝟐𝐦 − 𝟒
= = ( 𝐦 + 𝟐 )( 𝐦 − 𝟏 )
𝟏𝟎

𝟏𝟏 − 𝐱 𝟐𝐦 − 𝟖 𝟐(𝐦 − 𝟒)
= = ( 𝐦 + 𝟐 )( 𝐦 − 𝟏 )
= ( 𝐦 + 𝟐 )( 𝐦 − 𝟏 )
𝟏𝟎

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Factorise the following.

(a) rs + rt + ks + kt
(b) -pq + wq + wy - yp
(c) 2t4 – 8
(d) 4m2 + 9m + 5

2 Express the following as single fractions in their simplest form.

𝐱 + 𝟑 𝐱− 𝟓
(a) –
𝟐 𝟕

𝟖 𝟑
(b) +
𝐩 − 𝟓 𝟏− 𝐩

𝟔− 𝐭 𝐭 − 𝟏
(c) –
𝟒 𝟑

𝟏 𝟐
(d) –
𝟐𝐲 + 𝟑 𝟗 − 𝟒𝐲

3 Given that x = -3 , y = 2 and z = -1 , find the value of

(a) x2y – y2z

𝐱𝐲𝐳
(b) 𝐱𝟐 + 𝐲𝐳

(c) x2 – y2

(d) x2y2 – z2

4 Factorise completely

𝟐 𝛑 𝐫 𝟐 − 𝟑𝟐 𝛑 𝟑𝐩 + 𝐩𝟐 + 𝟐
(a) (d)
𝐫𝟐 − 𝟑𝐫 − 𝟒 𝐩𝟐 − 𝟒

𝟏 − 𝐱𝟐 𝟗𝐤 − 𝐤 𝐡𝟐
(b) (e)
𝟐 − 𝐱 − 𝐱𝟐 𝟑 𝐤 + 𝟒𝐡𝐤 + 𝐤 𝐡𝟐

𝟓 𝐧𝟐 + 𝟒𝐧 − 𝟏 𝐚𝟐 − 𝟓 𝐚 − 𝟏𝟒
(c) (f)
𝟐𝟓 𝐧𝟐 − 𝟏 𝟖𝐚 − 𝟐 𝐚𝟑

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 5. INDICES .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
5.1 Index Notation
5.2 Laws of Indices
5.3 Equations involving Indices
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5.1 INDEX NOTATION
We are just from looking at an expression such as
a X a X a = a3

In the expression a3 the variable a is called the base and the superscript number 3 is
called an index or power. The plural for index is indices.
In general, simplification of indices requires, where possible, expanding the expression in
order to calculate the actual value. For example,

Evaluate 43 + 32
43 + 32 = (4 X 4 X 4) + (3 X 3)
= 64 + 9
= 73

5.2 LAWS OF INDICES

In addition to the expansion process, indices are simplified following particular principles and
expected results summarised as laws of indices. Here is an outline of these principles.

DESCRIPTION LAW EXAMPLE

NO.
500 = 1
The index zero a0 = 1 20 = 1
1. 2370 = 1
(-8)1 = -8
The index one a1 = a 721 = 72
2. 15091 = 1509
9-2 = 1 = 1 = 1
The negative index a-n = 1 92 9 X 9 81
3. an
Multiplication of same
base am X an = a(m + n) 54 X 53 = 5(4 + 3) = 57
4. = 78 125

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 Division of same base am ÷ an = a(m – n) 75 ÷ 73 = 7(5 – 3) = 72
5. = 49

Index of an index (am)n = a(m x n) (122)-3 = 12(2 x -3) = 12-6 = 1

6. 126

Index of a fraction a m = am 6 4 = 64
7. b bm 7 74
163/4 = ∜ 𝟏𝟔3
A fraction index am/n = n√am = (∜𝟏𝟔)3 = (2)3
8. = (n√a)m = 8

It is common to find a combination of two or more of these principles in the same situation. It
is therefore very helpful to master these laws and use them where applicable.

5.3 EQUATIONS INVOLVING INDICES

We solve equations involving indices by comparison and inference. The two possible
scenarios are to solve for an unknown index or an unknown base. The following examples
demonstrate how this is done.

EXAMPLE 1
Given that 22x = 64, solve for x.
We express 64 as an index of base 2. Since 64 = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 = 2 6
22x = 64
22x = 26
Since the base is the same on the LHS as on the RHS, we infer that the indices are also equal.
Thus,
2x = 6
∴ x =3

EXAMPLE 2
Given that y3 = 125, find the value of y.
y3 = 125
y3 = 53
∴ y = 5

EXAMPLE 3
Solve for x
(0.25)x = 32 (4-1)x = 25
25 x = 25 (2(2)(-1))x = 25
100 2-2x = 25
x -2x = 5
1/
4 = 25 ∴ x = -5/2

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Expand and simplify the following.

𝐱𝟔
(a) 𝐱𝟒
𝐩𝟕 𝐪𝟓
(b) 𝐪𝟖 𝐩𝟑

2 Show that a0 = 1

3 Evaluate
−𝟐
𝟐𝟕
(a) 70 x 75 x 78 x 7-6 (c)
𝟑
(𝟖)

(b) 2-4 x 25 x 2-2

SOLUTIONS

𝐱𝟔
1 (a) = x(6 – 4) = x2
𝐱𝟒

𝐩𝟕 𝐪𝟓 𝐩 𝐱 𝐩 𝐱 𝐩 𝐱 𝐩 𝐱 𝐩 𝐱 𝐩 𝐱 𝐩 𝐱 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐩 𝐱 𝐩 𝐱 𝐩 𝐱 𝐩 𝐩𝟒
(b) = = =
𝐪𝟖 𝐩𝟑 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐱 𝐩 𝐱 𝐩 𝐱 𝐩 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐱 𝐪 𝐪𝟑

2 Let am ÷ am = 1 any quantity divided by itself gives 1, e.g. 5 2 ÷ 52 = 1

But am ÷ am = a(m – m) (division of same base) 52 ÷ 52 = 25 ÷ 25 = 1
= a0 = 5(2 – 2)
∴ a0 = 1 = 50 = 1

3 (a) 70 x 75 x 78 x 7-6 = 7(0 + 5 + 8 – 6) = 77 = 823 543

𝟏
(b) 2-4 x 25 x 2-2 −𝟐= 2(-4 + 5 – 2) = 2-1 =
−𝟐 𝟐
𝟑 −𝟐 𝟏
𝟑 (𝟑 𝐱 ) 𝟏
𝟐𝟕 𝟑𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑−𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒 𝟒
(c) (𝟖) = (𝟐𝟑 ) = −𝟐 = = 𝟏 = 𝟗
𝟏 = ÷ = x =
(𝟑 𝐱 ) 𝟐−𝟐 𝟗 𝟒 𝟗 𝟏 𝟗
𝟐 𝟑 𝟐𝟐 𝟒

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Solve the following equations.

(a) 32x = 59 049 (c) 625 = v4
(b) z4 = 2 401 (d) 0.125 = 2x

2 Expand and simplify the following.

𝒙𝟒 𝒚𝟓 𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟐
(a) x
𝒙𝟔 𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟒

𝒑𝟐 𝒒𝟗 𝒑𝟓 𝒒𝟑
(b) ÷
𝒑𝟒 𝒒𝟑 𝒑𝟔 𝒒𝟕

3 Use examples to show that the following rules hold.

𝟏
(a) a-n = 𝐚𝐧
𝐧 𝐦
(b) 𝐚𝐦 = √𝐚𝐧

4 Evaluate the following.

𝟏 𝟏
(a) 𝟗𝟐 (b) 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝟐 𝟑
(c) 𝟐𝟕𝟑 (d) 𝟒𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝟒 𝟏𝟔𝟑 𝐱 𝟒𝟑
(e) 𝟖 𝟑 (f) 𝟖

5 Find the value of the following.

𝟏
(a) 6 x 64 x 6-3 (b) x 43 x 256
𝟒

𝟏
𝟑 𝐱 𝟐𝟕 𝐱
(c) 𝟑
(d) 82 ÷ 32 x 2-3
𝟗

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 6. LINEAR EQUATIONS .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
6.1 Linear equations in one variable
6.2 Linear equations in two variables
6.3 Application of linear equations
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....
6.1 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE
A mathematical statement such as 15 – 8 = 7 is called a number sentence. But when we
introduce a variable for one unknown component, making a statement such as
15 – y = 7
This is an example of a linear equation in one variable, y. In order to find the unknown
variable in a linear equation we apply several concepts, which include simplification of
algebra, integers and operations on real numbers. The process of working out the unknown in
an equation is called solving.

EXAMPLE
Solve the following equations
(a) 15 – y = 7 (b) 2(x + 5) = 4(x – 1)

15 – y = 7 2(x + 5) = 4(x – 1)
15 – 7 = y 2x + 10 = 4x – 4
8 = y 10 – 4 = 4x – 2x
6 = 2x
2 2
3 = x

(c) 5 + m = 8 – m (d) 1 = 3
2 3 y+3 y+1

5 +m = 8–m 1 = 3
2 3 y+3 y + 1
3(5 + m) = 2(8 – m) 3(y + 3) = (y + 1)
15 + 3m = 16 – 2m 3y + 9 = y + 1
3m + 2m = 16 – 15 3y – y = 1 – 9
5m = 1 2y = – 8
5m = 1 2y = – 8
5 5 2 2
1
m = /5 y = –4

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
When solving equations remember the following principles:
o Use additive inverse or transfer of terms to collect like terms on one side of the equal
sign.
o A term changes its sign from positive to negative, or negative to positive, when it
moves across the equal sign
o Algebraic fractions are resolved by cross-multiplication, where the numerator of one
fraction term multiplies the denominator of the other fraction across the equal sign
o Divide by the coefficient of the variable on both sides of the equal sign to find its value
o The variable may have rational or irrational coefficients

6.2 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

If we have two unknowns in the same equation, the result is an equation in two variables
such as
x + y = 7

In order to find the solution of a multi-variable equation, we need more than one condition.
These conditions give us a system of equations that are worked out simultaneously. Here we
will discuss the techniques for solving simultaneous equations in two variables.

There are several methods

 Elimination
 Substitution
 Graphical
 Matrix
We will discuss the first three methods. The matrix method will be discussed in Unit 15.

ELIMINATION
The solution of simultaneous equations by elimination follows the following principles
 Choose the variable to be eliminated
 Balance the coefficients of the variable in the two equations by multiplying one
equation by an appropriate factor
 Add the equations if the coefficients have different signs and subtract if they have the
same sign
 Solve for the remaining variable
 Substitute the value of the variable in one of the equations to solve for the variable
that was eliminated

EXAMPLE
Solve 2x – 3y = 3
x + 2y = 5

We can choose to eliminate x first.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 2x – 3y = 3……..(i)
x + 2y = 5……..(ii) X 2
----------------------------------
2x – 3y = 3 In order to eliminate x we need to balance the
– 2x + 4y = 10 coefficients, by multiplying equation (ii) by 2
-----------------------------------
-7y = -7 2x – 2x = 0 , -3y – +4y = -7y , 3 – 10 = -7
-7y = -7
-7 -7
y = 1

2x – 3y = 3; y = 1
2x – 3(1) = 3
2x – 3 = 3
2x = 3 + 3
2x = 6
2x = 6
2 2
x = 3

SUBSTITUTION
By substitution method we use the concept of changing the subject of the formula which we
shall look at in detail in Unit 8. The steps to follow when solving by substitution are
Make one variable the subject in one equation
Substitute the expression for the variable in the other equation
Simplify and solve the resultant equation in one variable
Use the calculated value of the variable to find the first variable

EXAMPLE
Solve
3n – m = 5
n + 2m = 11

3n – m = 5……..(i) 7m = 28
n + 2m = 11……(ii) m = 4
--------------------------------
n + 2m = 11……(ii) n = 11 – 2m ……(iii)
n = 11 – 2m…….(iii) n = 11 – 2(4)
n = 11 – 8
3n – m = 5……….. (i) n = 3
3(11 – 2m) – m = 5
33 – 6m – m = 5
33 – 5 = 6m + m
28 = 7m
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
GRAPHICAL
We can solve linear simultaneous equations by graphing the equations on the same set of
points. The point of intersection of the two equations presents the coordinates of the
solution to the system of equations. When graphing we choose a suitable variable to be the
independent variable and the other a dependent variable. For example,

EXAMPLE
Solve
x + y = 2
2x + 3y = 1
First we generate sets of ordered pairs or coordinate points for the two equations

x + y = 2 ………..(i) 2x + 3y = 1 ……….(ii)
y = 2–x 3y = 1 – 2x
y = 1 – 2x
3

X -4 -1 2 5 X -4 -1 2 5
Y 6 3 0 -3 Y 3 1 -1 -3

We will now plot these points. Notice that from the table of values, the point (5, -3) appears
on both equations, suggesting it is the solution we are looking for. Note also that the values
of the independent variable, in this example the variable x, are chosen at random. They only
need to be appropriate for easy calculation. We substitute the chosen values in the converted
equations and solve for the dependent variable.
Y
y = 1 – 2x 6
3 5

4
0 3
2

0 1
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X
-2 0

-3 0 (5, -3)
-4
y =2–x
-5
-6
Solution: x = 5, y = -3
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
6.3 APPLICATION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Linear equations have many applications. The following examples demonstrate how
equations are solved in applied situations.

EXAMPLE 1
The sum of three consecutive odd numbers is 75. Find the three numbers.

The set of positive odd numbers is

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ……
In this set, each number is ‘2 more than’ the other before it.
We can therefore assign a variable to this situation and create an equation we can solve.
Let the first odd number be x. The three odd numbers will thus be

x, x + 2, and (x + 2) + 2
x, x + 2, x + 4
The equation now becomes
x + (x + 2) + (x + 4) = 75
x + x + 2 + x + 4 = 75
x + x + x + 2 + 4 = 75
3x + 6 = 75
3x = 75 – 6
3x = 69
3x = 69
3 3
x = 23
The three odd numbers are 23, 23 + 2, 23 + 4 or 23, 25 and 27

EXAMPLE 2
In twelve years time a boy will be four times as old as he is now. How old is he now?

If we let the boy’s present age to be n and his age after twelve years to be m, then we can
deduce that
m = n + 12 …….. (i)

But also, his age in twelve years is four times his present age. This gives us the statement

m = 4n …………(ii)

We can see that statement (i) and (ii) give rise to the equation in one variable n

4n = n + 12
4n – n = 12
3n = 12
n = 4 the boy is now 4 years old
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Solve the following equations.

𝟓𝐤− 𝟑
(a) 9t - 4 = t + 7 (b) = 11
𝟐
(c) 7(x - 3) = 4(3 – x)

2 Solve the following system of equations.

(a) x – 2y = 5 ; 3x + y = 29 by substitution
(b) 2 𝟐𝟑 x + y = 3 ; 4x – 2y = 3 𝟏𝟑 by elimination

3 The sum of two consecutive even numbers is 82. Find the two numbers.

SOLUTIONS

𝟓𝐤 − 𝟑
1 (a) 9t – 4 = t + 7 (b) = 11 (c) 7(x – 3) = 4(3 – x)
𝟐
9t + t = 7 + 4 5k – 3 = 22 7x – 21 = 12 – 4x
10t = 11 5k = 25 7x + 4x = 12 + 21
𝟏𝟎𝐭 𝟏𝟏 𝟓𝐤 𝟐𝟓
= = 11x = 33
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝟓
t = 1 𝟏
𝟏𝟎
k = 5 x = 11

2 (a) x – 2y = 5 (b) 2 𝟐𝟑 x + y = 3 2 𝟐𝟑 x + y = 3
3x + y = 29 4x – 2y = 3 𝟏𝟑 2 𝟐𝟑 ( 1 ) + y = 3
𝟖
x = 5 + 2y (2) x + y = 3 2 𝟐𝟑 + y = 3
𝟑
3(5 + 2y) + y = 29 (1) 4x – 2y = 3 𝟏𝟑 y = 3 – 2 𝟐𝟑
𝟏𝟔 𝟏
15 + 6y + y = 29 x + 2y = 6 y =
𝟑 𝟑
7y = 29 – 15 ( + ) 4x – 2y = 3 𝟏𝟑
𝟐𝟖
7y = 14 x = 9 𝟏𝟑
𝟑
y = 2 x = 1

3 Two consecutive even numbers differ by 2. That is,

Let one even number be x
The next even number will be x + 2
Therefore, x + (x + 2) = 82 x and x + 2
2x + 2 = 82 40 and 40 + 2
2x = 82 – 2 The two numbers are 40 and 42.
2x = 80 x = 40

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Solve the following equations.

𝟏 𝟐
(a) = (b) 56 = 4(q + 1)
𝟏 + 𝐲 𝐲 − 𝟓
𝟏 𝟑𝐱 − 𝟐 𝐱 + 𝟔
(c) 7 𝟏𝟒 x + 5 = 2(x – ) (d) + = 5
𝟐 𝟒 𝟐

2 Solve the following system of equations by elimination method.

(a) 4x + y = 3 ; 2x – 3y = 5
(b) 2p + 3q = 9 ; 5q – p = 2
𝐦 𝟐 − 𝐧
(c) + 4n = 13 ; m + = 15
𝟑 𝟓
(d) r + 7s = 9 ; 2r – s = -12

3 Solve the following system of equations by substitution method.

(a) 2x + 4y = 2 ; 3x – 2y = 19
𝐡 + 𝟓𝐰
(b) = 4; 5h – 2w = 6
𝟑
𝟐𝐞
(c) 6f + = 8 ; 3f + 4e = 15
𝟑
(d) 57a = 2 – 5b ; a + 3b = -32

4 Solve the following system of equations by graphical method.

(a) x + y = 3 ; 2x + y = 4
(b) y + 6 = x ; 2x + y = -6
(c) 3x + y = 7 ; 5x – 3y = 21
𝟐𝐱 − 𝟓
(d) y = ; 4x + 3y = 55
𝟑

5 Formulate and solve the equations arising from the following situations.
(a) A number is added to its second multiple to give 39. Find the number and its second
multiple.
(b) Faliya bought eight times as many chocolate bars as Shasha. Altogether the girls
bought 108 chocolate bars. How many bars of chocolate did each girl buy?
(c) In 1982 , the population of Kazanda was three fifth of what it was in 1984 . In 1983 it
was exactly half of the population in 1982 and 1984 put together. If the population in
1982 was 300, find how many people were counted in 1983 and 1984.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 7. QUADRATICS .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
7.1 Quadratic expressions and equations
7.2 Solving quadratic equations
7.3 Application of quadratic equations and functions

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....
7.1 QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS AND EQUATIONS
An algebraic expression of the form
ax2 + bx + c
in which a, b and c are constants and a ≠ 0 is called a quadratic expression in one
variable x. Quadratics belong to a family of algebraic functions known as polynomials. A
quadratic is a polynomial of degree 2, the highest index of the variable of the expression.
For example,
2x2 – 3x + 5
x – 3x2 + 11
4(x2 – 3) + 2x

If we equate the quadratic expression to a constant it then becomes a quadratic equation.

Thus,
2x2 – 3x + 5 = 0
x2 + 4x = -4
are examples of quadratic equations. A quadratic equation has the form ax2 + bx + c = 0

7.2 SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Quadratic expressions are simplified by factorisation as we already saw in Unit 4. In addition
to the factor method we can solve quadratics by completing the square method, quadratic
formula method as well as graphical method. In this section we will go through the first three
methods. We will deal with the graphical method in Unit 24.

FACTOR METHOD
If the quadratic has factors in the set of integers, that is, positive and negative whole
numbers, we can factorise it and solve for its values called zeros or roots.

EXAMPLE 1
Solve 3x2 + 5x + 2 = 0
To solve this quadratic we first factorise the LHS.
3x2 + 5x + 2 = 0
3x2 + 3x + 2x + 2 = 0
3x(x + 1) +2(x + 1) = 0
(3x + 2)(x + 1) = 0
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
The statement (3x + 2)(x + 1) = 0 is of the form ab = 0. Two factors a and b multiply
to give zero only if one of the factors is zero or both are zeros. We apply this property of zero
to the factors of the quadratic and solve for the variable of the quadratic.
(3x + 2)(x + 1) = 0
3x + 2 = 0 OR x + 1 = 0
3x = -2 x = -1
∴ x = -2/3 OR -1

EXAMPLE 2
Solve 10 – 3x – x2 = 0
10 – 3x – x2 = 0
-x2 – 3x + 10 = 0
-x2 – 5x + 2x + 10 = 0
-x(x + 5) + 2(x + 5) = 0
(x + 5)(2 – x) = 0
x + 5 = 0 OR 2 – x = 0
x = -5 OR 2 = x
∴ x = -5 OR 2

COMPLETING THE SQUARE METHOD

Not all quadratic equations can be solved by the factor method. Here are some examples on
solving quadratics by the completing the square method.

EXAMPLE 1
Solve x2 + 4x = 0
In this example, a = 1, b = 4 and c = 0. The procedure for this method is
 Find half of b
 Square the half of b
 Add the square of half of b on both sides of the equation
 Factorise the LHS
 Equate factors to the RHS and solve

x2 + 4x = 0 half of 4 is 2. Square of 2 is 4. We add 4

x2 + 4x + 4 = 4 both sides of the equation.
x2 + 2x + 2x + 4 = 4
x(x + 2) + 2(x + 2) = 4
(x + 2)(x + 2) = 4
(x + 2)2 = 4 solving by completing the square method gives us
√(x + 2)2 = √4 what are called repeated roots
x + 2 = ±2 the square root of any real number is + and –
x = ±2 – 2
x = 2 – 2 OR -2 – 2
∴ x = 0 OR -4

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE 2
Solve 2y2 – y – 2 = 0
The most important condition for this method is that a = 1. In a situation where the
coefficient of the first quadratic term is not 1, we have to divide through before we can
employ the procedure for this method. Therefore,

2y2 – y – 2 = 0
2y2 – y = 2 dividing through by 2
2 y
y – /2 = 1
y2 – y/2 + 1/16 = 1 + 1/16 half of 1/2 is 1/4 and square of 1/4 is 1/16
y2 – y/4 – y/4 + 1/16 = 17/16
y(y – 1/4) – 1/4(y – 1/4) = 17/16
(y – 1/4)(y – 1/4) = 17/16
(y – 1/4)2 = 17/16
(y – 1/4)2 = 1.0625 square rooting both sides
y – 1/4 = ±1.031
y – 0.25 = ±1.031
y = ±1.031 + 0.25
y = 1.031 + 0.25 OR – 1.031 + 0.25
∴ y = 1.281 OR – 0 .781

FORMULA METHOD
We derive the quadratic formula from the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 and solving for the
variable x by completing the square method.
Here is how we derive the formula.

Solving ax2 + bx + c = 0

ax2 + bx + c = 0
ax2 + bx = -c
dividing through by a
x2 + b x = -c
a a

x2 + b x + b 2 = -c + b 2 half of b/a is b/2a

a 2a a 2a

x2 + b x + b x + b2 = -c + b2
2a 2a 4a2 a 4a2

x x + b + b x + b = -4ac + b2
2a 2a 2a 4a2

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 x + b x + b = b2 – 4ac
2a 2a 4a2

x + b 2 = b2 – 4ac
2a 4a2

x + b = ± √( b2 – 4ac)
2a 2a

x = -b ± √(b2 – 4ac)
2a 2a

−𝐛 ± √𝐛 𝟐 −𝟒𝐚𝐜
∴ 𝐱=
𝟐𝐚

The quadratic formula may be used to solve any quadratic equation. However, it is at this
level limited to equations in which b2 – 4ac > 0, that is, the difference under the square
root should be positive. If the expression b2 – 4ac < 0, the quadratic has no real roots. Its
solution lies in the set of complex numbers.

In any situation, all that is required is to identify the constants a, b and c and substituting
these in the formula to solve for the quadratic variable.

EXAMPLE
Solve -2x2 + 3x – 1 = 0

-2x2 + 3x – 1 = 0
a = -2 b = 3 c = -1
−𝐛 ± √𝐛 𝟐 −𝟒𝐚𝐜
x =
𝟐𝐚

−(𝟑) ± √(𝟑)𝟐 −𝟒(−𝟐)(−𝟏)

=
𝟐(−𝟐)

−𝟑 ± √𝟗 −𝟖
=
−𝟒 x = -3 + 1 OR -3 – 1
-4 -4
−𝟑 ± √𝟏
=
−𝟒 = -2 OR -4
-4 -4
−𝟑 ± 𝟏
=
−𝟒 ∴ x = 1/
2 OR 1

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
7.3 APPLICATION OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
A quadratic function is of the form
y = ax2 + bx + c, and a ≠ 0
Quadratic equations and functions are applied in many fields. The examples below highlight
scenarios in which quadratic equations and functions may be involved.

EXAMPLE 1
The area of a rectangular picture frame is 540cm2 . It’s width is 12cm less than the length.
Find the length and width of the picture frame.

The area of a rectangle is given as A = l b, where l is length and b is breadth or width.

A = lb
A = 540cm2
That is, lb = 540cm2
Let the length be x
The width is 12cm less than the length
That is, l = x, b = x – 12
Therefore, the expression for the area becomes
A = lb = 540
x(x – 12) = 540
x2 – 12x = 540
x2 – 12x – 540 = 0
This situation leads to the quadratic equation x2 – 12x – 540 = 0 which we can solve and
find the length and width of the picture frame.

x2 – 12x – 540 = 0
x2 – 30x + 18x – 540 = 0
x(x – 30) + 18(x – 30) = 0
(x + 18)(x – 30) = 0
x + 18 = 0 OR x – 30 = 0
∴ x = -18 OR 30
But we disregard the value x = -18 since the length of the sides of a rectangle cannot be
negative. Instead we take the length of the picture frame to be x = 30cm and its width is
12cm less than the length, that is,
Length x = 30cm
Width x – 12 = 30 – 12
= 18cm

EXAMPLE 2
The diagram below shows a rectangular field of length 10 metres and breadth 5 metres. M,
N, P and Q are pegs on the sides of the field such that DN = QB = 2x metres and
BM = PD = x metres.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 D 2x N 10 – 2x C

x 5 – x
P

M
5–x x

A B
10 – x Q 2x

(a) Show that the area of the quadrilateral MNPQ is given by the formula A = 20x – 4x2
(b) Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1 unit on the horizontal axis and 1cm to represent
5 units on the vertical axis draw the graph of the equation A = 20x – 4x2 for
0 ≤ x ≤ 10, x є R
(c) From your graph find
(i) The maximum area of the quadrilateral MNPQ and the value of x for which
the area is maximum
(ii) The value of x for which the area of the quadrilateral is 20cm2

(a) From the diagram, the area of rectangle ABCD

A1 = lb, l = 10m b = 5m
= 10m X 5m
= 50m2

To get the area MNPQ we need to find the areas of triangles NDP, NCM, PAQ and QBM. By
further analysis, these four triangles form two rectangles, one of length 10 – 2x and width
5 – x and the other of length 2x and width x. The total area of these two rectangles is
A2 = (10 – 2x)(5 – x) + (2x)(x)
= 50 – 10x – 10x + 2x2 + 2x2
= 50 – 20x + 4x2

The area of MNPQ

A = A1 – A2
= 50 – (50 – 20x + 4x2)
= 50 – 50 + 20x – 4x2
= 20x – 4x2
∴ A = 20x – 4x2 as required

More of these techniques of deriving formulae will be dealt with in Unit 8.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 Y
50
(b) Area
m2 45

40

35

30

(c)(i)Max. 25

(c)(ii) 20

15

10
A = 20x – 4x2
5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Xm

Table of values A = 20x – 4x2

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

20x 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

-4x2 0 -4 -16 -36 -64 -100 -144 -196 -256 -324 -400

20x – 4x2 0 16 24 24 16 0 -24 -56 -96 -144 -200

We disregard the negative values since the area of the quadrilateral cannot be zero.

(c) (i) Maximum area is 25m2 and the value of x for this maximum area is about 2.5m

(ii) The quadrilateral has an area of 20m2 when the value of x ≈ 1.5m and 3.5m

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Solve by factorisation.
(a) 2x2 + 7x + 5 = 0
𝟑 𝟏
(b) v2 + v =
𝟒 𝟒

2 Solve by completing the square.

(a) p2 + 8p = 0
𝐱− 𝟑 −𝟒
(b) =
𝟐 𝟏− 𝐱

SOLUTIONS

𝟑 𝟏
1 (a) 2x2 + 7x + 5 = 0 (b) v2 + v = v + 1 = 0
𝟒 𝟒
𝟑 𝟏
2x2 + 2x + 5x + 5 = 0 (4) v2 + v = v = -1
𝟒 𝟒
2x(x + 1) + 5(x + 1) = 0 4v2 + 3v = 1 or 4v – 1 = 0
(x + 1) (2x + 5) = 0 4v 2 + 3v – 1 = 0 4v = 1
𝟏
x + 1 = 0 or 2x + 5 = 0 4v 2 + 4v – v – 1 = 0 v =
𝟒
x = -1 or 2x = -5 4v(v + 1) – 1(v + 1) = 0
−𝟓
x = (v + 1) (4v – 1) = 0
𝟐

𝐱 − 𝟑 −𝟒
2 (a) p2 + 8p = 0 (b) =
𝟐 𝟏− 𝐱
p2 + 8p + 16 = 16 (x – 3) (1 – x) = -8
p2 + 4p + 4p + 16 = 16 x – x2 – 3 + 3x = -8
p(p + 4) + 4(p + 4) = 16 -x2 + 4x – 3 = -8
(p + 4) (p + 4) = 16 -x2 + 4x = -8 + 3
(p + 4)2 = 16 -x2 + 4x = -5
p + 4 = √𝟏𝟔 x2 – 4x = 5
p + 4 = ± 𝟒 x2 – 4x + 4 = 5 + 4
p = ± 𝟒 – 4 (x – 2)2 = 9
p = 4 – 4 = 0 or p = -4 – 4 = -8 x – 2 = √𝟗
x – 2 = ± 𝟑
x = ± 𝟑 + 2
x = -1 or 5

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Solve the following equations by factor method.

(a) x2 – 6x + 8 = 0
(b) 2t2 + 7t + 3 = 0
(c) 4 – f – 5f2 = 0
(d) -12 = 5x – 3x2

2 Solve the following equations, leaving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
(a) 1 – 3t – t2 = 0
(b) 6p2 + p – 3 = 0
(c) (x + 1)(x – 3) = 2
(d) 2x2 + 9x + 1 = 0

3 The speed of a golf ball after being hit was v = 15t – 2t2 , where t is time in seconds
and v is the speed of the golf ball in metres per second.
(a) Draw the graph of v = 15t – 2t2 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 8 .
(b) Use your graph to solve
(i) 15t – 2t2 = 0
(ii) 15t – 2t2 = 7
(c) Find the maximum speed reached, and the time it took the ball to reach maximum speed.

4 An area on Kashiji plain was under exploration for possible oil field deposits. The surveyors
wished to cover a rectangular section measuring (100 – x) km by (x + 10) km.
(a) Find an expression in terms of x, for the area the surveyors were to cover.
(b) Solve for x, given that a total of 2 400 km2 was explored.

5 Sewerage ponds at Fumbauta were sprayed to reduce on mosquitoes and other flying
insects that were spreading a lot of illnesses in the area, including Malaria. The
effectiveness of the chemical used was defined by the function y = 9x – 4x2 , where
x was time after spraying in months. After how many months would the ponds require new
spraying?

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 8. FORMULAE AND LITERAL EQUATIONS .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
8.1 Constructing formulae
8.2 Literal equations
8.3 Changing the subject of the formula

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8.1 CONSTRUCTING FORMULAE
The following is a summary of the most important formulae we use at this level.

PLANE FIGURE PERIMETER AREA SOLID SURFACE VOLUME ABBRV

FIGURE AREA
Square 4l l 2 Cube 6l2 l3 a: side a
Rectangle 2(l + b) lb Cuboid 2(lb + lh + bh) lbh b: base side
Triangle - ½bh Prism - ½bhl b2: base area
Circle 𝟐𝝅𝐫 𝝅𝒓 𝟐 Sphere 4 𝝅𝒓𝟐 4/ 𝝅𝒓𝟑
3 h: height
Trapezium - ½(a + b)h Prism - - l: length or
Parallelogram - bh Prism - - slant length
Sector - θ/
360° (𝝅𝒓 )
𝟐 Cone 𝝅𝐫𝒍 ⅓πr2h r: radius
Cylinder
𝟐𝝅𝒓h + 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉
NB: Arc length l = θ/360°(2 𝝅𝒓) = θ/180°( 𝝅𝐫) Frustum - -
Pyramid - ⅓ b 2h
GENERAL RULES:
1. Perimeter is calculated by summing up all lengths of edges or sides of a plane figure
2. Surface area is calculated by summing up all face areas
3. Volume is calculated by multiplying the height or external length of a solid figure by the
area of its base

This concept involves manipulating modified situations in order to find the expression for a
specific measure in the diagram. We analyse the shapes involved and derive appropriate
expressions from the fundamental formulae listed in the table above.

EXAMPLE 1
Find an expression in terms of r and π for the shaded area in the following diagram.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
The figure comprises a square and a circle. The circle fits exactly into the sides of the square.
The diameter of the circle corresponds to the length of the sides of the square.
Side of square = diameter of circle
l = d
l = 2r

A1 = l X l
= 2r X 2r
= 4r2

A2 = πr2
The shaded area is the difference between the area of the square and the area of the circle.

A = A 1 – A2
= 4r2 – πr2
= r2(4 – π)

EXAMPLE 2
For the figure below,
(a) Find the formula for the shaded area
(b) Calculate the shaded area given that r = 7cm and R = 14cm . Take π to be 3.142

The shaded area is the difference between the areas of the two circles.

(a) A1 = πR2
A2 = πr2
Shaded area A = A1 – A2
= πR2 – πr2
= π(R2 – r2)

(b) Shaded area A = π(R2 – r2); r = 7cm, R = 14cm, π = 3.142

2 2
= 3.142(14 – 7 )
= 3.142(196 – 49)
= 3.142(147)
= 461.874cm2

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 8.2 LITERAL EQUATIONS
So far we have looked at formulae used in mensuration, a topic we will discuss in
detail in Unit 22. In general, we can find an expression for any unknown variable given
sufficient information in the initial condition.

We have seen that a statement like 90 – 42 = 48 is a number sentence. If

instead we use variables to make a statement such as a – b = c we have what is
commonly called a literal equation.

We solve literal equations the same way we solve linear and other forms of equations.

EXAMPLE 1
Solve ax + b = c for x
ax + b = c
ax = c – b
∴ x = c – b
a

EXAMPLE 2
Solve c2 = a2 + b2 for a
c2 = a2 + b2
c2 – b2 = a2
∴ a = √(c2 – b2)

EXAMPLE 3
Solve p(x – q) = m(x + h) for x
p(x – q) = m(x + h)
px – pq = mx + mh
px – mx = mh + pq
x(p – m) = mh + pq
x(p – m) = mh + pq
p – m p – m

∴ x = mh + pq
P – m

8.3 CHANGING THE SUBJECT OF THE FORMULA

This is just another expression for the concept of solving literal equations. When changing the
subject of the formula we solve for one variable in a given literal equation or any other
algebraic expression. To help us remember what to do, here are some guidelines.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
  If terms are adding or subtracting simply rearrange by transferring across the equal
sign. Note that a term changes its sign when it moves across the equal sign
 For a product term, divide to isolated the required variable
 For a fractional term, multiply to isolate the required variable
 For a power term, find the root
 For a root term, find the power
 For a factor term, expand and simplify
The following examples show these principles. Note that we can use any of the following
statements to mean primarily the same thing:
- Make …….. the subject
- Express …….. in terms of ……….
- Solve for …………

EXAMPLE 1
Given that ax = b make x the subject
c x

ax = b
c x cross multiplying the fractions

(ax)(x) = (c)(b)
ax2 = bc dividing through by a
x2 = bc
a taking square root both sides

𝐛𝐜
∴ x = √𝐚

EXAMPLE 2
Given the equation a = u – v express v in terms of a, u and t
t

a = u – v
t multiplying through by t, or cross multiplying fractions

(t)(a) = u – v (t)
t
at = u – v rearranging terms
∴ v = u – at

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE 3
Given that p + 2(p – 1) = s solve for p
q r

p + 2(p – 1) = s
q r multiplying through by the common denominator qr

(qr)p + (qr)2(p – 1 ) = (qr)s

q r

pr + 2q(p – 1) = qrs
pr + 2pq – 2 = qrs
pr + 2pq = qrs + 2
p(r + 2q) = qrs + 2 dividing through by r + 2q
p(r + 2q) = qrs + 2
r + 2q r + 2q
∴ p = qrs + 2
r + 2q

Note that the expressions (qrs + 2) and (r + 2q) cannot be divided or cancelled out; there
is always the temptation to divide what may appear as common factors, like 2 and 2 or r
and r, which is not correct for such expressions as there are no common factors.

EXAMPLE 4
Given that h = ∛ m make n the subject
n4

h = ∛ m to remove brackets we power both sides to 3

n4

(h)3 = ∛ m 3

n4

h3 = m cross multiplying fractions or multiplying through by n 4

n4

(n4)(h3) = (n4)m
n4
n 4h 3 = m dividing through by h 3
n4 = m
h3 taking the fourth root both sides
∴ n = ∜ m
h3

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Find an expression for the shaded area in terms of suitable variables.

(a) (b)
2x – 1

x
3x 2x + 1

2 Solve for the letter indicated.

𝐝 𝐫 − 𝟐
(a) s = ; (t) (b) p = ; (r)
𝐭 𝐫
(c) y = mx + c ; (x)

SOLUTIONS

1 (a) A1 = 𝝅 r 2 (b) The shaded area comprise two pairs of

𝟏
A2 =
𝟐
bh congruent triangles that form rectangles.
𝟏
= (diameter) (radius) A1 (two triangles making large rectangle)
𝟐
𝟏
= (2 r) (r) = lb
𝟐
= r2 = (2x + 1)(2x – 1)
Shaded area = A1 – A2 = 4x2 – 1
= 𝝅 r2 – r2 A2 (two triangles making small rectangle)
= r2 (𝝅 – 1) = lb
= (3x)(x)
= 3x2
Shaded area = A1 + A2
= 4x2 – 1 + 3x2
= 7x2 – 1

𝐝 𝐫 − 𝟐
2 (a) s = (b) p =
𝐭 𝐫
st = d pr = r – 2
𝐝
t = 2 = r – pr
𝐬
2 = r (1 – p )
𝟐
(c) y = mx + c mx = y – c = r
𝟏 − 𝐩
𝐲 − 𝐜
y – c = mx x =
𝐦

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Express x in terms of y and z.

𝟐𝐱 − 𝐳 𝐲
(a) y = (c) z =
𝐱 √𝟏 − 𝐱
𝐳 + 𝐱 𝐲 − 𝟓
(b) y = (d) z =
𝐱 𝟓𝐱

2 Find an expression for the shaded area.

(a) (b)

r–2

r
r – 2

r – 1

2r
(c) (d)
x

x x

3 Make the indicated variable the subject of the formula.

(a) a2 = b2 + c2 – 2cbcosA ; (cosA)
𝟏
(b) P = absinC ; (b)
𝟐
(c) A = 2 𝝅 r2 + 2 𝝅 r h ; (h)
𝟏
(d) A = (a + b) h ; (b)
𝟐
(e) y = (3x – 1)7 ; (x)
𝐤
(f) y = ; (x)
𝟐 𝐱𝟑
(g) r2 = (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 ; (h)
𝐚𝟐 + 𝐛𝟐 − 𝐜𝟐
(h) cosC = ; (c)
𝟐𝐚𝐛
(i) y = ax2 + bx + c ; (b)

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 9. VARIATIONS .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
9.1 Ratios
9.2 Proportions
9.3 Variations

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
9.1 RATIOS
A ratio is a fraction or share of a quantity. We write ratios in three ways. For example the
quantity ten shared in portions of two and eight may be written as
2 to 8 or
2:8 or
2
8
In any situation involving ratios, we follow the guidelines below
Find the total ratio by adding up the shares
Express the shares as fractions of the total ratio
Use the fractional ratios to solve for specific shares
Example,
An amount of K21 000 is shared in the ratio 1 : 2 : 4. Find the largest share of this amount.

Total ratio 1 + 2 + 4 = 7
Fractions 1/ ,2/ , 4/
7 7 7
Shares,
1/ of K21 000 2/ of K21 000 4/ of k21 000
7 7 7

= 1/7 X 21 000 = 2/7 X 21 000 = 4/7 X 21 000

= 1 X 3 000 = 2 X 3 000 = 4 X 3 000
= K3 000 = K6 000 = K12 000
The largest share is K12 000

An amount is shared in the ratio 2 : 3. If the smallest amount is $80, find the largest share
of the amount.
We can work out this problem in two ways. We can convert the ratios to equivalent fractions
to determine the corresponding value of the ratio.

2 = $80
3 x cross multiplying fractions
2x = $240 dividing through by 2
x = $120 largest share
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
The other way is to find the total amount that was shared. We will use the information given
to find that amount. We can then find the remaining share by subtracting the smaller amount
or multiplying the ratio fraction.
2:3
Total ratio 2 + 3 = 5
Fractions 2/5, 3/5
Shares,
2/ of total amount (m) 3/ of total amount (m)
5 5

2/ of m = $80
5
2/
5 X m = $80
2m = $80
5 1 cross multiplying fractions
2m = $400 dividing through by 2
m = $200
The total amount that was shared was $200. If the smaller share is $80, the larger share
would be $200 – $80 = $120. We can confirm this by calculating out the ratio.

3/
5 of$200
= 3/ X 200
5
= 3 X 40
= $120

REDUCING AND INCREASING QUANTITIES

A ratio can be used to show an increment or reduction in a given quantity.

To reduce a quantity, form a proper fraction of the ratio and multiply the quantity being
reduced.

EXAMPLE 1
The price of sugar was reduced in the ratio 4 : 5. Find the new price if sugar cost K8 per kg.

Ratio 4: 5
𝟒
Proper fraction
𝟓
𝟒
New price of old price
𝟓
𝟒
= 𝟓 x K8
= 4 x 1.6
= K6.8

EXAMPLE 2
Mrs Njovu had two buckets with capacities in the ratio 5 : 7 . Find the capacity of the smaller
bucket given that the larger bucket had a capacity of 14 Ɩ .

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 Ratio 5: 7
𝟓
Proper fraction 𝟕
𝟓
Small bucket of capacity of large bucket
𝟕
𝟓
= 𝟕 x 14
= 5 x 2
= 10 Ɩ

To increase a quantity, form an improper fraction of the ratio and multiply the quantity being
increased.

EXAMPLE 1
The production capacity at Nitrogen Chemicals of Zambia increased in the ratio 8 : 5 after a
rehabilitation on the plant. If the plant used to produce 100 000 metric tonnes of fertiliser
per annum before the rehabilitation, find the new capacity of production.

Ratio 8 : 5
𝟖
Improper fraction 𝟓
𝟖
New capacity of old capacity
𝟓
𝟖
= 𝟓 x 100 000
= 8 x 20 000
= 160 000 metric tonnes per annum

EXAMPLE 2
The number of foreign tourists visiting the Victoria Falls was expected to increase in 2013 in
the ratio 15 : 4 , an increment largely attributed to Zambia’s co-hosting of the United
Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) Conference. If an average of 1 500 tourists
were recorded in previous years, find how many tourists would be expected in 2013.

Ratio 15 : 4
𝟏𝟓
Improper fraction 𝟒
𝟏𝟓
Tourists in 2013 of average number of tourists
𝟒
𝟏𝟓
= 𝟒 x 1 500
= 15 x 375
= 5 625 tourists

We shall look at some of the other applications of ratios in Unit 21.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
9.2 PROPORTIONS
A proportion is a relation between two variables. There are two types of proportion.

DIRECT PROPORTION
Direct proportion is the relation where an increase in one of the variables results in an
increase in the other variable and a decrease in one results in a decrease in the other. For
instance, if one box of apples contains eight apples, we expect three boxes to contain twenty
four apples altogether. By increasing the number of boxes, the number of apples also
increases. The steps to follow when solving proportions are
- Write the initial condition of proportionality as a set of fractions
- Cross multiply the fractions and solve for the required result

EXAMPLE
Given that the number of students admitted to university is directly proportional to the
number of applicants, and that 5000 students are admitted when 8000 applications are
received, find how many students are admitted when 4000 applications are received.

Our two variables in this situation are the number of students admitted against the number
of applications. We can work this out as follows
Admitted Applications
5000 8000
? 4000
Converting this condition to fractions we have

5000 = 8000
k 4000 cross multiplying fractions

8000k = 20 000 000 dividing through by 8000

k = 2 500
For 4000 applications 2500 students will be admitted.

INDIRECT OR INVERSE PROPORTION

With inverse proportion there is an increase in one variable when there is a decrease in the
other and vice versa. The procedure for calculating indirect proportion is as follows
- Write the initial condition of proportionality as a set of fractions
- Inverse one of the fractions, that is, rewrite one fraction interchanging its numerator
and denominator
- Cross multiply the fractions and solve for the required variable
Note that the process for calculating inverse proportion is the same as that for direct
proportion except for the step of inversing one fraction.

EXAMPLE
Given that the number of hours spent on painting a house is inversely proportional to the
number of painters, and that 5 painters can spend 12 hours to paint the house. Find how
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
many painters will be needed if the house has to be painted in 6 hours. Assume that the
painters are working at the same rate.

Our situation involves two variables, the number of hours of painting against the number of
painters. We can work this out as follows:

Hours Painters
12 5
6 ?
Converting this condition to fractions we have

12 = 5
6 x inversing one fraction
12 = x
6 5 cross multiplying fractions
6x = 60 dividing through by 6
x = 10
Ten painters will be needed to paint the house in six hours.

9.3 VARIATIONS
Variations are an interpretation of proportion. For example, for direct proportion, there is a
constant value that relates the two variables. The variables either increase or decrease by
this constant of proportionality. Variations provide for the appropriate notation and working
techniques not considered under proportion.

DIRECT VARIATION
For any two variables x and y that vary directly, the notation and working techniques are
as follows:
o Express the condition of variation in notation

y ∝ x

o Change the notation of variation to an equation with the constant of variation k

y = kx

o Substitute the initial condition of variation into the equation and solve for k
o Use the equation of variation to solve for the required variable

EXAMPLE 1
Given that y varies directly as x and that y = 4 when x = 6, find the value of x when y = 2

Notation of variation y ∝ x
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 Equation in k y = kx
Solving for k y = kx; y = 4, x = 6
(4) = k(6)
4 = 6k dividing through by 6
𝟒 𝟐
k = 𝟔 =𝟑
𝟐
Equation y = x
𝟑
Solving for x
𝟐
y = x ; y = 2
𝟑

𝟐
(2) = x
𝟑

𝟐
2 = x multiplying through by 3
𝟑

𝟐
(3)(2) = 𝟑 x (3)
6 = 2x dividing through by 2
x = 3

EXAMPLE 2
Given that y varies directly as the cube of x and that y = 16 when x = 2, find
(a) The equation of variation
(b) y, when x = 10
(c) x, when y = 250

(a) Notation y ∝ x3
Equation in k y = kx3
y = kx3 ; x = 2, y = 18
(16) = k(2)3
16 = 8k
k = 2
Equation y = 2x3

(b) y = 2x3 ; x = 10 (c) y = 2x3 ; y = 250

= 2 (10)3 250 = 2x3
= 2 (1 000) 125 = x 3
𝟑
= 2 000 √𝟏𝟐𝟓 = x
5 = x

INVERSE VARIATION
The process for solving inverse variation is the same as that for direct variation. The only
difference is in the notation of variation.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE
Given that y varies inversely as x and that y = 10 when x = 15, find the value of y
when x = 5.
𝟏
Notation of variation y ∝ 𝒙
𝟏
Equation in k y = k𝒙
𝒌
y = 𝒙
𝒌
Solving for k y = ; y = 10 , x = 15
𝒙
𝒌
(10) = cross multiplying fractions
(𝟏𝟓)
k = 150
𝟏𝟓𝟎
Equation y = 𝒙
Solving for y
𝟏𝟓𝟎
y = ; x = 5
𝒙

𝟏𝟓𝟎
y =
(𝟓)
y = 30

The examples on variations have outlined the principal steps involved in solving the two
types of variations.

COMBINED VARIATIONS
Some situations may involve both direct and inverse variation.

EXAMPLE
Given that p varies directly as the cube of q and inversely as the square of r , and that
p = 4 when q = 2 and r = 2,
(a) Find the equation of variation
(b) Find the value of r when p = 2.5 and q = 5
𝐪𝟑 𝟐 𝐪𝟑
(a) p ∝ (b) p = ; p = 2.5, q = 5
𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟐
𝐤 𝐪𝟑 𝟐 (𝟓)𝟑
p = ; p = 4, q = 2, r = 2 2.5 =
𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟐
𝐤 (𝟐)𝟑
4 = (2)(125) = 2.5 r2
(𝟐)𝟐
4 =
𝟖𝐤 250 = 2.5 r2
𝟒
𝟐𝟓𝟎
8 k = 16 = r2
𝟐.𝟓

k = 2 ∴ p =
𝟐 𝐪𝟑 100 = r2 ∴ r = 10
𝐫𝟐

GRAPHS OF VARIATIONS
We can also apply variations to graphs.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE
Given that y varies directly as the square of x and that y = 12 when x = 2. Draw the graph
of this variation.

Notation y ∝ x2
Equation y = kx2
Solving for k y = kx2; y = 12, x = 2
(12) = k(2)2
12 = 4k dividing through by 4
k = 3
Equation y = 3x2

We can now come up with some values of x and y and plot these on the Cartesian plane.

Table of values on the quadratic function y = 3x2

x -2 -1 0 1 2

y 12 3 0 3 12

Y
10

8
y = 3x2

0
-2 -1 1 2 X

-2

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 A sugar cane stick has eleven equal segments. One third of the segments are spoiled by stalk
borers. Find how many segments are remaining, giving your answer as a decimal number
correct to two decimal places.

2 A builder decided to reduce the quantity of building sand from seven wheelbarrows to six and
a quarter wheelbarrows per fifty kilogram bag of cement. Write the reduction in the quantity of
sand as a ratio in its lowest terms.

3 Given that y is inversely proportional to x and that y = 1 800 when x = 600, find the
value of y when x = 1 200 .

4 Given that y varies inversely as x and that y = 2 𝟏𝟒 when x = 1 𝟒𝟓 , find

(a) the equation of variation
(b) the value of y when x = 4

SOLUTIONS

𝟏
1 Spoiled segments = x 11 2 Reducing ratio = 6 𝟏
𝟒
: 7
𝟑
𝟐𝟓
= 3.67 segments = : 7
𝟒
𝟐𝟓 𝟕
Remaining segments = (11 – 3.67) = ÷
𝟒 𝟏
𝟐𝟓 𝟏
= 7.33 segments = x
𝟒 𝟕
𝟐𝟓
=
𝟐𝟖
= 25 : 28

𝟏
3 Y X 4 (a) y ∝
𝐱
𝐤
1 800 600 y = ; y = 2 𝟏𝟒 , x = 1 𝟒𝟓
𝐱
y 1 200 2 𝟏𝟒 = 𝐤
𝟒
𝟏𝟓
𝟏 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟗 𝟗 𝟖𝟏
= k = x =
𝐲 𝟏 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟒 𝟓 𝟐𝟎
𝟖𝟏
𝟏 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟖𝟏 𝟖𝟏 𝟖𝟏 𝟏 𝟖𝟏
= y = 𝟐𝟎
= (since ÷ x = x = )
𝐲 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟐𝟎𝐱
𝟖𝟏
1 200 y = 1 800 x 600 (b) y = ; x = 4
𝟐𝟎𝐱
𝟏 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟖𝟏 𝟖𝟏
y = = =
𝟏 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟎 (𝟒) 𝟖𝟎

y = 900 y =1 𝟏
𝟖𝟎

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Given that y varies directly as x and that y = 4 when x = 2,

(a) Find the equation of variation
(b) Draw the graph of the variation for -2 ≤ x ≤ 6
(c) Find the value of x when y = 8

2 Given that y varies directly as the square of x and inversely as z, and that y = 1
when x = 2 and z = 20,
(a) Find the constant of variation, k
(b) Find the equation of variation
(c) Find the value of x when y = 50 and z = 10
(d) Find the value of y when x = 8 and z = 4

3 A blood collection centre recorded an increase in the number of voluntary blood donors from
300 to 360 , 70% of whom were female.
(a) Express the recorded numbers of blood donors as a ratio in its lowest terms.
(b) Find the number of male blood donors at the centre.

4 A local bakery introduced three types of bread, milkbread, rollbread and twistbread. These
brands were produced in the ratio 5 : 3 : 2 respectively.
(a) The bakery decided it would start with 300 loaves of bread per day.
Calculate how many of each type of bread were produced per day.
(b) Due to increased demand, the bakery maintained the ratio of production and
made 120 loaves of rollbread per day. Find
(i) how many loaves of twistbread were produced per day
(ii) an expression for the change in production as a ratio in its lowest
terms

5 80 national service personnel were sent to work on a bridge that collapsed due to heavy
rain. If they finished the job in 6 hours, how long would it have taken 120 personnel?

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 10. RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
10.1 Relations and Mappings
10.2 Functions
10.3 Operations on Functions

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10.1 RELATIONS AND MAPPINGS
A relation is simply a rule that associates two variables. Most of the statements we make
when communicating are relations. For example, Lusaka “is the capital city of” Zambia. The
statement ‘is a capital city of’ relates the two variables, a city, and a country. We can classify
the two variables as belonging to two separate sets. In this example, one set could contain
cities while the other countries. The relation ‘is a capital city of’ will associate elements of the
set of cities to corresponding elements of the set of countries. Similarly, Kasweka “is the son
of” Kawengo is yet another example of a relation. The relation ‘is a son of’ will associate an
element from the set of sons to a corresponding element from the set of fathers.

A relation associates elements from a set called the Domain to elements in a set called the
Range. Elements in the domain are called objects and those in the range are called images.
We can present a relation on arrow diagrams, as a set of ordered pairs, as a solution to a
formula in set builder notation and on Cartesian graphs.

For example,
The relation “x plus 4 is y”
Let X = {-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and Y = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
Set X is the domain
Set Y is the range

Arrow Diagram X Y

-1 4
0 5
1 6 ‘plus 4 is’
2 7
3 8
4 9

Objects Images

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
Set of Ordered Pairs
Since ‘x plus 4 is y’, the set of points on this relation may be given as (x, x + 4)
That is, (x , y) , where y = x + 4 . We can see that
{…, (0, 4), (1, 5), (2, 6), (3, 7), (4, 8), …} is a set of ordered pairs on this relation.

Formula
As seen, the relation ‘x plus 4 is y’ means every element y is 4 more than a
corresponding element x. That is,

y = x + 4 is the formula for this relation.

The set builder notation for a relation like this is given as

R = {(x, y): y = x + 4, x є X, y є Y}

The relation is read as “R is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y), such that y = x + 4, where
x є X and y є Y.”

Cartesian Graph
The set of ordered pairs for the relation can be plotted on the Cartesian graph.
“x plus 4 is y”
y = x + 4
X = {-, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} Y = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
R = {(0, 4), (1, 5), (2, 6), (3, 7), (4, 8)}

Y Y
12
OR
10
y = x + 4
8

6
4

-2 0 2 4 6 8 X X

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There are four types of relations, namely,
 One -to- one
 One-to-many
 Many-to-one
 Many-to-many

A one-to-one relation is a relation where each object has only one image and each image has
only one object. For example, the relation “minus 2 is” from set A = { 4, 5, 6, 7} to set
B = {2, 3, 4, 5} is one-to-one.

A B

4 2

5 3 ‘minus 2 is’

6 4

7 5

A one-to-many relation is a relation in which one or more objects has more than one image.
For example, the relation “is greater than” from the set P = {3, 5, 7} to set
Q = {2, 3, 4} is one-to-many.

P Q

3 2

5 3
‘is greater than’
7 4

A many-to-one relation is a relation in which two or more objects have one image and no
object has more than one image. For example, the relation “is a factor of” from the set
F = {2, 3, 4, 5, 9} to set M = {4, 5, 7, 9, 11} is many-to-one.

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 F M

2 4

3 5 ‘is a factor of’

4 7

5 9

9 11

And finally, a many-to-many relation is a relation in which at least one object has more than
one image and at least one image has more than one object. For example, the relation “is the
parent of” from the set of parents P = {Mr Kapuku, Mrs Kapuku} to the set of children
C = {Kayawe, Kaunda, Kutemba} is many-to-many.

P C

Kayawe
Mr Kapuku
‘is the parent of’
Kaunda
Mrs Kapuku
Kutemba

A mapping is a relation with two important properties:

(a) It is either one-to-one or many-to-one
(b) Every object in the domain has an image in the range

10.2 FUNCTIONS
A function is a mapping in which every element in the domain has an image and no image has
more than one object. In other words, a function is a one-to-one or many-to-one mapping
where every object in the domain has an image.

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We can present a function in four ways. For example, let the relation “is the square root of”
from set X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} to the set Y = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25}, a one-to-one function,

Arrow diagram
X Y

1 1

2 4
‘is the square root of’
3 9

4 16

5 25

Functional notation
Given X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Y = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25} and the relation “is the square root of”
Then
f: X → Y, x is the square root of y

Formula
f(x) = y, read as ‘f of x is equal to y’

Set builder notation

f = {(x, y): y = f(x)}

10.3 OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS

We are going to look at three operations on functions, namely,
 Solving functions
 Composite functions
 Inverse functions

SOLVING FUNCTIONS
We can work out situations involving functions the same way we simplify and solve other
equations.

EXAMPLE 1
Given that f(x) = 2x – 3, find f(-4)
To solve for f(-4) means we substitute the variable of the function x with the value -4.
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That is,
f(x) = 2x – 3 ; x = -4
f(-4) = 2(-4) – 3
= -8 – 3
= -11

EXAMPLE 2
𝟑𝒙 − 𝟒
Given that g(x) = , find g(5)
𝟑

𝟑𝒙 − 𝟒
g(x) = ; x = 5
𝟑

𝟑(𝟓)− 𝟒
g(5) = 𝟑

𝟏𝟓 − 𝟒
= 𝟑

𝟏𝟏
= 𝟑

𝟐
= 3𝟑

COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
A composite function is an expression of a function in terms of itself or another function. The
following example shows how we work out composite functions.

EXAMPLE
Given f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x2, find
(a) (fof)(x)
(b) (fog)(x)
(c) (gof)(x)

(a) f(x) = 2x + 1
(fof)(x) = 2(2x + 1) + 1
= 4x + 2 + 1
= 4x + 3

(b) f(x) = 2x + 1
g(x) = 3x2

(fog)(x) = 2(3x2) + 1
= 6x2 + 1

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 (c) g(x) = 3x2
f(x) = 2x + 1
(gof)(x) = 3(2x + 1)2 (2x + 1)2 = (2x + 1)(2x + 1)
= 3[4x2 + 4x + 1]
= 12x2 + 12x + 3

Note that we form a composite function by simply substituting one function in the variable of
the other function. (fog)(x) means we substitute the function g(x) into the variable (x) in
the function f(x) and (gof)(x) means we substitute f(x) in the (x) in g(x) and so on.

INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Given a function f(x), then its inverse is denoted by f-1(x).
The three steps we follow when finding the inverse of a function are
1. Let y = f(x)
2. Make x the subject
3. Rewrite the expression replacing x with f-1(x) and y with x

EXAMPLE
𝒙 + 𝟐
Given that f(x) = , find
𝟑
(a) f(4)
(b) f-1(x)
𝟏
(c) f-1(𝟐)

𝒙 + 𝟐
(a) f(x) = ; x = 4
𝟑
𝟒 + 𝟐
f(4) = 𝟑
𝟔
= 𝟑
= 2

𝒙 + 𝟐
(b) f(x) = (c) f-1(x) = 3x – 2 ; x = 1/2
𝟑
f-1(1/2) = 3(1/2) – 2
Let y = f(x) = 3/2 – 2
𝐱 + 𝟐 𝟑 − 𝟒
y = …..(Step 1) = 𝟐
𝟑
−𝟏
3y = x + 2 = 𝟐
3y – 2 = x
x = 3y – 2 …….(Step 2)

∴ f-1(x) = 3x – 2 …..(Step 3)

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

𝐱𝟐 + 𝟑
Given that f(x) = 5x – 1 and g(x) = ;
𝟐
𝟒
(a) Evaluate f(𝟕)
(b) Evaluate g(-3)
(c) Find (gof)(x)
(d) Find (fog)(x)
(e) Find f-1(x)
(f) Solve g-1(x) = 3

SOLUTIONS

𝟒 𝐱𝟐 + 𝟑
(a) f(x) = 5x – 1 ; x = (b) g(x) = ; x = -3
𝟕 𝟐
𝟒 𝟒 (−𝟑)𝟐 + 𝟑
f( ) = 5( ) – 1 g(-3) =
𝟕 𝟕 𝟐
𝟐𝟎 𝟗 + 𝟑
= – 1 =
𝟕 𝟐
𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟐
= =
𝟕 𝟑
= 1 𝟔
𝟕
= 6

𝐱𝟐 + 𝟑 𝐱𝟐 + 𝟑
(c) g(x) = ; f(x) = 5x – 1 (d) f(x) = 5x – 1 ; g(x) =
𝟐 𝟐
(𝟓 𝐱 − 𝟏 )𝟐 + 𝟑 𝐱𝟐 + 𝟑
(gof)(x) = (fog)(x) = 5( ) – 1
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝟓 𝐱𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎 𝐱 + 𝟒 𝟓 𝐱𝟐 + 𝟏𝟓
= = – 1
𝟐 𝟐
𝟓 𝐱𝟐 + 𝟏𝟑
=
𝟐

𝐱𝟐 + 𝟑
(e) f(x) = 5x – 1 (f) g(x) =
𝟐
𝐱𝟐 + 𝟑
y = 5x – 1 y =
𝟐
y + 1 = 5x x2 + 3 = 2y
𝐲 + 𝟏
= x x2 = 2y – 3
𝟓
𝐱 + 𝟏
∴ f-1(x) = x = √𝟐 𝐲 − 𝟑
𝟓
g-1(x) = √𝟐 𝐱 − 𝟑
g-1(x) = √𝟐 𝐱 − 𝟑 ; g-1(x) = 3
3 = √𝟐 𝐱 − 𝟑 squaring both sides
9 = 2x – 3
9 + 3 = 2x
12 = 2x ∴ x = 6

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 REVISION EXERCISE

𝐱 + 𝟕
1 Given that f(x) = and g(x) = 2x – 5 .
𝟑
(a) Evaluate
(i) f(8)
𝟑
(ii) f( 𝟒 )
𝟓
(iii) g( 𝟏𝟐 )
(b) Find
(i) (fog)(x)
(ii) (fog)(-2)
(iii) (gof)(7)
(iv) f-1(x)

2 The set of ordered pairs {(2, 9), (3, 13), (4, 17), (5, y)} describes the domain and range of
a relation Y ➙ X.
(a) describe the relation Y ➙ X
(b) find the value of y

3 For the sets P = {plant, animal} and Q = {milk, cheese, bread, eggs, pasta, ham} ,
(a) Form any two relations of set P and Q
(b) Draw arrow diagrams for the relations in (a)

4 Given that g(x) = x2 + 2x – 3 and h(x) = 12x + 5.

(a) Evaluate
(i) g(2)
(ii) h-1(-1)
𝟏
(iii) h-1( 𝟒 )
(b) Solve
(i) g(x) = 0
𝟐
(ii) h-1(x) = 𝟑
(iii) g(x) = 5

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 11. LINEAR INEQUATIONS .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
11.1 Solving Linear Inequations
11.2 Graphs of Inequations

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
11.1 SOLVING LINEAR INEQUATIONS
A linear function that uses any of the four inequality signs, <, >, ≤ or ≥ is a linear
inequation. Linear inequations give not just one solution or value but an infinite range of
values. This infinite range can be defined in a solution set, on a number line or presented
graphically.

We solve linear inequations the same way we solve equations except for one important
difference:
When dividing through by a negative coefficient to find the variable, we change the direction
of the inequality sign.

EXAMPLE
Solve 2(x – 3) ≤ 4x + 10

2(x – 3) ≤ 4x + 10
2x – 6 ≤ 4x + 10
2x – 4x ≤ 10 + 6
-2x ≤ 16
-2x ≥ 16 Note that if we don’t change the direction
-2 -2 of the inequality sign when dividing by a
x ≥ -8 negative coefficient the solution will be
Solution set: x = {-8, -7, -6, -5, …} incorrect.

Number line:
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4

Graph Y

-8 X

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In general, the solution of linear inequations on the graph takes into consideration the
boundary line and the region of the graph that is required. In most cases the unshaded region
is the one with values in the solution set while the shaded region is disregarded. In addition,
the boundary line is broken when the infinite interval of values is open and solid when the
interval is closed. Here are the general conditions on the graph.

(a) x ≥ a (b) x ≤ a

a a

(c) x > a (d) x < a

a a

(e) y ≥ b (f) y ≤ b

b b

(g) y > b (h) y < b

b b

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INEQUATIONS OF INTERVALS
Another manipulation of inequations involves finding the solution of intervals. The technique
for working out these problems is to split the interval and find the intersection of the
components of the interval.

EXAMPLE
Solve,
2x – 3 < 1 – 2x ≤ 3 + x

The split conditions are that

2x – 3 < 1 – 2x ……..(i)
And
1 – 2x ≤ 3 + x ……..(ii)

From condition (i)

2x – 3 < 1 – 2x
2x + 2x < 1 + 3
4x < 4
x < 1
S.S: x = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0}

From condition (ii)

1 – 2x ≤ 3 + x
1 – 3 ≤ x + 2x
-2 ≤ 3x
−𝟐
≤ x
𝟑
−𝟐 −𝟏
S.S: x = { 𝟑 , 𝟑 , 0, 1, 2, …}
Comparing the two solution sets we see that the value of x is greater than -1 but less than
or equal to 0. We can write this in notation as follows
-1 < x ≤ 0, x є R

11.2 GRAPHS OF INEQUATIONS

We can now apply these solving and graphing techniques to linear inequations in two
variables. Any linear function can be presented on the Cartesian plane.

EXAMPLE
Solve y ≤ 2x + 2
The steps to follow when working out the solution of such inequations are
 Convert the inequation to an equation
 Find a set of ordered pairs on the equation
 Draw the graph of the equation
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  Determine the required region of the graph using a ‘search point’

For y ≤ 2x + 2
y = 2x + 2

X -1 0 1 2

Y 0 2 4 6

Y
8
7
6 y = 2x + 2
5
4
3
2
1
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 X
-1

A search point is any point on the plane that is not on the line given. We select one search
point and substitute it in the inequation. If the point gives a true statement we take the side
of the line from which the point is taken as the required region and shade off the alternate
side. If the search point gives us a false statement we shade off the side from which the point
is taken as the unwanted region. It is always recommended that if the line of the equation
does not pass through the origin (0, 0) we use the origin as a search point for easy
calculations. In the example,
y ≤ 2x + 2

Search point (0, 0)

(0) ≤ 2(0) + 2
0 ≤ 0 + 2
0 ≤ 2 TRUE
The point (0, 0) is therefore on the required side of the line. We shade off the alternate side
as shown above.

Note also that the line is always broken if the inequality sign is either < or > because values
on the line itself are not part of the solution set. And, on the graph the line should be labelled
as an equation and not with an inequality sign.

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Solve the following inequations.

(a) 2y + 5 ≤ 3y – 4
(b) 3(x – 2) ≥ 4(3 – x)
𝐱 − 𝟖 𝟐𝐱
(c) + < 4
𝟑 𝟓
(d) 7 𝟏𝟐 > 2m – 3 𝟑𝟒

2 Show the solution of the following inequation by shading the unwanted region.
y + 2x ≤ 4 – 3x

SOLUTIONS
1 (a) 2y + 5 ≤ 3y – 4 (b) 3(x – 2) ≥ 4(3 – x)
5 + 4 ≤ 3y – 2y 3x – 6 ≥ 12 – 4x
9 ≤ y 3x + 4x ≥ 12 + 6
S.S: y = {9, 10, 11, 12, ...} 7x ≥ 18
x ≥ 2 𝟒𝟕
S.S: x = {2 𝟒𝟕 , 2 𝟓𝟕 , 2 𝟔𝟕 , 3 , ...}

𝐱 − 𝟖 𝟐𝐱
(c) + < 4 (d) 7 𝟏𝟐 + 3 𝟑𝟒 > 2m
𝟑 𝟓
𝟓(𝐱 − 𝟖) + 𝟑(𝟐𝐱)
< 4 11 𝟏
𝟒
> 2m
𝟏𝟓
𝟓𝐱 − 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟔𝐱 𝟏𝟏 𝟏
< 4 𝟒
> m
𝟏𝟓 𝟐
𝟏𝟏𝐱 − 𝟒𝟎 𝟒
< m < 5 𝟓𝟖
𝟏𝟓 𝟏
11x – 40 < 60 S.S: m = {..., 5 𝟏𝟒 , 5 𝟑𝟖 , 5 𝟏𝟐 }
11x < 60 + 40
11x < 100
x < 9 𝟏𝟏
𝟏

S.S: x = {..., 8 𝟏𝟏
𝟗
, 8 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟏
, 9}

Y
2 y + 2x ≤ 4 – 3x Search Point (0, 0)
y + 2x = 4 – 3x y + 2x ≤ 4 – 3x
y = -3x – 2x + 4 4 0 + 2(0) ≤ 4 – 3(0)
y = -5x + 4 0 ≤ 4 TRUE

x -2 -1 0 1 2
0 𝟒 X
y 14 9 4 -1 -6 𝟓
y = -5x + 4

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 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Solve the following inequations.

(a) 2x + 3 > 4(1 – 3x )
𝐱+ 𝟒 𝐱
(b) – ≤ 6
𝟓 𝟕
(c) 9(p + 2) < 5(5 + p)
(d) 4t – 5 ≥ 3( t + 1 )

2 Shade off the unwanted region for the following inequalities.

(a) 3y – 4x < 6 – x
(b) 5x + 2 ≥ 3(x + 4)
𝟐𝐱 − 𝟑
(c) y ≤ 𝟐
𝐲
(d) > 3
𝟐+ 𝐱

3 The region marked R represents the solutions of three inequalities. One of these is
y ≥ x. Find the other two inequalities.
Y

2 R
y = x
1

0 1 2 3 X

4 On the same set of axes show, by shading off the wanted region, the solutions to the
following inequations.
(a) y ≥ -2 ; x < 4 ; y < 0 ; x ≥ 0
(b) y ≤ x; x < 8; y ≥ 0; x ≥ 1
(c) y > -x ; x ≥ -3 ; y < 5 ; x ≤ 0
(d) y < -x ; y ≤ x + 4 ; y ≥ 0

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 12. LINEAR PROGRAMMING .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
12.1 System of inequations
12.2 Mathematical models
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
12.1 SYSTEM OF INEQUATIONS
We can have two or more inequations presented on the same graph, as we have just seen in
Unit 11. Importantly, these inequations may be set conditions of an analytical situation
defining a particular range of values for what can be known as the ‘feasible’ solution. In this
case the systems of inequations are analysed graphically in linear programming.

EXAMPLE
Illustrate the following system of inequations on the same graph
(a) y ≤ 0, y > - 4, x < 0, x > -5
(b) y ≥ x, y < 3, x ≥ -2

(a) y ≤ 0, y > -4, x < 0, x > -5

Y
x = -5
2

y=0
-5 2 X

-2
x=0

-4 y = -4

The region between -5 and 0 on the x-axis and between 0 and -4 on the y-axis defines
the required region of the four inequations. The feasible points lie within the rectangle from
the vertices of the polygon of the inequations, in this case a rectangle, the coordinates (-5, 0),
(-5, -4), (0, 0) and (0, -4). We will use such points later in the finding of maximum and
minimum values or optimal solutions of a system of inequations. And it still holds that points
on a broken line are not part of the solution set.

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 (b) y ≥ x, y < 3, x ≥ -2

y=3 3

y=x

-3 -2 0 3 X

x = -2

12.2 MATHEMATICAL MODELS

When we analyse the conditions set in a given situation and come up with a system of
inequations, this system of inequations is called a mathematical model. The following are the
implied meanings of the inequality signs:
< less than
> more than
≤ not more than
≥ not less than, at least

EXAMPLE 1
A businessman selling electronic items wishes to buy two kinds of television sets, namely,
Toshiba and Phillips. A Toshiba set costs K280 and a Phillips costs K420. He intends to buy at
least 6 sets in all and has a budget of K4 200. In addition, he wants to have at least 3 but
not more than 5 Phillips sets. Letting x be the number of Toshiba and y the number of
Phillips, formulate inequations to satisfy the given information. Show your results graphically.

Analysis
Toshiba x
Phillips y

Cost of x-number of Toshiba sets 280x

Cost of y-number of Phillips sets 420y
Total cost of sets on budget 280x + 420y ≤ 4 200 dividing through by 140
2x + 3y ≤ 30 ……..(i)
Total number of sets x + y ≥ 6 ……..(ii)
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Number of Toshiba alone x ≥ 1 ………(iii)
Number of Phillips alone 3 ≤ y ≤ 5 ……..(iv)
The inequalities (i) to (iv) interpret the situation above. The fourth inequality results in two
different inequalities as shown below.
2x + 3y ≤ 30
x + y ≥ 6
x ≥ 1
y ≥ 3
y ≤ 5

We can show the last four statements on the graph. The cost function 2x + 3y ≤ 30 can be
used to determine total cost and expected return on sales when these are required.

2x + 3y = 30
y = 30 – 2x …….(i)
3
x + y = 6
y = 6 – x ……..(ii)

x = 1 ……..(iii)

y = 3 ……..(iv)

y = 5 ……..(v)

5 (v)

3 (iv)
(ii)

(iii)

0 2 4 6 X

The critical points in this situation are (1, 3), (1, 5) and (3, 3). These can be used in the cost
function to determine the best and worst results of the purchase options.

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EXAMPLE 2
Fwetuho has invited 5 friends to his house. He has put aside K2 000 for purchasing drinks.
He intends to buy Lemonade and Citra. Everyone, including himself, will have at least one
bottle. He decides that there must be at least as many bottles of Lemonade as Citra, however,
he does not want to have more than 4 bottles of Citra. A bottle of Citra costs K100 and a
bottle of Lemonade costs K250.
Let x be the number of bottles of Lemonade and y the number of bottles of Citra.
(a) Write down four inequations in x and y other than x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0
(b) Find the maximum number of bottles that he can buy and state the number of each
type of drink
(c) Find the maximum amount that he will have to spend

Analysis
Number of bottles of Lemonade x
Number of bottles of Citra y

Cost of x-number of Lemonade 250x

Cost of y-number of Citra 100y
Total cost of bottles on budget 250x + 100y ≤ 2 000 dividing through by 50
5x + 2y ≤ 40 …….(i)
Total number of bottles x + y ≥ 6 …….(ii) y = 6 – x
Number of bottles of Citra y ≤ 4 …….(iii) y = 4
As many bottles of Lemonade as Citra y ≥ x …….(iv) y= x

5 (iv)
(iii)
4

3
(ii)
2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X

Search Line

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From the graph above we are interested in the three vertices (3, 3), (2, 4) and (4, 4).
If we use these and other feasible points in the cost function 250x + 100y we have the
values

X 2 3 3 4

Y 4 3 4 4

250x + 100y 900 1 050 1 150 1 400

According to the constraints provided, Fwetuho will buy 4 bottles of Lemonade and 4 bottles
of Citra. That will cost him a total of K1 400, as shown in the table above. Notice that he
could have bought 5 bottles of each drink within his budget, but his intention was to buy not
more than 4 bottles of Citra, and that Lemonade should also have at least just as many.

Another way of analysing the constraints is by using a search line. A search line is a line of the
limiting function, in this example the cost function 250x + 100y. The technique of using the
search line involves finding the one value in the feasible region that satisfies the critical
points of the function, either the minimum or the maximum. When the search line is plotted
against the same graph and successive lines are used across the feasible region, the required
point can be found and substituted into the limiting function to determine the actual values.

In this example,
From 250x + 100y ≤ 4 200
5x + 2y ≤ 40
We take the condition 5x + 2y and form the equation
5x + 2y = b
y = b – 5x
2 2
−𝟓
The search line has gradient 𝟐 and trial lines cut the y-axis at various points
𝒃
corresponding to the value 𝟐 . The points in the feasible region that lie on the search line are
then used to find the required values of the constraint function.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

Chipango intends to buy two types of chickens for her run, broilers and layers. She has a
total budget of K120 to buy at least 5 but not more than 15 broilers and not less than
5 layers. One broiler costs K4 and one layer costs K8. Let the number of broiler
chickens be x and the number of layers be y.
(a) Using as much of the information above as possible,
(i) Formulate four inequations arising from this situation
(ii) Show the solutions to these inequations graphically
(iii) Determine how many of each type of chickens she will buy
(iv) Determine how much she will spend on buying the chickens altogether
(b) Chipango expects to sell each full grown broiler at K25. Calculate her income from
the broilers alone.

SOLUTIONS

(a) (i) Analysis Inequations

Number of broilers x x ≥ 5 …… (1)
Number of layers y x ≤ 15 …… (2)
Cost of x-broilers 4x y ≥ 5 …… (3)
Cost of y-layers 8y Total cost 8y + 4x ≤ 120
2y + x ≤ 30 …… (4)
(ii) Y - Layers
25
x = 5 x = 15 (iii) (15 , 5) or ( 10 , 10 )
20 15 broilers and 5 layers
OR 10 broilers and 10 layers
15 (iv) Broilers 15 x 4 = K60
Layers 5 x 8 = K40
10 TOTAL COST = K100
For (10, 10), total cost is K120
y = 5
5 (b) K25 x 15 = K375
2y + x = 30

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 X - Broilers

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

M
1 10

L
8

N
2

0 2 4 6 8 10

The shaded region is defined by three inequalities.

Two of these are x ≥ 2 and 7y ≥ x .
(a) Find the third inequality
(b) Given that point (x, y) is in the shaded region, calculate the minimum
value of 3x – y .

2 A carpenter specialises in making two types of wooden beds, single and double size beds.
In a week he makes at least 4 single beds and at least 2 but not more than 6 double
beds. He makes not more than 10 beds per week. He sells single beds at K350 and
double beds at K500 each. Let x be the number of single beds and y the number
of double beds made per week.
(a) Formulate four inequalities from this situation.
(b) Show the solutions of these inequalities graphically using suitable shading.
(c) Determine the maximum number of beds the carpenter makes each week.
(d) Determine the carpenter’s estimated maximum income per week.

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 13. COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
13.1 Profit and Loss
13.2 Commissions
13.3 Discount
13.4 Hire Purchase
13.5 Shares
13.6 Interests
13.7 Foreign Exchange
13.8 Transport Charges

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
13.1 PROFIT AND LOSS
Commercial Arithmetic deals with business transactions, the exchange of goods and services.
We will begin with calculations for profit and loss.

A profit is an amount earned in a transaction over the cost price. For example, if a mobile
phone is purchased at K450 and later resold at K500, the seller has made a return of K50,
the difference between the cost price and the selling price. In short,

Profit = Selling price – Cost price

A loss is incurred when the selling price is less than the cost of what is being sold. The
formula for loss is the same as that for profit, except that the value will be negative. To avoid
the negative in the calculation we modify the formula as follows

Loss = Cost price – Selling price

Usually profit and loss are interpreted as percentages of the cost price. The expressions for
percentage profit and loss are

𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕
%profit = X 100
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆

𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
%loss = X 100
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆

EXAMPLE 1
A car dealer bought a second hand vehicle at K15 000 and resold it at K20 000. Calculate his
profit and percentage profit.
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 Profit = Selling price – Cost price
= K20 000 – K15 000
= K5 000

Percentage profit
𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕
%profit = X 100
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆

𝟓 𝟎𝟎𝟎
= X 100
𝟏𝟓 𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝟓𝟎𝟎
= 𝟏𝟓

= 33.3%

EXAMPLE 2
A wedding ring was resold after the marriage proposal was rejected, making a loss of 40%. If
the selling price was K1 500, find how much the ring cost when it was first bought.

To find the cost price, given the percentage loss and the selling price, we need to form an
equation and solve.

𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
Since %loss = X 100
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆

We know that
Loss = Cost price – Selling price
Loss = Cost price – 1 500

This means that

𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆 –𝟏 𝟓𝟎𝟎
X 100 = 40%
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆

𝟏𝟎𝟎(𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆 − 𝟏 𝟓𝟎𝟎)

= 40
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆

100(Cost price – 1 500) = 40(Cost price) Let Cost price be Q

100Q – 150 000 = 40Q
100Q – 40Q = 150 000
60Q = 150 000
Q = 2 500

The cost price was K2 500. It can be confirmed that if the ring is resold at K1 500, the loss will
be K1 000 which is 40% of the cost price.
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
Percentages may generally be applied to all transactions including increases or reductions in
prices of products and services.

EXAMPLE 3
The cost of posting an ordinary local mail in 1999 was 5ngwee. The cost of posting a similar
mail in 2009 was 50ngwee. Calculate the increase of the cost of postage over the stated
period.

We take the increase as a percentage of the initial cost.

50ngwee – 5ngwee = 45ngwee

𝟒𝟓
%increase in price = 𝟓
X 100

𝟒 𝟓𝟎𝟎
= 𝟓

= 900%

EXAMPLE 4
A security officer received a monthly salary of K350 in 2005. In 2006 the officer received a
10% salary increment. Find how much the officer received per month in 2006.

2005 K350
2006 K350 + 10% of K350
𝟏𝟎
= K350 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 X K350

= K350 + K35
= K385
The officer had a monthly salary of K385 in 2006.

13.2 COMMISSIONS
A commission is a reward for services rendered to an individual or a company. There are
different types of commissions.

BASIC SALARY PLUS STRAIGHT COMMISSION

In this situation a person is given a commission on a quantity of sales in addition to a basic
pay.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE
Kisandy’s salary comprise of K2 800 basic pay plus 5% commission on total sales in a month.
In January her total earning was K3 800. Find how much she sold in January.

Her salary was K2 800 + 5% of sales

From the total, 5% of sales was K1 000. Let total sales be T
5% of T = 1 000
𝟓
T = 1 000
𝟏𝟎𝟎
5T = 100 000
T = 20 000
Her total sales were K20 000

QUANTITY COMMISSION
In this scheme there is no basic wage. The reward is a percentage of total quantity sales or a
fraction of unit sales.

EXAMPLE
A vender sales Digital Video Discs (DVDs) and earns K2 on every disc sold. Find his earning
when he sells 5 000 DVDs.

Since the vender has K2 on every disc,

His earning will be K2 X 5 000
= K10 000

SALES QUOTAS AND BONUSES

A sales quota is an amount given to a worker in addition to a basic pay for exceeding a target
quantity of sales. It can be calculated per week or on a monthly basis as an incentive to
workers who achieve their expected targets and make extra sales.

EXAMPLE
Muwawa earns a basic pay of K35 per week. She is expected to make K1 000 worth of sales
each week. In addition, she receives K5 bonus on K100 worth of sales above the quota.
Calculate her earning in a week when she makes K1 800 worth of sales.

Her quota K1 000

Extra sales K800
𝑲𝟖𝟎𝟎
Her earnings K35 + K5 X 𝑲𝟏𝟎𝟎

= K35 + K5 X 8
= K35 + K40
= K75
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
BROKERAGE
A brokerage is the amount a broker charges his or her customers. A broker arranges services
on behalf of another person or organisation that may not have expert knowledge or has
limited access to the clientele. The brokerage is often a rate determined by the organisation
offering the service. For instance, an insurance broker sales insurance policies and charges
brokerage as laid down by the insurance company.

EXAMPLE
Shasha sells insurance on behalf of Mwono Health Insurers Ltd. Her brokerage is 3% of each
policy she sells. Find her earnings when she sells policies worth K52 000.

Brokerage 3% of K52 000

𝟑
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 X 52 000

= K1 560

13.3 DISCOUNT
A discount is an amount deducted from the actual selling price of a product or service.

EXAMPLE
A retail shop was offering a 20% clearance sale discount during Christmas holiday. Find how
much a television set selling at K790 was going at during the holiday.

Discount 20% of K790

𝟐𝟎
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 X 790
= K158
Discount price K790 – K158 = K632
The TV set was now selling at K632

13.4 HIRE PURCHASE

This is a way of buying an item in installments. Usually an item will be collected upon
payment of an initial amount called deposit. The balance is then paid in equal monthly
installments. A simple form of hire purchase is called ‘Lay-by’ in which case the item being
bought remains with the seller until the last payment is made.

EXAMPLE
A bedroom suite can be bought at K2 000 cash or in installments by paying a K1 000 deposit
and K110 monthly installments for 12 months. Calculate the total hire purchase price.

Hire purchase price = Deposit + Total installments

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 = K1 000 + (12 X K110)
= K1 000 + K1 320
= K2 320
13.5 SHARES
A company may not have the required funds to run its business effectively. What often
happens is that the owner or owners may decide to make the organisation a public company
by dividing the needed working capital into smaller amounts that they can sell to members of
the general public who are interested in their business. These smaller amounts of the capital
are called shares. The people who buy the shares are called shareholders and are paid
dividends if the company is profit-making.

There are two kinds of shares. Ordinary shares attract a low value dividend that varies with
the profit the company makes, whereas preference shares attract a fixed interest rate. Shares
are normally sold on the stock exchange or bought through stock brokers.

EXAMPLE 1
ZICAM needs a capital of K 100 000. There is already available K85 000 in ordinary shares.
How many preference shares should be sold to the public each valued at K200 in order to
raise the required capital?

Total capital K100 000

Available K85 000
Needed K100 000 – K85 000 = K15 000
Each preference share K200
𝑲𝟏𝟓 𝟎𝟎𝟎
Total number of preference shares = 𝑲𝟐𝟎𝟎
= 75 shares

EXAMPLE 2
A company has a paid up capital consisting of 1 000 8% preference shares of K200 each
and 2 500 ordinary shares of K100 each. If the company has K44 000 declared profits,
what is the dividend percentage that can be paid to the ordinary shareholders?

Preference dividends = 8% of (K200 X 1 000)

𝟖
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 X K200 000
= K16 000
Dividend for preference shareholders are K16 000 of the declared profit.

Ordinary dividends = K44 000 – K16 000

= K28 000

This amount has to be divided among the 2 500 ordinary shareholders.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝑲𝟐𝟖 𝟎𝟎𝟎
= K11.2
𝟐 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑲𝟏𝟏.𝟐
Percentage of ordinary dividends = 𝑲𝟏𝟎𝟎 X 100
= 11.2%
13.6 INTERESTS
Lending institutions such as banks charge interest on money customers come to borrow.
There are two types of interest.

SIMPLE INTEREST
Simple interest is given by the formula

𝑷𝑹𝑻
I = where
𝟏𝟎𝟎
I is the Interest
P is the principal, the amount borrowed
R is the interest rate, usually calculated per year or per annum
T is the period of repayment of the borrowed money

EXAMPLE
Chijika borrowed K50 000 from a bank and was expected to pay it back in 10 months with
a simple interest of 20% per annum. Calculate how much he paid the bank at the end of the
period of borrowing.

𝑷𝑹𝑻 𝟏𝟎
The interest charged I = ; P = K50 000, R = 20, T = 10months = years
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟐

𝟓𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝟐𝟎 𝑿 𝟏𝟎
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝟏𝟐

𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
= K8 333.3
Total amount paid to the bank
K50 000 + K8 333.3
= K58 333.3

COMPOUND INTEREST
When payment is done over a relatively longer period of time, the interest can be
compounded. This is when the interest is effected on the balance until the amount is fully
paid. The formula for compound interest is given as
𝑹
A = P(1 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 )n where
A is the amount to be paid
P is the principal
R is the rate per annum
n is the number of years
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE
Chiyaze got a loan of K120 000 for his agri-business which he was required to pay in 4
years at 12% compound interest. Calculate his total payment bill.

𝑹
A = P(1 + )n where
𝟏𝟎𝟎
P = K120 000
R = 12
n = 4

𝟏𝟐
= 120 000(1 + )4
𝟏𝟎𝟎

= 120 000(1 + 0.12)4

= 120 000(1.12)4
= 120 000(1.57351936)
= K188 822

The other way of calculating compound interest is by calculating the interest on the principal
for each year. From the example above,

First year principal K120 000

First year interest 12% of K120 000
𝟏𝟐
= X 120 000
𝟏𝟎𝟎
= K14 400
Principal at second year K120 000 + K14 400 = K134 400
Second year interest 12% of K134 400
𝟏𝟐
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 X 134 400
= K16 128
Principal at third year K134 400 + K16 128 = K150 528
Third year interest 12% of K150 528
𝟏𝟐
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 X 150 528
= K18 063
Principal at fourth year K150 528 + K18 063 = K168 591
Fourth year interest 12% of K168 591
𝟏𝟐
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 X K168 591
= K20 231
Final payment K168 591 + K20 231 = K188 822

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
13.7 FOREIGN EXCHANGE
Foreign exchange is the rate of selling and buying currency. When people travel to different
countries, or conduct certain businesses, they need money in currencies other than the local
currency. For instance, when travelling from Zambia to South Africa, a passenger on a bus or
aircraft to that country will probably pay the travel fares in South African Rand and not in
Zambian Kwacha. Foreign currency is exchanged, both buying and selling, in commercial
banks and Bureux de Change outlets.

For example,
1 – ZMK Selling Buying

USD 3.468 3.509

EURO 4.200 4.356

POUND 6.789 6.990

RSA RAND 0.890 0.897

PULA 0.573 0.593

EXAMPLE
A cotton farmer exported 500 by 50kg bags and was paid in US Dollars. His total sales
amounted to $25 000. Find the value of his sale in Zambian Kwacha and hence or otherwise
calculate an estimate of his price per 50kg bag of cotton in South African Rand.

Converting from Dollar to Kwacha means we are selling Dollars

$1 = K3.468
$25 000 = x
x = 3.468 X 25 000
= K86 700

He sold 500 bags at an equivalent Zambian Kwacha price of

𝟖𝟔 𝟕𝟎𝟎
= K173.4
𝟓𝟎𝟎

Converting from Kwacha to Rand means we are buying Rands

R1 = K0.897
x = 173.4
0.897x = 173.4
𝟏𝟕𝟑.𝟒
x = 𝟎.𝟖𝟗𝟕
= R193.3 per 50kg bag
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
13.8 TRANSPORT CHARGES
There are four transport sectors, namely, road, rail, air and water transport. Some of the
charges in transportation are
 Passenger
 Insurance
 Luggage
 Handling
 Sundry (Miscellaneous)

The charge for transportation is usually determined by the distance being covered and, in
certain circumstances, especially for rail and air transport, the category of travel, whether
one is going on the First Class, Middle Class or Economy Class ticket.

EXAMPLE
The following table shows the fare chart for BOWAS Express Bus Services, (BEBS).

LUSAKA TO KABWE KAPIRI-MPOSHI NDOLA

+18yrs K25 K35 K45
PASSENGER +9yrs K15 K20 K30
INSURANCE 2% of p.c 2.5% of p.c 3% of p.c
LUGGAGE K10 K12 K15
SERVICE CHARGE K3 K5 K9
ABBRV: p.c = Passenger Charge
NOTE: Customers are advised to demand for an official Receipt for all payments.

From the table above, find how much a family consisting two adults and three children above
the age of nine travelling from Lusaka to Kapiri-Mposhi will pay. Assume that the passengers
had no chargeable luggage.

Charges
Passengers Adults K35 X 2 = K70
Children K20 X 3 = K60
Insurance 2.5% of (K70 + K60)
𝟐.𝟓
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 X K130
= K3.25
Service Charge = K5

TOTAL K(130 + 3.25 + 5) = K138.25

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

(a) In the year 2002, Chingi Secondary School had 84% pass rate at Grade 12 level.
(i) Calculate the number of pupils that passed if 150 pupils sat for the
examinations.
(ii) The ratio of the boys and girls that passed was 3 : 4 respectively. Calculate
the percentage of the girls that passed the examinations in 2002 if 72% of the
boys passed.
(b) Every year, the school enrols the same number of pupils. Calculate the percentage
pass if 45 pupils failed the examinations in 2003 .
(c) In 2004, nine pupils were selected at the University of Zambia. Given that this
number is 10% of those that passed the examinations, how many pupils passed
in 2004?

SOLUTIONS

(a) (i) 84% of 150 (ii) boys : girls

𝟖𝟒
x 150 3 : 4
𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 8.4 x 15 72% : x
𝟑 𝟒
= 126 pupils passed =
𝟕𝟐 𝐱
3x = 288
x = 96
96% of girls passed

(b) 150 – 45 = 105 passed in 2003 (c) 9 pupils = 10% of x

𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝐱
% pass = x 100 9 =
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 0.7 x 100 10x = 900
= 70 x = 90
70% passed in 2003 90 pupils passed in 2004

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 A sculpture was bought at a discounted price of K1 628.

(a) Calculate the selling price if the sculpture was bought at 20% discount.
(b) Calculate the percentage discount if the selling price was K 1 850 .

2 A new vaccine against cervical cancer was introduced targeting young girls. In its initial
campaign, 2 325 girls were vaccinated against cervical cancer in five provinces. This
represented 75% of the targeted number of girls in the provinces.
(a) Calculate the total number of young girls targeted for vaccination against cervical
cancer in the five provinces.
(b) The ratio of the number of girls vaccinated in the five provinces to that of the
targeted number of girls in the remaining five provinces was 5 : 4 . Calculate the
number of girls targeted for vaccination in the remaining provinces.
(c) A total of 1 581 girls were vaccinated in the remaining five provinces. What
percentage was this against the targeted number of girls?

3 Mwezi Timber Company set aside K500 000 for staff retraining programmes. In 2010,
38% was allocated to the marketing department and K155 000 to the human resource
department. The remaining amount was allocated to the production and the environmental
protection departments in the ratio 2 : 3 respectively.
(a) Calculate the amount allocated to the environmental protection department.
(b) In 2011, budget allocation for staff retraining was increased by 5% while the
allocations to various departments remained the same as in 2010. Calculate the
amount allocated to the marketing department in 2011.
(c) The same amount was budgeted for the retraining programme in 2012 as in the
previous year. However, half the amount meant for the human resource department
was diverted to the environmental protection department that needed increased
funding for research and tree planting programmes. Find the total allocation to the
environmental protection department in 2012.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 14. SEQUENCES AND SERIES .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
14.1 Sequences
14.2 Arithmetic Progression
14.3 Geometric Progression

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
14.1 SEQUENCES
A sequence is a list of numbers arranged in a definite order. Each number in a sequence is
called a term, and the order in which the numbers are arranged is called a rule.
For example,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ….
is a sequence in which each term is 1 more than the preceding term (term just before it),
that is, the rule ‘add 1 to get next term’ applies.

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, …..

Terms in this sequence are squares of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …. To get the next
term we square the next natural number.

1, 8, 27, 64, 125, …..

Terms in this sequence are cubes of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …. To get the next term
we cube the next natural number.

The rule in a sequence is usually expressed as a formula.

For example,

an = n(n – 1)

is a formula for a sequence in which every term a is determined by the formula n(n – 1),
where n is the position of the term, called the nth term. Hence, by this formula,
1st term a1 = 1(1 – 1) = 0
nd
2 term a2 = 2(2 – 1) = 2
3rd term a3 = 3(3 – 1) = 6
th
4 term a4 = 4(4 – 1) = 12
The sequence is 0, 2, 6, 12, ….

When we add the terms of a sequence the sequence is then called a series. Therefore,

1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ….. is a series of positive odd numbers.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
14.2 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
A sequence in which there is a constant difference between pairs of consecutive terms is
called an arithmetic progression, A.P. The constant is called the common difference, d.
For any arithmetic progression,

1st term a
2nd term a + d
3rd term a + 2d
4th term a + 3d

nth term a + (n – 1)d

The common difference d is found by subtracting pairs of

consecutive terms.

Sum of first n-terms of an A.P

𝒏
Sn = (2a + (n – 1)d)
𝟐

EXAMPLE 1
For the sequence
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, ……
(a) Determine whether or not it is an A.P
(b) Find the formula for the nth term of this progression
(c) Calculate the 20th term
(d) Find the sum of the first 12 terms of this progression

(a) We can check for a common difference to confirm the nature of the sequence
13 – 10 = 3
10 – 7 = 3
7–4 = 3
4–1 = 3
The sequence is an A.P with a common difference d = 3

(b) nth term = a + (n – 1)d; a = 1, d = 3

= 1 + (n – 1)(3)
= 1 + 3n – 3
= 3n – 2

(c) 20th term = 3n – 2; n = 20

= 3(20) – 2
= 60 – 2
= 58

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
(d) Sum of the first 12 terms
𝒏
Sn = (2a + (n – 1)d); a = 1, d = 3, n = 12
𝟐

𝟏𝟐
S12 = (2(1) + (12 – 1)(3))
𝟐
= 6(2 + (11)(3))
= 6(2 + 33)
= 6(35)
= 210

EXAMPLE 2
Mwangala decided to spend 15 minutes more jogging each day than she did the previous
day. If she started with 25 minutes jogging, find
(a) How many minutes she jogged on the 10th day
(b) The total time she spent jogging in those first 10 days

(a) Since each day Mwangala jogs 15 minutes more than she did the day before, we will have
an A.P with a common difference of 15
1st day 25
2nd day 25 + 15 = 40
3rd day 40 + 15 = 55

10th day = 25 + (10 – 1)(15)

= 25 + (9)(15)
= 25 + 135
= 160 minutes

(b) We will use the formula for the sum of the first 10 -terms of this progression

𝒏
Sn = (2a + (n – 1)d); a = 25, d = 15, n = 10
𝟐

𝟏𝟎
S10 = (2(25) + (10 – 1)(15))
𝟐
= 5(50 + (9)(15))
= 5(50 + 135)
= 5(185)
= 925 minutes

ARITHMETIC MEAN
The term which lies between two terms of an arithmetic progression is called an arithmetic
mean. If there are more terms between the two reference terms, they are all called
arithmetic means.

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EXAMPLE
The arithmetic mean of 5 and 9 in the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, … is 7
The arithmetic means of 5 and 15 in the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, …. are 7, 9, 11
and 13
The arithmetic mean or average of only two numbers is found by dividing their sum by 2. For
example, the arithmetic mean of 3 and 6 is
𝟑+ 𝟔 𝟗
= = 4.5
𝟐 𝟐

14.3 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION

If pairs of consecutive terms of a sequence have the same quotient, they form a geometric
progression, G.P. The quotient is called common ratio, r.
For any geometric progression,

1st term a
2nd term ar
3rd term ar2
4th term ar3

nth term arn – 1

The common ratio r is found by dividing pairs of
consecutive terms.

Sum of first n-terms of a G.P

Sn = a(rn – 1)
r–1
At this level we limit our calculations to progressions
in which r > 1, and r ≠ 1.

EXAMPLE 1
For the sequence
2, 8, 32, 128, 512, ….
(a) Determine whether the sequence is a G.P
(b) Find the formula for the nth term of this progression
(c) Calculate the 9th term
(d) Find the sum of the first 4 terms of this progression

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(a) We can check for a common ratio to confirm the nature of the sequence
𝟓𝟏𝟐
= 4
𝟏𝟐𝟖

𝟏𝟐𝟖
= 4
𝟑𝟐

𝟑𝟐
= 4
𝟖

𝟖
= 4
𝟐

The sequence is a G.P with a common ratio r = 4

(b) nth term = arn – 1 ; a = 2, r = 4

= (2)(4)n – 1
= (21)(22)n – 1
= (21)(22n – 2)
= 2(1) + (2n – 2)
= 22n – 1

(c) 9th term = arn – 1 ; a = 2, r = 4, n = 9

= (2)(4)9 – 1
= (2)(4)8
= (2)(65 536)
= 131 072

(d) The sum of the first 4 terms

Sn = a(rn – 1) ; a = 2, r = 4, n = 4
r –1

S4 = (2)((4)4 – 1)
(4) – 1

= (2)(256 – 1)
4–1

= (2)(255)
3

𝟓𝟏𝟎
= 𝟑
= 170
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EXAMPLE 2
A machine valued at K1 000 000 depreciates at the rate of 20% each year. Find the value of
the machine after five years of operation.

Depreciation is the reduction or loss in value of an item.

From this situation,

Initial value 1 000 000

After year 1 1 000 000 – (20% of 1 000 000)
𝟐𝟎
= 1 000 000 – (𝟏𝟎𝟎 X 1 000 000)
= 1 000 000 – 200 000 = 800 000
After year 2 800 000 – (20% of 800 000)
𝟐𝟎
= 800 000 – (𝟏𝟎𝟎 X 800 000)
= 800 000 – 160 000
= 640 000
After year 3 640 000 – (20% of 640 000)
𝟐𝟎
= 640 000 – (𝟏𝟎𝟎 X 640 0000
= 640 000 – 128 000
= 512 000
After year 4 512 000 – (20% of 512 000)
𝟐𝟎
= 512 000 – (𝟏𝟎𝟎 X 512 000)
= 512 000 – 102 400
= 409 600
After year 5 409 600 – (20% of 409 600)
𝟐𝟎
= 409 600 – (𝟏𝟎𝟎 X 409 600)
= 409 600 – 81 920
= 327 680

The value of the machine after five years will be K327 680.

Notice that the values of the depreciation form a G.P.

1 000 000, 800 000, 640 000, 512 000, 409 600, 327 680, ….
The progression has first term a = 1 000 000 and common ration r = 0.8 We could have
therefore found the value of the machine by calculating for the sixth term in this progression
as follows
an = arn – 1 ; a = 1 000 000, r = 0.8, n = 6

a6 = (1 000 000)(0.8)6 – 1
= (1 000 0000)(0.8)5
= (1 000 000)(0.32768)
= K327 680

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 For the sequence 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, …

(a) Write an expression for the nth term
(b) Find the 7th term in this sequence

2 For the sequence 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, 42, …

(a) Write an expression for the nth term
(b) Find the 26th term in this sequence

3 A new baby was gaining 380 grams of weight every month for the first six months after
birth and 249 grams every month afterwards. The baby weighed 3.92 kg at birth.
(a) How much did the baby weigh at seven months?
(b) How much did the baby weigh at one year?

SOLUTIONS

1 (a) nth term = n3 (b) n3 , n = 7

(7)3 = 7 x 7 x 7
= 343

2 (a) an = n(n + 1) (b) n(n + 1) ; n = 26

26(26 + 1) = 26(27)
= 702

3 (a) a + (n – 1)d ; a = 3.92, d = 0.38, n = 7 (b) a + (n – 1)d ; a = 9.2866 , n = 6,

= 3.92(7 – 1)(0.38) d = 0.249
= 3.92(6)(0.38) = 9.2866(6 – 1)(0.249)
= 8.9376 kg at six months = 9.2866(5)(0.249)
At seven months = 8.9376 kg + 0.349 kg = 11.56 kg
= 9.2866 kg At one year the baby weighed 11.56 kg

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 REVISION EXERCISE

1 For the sequence 100, 98, 96, 94, 92, …

(a) Write an expression for the nth term of this sequence.
(b) Find the 40th term of this sequence.

2 For the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, …

(a) Write an expression for the nth term of this sequence.
(b) Find the 20th term of this sequence.

3 A female boxer intensified training ahead of a title fight. She decided to jog 30 minutes
more every day. On the third day of her training, she jogged for 1 hour 20 minutes.
(a) For how many minutes did the boxer jog the first day?
(b) For how many minutes did the boxer jog the sixteenth day?
(c) Find how much time the boxer spent jogging for the first twenty days of her
training, giving your answer in hours and minutes.

4 Katoji bought a sewing machine at K1 200. The value of the machine was expected to
depreciate at 20% per annum. Katoji decided to sell her machine after using it for three
years. What is the value of the machine after three years?

5 The seventh and tenth terms of an arithmetic progression are 17 and 23

respectively. Find,
(a) the common difference and the first term of the progression.
(b) the sum of the first eight terms of the progression.

6 The terms of a sequence are defined by the formula

an = n2(2n – 3)
(a) Write down the first four terms of the sequence.
(b) Find the sum of the first five terms of the sequence.

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 15. MATRICES .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
15.1 Definitions
15.2 Addition and Subtraction
15.3 Solving Equations
15.4 Multiplication
15.5 Identity Matrix
15.6 Inverse Matrix
15.7 Solving Simultaneous Equations

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
15.1 DEFINITIONS
A matrix is an array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. The plural for matrix is
matrices. A matrix is defined by its order, the number of rows and columns that it has. The
numbers in a matrix are known as elements or entries. The order of a matrix is denoted by
R X C, where R is row and C is column

For example, Columns

𝟐 𝟎
𝟓 𝟒
Rows ( )
−𝟏 𝟑
𝟒 𝟏
A row is a horizontal arrangement of numbers. The matrix above has 4 rows. A column is a
vertical arrangement of numbers. The matrix above has 2 columns. The complete order of
the matrix in the form r x c will be 4 x 2, read as “4 by 2”.

A matrix, of any order, whose elements are all zeros is called a zero matrix.
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎
( ) (𝟎) (𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 )
𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
2X2 1X1 3 X 4

A matrix with only one row is also called a row matrix.

(𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓) (𝟗 𝟎)
1 X 5 1X2

A matrix with only one column is also called a column matrix.

𝟕
𝟔
(−𝟓) ( )
𝟏𝟑
𝟑
3X1 2X1
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Equal matrices are matrices that have exactly the same order and corresponding entries are
also the same.

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
A = ( ) B = ( )
𝟑 𝟒 𝟑 𝟒
A = B

Transpose matrix is a matrix formed by interchanging the rows and columns in a given matrix.
The rows become columns in the transpose matrix, and the columns become rows in the
transpose matrix.

𝟐 −𝟑
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏𝟒
P = (𝟏 𝟓) PT = ( )
−𝟑 𝟓 𝟑
𝟏𝟒 𝟑

3X2 2X3

𝟏
QT = (𝟏 𝟑 𝟓) Q = (𝟑 )
𝟓
1 X 3 3 X 1

Square matrix is a matrix that has as many rows as columns.

𝟏𝟐 𝟎 𝟔
𝟏 𝟐
(𝟒) ( ) (−𝟗 𝟑 𝟐 )
𝟑 𝟒
𝟓 𝟖 −𝟏
1 X 1 2 X 2 3 X 3

15.2 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

Matrices can be added or subtracted if and only if they are of the same order. We add or
subtract corresponding entries.

EXAMPLE
𝟖 𝟕 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 𝟏
Given that A = ( ) B = ( ) C = (𝟎 𝟏 𝟒), find
−𝟏 𝟓 −𝟕 −𝟑
𝟓 𝟐 𝟐
(a) A + B
(b) B – A
(c) A + C
(d) A + A
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(a) A + B

𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 𝟏
= ( ) + ( )
−𝟏 𝟓 −𝟕 −𝟑

(𝟏 + 𝟒) (𝟐 + 𝟏) 𝟓 𝟑
= ( ) = ( )
(−𝟏 + (−𝟕)) (𝟓 + (−𝟑)) −𝟖 𝟐

(b) B – A

𝟒 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
= ( ) – ( )
−𝟕 −𝟑 −𝟏 𝟓

(𝟒 − 𝟏) (𝟏 − 𝟐)
= ( )
(−𝟕 − (−𝟏)) (−𝟑 − 𝟓)

𝟑 −𝟏
= ( )
−𝟔 −𝟖

(c) A + C
Matrix A and C cannot be added or subtracted as they have different order.

(d) A + A

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
= ( ) + ( )
−𝟏 𝟓 −𝟏 𝟓

(𝟏 + 𝟏) (𝟐 + 𝟐)
= ( )
(−𝟏 + (−𝟏)) (𝟓 + 𝟓)

𝟐 𝟒
= ( )
−𝟐 𝟏𝟎

Note that situation (d) above can be simplified by using algebra and what is here called
multiplication by a scalar.
Since A + A = 2A from algebra

A + A = 2A
𝟏 𝟐
= 2( )
−𝟏 𝟓

(𝟐 𝐱 𝟏) (𝟐 𝐱 𝟐)
= ( )
(𝟐 𝐱 – 𝟏) (𝟐 𝐱 𝟓)
𝟐 𝟒
= ( )
−𝟐 𝟏𝟎

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Any real number multiplying a matrix in this way is called a scalar. A scalar multiplies every
entry in the matrix.

15.3 SOLVING EQUATIONS

We can equate corresponding entries given in algebraic form and solve for unknown variables
the same way we simplify and solve other equations.

EXAMPLE
𝟑 𝟏 𝐱 𝟏 𝟒 𝟏𝟎 𝟕 𝟔 𝟗
For the matrixM = (𝐲 𝟒 𝟐 ) N = (−𝟓 𝟑 𝟖 ) and H = (𝟗 𝟏𝟏 𝟏 𝟐)
𝟕 𝐳 −𝟒 −𝟔 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟖 −𝟏 −𝟔
Find x, y and z given that
2M + N = H

2M + N = H

𝟑 𝟏 𝐱 𝟏 𝟒 𝟏𝟎 𝟕 𝟔 𝟗
2( 𝐲 𝟒 𝟐) + (−𝟓 𝟑 𝟖) = (𝟗 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟐 )
𝟕 𝐳 −𝟒 −𝟔 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟖 −𝟏 −𝟔

𝟔 𝟐 𝟐𝐱 𝟏 𝟒 𝟏𝟎 𝟕 𝟔 𝟗
( 𝟐𝐲 𝟖 𝟒 ) + (−𝟓 𝟑 𝟖 ) = (𝟗 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟐 )
𝟏𝟒 𝟐𝐳 −𝟖 −𝟔 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟖 −𝟏 −𝟔

Writing out the corresponding entries we have

6 + 1 = 7
2 + 4 = 6
2x + 10 = 9 …..(i)
2y + (-5) = 9 …. (ii)
8 + 3 = 11
4 + 8 = 12
14 + (-6) = 8
2z + (-1) = -1 …..(iii)
-8 + 2 = -6

Solving for the variables in equations (i), (ii) and (iii)

2x + 10 = 9 2z + (-1) = -1
2x = 9 – 10 2z – 1 = -1
2x = -1 2z = -1 + 1
−𝟏
∴ x = 2z = 0
𝟐
∴ z = 0

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 2y + (-5) = 9
2y – 5 = 9
2y = 9 + 5
2y = 14
∴ y = 7

15.4 MULTIPLICATION
We can multiply matrices if and only if the number of columns in the first matrix is equal to
the number of rows in the second matrix. The actual multiplication is based on a row by
column basis. An entire row in the first matrix multiplies an entire column in the second
matrix to give one entry in the product matrix.

EXAMPLE
𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟐
Given that A = (𝟏 𝟐 𝟑) B = (𝟎 𝟔 𝟒) and C = (−𝟑)
𝟐 𝟕 𝟑 𝟓
Find
(a) AB
(b) BA
(c) AC
(d) CA
(e) BC

𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏
(a) AB = (𝟏 𝟐 𝟑) (𝟎 𝟔 𝟒)
𝟐 𝟕 𝟑

1X3 3 X 3

= ( (𝟏 𝐱 𝟏) + (𝟐 𝐱 𝟎) + (𝟑 𝐱 𝟐) (𝟏 𝐱 𝟐) + (𝟐 𝐱 𝟔) + (𝟑 𝐱 𝟕) (𝟏 𝐱 − 𝟏) + (𝟐 𝐱 𝟒) + (𝟑 𝐱 𝟑) )

= ( (𝟏 + 𝟎 + 𝟔) (𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐𝟏) (−𝟏 + 𝟖 + 𝟗) )

= (𝟕 𝟑𝟓 𝟏𝟔)

𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏
(b) BA = (𝟎 𝟔 𝟒 ) (𝟏 𝟐 𝟑)
𝟐 𝟕 𝟑

3 X 3 1 X 3

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The multiplication BA does not exist because the order required is different.

We note from this that multiplication of matrices is not always commutative. The exception
holds for multiplication by the Identity and Inverse matrices. Therefore, generally

AB ≠ BA

𝟐
(c) AC = (𝟏 𝟐 𝟑) (−𝟑)
𝟓
1 X 3 3 X 1

= ( (𝟏 𝐱 𝟐) + (𝟐 𝐱 − 𝟑) + (𝟑 𝐱 𝟓) )

= ( 𝟐 + (−𝟔 ) + 𝟏𝟓)

= (𝟏𝟏)

𝟐
(d) CA = (−𝟑) (𝟏 𝟐 𝟑)
𝟓
3X 1 1 X 3

(𝟐 𝐱 𝟏) ( 𝟐 𝐱 𝟐) (𝟐 𝐱 𝟑)
= ((−𝟑 𝐱 𝟏) (−𝟑 𝐱 𝟐) (−𝟑 𝐱 𝟑))
(𝟓 𝐱 𝟏) (𝟓 𝐱 𝟐) (𝟓 𝐱 𝟑)

𝟐 𝟒 𝟔
= (−𝟑 −𝟔 −𝟗)
𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓

𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟐
(e) BC = (𝟎 𝟔 𝟒 ) ( −𝟑)
𝟐 𝟕 𝟑 𝟓

3 X 3 3 X 1

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 (𝟏 𝐱 𝟐) + (𝟐 𝐱 – 𝟑) + (−𝟏 𝐱 𝟓)
= ( (𝟎 𝐱 𝟐) + (𝟔 𝐱 – 𝟑) + (𝟒 𝐱 𝟓) )
(𝟐 𝐱 𝟐) + (𝟕 𝐱 – 𝟑) + (𝟑 𝐱 𝟓)

(𝟐 + (−𝟔) + (−𝟓))
= ( (𝟎 + (−𝟏𝟖) + 𝟐𝟎) )
(𝟒 + (−𝟐𝟏) + 𝟏𝟓)

−𝟗
= (𝟐)
−𝟐

We can also note from the examples above that when two matrices multiply, the product
matrix will have as many rows as there are in the first matrix and as many columns as there
are in the second matrix.

15.5 IDENTITY MATRIX

We will now focus on the 2 X 2 square matrix. The identity or unit matrix for any 2 X 2
matrix is

𝟏 𝟎
I = ( )
𝟎 𝟏

When we multiply any 2 X 2 matrix by the identity matrix, the answer will always be the
matrix itself. That is, for any 2 X 2 matrix A,

AI = IA = A

EXAMPLE
𝟐 𝟒 𝟏 𝟎
Given that A = ( ) and I = ( ) , then
−𝟑 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏

𝟐 𝟒 𝟏 𝟎
AI = ( )( )
−𝟑 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏

(𝟐 𝐱 𝟏) + (𝟒 𝐱 𝟎) (𝟐 𝐱 𝟎) + (𝟒 𝐱 𝟏)
= ( )
(−𝟑 𝐱 𝟏) + (𝟏 𝐱 𝟎) (−𝟑 𝐱 𝟎) + (𝟏 𝐱 𝟏)

(𝟐 + 𝟎) (𝟎 + 𝟒)
= ( )
(−𝟑 + 𝟎) (𝟎 + 𝟏)

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 𝟐 𝟒
= ( )
−𝟑 𝟏
= A

It can be confirmed similarly that IA = A

15.6 INVERSE MATRIX

The inverse matrix of a 2 X 2 matrix A is another 2 X 2 matrix A -1 such that

𝟏 𝟎
AA-1 = A-1A = I = ( )
𝟎 𝟏

𝒂 𝒃
For a 2 X 2 matrix A = (),
𝒄 𝒅
Its reciprocal or inverse matrix is given by

𝟏 𝒅 −𝒃
A-1 = ( ); where
𝐃𝐞𝐭𝐀 −𝒄 𝒂

DetA = ad – bc is called the determinant.

If the determinant of a 2 X 2 matrix ad – bc = 0, the matrix is called a singular

𝟏 𝟏
matrix and its inverse cannot be calculated because the expression 𝐃𝐞𝐭𝐀 = 𝟎 is undefined.

EXAMPLE
−𝟏 −𝟐
For the matrix P = ( ) , find its inverse matrix P-1 and show that PP-1 = I
𝟑 𝟓

−𝟏 −𝟐
P = ( )
𝟑 𝟓

DetP = (-1 X 5) – (-2 X 3)

= -5 – (-6)
= -5 + 6
= 1

𝟏 𝟓 𝟐
P-1 = ( )
𝟏 −𝟑 −𝟏

𝟓 𝟐
= ( )
−𝟑 −𝟏

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 −𝟏 −𝟐 𝟓 𝟐
PP-1 = ( )( )
𝟑 𝟓 −𝟑 −𝟏

(−𝟏 𝐱 𝟓) + (−𝟐 𝐱 – 𝟑) (−𝟏 𝐱 𝟐) + (−𝟐 𝐱 – 𝟏)

= ( )
(𝟑 𝐱 𝟓) + (𝟓 𝐱 – 𝟑) (𝟑 𝐱 𝟐) + (𝟓 𝐱 – 𝟏)

(−𝟓 + 𝟔) (−𝟐 + 𝟐)
= ( )
(𝟏𝟓 − 𝟏𝟓) (𝟔 − 𝟓)

𝟏 𝟎
= ( )
𝟎 𝟏

15.7 SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Let there be given three matrices A, X and B such that

AX = B

Solving for matrix X we have

AX = B
𝟏
X = 𝐀 B
X = A-1B

We can express any system of simultaneous equations in matrix form where

A is the matrix of coefficients
X is the matrix of variables
B is the matrix of constants

We solve the equations by finding the inverse of the matrix of coefficients and multiplying
that by the matrix of constants.

EXAMPLE
Solve the following system of equations simultaneously using the matrix method

2x + 3y = 16
x – 4y = -3

x y
𝟐 𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟔
Let A = ( ) X = (𝐲) B = ( )
𝟏 −𝟒 −𝟑

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From the equation
X = A-1B

𝟐 𝟑
A = ( )
𝟏 −𝟒
DetA = (-4 X 2) – (3 X 1)
= -8 – 3
= -11

−𝟏 −𝟒 −𝟑
A-1 = ( )
𝟏𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐
𝟒 𝟑

= (𝟏𝟏
𝟏
𝟏𝟏
−𝟐)
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏

𝟒 𝟑
𝟏𝟔
X = (𝟏𝟏
𝟏
𝟏𝟏
−𝟐) ( )
−𝟑
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏

𝟒 𝟑
( 𝐱 𝟏𝟔) + (𝟏𝟏 𝐱 – 𝟑)
= ( 𝟏𝟏
𝟏 −𝟐
)
(𝟏𝟏 𝐱 𝟏𝟔) + ( 𝟏𝟏 𝐱 – 𝟑)

𝟔𝟒 −𝟗
+
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
= (𝟏𝟔 𝟔)
+
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏

𝟓𝟓

= (𝟏𝟏
𝟐𝟐
)
𝟏𝟏

𝟓
X = ( )
𝟐
𝐱 𝟓
X = (𝐲) = ( )
𝟐
∴ x = 5, y = 2

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

𝟒
1 Given that A = ( ) and B = (−𝟏 𝟐) , find AB and BA .
𝟎

𝟏 −𝟑 𝐲 𝟓
2 Given that M = ( ) and N = ( ) , find
𝟐 −𝟒 −𝟏 𝟑
(a) M-1

(b) the value of y , given that the determinant of N is 11.

(c) MN

−𝟐 𝟕
3 Given that the matrix Q = ( ) is a singular matrix. Find the value of t .
𝟐 𝐭

SOLUTIONS

𝟒 𝟒
1 AB = ( ) (– 𝟏 𝟐) BA = (−𝟏 𝟐) ( )
𝟎 𝟎
(𝟒 𝐱 – 𝟏) (𝟒 𝐱 𝟐)
= ( ) = ((−𝟏 𝐱 𝟒) + (𝟐 𝐱 𝟎))
(𝟎 𝐱 − 𝟏) (𝟎 𝐱 𝟐)
−𝟒 𝟖
= ( ) = (−𝟒)
𝟎 𝟎

𝟏 −𝟑 𝐲 𝟓 𝟏 −𝟑 𝟐 𝟓
2 (a) M = ( ) (b) N = ( ) (c) MN = ( )( )
𝟐 −𝟒 −𝟏 𝟑 𝟐 −𝟒 −𝟏 𝟑
DetM = (1 x -4) – (-3 x 2) DetN = 3y – (-5) =
(𝟐 + 𝟑) (𝟓 − 𝟗)
( )
(𝟒 + 𝟒) (𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐)
𝟓 −𝟒
= -4 – (-6) DetN = 3y + 5 ; DetN = 11 = ( )
𝟖 −𝟐
= -4 + 6 11 = 3y + 5
= 2 11 – 5 = 3y
𝟏−𝟒 𝟑
M-1 = ( ) 6 = 3y
𝟐 −𝟐 𝟏
𝟑
−𝟐
𝟐
= ( 𝟏
) y = 2
−𝟏
𝟐

−𝟐 𝟕
3 For the singular matrix Q = ( )
𝟐 𝐭
DetQ = -2t – 14 ; DetQ = 0
0 = -2t – 14
14 = -2t
-7 = t

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 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Solve the following system of equations by matrix method.

2x + y = 6
3x – 2y = 2

𝟕 𝟓 −𝟏 𝟐
2 Given that A = ( ) and B = ( ) . Find
𝟑 𝟗 𝟒 𝐩
(a) A2
(b) the value of p, given that DetB = -3
(c) 2A – 3B
(d) ATBT

𝟗 𝟒 −𝟑 −𝟒
3 Given that J = ( ) and K = ( ).
−𝟕 −𝟑 𝟕 𝟗
(a) Find JK
(b) Find KJ
(c) What is the relationship between the matrices J and K?

𝟐 𝟏 −𝟑 𝟎
4 Given that P = ( ) and Q = ( ) . Find
𝟒 𝟔 𝟏 𝟐
(a) P-1
(b) QTP
(c) Q-1

𝟑 𝐳
5 Given the matrix Y = ( ),
𝟓 𝟒
(a) Find the value of z if the determinant of Y is 2.
−𝟔 −𝟐𝟏
(b) Find the value of z if Y2 = ( )
𝟑𝟓 𝟏

𝟐𝐫 𝐫
6 Given the matrix H = ( ),
𝟑 𝟐
(a) Find the value of r if the determinant of H is 2 .
(b) Find the value of r if H is a singular matrix.

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 16. ANGLES .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
16.1 Definitions
16.2 Polygons
16.3 Solving angles

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
16.1 DEFINITIONS
An angle is measured between two straight lines that join at a point called vertex. An angle is
usually measured in the anticlockwise direction.

An acute angle is an angle greater than 0° but less than 90°.

A right angle is an angle equal to 90°.

An obtuse angle is an angle greater than 90° but less than 180°.

A straight angle or straight line is an angle equal to 180°.

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A reflex angle is an angle greater than 180° but less than 360°.

A complete turn is an angle of 360°.

Complementary angles are two angles that add up to 90°.

x + y = 90°

x
y

Supplementary angles are two angles that add up to 180°.

x + y = 180°

x y

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Adjacent angles are two angles that have a common vertex and one common arm between
them.

Pairs of adjacent angles

a a and b
b b and c
c and d
c
d

Vertically opposite angles are pairs of equal angles between two straight lines that cross at a
common vertex.
Pairs of vertically
opposite angles
a a = c
b b = d
d
c

For vertically opposite angles, a + b = a + d = b + c = c + d = 180°

Angles associated with parallel lines

a b
d c
parallel lines transversal

e f
h g

Parallel lines are always indicated by pairs of arrow ( ) markings. Any straight line
touching or crossing a pair of parallel lines is called a transversal. Arising from a transversal
are sets of vertically opposite angles that are related in the following three ways.
(i) Corresponding angles are equal. a = e, b = f, c = g, d = h
(ii) Alternate angles are equal. a = g, b = h, c = e, d = f
(iii) Allied angles add up to 180°. c + f = 180°, d + e = 180°
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16.2 POLYGONS
A polygon is a plane figure bounded by straight lines. The polygon with the least number of
straight lines is a triangle, bounded by three straight lines. A regular polygon has all its lines
or sides of the same length, and its angles are also equal. Here are some types of polygons
and their properties.

TRIANGLE
A triangle is a three-sided polygon. The sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180°. There are
six types of triangle.

Acute-angled triangle has each of its three angles between 0° and 90°.

A ΔABC is acute-angled

Right-angled triangle has one of its angles equal to 90°. The side opposite the right angle is
called the hypotenuse. The right angle must always be indicated by the symbol unless
otherwise stated that there is a vertical against a horizontal plane.

P ΔPQR is right-angled

Hypotenuse

R Q

Obtuse-angled triangle has one of its angles more than 90°.

ΔJKL is obtuse-angled

L K

Isosceles triangle has two sides and two angles equal. The equal sides are always marked

ΔMNO is isosceles

O N
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Equilateral triangle has all sides and all angles equal. Each interior angle of an equilateral
triangle is equal to 60°.

ΔABC is equilateral

A B

Scalene triangle has no pair of sides and no pair of angles equal.

ΔJKL is scalene

L K

QUADRILATERAL
A quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon. The sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360°.
There are six special quadrilaterals. The following table shows their names and properties.

NAME SHAPE ANGLES SIDES DIAGONALS

- Each interior angle is a - All sides equal in length - Equal in length
right angle - Opposite sides are - Bisect each other
Square parallel - Intersect at right angles
- Each interior angle is a - Opposite sides equal - Equal in length
right angle - Opposite sides are - Bisect each other
Rectangle parallel
- Opposite angles are - All sides equal in length - Bisect each other
equal - Opposite sides are - Intersect at right angles
Rhombus parallel
- Opposite angles are - Opposite sides equal - Bisect each other
equal - Opposite sides are
Parallelogram parallel
- - One pair of opposite -
parallel sides
Trapezium
- One pair of equal - Two pairs of equal - Intersect at right angles
opposite angles adjacent sides - Longer diagonal bisects
Kite shorter diagonal

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OTHER POLYGONS
In general polygons are named after the number of sides they have. Here is a table of
polygons and their special properties.

NUMBER OF SIDES NAME SHAPE SUM OF INTERIOR ANGLES

3 Triangle 180°

4 Quadrilateral 360°

5 Pentagon 540°

6 Hexagon 720°

Heptagon
7 OR 900°
Septagon

8 Octagon 1080°

9 Nonagon 1260°

10 Decagon 1440°

(n – 2) x 180°
n-sides n-sided polygon
- OR
(2n – 4) x 90°
Note that
1. The sum of interior angles of any polygon is given by the formula (n – 2) X 180°
where n is the number of sides of the polygon
2. If the polygon is regular, all its sides are of same length and its interior angles are
equal
3. All exterior angles of a polygon add up to 360°
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
4. Each exterior angle of a regular polygon is given by the formula where n is
𝒏
the number of sides of the polygon
5. The sum of an interior angle and its adjacent exterior angle is a straight angle or 180°
6. A convex polygon is a polygon in which no interior angle is greater than 180°
7. A re-entrant polygon has at least one interior angle more than 180°
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16.3 SOLVING ANGLES
We will now go through some examples.

EXAMPLE 1
In the following diagram find the values of x, y and z

2x
x

y z

From the diagram,

2x + x = 180° straight angle
3x = 180°
x = 60°
y = x = 60° corresponding angles

z + y = 180° straight angle

z + 60° = 180°
z = 180° – 60°
z = 120°

EXAMPLE 2
In the following diagram find the size of the angle marked p

100°

120°

In working out this we can reconstruct the diagram as follows

p 40 60 A
80
100° 100
80
120° 60 40 B

By relating the angles given to those in any of the transversals across the parallel lines,
p + 40° = 180° Allied angles using line B
p + 40° = 180° Straight angle using line A
∴ P = 180° – 40° = 140°
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EXAMPLE 3
In the following diagram find the values of a and b
A E
a

43°
57° b
B C D
From the diagram,
AB̂ C = AĈB = 57° angles in an isosceles triangle
a + 57° + 57° = 180° interior angles of a triangle
a + 114° = 180°
a = 180° – 114°
a = 66°

BĈA + AĈE + EĈD = 180° straight angle

57° + 43° + b = 180°
100° + b = 180°
b = 180° – 100°
b = 80°

EXAMPLE 4
In the following diagram find the size of each of the marked angles

130° s w 119°

From the diagram,

130° + s = 180° straight angle u + s + w = 180°
s = 180° – 130° u + 50° + 61° = 180°
s = 50° u + 111° = 180°
u = 180° – 111°
119° + w = 180° straight angle u = 69°
w = 180° – 119°
w = 61° v = u = 69° alternate angles

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE 5
Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.
D C
110° 105° CD̂ X = 110°
// means parallel DĈB = 105°
CB̂ Y = 75°
DY = CB, DC = YB
75° DY//CB, DC//YB
A X Y B E
From the diagram find
(a) BŶD
(b) CD̂ Y
(c) AX̂ D
(d) CB̂ E

(a) CB̂ Y = DŶX = 75° corresponding angles

DŶX + BŶD = 180° straight angle
75° + BŶD = 180°
BŶD = 180° – 75°
BŶD = 105°

(b) CB̂ Y = CD̂ Y = 75° opposite angles of parallelogram

(c) XD̂ Y = 110° – 75°

= 35°
XD̂ Y + DŶX + DX̂ Y = 180° interior angles of ΔDXY
35° + 75° + DX̂ Y = 180°
DX̂ Y + 110° = 180°
DX̂ Y = 180° – 110°
DX̂ Y = 70°
AX̂ D + DX̂ Y = 180° straight angle
AX̂ D + 70° = 180°
AX̂ D = 180° – 70°
AX̂ D = 110°
AX̂ D = CD̂ X = 110° alternate angles

(d) CB̂ Y + CB̂ E = 180° straight angle

75° + CB̂ E = 180°
CB̂ E = 180° – 75°
CB̂ E = 105°
CB̂ E = BĈD = 105° alternate angles

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EXAMPLE 6
The diagram below shows a regular hexagon. What are the sizes of the angles marked
c and d

a c

For a regular hexagon,

Sum of interior angles = (n – 2) X 180°
= (6 – 2) X 180°
= 4 X 180°
= 720°

𝟕𝟐𝟎°
Size of each interior angle = = 120°
𝟔

a = 120°

𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝟑𝟔𝟎°
Size of each exterior angle = = = 60°
𝒏 𝟔

c = 60°

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 A regular polygon has 20 sides.

(a) Find the size of each of its exterior angles.
(b) Find the size of each of its interior angles.

2 Find the angle marked

B
(a) x°
85°
(b) y°

x°
C
35°

A y°
50° D

Q R
3 T

P 30°
S

P, Q, R, S and U are some of the points of a

U regular polygon. T is a point on SU produced
as shown. R𝐒̂T = 30° .
(a) How many sides does the polygon have?
(b) Find the sum of interior angles of the polygon.

SOLUTIONS

𝟑𝟔𝟎° 2 (a) ∠ABC + ∠BCD = 180° 𝟑𝟔𝟎°

1 (a) ; n = 20 3 (a) = 30°
𝐧 85° + (x + 35) = 180° 𝐧
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
= 18° x = 180° – 120° = 60° 30n = 360
𝟐𝟎
(b) (n – 2) x 180° ; n = 20 (b) ∠BAC = ∠ACD = 35° n = 12 sides
∠BAD = ∠ADE = 50°
(20 – 2) x 180° (b) (n – 2) x 180° ; n = 12
35° + y° = 50°
18 x 180° = 3 240° (12 – 2) x 180° = 1 800°
y° = 15°

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Find the size of the marked angles in the following diagrams.

(a) (b)
z°
50°
x° y°

40° a° c°

b°

2 A regular polygon has an interior angle three times its exterior angle.
(a) Find the size of each interior angle.
(b) What is the name of the polygon?
C
v°
3 The diagram shows a semicircle
B w° D
x° y° ABCDE. A polygon is constructed
to fit in the semicircle as shown.
Find the marked angles.
z°
A E
O

4 Calculate the size of the marked angles in each of the following diagrams.
(a) (b)
c°
b°

60° a°
b°

c°
a°

5 The angles of a triangle are x, 2x and 3x.

(a) Find the size of each angle (b) What is the special name of the triangle?

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 17. SHAPES AND SYMMETRY .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
17.1 Plane and Solid Figures
17.2 Line of Symmetry
17.3 Rotational Symmetry
17.4 Plane of Symmetry

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
17.1 PLANE AND SOLID FIGURES
Below is a table of the common plane and solid shapes or figures.

NAME PLANE SHAPE NAME SOLID FIGURE NET

Square Cube Square faces

Rectangle Cuboid Rectangle faces

Triangle Triangle Prism Triangle and

rectangle faces

Circle Sphere Circle faces

Parallelogram Prism Parallelogram

faces

Trapezium Prism Trapezium and

rectangle faces

Sector Cone Sector and circle

faces

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GENERAL NOTES
. The list of plane shapes includes Cylinder Circle and
all other regular and irregular rectangle faces
polygons, some of which have
been named in Unit 16 Triangle, square
Pyramid and rectangle
. All plane shapes are convertible faces
to solid figures by addition of a
3rd dimension Circle, rectangle
Frustum and trapezium
. Other shapes exist which are faces
modified from the ones listed

17.2 LINE OF SYMMETRY

A line of symmetry is an imaginary axis or line across a plane shape that separates the shape
into equal halves. We determine the number of lines of symmetry of a shape by trial of this
definition, whether a line divides the figure into identical halves. Here are some examples of
lines of symmetry.

Circle

A circle has infinite number of symmetry lines. This is because

any axis we draw across a circle is symmetrical.

Star

A 4-point star can have as many as 4 lines of symmetry

Modified shape

This modified circular shape has 4 lines of symmetry

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17.3 ROTATIONAL SYMMETRY
If we rotate a given shape about a fixed point through an angle and it fits in its own outline,
we say the shape has rotational symmetry. The fixed point is known as centre of rotational
symmetry. The angle through which the shape has to be rotated to fit in its outline gives the
order of rotational symmetry. We can state the order by indicating the angle or stating the
number of times we can have the shape fit in its outline in a complete turn or 360°.

EXAMPLE

We can have the hexagon fit in its own outline, in sides AB for
example, six times. We say it has rotational symmetry of
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
order 6. This rotation is of the angle 𝟔 = 60°. This
means every 60° of rotation about the centre a hexagon fits
A B in its outline.

In general, a regular polygon of n-sides fits in its own outline n times through an angle
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
. The polygon has rotational symmetry of order n.
𝒏

Solid figures also have rotational symmetry with respect to a centre and a particular axis of
rotational symmetry.

EXAMPLE X

When we rotate a square-based

pyramid about an axis such as XY in the
A B diagram, each of the sides ABCD gives it an
order of rotational symmetry. It has
rotational symmetry of order 4 about
axis XY through a right angle.

D C
Y

17.4 PLANE OF SYMMETRY

Just as a line of symmetry divides a plane shape into identical halves, a plane of symmetry
divides a solid figure into identical halves. The identical halves may be similar to the original
figure or different depending on the plane of symmetry. Below are some examples of drawn
planes of symmetry.

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Cylinder

Identical halves also cylinders

Identical halves not cylinders

Cuboid

Identical halves not cuboids

A solid figure can have several planes of symmetry.

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Determine the number of lines of symmetry in each of the following.

(a) (b) (c)

D E F
(d) (e) (f)

2 The following figure is a prism with equilateral triangle faces.

(a) State the number of axes of rotational symmetry of the prism.

(b) State the order of rotational symmetry of the prism.

SOLUTIONS
1 (a) (b) (c)

D E F
(d) (e) (f)

No line of symmetry

2 (a) There are four axes of rotational symmetry, passing through a vertex and the
middle of the opposite triangular face.
(b) Each of the four axes of rotational symmetry has order 3. Therefore, the prism
has rotational symmetry of possible order 3 .

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 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Set 𝝋 = { A, B, C, G, H, U, M, O, Y, Z}
Find the subset of 𝝋 which has letters with
(a) no line of symmetry
(b) only one line of symmetry
(c) only two lines of symmetry
(d) at least two lines of symmetry

2 Find the number of lines of symmetry for each of the following.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

3 For each of the following, state

(i) the number of lines of symmetry
(ii) the order of rotational symmetry

(a) (b) (c)

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 18. TRIGONOMETRY .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
18.1 Pythagoras’ Theorem
18.2 Conversions
18.3 Ratios (SOHCAHTOA)
18.4 Special angles
18.5 The Identity
18.6 The Sine Rule
18.7 The Cosine Rule
18.8 Area of a Triangle
18.9 Calculation for shortest distance

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
18.1 PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM
The Pythagoras’ Theorem only applies to the sides of a right-angled triangle. When given a
triangle, we first confirm that it is right-angled, and that two sides are given and we are
required to find the third side. Then we apply the P.T.

Pythagoras Theorem
a c c2 = a2 + b2

The hypotenuse is always labelled side c and the other two adjacent sides a and b. Using
the P.T we can find any one of the three sides if two sides are known. We simply substitute
the values of the known sides into the Pythagoras formula and solve for the remaining side.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the length of the side marked x in the diagram below.
x
From the diagram,
c = 10, b = 8, a = x
8cm c2 = a2 + b2
102 = x2 + 82
10cm 100 = x2 + 64
100 – 64 = x2
36 = x2
x = √𝟑𝟔 = 6cm
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EXAMPLE 2
In the following diagram find the length of the sides marked x and y.

90m We need to find y first.

c2 = a2 + b2
x c = 340, b = 180, a = y
y 3402 = y2 + 1802
180m 115 600 = y2 + 32 400
115 600 – 32 400 = y2
83 200 = y2
340m y = √𝟖𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 288.4m

We can now solve for x in the other triangle.

c2 = a2 + b2
c = 288.4, b = 90, a = x
288.42 = x2 + 902
83 174.56 = x2 + 8 100
83 174.56 – 8 100 = x2
75 074.56 = x2
x = √𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟕𝟒. 𝟓𝟔 = 273.9m

A set of three whole numbers that satisfy the Pythagoras’ Theorem is known as Pythagorean
triple. As seen above, 6, 8 and 10 are Pythagorean triples. Other sets are 3, 4 and 5, 9, 12
and 15, 120, 160 and 200 and so on.

18.2 CONVERSIONS
The three trigonometric ratios we will use at this level are the sine, cosine and tangent. These
ratios relate the angles in a triangle to its sides. Since the calculation of sides and angles
involves two different units, sides in units of length and angles in degrees, we must have a
way of converting these units to a common value. We can convert from an angle to a
reference unit of length and from length to a reference unit of angle by using logarithmic
tables or scientific calculators. Here we shall use scientific calculators.

CONVERTING FROM AN ANGLE

To convert from an angle to a number, the input procedure on most calculators is as follows
1st : Press the ratio button
e.g
sin 3rd : Press the Equal sign

=
2nd : Input the angle digit
e.g The display should now show
46
0.7193398
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EXAMPLE
Find the value of 58° to 2 decimal places.

sin58° = 0.85
cos58° = 0.53
tan58° = 1.60

CONVERTING TO AN ANGLE
When finding an angle we use the inverse ratios, which are on the second function of the
same ratio buttons on the calculator. The second function button appears on most calculators
as while on others as . Here are the steps.
2ndF SHIFT

1st : Press the Second Function button

2ndF
2nd : Press the ratio button
e.g
sin on display now sin-1

3rd : Input the length digit

e.g
0.54033
4th : Press the Equal sign
The display should now show
=
32.7061062

Ensure that before using the calculator all data in its memory is cleared. Clear calculator
memory by following the steps:

2ndF M-CLR All/1/0 =

EXAMPLE
Find the acute angle that has the equivalent value of 0.75435.

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Let the acute angle be 𝜽

sin𝜽 = 0.75435
𝜽 = sin-1 0.75435 = 48.96860658 = 49.0°

cos𝜽 = 0.75435
𝜽 = cos-1 0.75435 = 41.03139342 = 41.0°

tan𝜽 = 0.75435
𝜽 = tan-1 0.75435 = 37.02907632 = 37.0°

18.3 RATIOS (SOHCAHTOA)

The three ratios relate the angles of a right-angled triangle to its sides. This means we apply
the SOHCAHTOA to right-angled triangles only. The three sides of a right triangle are
labelled with respect to one interior angle 𝜽 as follows

Opposite Hypotenuse
Adjacent Hypotenuse

𝜽
Adjacent Opposite

The ratios are given as

(SOH)
𝐎𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞
sin𝜽 = 𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐬𝐞

(CAH)
𝐀𝐝𝐣𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭
cos𝜽 = 𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐬𝐞

(TOA)
𝐎𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞
tan𝜽 = 𝐀𝐝𝐣𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭

Note that the tangent ratio

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉
tan𝜽 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉

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Each of the three ratios involves one angle (apart from the right angle) and two sides. To
find any unknown we must identify the values given and choose the appropriate ratio that is
satisfied by the condition given.

EXAMPLE 1
Solve for the marked variable in the diagrams below
(a) (b)
46°

x
35cm 23cm

𝜽
11cm
(a) From the diagram,
𝜽 = 46°, Opposite = x, Hypotenuse = 35cm
(SOH)
𝐎𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞
sin𝜽 = 𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐬𝐞

𝐱
sin46° = cross multiplying fractions
𝟑𝟓

x = 35sin46°
= 35 X 0.7193398
= 25.17689301
= 25cm

(b) From the diagram,

𝜽 = ? Opposite = 23cm, Adjacent = 11cm
(TOA)
𝐎𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞
tan𝜽 =
𝐀𝐝𝐣𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭

𝟐𝟑
tan𝜽 = dividing fraction
𝟏𝟏

tan𝜽 = 2.090909091
𝜽= tan-1 2.090909091
= 64.44003483
= 64.4°

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EXAMPLE 2
The diagram below shows vertical metal bars BD and AE welded to horizontal metal bars
AB and EC. Another metal bar from A to D cuts EC at F.

D
40°
11.5

E C
F

A 10.2 B

Given that AB = 10.2m, DE = 11.5m, and CD̂ F = 40°, calculate, correct to 1 decimal
place:
(a) the length of CD
(b) the length of AF, given that AD = 15.9m
(c) angle AÊD

(a) the side CD is on right triangle CDE in which EC = AB = 10.2m and ED = 11.5m. Since
only sides are involved, we use the Pythagoras’ Theorem.

c2 = a2 + b2
c = 11.5, a = 10.2, b = CD
11.52 = 10.22 + CD2
132.25 = 104.04 + CD2
132.25 – 104.04 = CD2
28.21 = CD2
CD = √𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟏 = 5.3m

(b) the side AF is part of the length AD which is divided in two at F. We will need to find the
length FD, which is the hypotenuse in right triangle CDF, using the ratios.
In ΔCDF,
𝜽 = 40°, Adjacent = 5.3m, Hypotenuse = ?
(CAH)
𝐀𝐝𝐣𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭
cos𝜽 = 𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐬𝐞

𝟓.𝟑
cos40° = 𝐅𝐃
cross multiplying fractions

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 FDcos40° = 5.3

𝟓.𝟑
FD = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟒𝟎°

𝟓.𝟑
= 𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟔𝟎
= 6.9m
AF = AD – FD
= 15.9 – 6.9
= 9m

(c) angle AÊD

The angle AÊD is a combination of two angles, the right angle AÊF in rectangle ABCE
and the acute angle DÊF. Since we know AÊF = 90°, we will calculate for DÊF using
ratios in ΔCDE.
In ΔCDE,
𝜽 = ?, Opposite = 5.3m, Hypotenuse = 11.5m
(SOH)
𝐎𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞
sin𝜽 = 𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐬𝐞

𝟓.𝟑
sin𝜽 = dividing fraction
𝟏𝟏.𝟓

sin𝜽 = 0.4609
𝜽 = sin-1 0.4609
= 27.4°
Angle AÊD = AÊD + DÊF
= 90° + 27.4°
= 117.4°

Note that
 When multiplying a ratio by a side we always write the side as a coefficient of the
angle,
e.g 23cm X cos34° can be written as 23cos34°
and not as cos34°23

 Decimal numbers used during calculations should be rounded off to at least 4 digits
and the final answer left to three significant figures if it is a side and to one decimal
place if it is an angle. In most situations however, the required degree of accuracy will
be given.

 Every answer must be left with an appropriate unit of measurement

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18.4 SPECIAL ANGLES
The following sizes of angles are often used in situations in which electronic calculators or
mathematical tables will not be required. Their values can be found readily in model right
triangles.

ANGLE 45° (Model: Isosceles Right Triangle)

From this model triangle, the hypotenuse is √𝟐

by Pythagoras’ Theorem. For an isosceles right
triangle, the two equal angles are each 45°. We can
1 √𝟐 therefore use this model to find the value of 45° using
the ratios.
45°
1

𝐎𝐩𝐩 𝟏
sin𝜽 = sin45° =
𝐇𝐲𝐩 √𝟐

𝐀𝐝𝐣 𝟏
cos𝜽 = cos45° =
𝐇𝐲𝐩 √𝟐

𝐎𝐩𝐩 𝟏
tan𝜽 = tan45° = = 1
𝐀𝐝𝐣 𝟏

ANGLES 30° AND 60° (Model: Equilateral Triangle)

In this model we take an equilateral triangle of sides 2

units of length. Each interior angle is 60°. When we
30° construct a perpendicular from one vertex to a base, the
2 2 vertical line, will by Pythagoras’ Theorem be √𝟑 and will
√𝟑 bisect the angle and the base side as shown.

60°
1 1

𝟏 √𝟑
sin30° = sin60° =
𝟐 𝟐

√𝟑 𝟏
cos30° = cos60° =
𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 √𝟑
tan30° = tan60° = = √𝟑
√𝟑 𝟏

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ANGLES 0° AND 90° (Model: 1st Quadrant)

Y In this model we have a point P moving from

p positive x-axis rotating in the plane about the
centre O, in anticlockwise direction. We let
distance of P from the centre be r. When P is
r y at X, it is x-units away from O, that is, x = r
and it has made 0° turning at X. When P
𝜽 moves to Y, it is y-units away from O, that is,
0 x X y = r and it has made 90° turning at Y.

From the diagram,

𝐲 𝐱 𝐲
sin𝜽 = cos𝜽 = tan𝜽 =
𝐫 𝐫 𝐱

At 0°, At 90°,
y = 0 x = 0
x = r y = r

𝟎 𝐲 𝐫
sin0° = = 0 sin90° = = = 1
𝐫 𝐫 𝐫

𝐱 𝐫 𝟎
cos0° = = = 1 cos90° = = 0
𝐫 𝐫 𝐫

𝟎 𝐲
tan0° = = 0 tan90° = = Undefined
𝐱 𝟎

Applying this analysis to the angles 180° and 270° we have the following results:

At 180°, At 270°,
y = 0 x = 0
r = -x r = -y

𝟎 −𝐲 −𝐫
sin180° = = 0 sin270° = = = -1
𝐫 𝐫 𝐫

−𝐱 −𝐫 𝟎
cos180° = = = -1 cos270° = = 0
𝐫 𝐫 𝐫

𝟎 −𝐲
tan180° = = 0 tan270° = = Undefined
−𝐱 𝟎

At 360° the same values as at 0° obtain.

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QUADRANTS
Let us check out this information quickly

RATIO (0° – 90°) (90° – 180°) (180° – 270°) (270° – 360°)

56° 124° 236° 304°
Sine 0.8290 0.8290 -0.8290 -0.8290
Cosine 0.5592 -0.5592 -0.5592 0.5592
Tangent 1.4826 -1.4826 1.4826 -1.4826

From the table we notice that the values of 56°, 124°, 236° and 304° are exactly the same
except for the negative sign for all the three ratios. This is because the value of any angle
greater than 90° is the same as that of a corresponding acute angle between 0° – 90°. The
negative sign shows the actual possible size of the angle as we can see that if the angle is
itself acute it will have positive values for the three ratios.

The following diagram summarises the four quadrants and the formulae for equivalent acute
angles for angles above 90°.

II I
SINE ALL
P

(180° – 𝜽)
𝜽
0
(𝜽 – 180°) (360° – 𝜽)

TANGENT COSINE
III IV

From the table, angles in the first quadrant have positive values for ALL ratios. Those in the
second quadrant have negative values for the cosine and tangent ratios and only positive for
the SINE ratio. Similarly, in Quadrant III values are only positive for TANGENT whereas in
the fourth quadrant they are positive only for COSINE.

To find the equivalent acute angle for an angle in the second quadrant the formula is
180° – 𝜽. For example, the acute angle which has the same cosine value as 173° is
180° – 173° = 7°. The only difference in the two values are that for 173° it is negative while
for 7° it is positive.
cos173° = -0.992546151
cos7° = 0.992546151

The same applies to angles in the third and fourth quadrants.

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18.5 THE IDENTITY
From the diagram below we can show that relating the Pythagoras’ Theorem to the cosine
and sine ratio for a right triangle gives us

sin2 𝜽 + cos2 𝜽 = 1

which is known as the Identity of trigonometric ratios.

r y
𝜽
0 x
By Pythagoras’ Theorem

r2 = x2 + y2
From the diagram,
𝒚 𝐱
sin𝜽 = 𝐫 cos𝜽 = 𝐫
If we square the ratios,
(sin𝜽)2 = sin𝜽 X sin𝜽 is written in short as sin2 𝜽
(cos𝜽)2 = cos𝜽 X cos𝜽 is written in short as cos2 𝜽
Therefore,
𝐲 𝒚𝟐
sin2 𝜽 = (𝐫)2 = …….. (i)
𝐫𝟐

𝐱 𝐱𝟐
cos2 𝜽 = (𝐫)2 = …….(ii)
𝐫𝟐
Adding (i) and (ii) we have

𝐲𝟐 𝐱𝟐
sin2 𝜽 + cos2 𝜽 = 𝐫𝟐
+ 𝐫𝟐
combining fractions with same denominator

𝐱𝟐 + 𝐲𝟐
= 𝐫𝟐
by P.T x2 + y2 = r2

𝐫𝟐
= = 1
𝐫𝟐

∴ sin2 𝜽 + cos2 𝜽 = 1

We use the Identity to simplify and find certain values without calculators or tables.

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EXAMPLE
Given that sin𝜽 = 0.6, find the value of cos𝜽.

If sin𝜽 = 0.6. sin2 𝜽 = (0.6)2 = 0.6 X 0.6 = 0.36

From sin2 𝜽 + cos2 𝜽 = 1
(0.6)2 + cos2 𝜽 = 1
0.36 + cos2 𝜽 = 1
cos2 𝜽 = 1 – 0.36
cos2 𝜽 = 0.64 taking square root both sides
cos𝜽 = √𝟎. 𝟔𝟒 = 0.8

18.6 THE SINE RULE

This rule shows that the ratio of the sine of an angle to its opposite side is always the same
for all the three pairs of angles and sides in a triangle. It is given as

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐁 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐂 𝐚 𝐛 𝐜

= = OR = =
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐁 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐂

where a, b and c are the three sides in a triangle opposite angles at vertices A, B and C
respectively.
We apply the sine rule in non-right-angled triangles, any triangle other than the right-angled
triangle in which,
Two sides and a non-included angle are given, or
Two angles and any one side are given

We derive the sine rule as follows

C The triangle ABC has vertices at A, B and C.

The angles in the triangle are represented by
the three vertices. The side opposite an angle
b a is represented by its lower case letter. We
h construct a height h within the triangle so
that we have two right triangles as shown.
We apply the sine ratio to this model.

A c B
From the diagram,

𝐡
sinA = cross multiplying fractions
𝐛

h = bsinA ……….(i)
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 𝐡
sinB = cross multiplying fractions
𝐚

h = asinB ………. (ii)

We can see that (i) and (ii) are both expressions in terms of the height h.
This means
h = bsinA = asinB
From bsinA = asinB we divide both sides by ab

𝐛𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐀 𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐁
=
𝐚𝐛 𝐚𝐛

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐁
=
𝐚 𝐛

By constructing the height from another vertex we can show in the same way that

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐁 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐂

= =
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜

Given a triangle in which two sides and one angle is given, the angle is called “included angle”
if it is at the vertex of the two sides and “non-included angle” if it is not at the vertex of the
two sides given.

(i) (ii)

Included angle Non-included angles

The sine rule is applied in type (ii) triangles in which two sides and any one non-included
angle is given.

EXAMPLE
Find the side marked x in the following diagram
R

74° From the diagram,

P = 52°, p = 20cm, R = 74°, r = x
20cm
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐏 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐑
=
𝐩 𝐫
52°
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟓𝟐° 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟕𝟒°
P x Q = cross multiplying
𝟐𝟎 𝐱

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 xsin52° = 20sin74° dividing by sin52°

𝟐𝟎𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟕𝟒°
x = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟓𝟐°

𝟐𝟎 𝐗 𝟎.𝟗𝟔𝟏𝟑
= 𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝟖𝟎

= 24.4cm

Note that only two fractions are used in each case involving the sine rule.

18.7 COSINE RULE

The cosine rule applies to triangles in which
Two sides and the included angle are given, or
All three sides are given

C
From the diagram,
𝐡
sinA = 𝐛 ,
b h a h = bsinA …….(i)

𝐀𝐃
cosA = 𝐛 ,
AD = bcosA …… (ii)
A D B
c
But side AB = c opposite vertex C. We can have an expression of the parts AD and DB in
terms of c.
DB = AB – AD = c – bcosA ……. (iii)

Applying the Pythagoras’ Theorem to triangle BCD,

CB2 = CD2 + DB2

a2 = (bsinA)2 + (c – bcosA)2 expanding (c – bcosA)2
= b2sin2A + c2 – 2cbcosA + b2cos2A
= b2sin2A + b2cos2A + c2 – 2cbcosA
= b2(sin2A + cos2A) + c2 – 2cbcosA equate the Identity
= b2(1) + c2 – 2cbcosA
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2cbcosA

The expression a2 = b2 + c2 – 2cbcosA is called the cosine rule. We can extend the
analysis to show that the expression is the same for the sides b and c. We can also make

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cosA the subject of the formula to get an expression in terms of the angle at vertex A which
can be used directly in triangles where all three sides are given. In general,

a2 = b2 + c2 – 2cbcosA
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2cacosB
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2abcosC

𝐛𝟐 + 𝐜 𝟐 − 𝐚𝟐
cosA = A
𝟐𝐛𝐜
a
𝐚𝟐 + 𝐜 𝟐 − 𝐛𝟐
cosB = 𝟐𝐚𝐜

𝐚𝟐 + 𝐛𝟐 − 𝐜 𝟐
cosC = C c b B
𝟐𝐚𝐛

The circle of variables is very helpful in remembering the six versions of the cosine rule before
one masters them by ‘heart’. Follow the clockwise order of the variables in the formulae.

When using the cosine rule, take note of two important points:
o The multiplication with the cosine of the angle (e.g 2abcosC term) must be done
first before the subtraction, according to BODMAS
o Some cosine values will be negative, for angles in the second and third quadrant. This
will effectively change the ‘minus’ sign after the second term to a ‘plus’

EXAMPLE
Find the length of the side marked y

50km From the diagram,

120° L = 120°, l = y, m = 50km, k = 40km

M 40km L
l2 = k2 + m2 – 2mkcosL
y2 = 402 + 502 – 2(50)(40)cos120°
= 1600 + 2500 – 4000cos120°
= 4100 – 4000(-0.5)
= 4100 + 2000
= 6100

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 y2 = 6100
y = √𝟔𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 78.1km

18.8 AREA OF A TRIANGLE

As it will be seen later in Unit 22, the area of a triangle is given as

𝟏
A = X base x height ……. (i)
𝟐

We can apply the sine ratio in a model triangle and get the trigonometric formula equivalent
for the area of a triangle.
C
From the diagram,
𝐡
sinA = 𝐛
h = bsinA ……(ii)
b h

A c B
We can now substitute the expression for the height (ii) into the formula (i) in which the
height is h and the base is side c opposite vertex C.

𝟏
A = X base X height; base = c, height = bsinA
𝟐

𝟏
A = X c X bsinA
𝟐

𝟏
A = 𝟐
bcsinA

We use this formula in a triangle in which two sides and the included angle are given, just like
the condition for the cosine rule.

EXAMPLE
Find the area of triangle DEF
From the diagram,
D E = 100°, d = 13m, f = 15m
𝟏
A = X d X fsinE
𝟐
𝟏
15m = 𝟐 (13)(15)sin100°
= 97.5(0.9848)
100° F = 96.0m2
E 13m
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18.9 CALCULATION FOR SHORTEST DISTANCE
In a triangle ‘shortest distance’ is another expression for the perpendicular from one vertex
to a side, which is height. In order to find the shortest distance, we can use either one of the
two formulae for the area of a triangle and solve for height.

EXAMPLE
For the given triangle find the shortest distance from D to PQ

D
9.8m

P 32°

16.3m

Q
Method 1
We will first find the area of ΔPQD

P = 32°, d = 16.3m, q = 9.8m

We can now find the height using the
𝟏
A = X d X qsinP value of area we have found
𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟐 (16.3)(9.8)sin32° A = 𝟐 X base X height
= 79.87(0.5299) A = 42.3m2, base = PQ = 16.3m, height = ?
= 42.3m2
𝟏
42.3 = 𝟐 X 16.3 X h
42.3 = 8.15h
𝟒𝟐.𝟑
= h
𝟖.𝟏𝟓
h = 5.2m
Shortest distance = 5.2m
Method 2
The perpendicular from D to PQ gives us two right triangles. We will use the one with side
PD as hypotenuse in the sine ratio. D
𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 9.8m
sinP = , P = 32°, PD = 9.8m
𝐏𝐃
P 32° h
𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
sin32° = 𝟗.𝟖 cross multiplying
height = 9.8sin32° 16.3m
= 9.8(0.5299)
= 5.2m shortest distance Q

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 A supermarket installed three surveillance cameras in the corners of the store.

Camera A was positioned 25 m from camera B. Camera C was positioned 32 m from
̂ C = 134° as shown.
camera A. A𝐁
A

32 m

25 m
C

134°
Calculate B

(a) the distance between camera B and camera C.

(b) the area of triangle ABC.

2 P

In triangle PQR, PQ = 9 cm,

15 cm 9 cm PR = 15 cm and QR = 12 cm.
̂S .
Find cosP𝐑
𝜽
S R 12 cm Q

SOLUTIONS
̂𝐂
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐀𝐁 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐀𝐂̂𝐁 ̂𝐂
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐁𝐀 ̂𝐂
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐀𝐁 𝟏 𝐑𝐐
1 (a) = = (b) Area = bcsinA 2 ̂Q =
cosP𝐑
𝐛 𝐜 𝐚 𝐛 𝟐 𝐏𝐑
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟏𝟑𝟒° 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐀𝐂̂𝐁 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟏𝟐° 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟏𝟑𝟒° 𝟏 𝟏𝟐
= = = x 32 x 25 x sin12° ̂Q =
cosP𝐑
𝟑𝟐 𝟐𝟓 𝐚 𝟑𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝟓
25sin134° = 32sinA𝐂̂B asin134° = 32sin12° = 0.5 x 32 x 25 x 0.208 ̂Q
cos𝜽 = -cosP𝐑
𝟐𝟓𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟏𝟑𝟒° 𝟑𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟏𝟐° −𝟏𝟐
= sinA𝐂̂B a = = 83.2 cos𝜽 =
𝟑𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟏𝟑𝟒° 𝟏𝟓
𝟔.𝟔𝟓𝟐𝟖
0.56198 = sinA𝐂̂B = Area = 83.2 m2 = -0.8
𝟎.𝟕𝟏𝟗𝟑
A𝐂̂B = 34° = 9.25 ̂ S = -0.8
cosP𝐑
̂ C = 180° – (134° + 34°)
B𝐀 BC = 9.25 m 𝜽 = 140°
= 12°
̂𝐂
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐁𝐀 ̂𝐂
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐀𝐁
=
𝐚 𝐛

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Three fishing camps are located at walking distances along a flood plain as
shown. Camp P is 880m from camp Q and 950m from camp R.
Point S along QR is a selling centre for the three camps. Given also that
̂R = 123° ,
Q𝐏
Flood plain

P 950
R
123°

880
S

Q
Calculate , leaving your answer correct to 1 decimal place,
(a) the distance between camps Q and R in kilometres .
(b) the area of ΔQPR , in square metres .
(c) the distance PS, given that S is closest to P .

2
(a) P
(b) D 5m B
33°
12 cm

10 cm 10 m
67° Q

41° 50°
52° A C
S R
Calculate Calculate
(i) PR (i) AC
(ii) ̂S
P𝐑 (ii) DC
(iii) SR (iii) AD

3 Find the values of 𝜽 such that cos𝜽 = 0.515 for 0° ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 360°

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 19. BEARINGS .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
19.1 Compass Bearings
19.2 Three Figure Bearings
19.3 Angles of Elevation and Depression
19.4 Scale Drawing

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
19.1 COMPASS BEARINGS
A compass is a magnetic instrument used to establish direction. Compass bearings, or
nautical bearings refers to the method used to determine the direction of a point from
another. The four main directional points on the compass are North (N), South (S), East (E)
and West (W). From these cardinal points we can find other directions as shown.

Cardinal Points

W E

NNW N
NNE
NW NE
WNW ENE
Examples of other directions
W E

WSW ESE

SW SE
SSW S SSE

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
The cardinal points are all a right angle (90°) apart, measured as equal divisions of a
complete turn, 360°. The other points are measured in half units of cardinal points. For
example, North West is exactly half way between North and West and it is 45° from either
one of the two cardinal points. The points are named from either the North or South towards
either the East or West. It is therefore not acceptable to name the direction half way between
the East and the North as East North, it is North East.

We write compass bearings in the following notation:

Example,
NNE is N22.5°NE, read as 22.5°NE of N
NE is N45°E, read as 45°E of N
SSW is S22.5°SW, read as 22.5°SW of S

19.2 THREE FIGURE BEARINGS

The most popular way of determining direction is whole-circle or three figure bearings. By
this method,
 The North is taken to be 000°
 All directions are measured from the North clockwise
 All directions are given in three digits

When establishing the bearing of one point from another we take it that there is a Northing
at every point. The bearing is measured from the Northing of the reference point in the
clockwise direction to the bearing line of the other point.

EXAMPLE 1 N

B From the diagram,

The bearing of B from A is the angle we measure
at A clockwise to the line joining to B
65° The bearing of A from B is the angle we measure
at B clockwise to the line joining to A
N A N
N

B B

65° 65°

A A

(i) Bearing of B from A (ii) Bearing of A from B

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 The calculations on bearings involve angles associated with parallel lines, since the
direction North is vertically parallel at any two points. The bearing line between two
points is a transversal. In the example above,

(i) Bearing of B from A (ii) Bearing of A from B

a + 65° = 360° b + 65° = 180° Allied angles

a = 360° – 65° b = 180° – 65°
= 295° = 115°
Note that if the bearing found is a number of less than three digits, zeros are inserted
to make it three-figured,
e.g 14° will be written as 014°
9° will be written as 009°

EXAMPLE 2
In the following diagram Q is due East of P. Find the bearing of R from P, and the bearing
of P from R
R

28°
P Q
From the diagram,
If Q is due East of P, we can reconstruct the bearing as follows
N

R
N

28°
P Q

Bearing of R from P Bearing of P from R

p + 28° = 90° right angle r = 180° + 62° (alternate)
p = 90° – 28° = 242°
= 62°
= 062°

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
19.3 ANGLES OF ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION
At every point there exists what is known as a “line of sight” or eye level. The tilt or angle
made downward with respect to the line of sight is called angle of depression. The tilt or
angle made upward with respect to the line of sight is called angle of elevation.

Let A and B be two points as shown

B Line of sight at B
b

a
Line of sight at A A

a is the angle of elevation

b is the angle of depression

Calculations on angles of elevation and depression are often integrated into scale drawing
and trigonometry.

19.4 SCALE DRAWING

When the boundaries of a city or country are drawn, actual distances on ground are
represented on paper by units that can fit on the map. The relation between actual distances
and those used on the map is called a scale. A scale is given in ratio form,
a : A
where a is the measurement on paper and A is the actual distance on ground.

A standard scale is given in centimetres.

Where angles are involved in scale drawing, a Protractor is used to take actual angle sizes as
provided in the drawing situation. We will look at how to use a protractor in Unit 23.

EXAMPLE 1
A map of two villages is drawn to a scale of 1 : 10 000. Find the actual distance between the
villages if the distance between them on the map is 4cm.

Scale 1 : 10 000
1cm : 10 000cm
Actual distance 4cm : x applying calculation of ratio and proportion
x = 40 000cm = 400m

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE 2
Mr Moonga’s house stands at 6.7 metres. His daughter, Nancy, was standing 10 metres
from the house looking at a pigeon on the roof. The angle of depression of Nancy from the
top of the roof was 28°. Use a scale of 1 : 100 to sketch the location of the house, Nancy
and the pigeon. Ensure that you calculate and apply Nancy’s height in the sketch.

PLAN P
A
28°

6.7m
5.3m
B 28° C

1.4m

1.4m

H 10m R

To find Nancy’s height RC = HB, we need to find the vertical length AB in right triangle
ABC. Since BC = HR = 10m,
𝐀𝐁
tan28° = 𝟏𝟎 cross multiplying fractions
AB = 10tan28°
= 10(0.5317)
= 5.3m
HB = AH – AB
= 6.7 – 5.3
= 1.4
Nancy is 1.4m tall.

On the sketch we need to apply the scale 1 : 100. Since 100cm = 1m, every centimetre
we draw will represent 1m. Therefore, the distance between the house and Nancy on the
sketch will be 10cm and that of the height of the house 6.7cm whereas Nancy’s height will
be 1.4cm.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 A map is drawn to a scale of 1 : 100 000 . Find

(a) the distance in kilometres between two places that are 4.5 cm apart on the map.
(b) the distance on the map between two places that are 20 km apart.

2 Three health centres A , B and C are located such that

A is due west of B
B is due south of C
A is as far from B as C
(a) Sketch the map of the three health centres.
(b) Find the bearing of
(i) A from C
(ii) A from B

SOLUTIONS
1 From the scale,
1 : 100 000
1 cm : 100 000 cm
1 km = 1 000 m = 100 000 cm
1 cm : 1 km
(a) 1 cm : 1 km (b) 1 cm : 1 km
4.5 cm : d d : 20 km
d = 4.5 x 1 = 4.5 km d = 20 x 1 = 20 cm
N N
2 (a) (b) (i)
C (ii) C

A B A B
∠BAC = ∠ACB = 45°
(angles of isosceles ∆ABC) Bearing of A from B is
Bearing of A from C is 360° – 90°
180° + 45° = 270°

A = 225°
B

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 The diagram shows the cross section of a support beacon of a bridge under construction.
D

6m 9m

E C
142°

A B
12 m

Given that AB = 12 m , CD = 9 m , DE = 6 m and B𝐂̂E = 142° ,

(a) Calculate, giving your answer correct to 1 decimal place,
(i) the angle of elevation of D from C
(ii) CE
̂C
(iii) A𝐁
(b) Given also that the area of ABCE is 36 m2 , calculate
(i) the length of AE
(ii) the angle of depression of B from D, giving your answer correct to 2
significant figures.

2 The diagram below shows a beehive in a tree at B. A ladder AB is used when checking
the progress of the hive. C is the foot of the tree. Given that AB = 7.4 m ,
AC = 3.6 m , and giving your answers correct to 1 decimal place,
B
(a) calculate the height of the tree BC .
E
7.4 m
(b) calculate the angle of elevation of B from A .
(c) a second ladder DE is used by an assistant when
4.5 m
collecting honey. Given that CE = 4.5 m and

D 70° A angle CDE = 70° , calculate

C 3.6 m
(i) DC (ii) BE

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 20. CIRCLE THEOREMS .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
20.1 Definitions
20.2 The Chord
20.3 Angles of a Circle
20.4 The Cyclic Quadrilateral
20.5 The Tangent

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
20.1 DEFINITIONS
A circle is defined as the locus of points equidistant A
from a fixed point, called the centre of the circle.
F x
From the diagram,
- O is the Centre. It is always indicated where
it applies. If the centre is not given, no
assumption should be made of its E B
inclusion in the circle situation. O
- OA is the radius. The distance from the
centre to any point on the perimeter or
circumference of the circle. The plural of D C
radius is radii. Other radii in the diagram are
OB, OD and OE.
- AFE is the arc. Any part of a curved length on the y
circumference is an arc. Other arcs in the diagram are ED, DyC, CB and AxB. Any two
points at the ends of an arc split the circle into two arcs, a longer arc called the major
arc, and a shorter arc called the minor arc. In the diagram, AFE is a minor arc,
AxBCyDE is a major arc.
- AB is a chord. Any straight line joining two points on the circumference of the circle is
a chord. Other chords in the diagram are DC and EOB. EOB is a special kind of chord
called diameter.
- EOB is the diameter. A straight line joining two points on the circumference of a circle
that passes through the centre is a diameter. A diameter is equivalent to 2 radii. In
the diagram, OE and OB are radii. And OE + OB = EOB, which is the diameter.
- DOE is the sector. A sector is a region in a circle bound between two radii and an arc.
other sectors in the diagram are AOE and AOB.
- ABx is the segment. A segment is a region in a circle bound between a chord and an
arc. Every chord cuts the circle into a minor and a major segment. Another segment in
the diagram is DCy.
- A diameter cuts the circle into two equal halves called semi circles. In the diagram,
EOBxAF and EOBCyD are semi circles.
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
20.2 THE CHORD
There are two theorems of the chord.

(Theorem 1) PERPENDICULAR TO A CHORD FROM CENTRE BISECTS CHORD

A line joining a chord from the centre at right angle bisects the chord.

From diagram (i), the line OD intersects the chord AB

at D. OD divides the chord in two equal halves. That is, A
AD = DB
(i)
In diagram (ii), OA and OB are radii. This implies that D O
ΔABO is isosceles. The perpendicular from O to AB
bisects AÔB and bisects AB at D.
B
We can use this important theorem to find the length
of a chord if we know how far it is from the centre of A
known radius. Alternatively, we can find the radius of (ii)
the circle if we know the length of the chord and how
far the chord is from the centre of the circle. D O

(Theorem 2) TWO CHORDS EQUIDISTANT FROM CENTRE ARE EQUAL

M If two chords in the circle are the same distance away from the
(iii) centre, they are equal in length.
A
K
In diagram (iii), if OD = OK, then AB = MN. It also
D O follows that the arcs AB and MN are equal.
N

B In diagram (iv), we have two congruent isosceles

triangles AOB and MON. OA, OB, OM and ON are
M radii and AÔB = MÔN. This also follows that equal
(iv) A
K arcs subtend equal angles at the centre of the circle.

D O N
These two theorems on the chord involve the properties
of isosceles triangles and are useful in the calculation of
B angles and sides of triangles within a circle.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE 1

A circle has radius 15cm and a chord is drawn in the circle 9cm from the centre. Find the
length of the chord.

From the diagram, OK = 15cm and OH = 9cm. We

J seek to find JK. We will use Pythagoras’ Theorem to
find HK. We know that JK = 2HK.

H 9 O c2 = a2 + b2
15 c = 15, a = 9, b = x
152 = 92 + x2
K 225 = 81 + x2
225 – 81 = x2
144 = x2
x = √𝟏𝟒𝟒 = 12
Since HK = 12cm, the length of the chord
JK = 2HK = 2(12) = 24cm

EXAMPLE 2
In the following diagram, PR = 6cm, OR = 8cm and OS = 9cm. Find the length of the
chord XY
P

R 8cm O X OP, by P.T

9cm
c2 = a2 + b2
S c = y, a = 6, b = 8
Q
y2 = 62 + 82
Y = 36 + 64
= 100
y = √𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 10cm
The radius of the circle is 10cm. That is, OP = OQ = OX = OY = 10cm
We will now use OX and OS to solve for SX. We know that XY = 2SX
c2 = a2 + b2
c = 10, a = 9, b = z
102 = 92 + z2
100 = 81 + z2
100 – 81 = z2
19 = z2
z = √𝟏𝟗 = 4.4
The length of the chord XY = 2SX = 2(4.4) = 8.8cm

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
20.3 ANGLES OF A CIRCLE
There are three theorems on the angles of a circle.

(Theorem 3) ANGLE AT THE CENTRE IS TWICE ANGLE AT CIRCUMFERENCE

R The angle at the centre of the circle is twice the angle
at the circumference subtended from the same arc or chord.

From the diagram, PÔQ = 2PR̂ Q

O
We can show this theorem by constructing line ROj. From
P this line we have two isosceles triangles POR and QOR.
In ΔPOR, OR̂ P = OP̂ R angles of isosceles
j Q In ΔQOR, OR̂ Q = OQ̂ R angles of isosceles
If we let OR̂ P = OP̂ R = x and OR̂ Q = OQ̂ R = y
Then,
OR̂ P + OP̂ R = x + x = 2x
OR̂ Q + OQ̂ R = y + y = 2y

PR̂ Q = OR̂ P + OR̂ Q = x + y ……………..(i)

But PÔj = 2x exterior angle of ΔPOR

QÔj = 2y exterior angle of ΔQOR

Therefore,
PÔQ = PÔj + QÔj = 2x + 2y = 2(x + y) …………….(ii)

From (i) and (ii) we see that

PÔQ = 2PR̂ Q

(Theorem 4) ANGLES IN THE SAME SEGMENT ARE EQUAL

Angles at the circumference subtended in the same segment from the same arc are equal.

T
In the diagram, TUj is the minor segment and
TSRQU is the major segment. S x j
2x
We have already shown in Theorem 3 that TÔU = 2TR̂ U O
We can show in the same way, relating TÔU to the angles U
at points S and Q. x x

R
Q

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
(Theorem 5) ANGLE IN A SEMI CIRCLE IS RIGHT ANGLE
An angle at the circumference subtended from a diameter is a right angle.

In the diagram, R
PR̂ Q = 90° right angle x y

P x y Q
We use the same principles as in Theorem 3. 2x O 2y

We saw that PR̂ Q = x + y ………(i)

And that PÔQ = 2(x + y) …….(ii)
j
If we let PÔQ = 180° straight angle as in this diagram
Then,
2(x + y) = 180° dividing through by 2
x + y = 90°
That is,
PR̂ Q = 90°

EXAMPLE
Find the angle marked k in each of the following situations

(a) T (b)
B
k C
55°

M 47° k
N A
O O
32°

From the diagram, D

OT, ON, OM are radii From the diagram,
MON is diameter OA, OB are radii
OT̂N = ON̂ T = 47° angles in isosceles ΔOTN ΔAOB is isosceles
MT̂N = 90° angle in a semi circle OÂB = OB̂ A = 55°
MT̂N = MT̂ O + OT̂ N (angles in isosceles)
90° = k + 47° BÂC = BD̂ C = 32°
90° – 47° = k (angles in same segment on arc BC)
k = 43° k = 55° – 32° = 23°

189
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
20.4 THE CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL
There are two theorems of the cyclic quadrilateral.

A cyclic quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon within a circle such that all its vertices are on the
circumference of the circle.

(Theorem 6) OPPOSITE ANGLES OF A CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL ADD UP TO 180°

Given a cyclic quadrilateral, the pairs of interior opposite angles are supplementary, that is,
opposite angles add up to 180°.
A
We have two angles at the centre
The obtuse angle BÔD opposite vertex C x
The reflex angle BÔD opposite vertex A
From Theorem 3 we have 2y O
Obtuse BÔD = 2BÂD ……..(i) D 2x
Similarly,
Reflex BÔD = 2BĈD ……..(ii) y
Let BÂD = x and BĈD = y C B
Then,
Obtuse BÔD = 2x
Reflex BÔD = 2y
But Obtuse BÔD + Reflex BÔD = 360° complete turn
That is,
2x + 2y = 360°
2(x + y) = 360° dividing through by 2
x + y = 180°
The opposite angles BÂD + BĈD = 180°
It can be shown also that AD̂ C + AB̂ C = 180°

(Theorem 7) EXTERIOR ANGLE OF A CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL EQUALS INTERIOR OPPOSITE

If one side is extended beyond the vertex, an exterior angle is created between the extended
side and the adjacent side which is equal to the interior opposite angle.

Z
From the diagram, a V
WV̂ Z = WŶX

In Theorem 6 we have seen that

WV̂ Z + WŶZ = 180° ……(i) opposite angles of Y b
a + b = 180° cyclic quadrilateral a
But we also know that
WŶX + WŶZ = 180° …….(ii) straight angle X
∴ WV̂ Z = WŶX
W
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE
In the following diagram find the angle marked x
Q

O
P x

S 74°
From the diagram,
TŜR = PQ̂ R = 74° exterior angle of a cyclic T
quadrilateral equals to interior opposite angle
And
PÔR = 2PQ̂ R angle at the centre is twice angle at the circumference
x = 2(74°)
= 148°

20.5 THE TANGENT

We have the last three theorems on the tangent to a circle.

A tangent is a straight line that touches the circle at only one point.

(Theorem 8) RADIUS AT THE POINT OF CONTACT WITH TANGENT IS PERPENDICULAR

A radius drawn from the centre of the circle to a point on its circumference where a tangent
touches the circle makes a right angle with the tangent.

(i) (ii)

O O

E A B F
x E T F

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
From diagram (i),
OÂB = OB̂ A angles of isosceles ΔAOB
The external angles OÂE and OB̂ F are also equal.
Now we let the points A and B move towards x until the radii OA and OB merge into
one radius OT as shown in (ii).
It follows that the external angles OÂE and OB̂ F are now OT̂ E and OT̂F respectively. Since
the two external angles are equal, and their sum is a straight angle,

OT̂E + OT̂ F = 180°

Each angle is half of 180°, which is right angle.

The radius OT is therefore perpendicular to the line ETF at point T. Line ETF touches the
circle at only one point T. Such a line is called a tangent to the circle at T.

(Theorem 9) TWO TANGETS JOINING AT AN EXTERNAL POINT ARE EQUAL IN LENGTH

Two tangents that are drawn from an external point and contact the circle at two different
points are equal in length from their point of intersection to their points of contact with the
circle.

From the diagram,

OA = OB radii
O
OÂT = OB̂ T = 90° perpendicular to tangents
A Side OT is a common hypotenuse to right
triangles OAT and OBT
B
It follows that ΔOAT and ΔOBT one angle, the
right angle, one side, the radius and the hypotenuse
which are equal. This makes ΔOAT and ΔOBT
congruent, that exactly the same with corresponding
sides and angles equal.
T
Therefore, AT = BT

Note that in the diagram, AOBT is a kite and ABT can be isosceles or equilateral triangle.
Situations involving two equal tangents often apply the properties of these polygons.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
(Theorem 10) EXTERIOR ANGLE EQUALS ANGLES IN ALTERNATE SEGMENT
The exterior angle between a tangent and a chord is equal to equal angles in the alternate
segment.
A
(i) (ii)
x x

O x x
2x y B

D y y
y x y
C
T x

From diagram (i), x + y = 90°

AB̂ T = 90° angle in a semi circle on diameter AOT
OT̂E = 90° radius OT is perpendicular to tangent DTE
The chord TB separates the circle into a minor segment TCB and a major segment TAB
With respect to BT̂ E, TAB is the alternate segment
With respect to BT̂ D, TCB is the alternate segment
If we let OÂB = x
And OT̂ B = y
It is clear then that the exterior angle BT̂ E = BÂT, angle in the alternate segment.

From diagram (ii),

The angles x and y on the tangent add up to straight angle. The angle x on the tangent is
equal to the angles in the alternate segment. Similarly, the angle y on the tangent is equal to
the angles in the alternate segment, as shown. Each pair of angles x + y = 180°.

The key point to note in working out the ten circle theorems is to study the diagram carefully
and then identify which of the ten theorems are in the situation. Each interpretation made
must be based on a particular theorem.

EXAMPLE
In the diagram, A, B, C and D are points on the circumference of a circle. Line DC
produced meets BF at E. The point O is the centre, DF and BF are tangents to the circle.
Given that BÂD = 75°, find
(i) angle x
(ii) BĈE
(iii) OD̂ F
(iv) BF̂D
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 D

A
75° O x
C

B E F

From the diagram,

(i) BÔD = 2BÂD angle at the centre is twice angle at the circumference
x = 2(75°)
= 150°

(ii) BÂD = BĈE exterior angle is equal to interior opposite

BĈE = 75°

OR

BÂD + BĈD = 180° opposite angles of cyclic quadrilateral ABCD

75° + BĈD = 180°
BĈD = 180° – 75°
BĈD = 105°
BĈD + BĈE = 180° straight line
105° + BĈE = 180°
BĈE = 180° – 105°
BĈE = 75°

(iii) OD is radius, DF is tangent at D

OD̂ F = 90° radius perpendicular to tangent at point of contact

(iv) BF̂D + OD̂ F + DÔB + OB̂ E = 360° angles of a quadrilateral

BF̂D + 90° + 105° + 90° = 360°
BF̂D + 285° = 360°
BF̂D = 360° – 285°
BF̂D = 75°

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

KAP and TBP are tangents to a circle centre O at A and B respectively.

̂ B = 136° ,
A𝐎 ̂B = 22°
O𝐏 and ̂ T = 41°
C𝐁 as shown.
K
A
P
22°
136°

Find
C 41° B (a) A𝐂̂B
(b) ̂C
O𝐁
(c) ̂P
B𝐎
T ̂C
(d) O𝐀

SOLUTIONS
(a) ∠AOB = 2∠ACB angle at the centre is twice angle at circumference
136° = 2∠ACB
∠ACB = 68°
(b) ∠OBT = 90° radius perpendicular to tangent at B
∠OBC = 90° – 41°
= 49°
𝟏
(c) ∠BOP = ∠AOB angles on longer diagonal of kite PAOB
𝟐
𝟏
= (136°)
𝟐
= 68°
(d) ∠OAC + reflex ∠AOB + ∠OBC + ∠ACB = 360° angles of the reflex-angled
quadrilateral AOBC
∠OAC + (360° – 136°) + 49° + 68° = 360°
∠OAC + 224° + 49° + 68° = 360°
∠OAC = 360° – 341°
∠OAC = 19°

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

E
1 The diagram shows a circle centre
D
O. ∠DAB = 46° and ∠COB = 40° .
C Calculate
64°
(a) ∠DOC
40° (b) ∠CFB
O B F
(c) ∠DAB
(d) ∠OBA
(e) ∠ADE
A

2 The diagram below shows a circle centre O. EF is a tangent to the circle at C and
∠ECD = 30° . F
C
(a) Calculate
30° (i) ∠OAD
(ii) ∠COD

E B (iii) ∠DEC
D O
(iv) ∠FCB
(b) Name the two triangles
congruent to ∆COB .
A
R

3
P
The diagram shows a circle centre O.
27° S UV is a tangent to the circle at T. Given that
O
∠SUV = 53° and ∠TPV = 27° , find
(a) ∠PTV
(b) ∠TSU
53° (c) ∠TRP
V T U
(d) ∠OTS

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 21. SIMILARITY AND CONGRUENCE .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
21.1 Congruence
21.2 Similar figures
21.3 Ratios of similar figures

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
21.1 CONGRUENCE
Congruent figures are shapes whose corresponding angles and sides are equal.

EXAMPLE
Congruent triangles

5cm D
A E 38°

38°
12cm 12cm
5cm

B C
F

From the diagram,

AB = DE = 5cm
AC = DF = 12cm
AB̂ C = DÊF = 90°
BÂC = ED̂ F = 38°
It is shown that corresponding angles and corresponding sides are equal.
Therefore,
ΔABC ≡ ΔDEF

There are four conditions for congruence of triangles

(i) SSS: (Side, Side, Side) – three pairs of corresponding sides
(ii) SAS: (Side, Included Angle, Side) – two pairs of corresponding sides and one pair
of the corresponding included angles
(iii) AAS: (Angle, Angle, Side) – two pairs of corresponding angles and one pair of
corresponding sides
(iv) RHS: (Right angle, Hypotenuse, Side) – two right triangles with equal hypotenuse
and one pair of other corresponding sides
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Congruent trapeziums

A B

Trapezium A ≡ Trapezium B

21.2 SIMILAR FIGURES

Similar figures are shapes that are the same and only differ in size. Generally, similar figures
have at least one pair of equal corresponding angles and proportional corresponding sides,
that is, their corresponding sides have the same ratio.

Calculation of similar figures applies the concepts of ratios and direct proportion.

EXAMPLE
Find the length of x
A
AB = x, BC = 4, BE = 4, CD = 6

B E
4cm
4cm

C D
6cm

From the diagram,

AB̂ E = AĈD corresponding angles of parallel lines BE and CD
BÂE = CÂD common angle to ΔABE and ΔACD
∴ ΔABE is similar to ΔACD

Ratio of corresponding sides

BE : CD = AB : AC
Ratio fractions
𝐁𝐄 𝐀𝐁
= 𝐀𝐂 , BE = 4cm, CD = 6cm, AB = x, AC = 4 + x
𝐂𝐃

Substituting these values into the fractions and solving for x,

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝟒 𝐱
= cross multiplying fractions
𝟔 𝟒 + 𝐱

6x = 4(4 + x)
6x = 16 + 4x
6x – 4x = 16
2x = 16 dividing through by 2
x = 8cm

Note that the order of correspondence must be the same. If the correspondence relates
figure A to figure B, all correspondence must be made in that order, from A to B. The
resulting ratio and fractional relations are made with respect to that order.

20.3 RATIOS OF SIMILAR FIGURES

For any pair of similar figures A and B, if the ratio of their corresponding sides is a : b,
then the ratio of their areas is a2 : b2 and the ratio of their volumes is a3 : b3
That is,

A : B
Ratio of sides a : b
Ratio of areas a2 : b2
Ratio of volumes a3 : b3

Note, however, that the ratio of corresponding sides a : b must always be simplified to
their lowest terms of a and b before they can be applied to the ratio of areas and
volumes respectively.

Note also that the ratio of sides in plane shapes is the same as the ratio of edges of solid
figures and radii of circles and spherical figures. Similarly, the ratio of areas in plane shapes is
the same as the ratio of surface areas of solid figures. The ratio of volumes is the same as that
of masses of similar objects.

EXAMPLE
Two similar blocks B1 and B2 have corresponding edges of length 15cm and 25cm
respectively. Find,
(a) The ratio of their masses
(b) The volume of B2 given that the volume of B1 is 270cm3

Ratio B1 : B2
Ratio of sides 15 : 25 dividing through by 5
= 3 : 5
Ratio of areas 32 : 52
Ratio of volumes 33 : 53

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 (a) The ratio of volumes is the same as the ratio of masses

B1 : B2
Ratio of masses 33 : 53
= 27 : 125

(b) Volume of B1 = 270cm3, volume of B2 = ?

Ratio of volumes,
B1 : B2

27 : 125
270 : x
Fractions
𝟐𝟕 𝟐𝟕𝟎
𝟏𝟐𝟓
= 𝐱
cross multiplying fractions

27x = 33 750 dividing through by 27

x = 1 250cm3

Note that it is not correct to use the ratio of sides directly into the calculation for area or
volume. Convert the ratio of sides to a2 : b2 and a3 : b3 for area and volume
respectively.

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 WORKED EXAMPLES
Q
1

12 cm

P R
S
18 cm

In the triangle PQR, PQ = 12 cm , PR = 18 cm and S is a point on the side

PR such that ∠PQS = ∠PRQ .
(a) Write down other pairs of equal angles.
(b) Calculate the length of PS .
(c) Given that the area of ∆PQS = 20 cm2 , calculate the area of ∆PQR .

2 A triangle of base 5 cm long has an area of 10 cm2 . Calculate the area of a similar
triangle of base length 10 cm .

Q
SOLUTIONS
S
1 (a) 12 cm

P Q P R
12 cm 18 cm
Given that ∠PQS = ∠PRQ , we can relate the triangles as shown above .
As can be seen, other pairs of equal angles are
∠SPQ = ∠QPR and ∠PSQ = PQR
(b) From the similar triangles PQS and PQR , (c) ∆PQS : ∆PQR
𝐏𝐐 𝐏𝐒
= Sides PQ : PR
𝐏𝐑 𝐏𝐐
𝟏𝟐 𝐏𝐒
= 12 : 18 = 2 : 3
𝟏𝟖 𝟏𝟐
18PS = 144 Areas 2 2 : 32 = 4 : 9
𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝟒 𝟗
PS = = 8 cm =
𝟏𝟖 𝟐𝟎 𝐱
4x = 180
2 Ratio of base lengths 5 cm : 10 cm = 1 : 2
x = 45 cm2
Ratio of areas 12 : 22 = 1 : 4
𝟏 𝟒
∆PQR has area 45 cm2
=
𝟏𝟎 𝐱
x = 40 cm2
The triangle with base 10 cm has area 40 cm2

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 REVISION EXERCISE

A B
1

30 cm
15 cm

12 cm

Cylinder A has diameter 12 cm and height 30 cm , and cylinder B has height

15 cm, as shown.
Find
(a) The diameter of cylinder B .
(b) The ratio of the volumes of the two cylinders.

2
A B 12 cm C

8 cm

10 cm

In the diagram, BC = 12 cm , AE = 8 cm and DE = 10 cm . BE is parallel to CD .

(a) Calculate the length of AB.
(b) Given that the area of ∆ACD is 240 cm2 , find the area of ∆ABE .

3 A cuboid with a vertical height 12 cm has a volume of 540 cm 2 . Find the volume of a
similar cuboid whose vertical height is 4 cm.

4 A glass that can hold 750 cm3 of water has a radius of 5 cm . Find the radius of a
similar glass that can hold 162 cm3 of water.

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 22. MENSURATION .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
22.1 Summary of Formulae
22.2 Solving mensuration
22.3 Calculation of Discharge from a pipe

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
22.1 SUMMARY OF FORMULAE
In mensuration we deal with two categories of shapes

For plane shapes we cover

 Perimeter
 Area

For solid figures we cover

 Surface area
 Volume

The following table summarises the common shapes and formulae used

PLANE FIGURE PERIMETER AREA SOLID SURFACE VOLUME ABBRV

FIGURE AREA
Square 4l l 2 Cube 6l2 l3 a: side a
Rectangle 2(l + b) lb Cuboid 2(lb + lh + bh) lbh b: base side
Triangle - ½bh Prism - ½bhl b2: base area
Circle 𝟐𝝅𝐫 𝝅𝒓 𝟐 Sphere 4 𝝅𝒓𝟐 4/ 𝝅𝒓𝟑
3 h: height
Trapezium - ½(a + b)h Prism - - l: length or
Parallelogram - bh Prism - - slant length
Sector - θ 𝟐
/360° (𝝅𝒓 ) Cone 𝝅𝐫𝒍 ⅓πr2h r: radius
Area of a segment = Area of Sector – Area of Cylinder
Triangle 𝟐𝝅𝒓h + 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉 π = 22/7 or
NB: Arc length l = θ/360°(2 𝝅𝒓) = θ/180°( 𝝅𝐫) Frustum - - π = 3.14 or
Pyramid - ⅓ b 2h π = 3.142
GENERAL RULES:
1. Perimeter is calculated by summing up all lengths of edges or sides of a plane figure
2. Surface area is calculated by summing up all face areas
3. Volume is calculated by multiplying the height or extended length of a solid figure by the
uniform cross section area of its base
4. The units for area are square units and for volume cubic units

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In Unit 17 we saw the plane shapes and solid figures that are listed in the table above. We
also looked at how to manipulate fundamental formulae for modified shapes when we
looked at constructing formulae in Unit 8.

22.2 SOLVING MENSURATION

Situations on mensuration usually involve modified figures, where a complete shape is cut
and only part of it is presented for calculation, or two or more shapes are merged into one
figure. Whatever the situation, it is very important to study and understand the figure given
and then employ the technique of constructing formulae to come up with the appropriate
expression for the calculations required.

We will now look at some examples.

EXAMPLE 1
The two equal sides of an isosceles triangle are each 5cm and the third side is 8cm.
Calculate,
(a) its perimeter
(b) its area

Sketch

5cm h 5cm

8cm
From the sketch,
(a) perimeter = sum of lengths of sides
P = 5cm + 5cm + 8cm
= 18cm

(b) for the area of the triangle, we need to find the height h
The perpendicular height in an isosceles triangle always bisects the base
side. We can use the P.T to find h
c2 = a2 + b2,
c = 5, a = half of 8 = 4, b = h
𝟏
52 = 42 + h2 A = 𝟐 X base X height
25 = 16 + h2 b = 8, h = 3
25 – 16 = h 2
𝟏
9 = h2 A = 𝟐 X 8 X 3
h = √𝟗 = 3cm = 4 X 3
Now we can solve for the area = 12cm2
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EXAMPLE 2
In the diagram below, ABCD is a trapezium with the two parallel sides 10cm and 15cm
long. The height of the trapezium is 12cm. PQRD is a parallelogram with sides 4.5cm and
8cm. If the line PQ is half way between AB and DC, calculate the area of the shaded region.
10cm
D R C
4.5cm

P 8cm Q 12cm

A 15cm B

From the diagram, the shaded area is the difference of the shapes, the trapezium of parallel
sides 10cm and 15cm, and height 12cm and the parallelogram of base side 8cm and
vertical height, h, which is half of 12cm.
𝟏
Area 1 = 𝟐 X (a + b) X h, a = 10cm, b = 15cm, h = 12cm

𝟏
= 𝟐 X (10 + 15) X 12
= (25)(6)
= 150cm2

Area 2
= b X h, b = 8cm, h = half of 12 = 6cm
= 8 X 6
= 48cm2
Shaded area = Area 1 – Area 2
= 150cm2 – 48cm2
= 102cm2

EXAMPLE 3
The arc of a circle of radius 7cm subtends an angle of 80° at the centre of the circle.
(a) Calculate the area of the sector
(b) Given that the chord joining the end points of the radii of the arc is 9cm long,
calculate the area of the segment

Sketch

7cm
9cm

80°

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 (a) Area of the sector
𝜽 𝟐𝟐
A = X 𝝅 X r2 , 𝜽 = 80°, 𝝅 = , r = 7cm
𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝟕

𝟖𝟎° 𝟐𝟐
= X X 7 X 7
𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝟕

𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟕
= X X
𝟗 𝟏 𝟏

𝟑𝟎𝟖
= 𝟗
= 34.22cm2

(b) To calculate the area of the segment we need to find the area of the triangle

The triangle has base 9cm and a height that we get by P.T
c2 = a2 + b2, c = 7, a = half of 9 = 4.5, b = ?
72 = 4.52 + b2
49 = 20.25 + b2
49 – 20.25 = b2
28.75 = b2
b = √𝟐𝟖. 𝟕𝟒 = 5.36cm

𝟏
Area of triangle = X base X height, b = 9, h = 5.36
𝟐

𝟏
= 𝟐 X 9 X 5.36
= (4.5)(5.36)
= 24.12cm2
Area of segment = Area of Sector – Area of Triangle
= 34.22 – 24.12
= 10.1cm2

NOTE that the area of the triangle can also be calculated by the trigonometric formula,
𝟏
Area = 𝟐 bcsinA

EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the radius of a sphere of volume 827cm3 correct to 4 significant figures
Volume of a sphere,
𝟒
V = 𝟑 X 𝝅 X r3 , V = 827, 𝝅 = 3.142, r = ?
𝟒
827 = 𝟑 X 3.142 X r3
827 = 4.189r3 dividing through by 4.189
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 r3 = 197.4 taking cube root
𝟑
r = √𝟏𝟗𝟕. 𝟒 = 5.823cm

EXAMPLE 5
A water container 40cm high is in the form of a frustum with circular ends of radius
10cm and 30cm. Calculate the amount of water it can hold when full, giving your answer in
cm3 correct to the nearest cubic centimetre.

Calculations on frustums require relation of the frustum to the complete solid figure of its
cross section. A frustum with triangular, square or rectangular ends is a pyramid when
complete. A frustum with circular ends is a cone when complete.

Sketch

(i) (ii) (iii)

x x

10cm 40 + x 10cm

40cm

30cm 30cm

The situation is presented as in (i). We can use the constructions in (ii) and (iii) to find the
required volume, which is the difference in the volumes of the larger and the smaller cone.

To find the two volumes we need to get the height of the smaller cone x by applying
proportion on similar figures.

Cone 1 : Cone 2
30cm : 10cm
40 + x : x

𝟑𝟎 𝟒𝟎 + 𝐱
Fractions = cross multiplying fractions
𝟏𝟎 𝐱
30x = 10(40 + x)
30x = 400 + 10x
30x – 10x = 400
20x = 400 dividing through by 20
x = 20cm

The height of the larger cone is (40 + 20)cm and that of the smaller cone is 20cm.

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We can now get the two volumes and subtract.
𝟏
Volume 1 = 𝟑 𝝅R2H

𝟏
Volume 2 = 𝝅r2h
𝟑

Volume of frustum = Volume 1 – Volume 2

𝟏 2H – 𝟏 𝝅r2h
= 𝝅R
𝟑 𝟑

𝟏
= 𝝅(R2H – r2h), 𝝅 = 3.142, R = 30cm, H = 60cm, r = 10cm, h = 20cm
𝟑

𝟏
= 𝟑 X 3.142 (302 X 60 – 102 X 20)
= 1.047(54 000 – 2000)
= 1.047(52 000)
= 54 444cm3

EXAMPLE 6
A cuboid is 4cm long, 2cm broad and 3cm high. Calculate,
(a) the total length of its edges
(b) its total surface area
(c) its volume

(a) A cuboid has three sets of four equal edges as the sketch shows

l
b h b h
l
l
h b h b
l
Total length of edges
= 4l + 4b + 4h, l = 4cm, b = 2cm, h = 3cm
= 4(4) + 4(2) + 4(3)
= 16 + 8 + 12
= 36cm

(b) Total surface area

S.A = 2(lb + lh + bh), l = 4, b = 2, h = 3
= 2(4 X 2 + 4 X 3 + 2 X 3)
= 2(8 + 12 + 6)
= 2(26)
= 52cm2
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(c) Volume of cuboid
V = lbh, l = 4cm, b = 2cm, h = 3cm
= 4 X 2 X 3
= 24cm3

22.3 CALCULATION OF DISCHARGE FROM A PIPE

A cylinder can be closed, open or hollow. A hollow cylinder is used as a pipe.

When a fluid is discharged from a pipe, it can come out at the full capacity of the pipe or in
fractional capacity, such as half or quarter of the pipe’s capacity. The rate at which the fluid is
discharged determines how much of it is coming out in a given period of time.

The amount of fluid discharged from a pipe is given as

V = Ax m3
V volume of discharge
A cross sectional area of pipe
x rate of discharge in metres per second

Before we look at an example, it is very important to learn about two conversions of units.

CONVERSION OF AREA
The units of area are mm2 , cm2 , m2 and km2. We can for instance change from m2 to
km2

EXAMPLE 1
The area of a village in square metres is 4 500m2 . Express the area of the village in square
kilometres.
The units of length are The units of time are
10mm = 1cm 60sec = 1min
10cm = 1dm 60min = 3600sec = 1h
10dm = 100cm = 1m 24h = 1 day
1000m = 1km
From this table, we change from smaller units to larger units by dividing and we multiply
when changing from larger units to smaller units.
Therefore,

𝟒 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐦 𝐗 𝐦 𝟏 𝐤𝐦 𝐗 𝟏 𝐤𝐦
4 500m2 = 𝐗 = 0.0045km2
𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐦 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐦

EXAMPLE 2
The area of a football pitch is given as 80m2 . Convert the area to cm2

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 𝟖𝟎 𝐦 𝐗 𝐦 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦
80m2 = 𝐗 = 800 000cm2
𝟏 𝟏 𝐦 𝐗 𝟏 𝐦

CONVERSION OF RATE
In the same way, we can change units of rate by dividing and multiplying by equivalent units.

EXAMPLE 1
The speed of a golf ball after being hit is given as 20m/s. Convert this unit to km/h.

𝟐𝟎 𝐦 𝟔𝟎 𝐗 𝟔𝟎 𝐬 𝟏 𝐤𝐦
20m/s = 𝐗 𝐗 = 72km/h
𝟏 𝐬 𝟏 𝐡 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐦

EXAMPLE 2
A car is travelling at an average speed of 36km/h. Change the car’s speed to m/s.

𝟑𝟔 𝐤𝐦 𝟏 𝐡 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐦
36km/h = 𝐗 𝐗 = 10m/s.
𝟏 𝐡 𝟔𝟎 𝐗 𝟔𝟎 𝐬 𝟏 𝐤𝐦

We will now look at how to calculate discharge from a pipe.

The steps to follow are

 calculate area of cross section of the pipe 𝝅r2

 convert to an appropriate unit of area m2
 calculate volume of discharge per second Area X Rate
 find amount of fluid discharged in given time Volume per second X Time

EXAMPLE
Water flows through a circular pipe of radius 15cm at the rate of 6m/sec. Find, in m3,
the amount of water discharged per minute, assuming the pipe is always
(a) full
(b) half full

(a) cross section area of pipe

A = 𝝅r2 , 𝝅 = 3.142, r = 15cm
= 3.142 X 15 X 15
= 706.95cm2
𝟕𝟎𝟔.𝟗𝟓 𝐜𝐦 𝐗 𝐜𝐦 𝟏 𝐦 𝐗 𝟏 𝐦
Area in m2 𝐗 = 0.070696m2
𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦

Volume of discharge per second V = Area X Rate

= 0.070695 m2 X 6m/s = 0.42417m3/s
𝟎.𝟒𝟐𝟒𝟏𝟕 𝐦 𝐱 𝐦 𝐱 𝐦 𝟔𝟎 𝐬
Discharge per minute 𝐗 𝟏 𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 25.45m3 per min
𝟏 𝐬
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(b) if only half the capacity of the pipe has flow of discharge
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐮𝐥𝐥 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞
Volume of discharge = 𝟐

𝟐𝟓.𝟒𝟓𝐦𝟑
= 𝟐
= 12.73m3 per minute

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

A metalwork student bored a cylindrical hole from one end through a rectangular bar as
shown in the figure below.
The dimensions of the rectangular metal bar are as shown in the figure.

4 cm
20 cm

4 cm

(a) Find the volume of the metal bar before the hole was made.
(b) Given that 1 cm3 of the metal has a mass of 7.89 g , find the mass of the metal
bar before the hole was made.
(c) If the mass of the hollow metal bar is 2 315 g , calculate the volume of the metal
removed, giving your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
(d) Find the radius of the hole, correct to 3 significant figures. ( Take 𝝅 to be 3.142)

SOLUTIONS
(a) v = lbh ; l = 20 cm , b = 4 cm , h = 4 cm
= 20 x 4 x 4
= 320 cm3
(b) 1 cm3 = 7.89 g (c) 2 524.8 g – 2 315 g = 209.8 g
320 cm3 = y Mass of metal removed = 209.8 g
y = 320 x 7.89 1 cm3 = 7.89 g
y = 2 524.8 g v = 209.8 g
𝟐𝟎𝟗.𝟖
v = = 26.59 = 26.6 cm3
𝟕.𝟖𝟗
(d) v = 𝝅 r2 h ; v = 26.6 , h = 20
26.6 = 3.142 x 20 x r2
26.6 = 62.84 r2
𝟐𝟔.𝟔
r2 = = 0.423
𝟔𝟐.𝟖𝟒
r = √𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟑 = 0.650 cm = 6.50 mm

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 The cover of a sewing machine is made up of half a cylinder (curved part) and a box
(cuboid) as shown in the diagram below.
G

H I

F
A J
18 cm

B E
D 16 cm
42 cm
C
Given that AHB is a semi circle, AB = 18 cm , BC = 16 cm and CE = 42 cm
and 𝝅 = 3.142 , calculate correct to 1 decimal place
(a) the curved surface area of the cover.
(b) the surface area of the face ADCBH.
(c) the volume of the cover of the sewing machine.

2 The diagram below shows a carpenter’s pencil with diameter 14 mm and a length of
𝟐𝟐
270 mm . The sharpened end is in form of a cone of height 24 mm . ( Take 𝝅 = ).
𝟕
Ɩ
14 mm

24 mm
246 mm

(a) Calculate, giving your answer correct to 1 decimal place

(i) the slant length ( Ɩ ) of the conical part of the pencil.
(ii) the total surface area of the pencil, (area of curved surface of a cone A = 𝝅 r Ɩ ) .
(b) Given that 1 mm3 weighs 3 mg, ( assuming that density of wood and lead are the same ) ,
find, correct to 1 decimal place
(i) the mass of the pencil before it was sharpened.
(ii) the mass that was removed after the pencil was sharpened.
𝟏
( volume of cone V = 𝝅 r2 h )
𝟑

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 23. CONSTRUCTION AND LOCUS .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
23.1 Instruments
23.2 Lines and Line Bisectors
23.3 Angles and Angle Bisectors
23.4 Triangles
23.5 Other Polygons
23.6 Locus

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
23.1 INSTRUMENTS
There are many tools and materials used in geometric drawing. Here is a list of some of them
 compass
 protractor
 ruler
 divider
 set square
 eraser
 sharpener
 pencil

We will look at the ruler and protractor.

RULER

(i) Line (ii) Line

Ruler Ruler
O 1 O 1

A ruler is used to measure length.

The line or edge of surface being measured must be aligned to the unit 0 as shown in (i)
when reading the length from left to right. We start counting at zero. Placing the ruler as
in (ii) is not correct.

PROTRACTOR
A protractor is used to measure angles.
The protractor can be read in two directions, from left to right in a direction called clockwise,
or from right to left in a direction called anticlockwise. There are same units in each direction.
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 Clockwise - Outer scale used Anticlockwise - Inner scale used

An angle, as we saw in Unit 16, is made of two straight lines that join at the vertex. When
measuring angles using a protractor,
- One angle line is placed along the 0 – 180 line
- The angle vertex is placed at the vertex of the right angle (90°) and the 0 -180 lines
- We read the size of the angle from the 0 – 180 line clockwise or anticlockwise to the
angle mark on the protractor on which the other angle line is

For example, to measure the angles

(ii)

We can use the protractor as follows

90

06

90

06

As can be seen in diagram (ii), we can read angles from any position and in any of the two
directions.

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23.2 LINES AND LINE BISECTORS
There are many kinds of techniques used in construction. Here we will go through the most
fundamental and popular procedures.

CONSTRUCTING A BASE LINE

We draw a line to scale using a pencil and ruler.
Simply draw a line of appropriate length and mark out the end points as required.

EXAMPLE
Construct line AB = 6cm

A 6cm B

CONSTRUCTING A SET OF PARALLEL LINES

We construct parallel lines using a ruler and compass.
Parallel lines are lines that have a constant difference in the distance between them. To
construct parallel lines,
- Construct the base line to scale
- Take the distance between the lines as the radius of the compass
- From the end points of the base line make two arcs
- Draw a common tangent to the two arcs

EXAMPLE
Construct line PQ parallel to line AB and 4cm apart
P Q

4cm

A B

CONSTRUCTING A PERPENDICULAR BISECTOR

We construct a perpendicular bisector using a ruler and compass.
A perpendicular bisector is a line that intersects another line at right angle and divides it in
half. To construct a perpendicular bisector,
- Construct the base line to scale
- Take a compass radius of just more than half the length of the base line
- From one end point of the base line make arcs on its alternate sides
- With the same radius make arcs from the other end point so that the pairs of arcs
intersect
- Join the contact points of one pair of arcs to the other pair of arcs on the alternate
side

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EXAMPLE
Construct a perpendicular bisector of line AB = 60mm

60mm

Note that the base line doesn’t always have to be horizontal. It is only a general and
convenient practice to have the base line horizontal.

CONSTRUCTING A PERPENDICULAR LINE AT A POINT ON A LINE

We construct a perpendicular at a point using a ruler and compass.
A perpendicular line at a point on a line is a line we construct so that it passes through a given
point which is on another line. For this construction,
- Construct the base line to scale and on it mark out the given point
- From the given point and using any suitable compass radius make arcs on the base
line on alternate sides of the point
- Using the arcs on the base line as end points continue with the steps for construction
of a perpendicular bisector

EXAMPLE
Construct a line perpendicular to AB at Q

A Q B

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CONSTRUCTING A PERPENDICULAR LINE THROUGH A POINT TO A LINE
We construct a perpendicular from a point to a line using a ruler and compass.
A perpendicular through a point is a line we construct so that it passes through a given point
which is not on the base line. To construct a perpendicular from a point,
- Construct the base line to scale and mark the given point as required
- From the point take a compass radius of just more than the distance between the
base line and the point
- From the point make a continuous or split arc on the base line so that the arc cuts the
base line on two points
- From the two points of the split arc on the base line continue the construction of a
perpendicular bisector that passes through the given point

EXAMPLE
Construct a line from the point Q perpendicular to AB

A B

23.3 ANGLES AND ANGLE BISECTORS

We usually construct angles by measuring with a protractor. However, there are a few angles
that we can easily construct with ruler and compass alone.

CONSTRUCTING A 90° ANGLE

A right angle is constructed the same way we construct a perpendicular to a base line

EXAMPLE
Construct a 90° angle on line DE at P
E

D
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CONSTRUCTING A 60° ANGLE
To construct a 60° angle
- Construct the base line to scale
- From one end and using any suitable compass radius construct a near quarter circle
arc that cuts the base line at one point
- From the intersection of the arc and the base line and using the same radius make
another arc that cuts the first arc at a point
- Join the point of intersection of the arcs to the end point of the base line

EXAMPLE
Construct a 60° at A on line AB

A B

ANGLE BISECTOR
To bisect means to divide in two equal parts. To divide an angle in half
- From the vertex and using any suitable compass radius mark out a pair of arcs on the
angle arms
- From the arcs on the angle arms and using the same or any suitable compass radius
greater than the length between the arcs make a set of arcs that intersect inside the
angle arms
- Join the vertex to the intersection point of the arcs

EXAMPLE
Bisect angle AB̂ C
A

We construct a 30° and a 45° angle by bisecting a 60° and a 90° angle respectively.

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23.4 TRIANGLES
We can construct any polygon if sufficient information is provided. For triangles, we have
three possible situations.
Examples in this discussion are not drawn to scale.

SSS – THREE SIDES

We can construct a triangle if the lengths of each of its three sides are given. For this
construction we use a ruler and compass.
To construct a triangle with three sides known,
- Take one side as base line and construct to scale
- Take another side length as compass radius and construct an arc of suitable length
from the appropriate end point
- Take the remaining side length as compass radius and construct another arc to cut the
first arc at a point
- Join the point of intersection of the arcs to the end points of the base line to complete
the triangle

EXAMPLE
Construct ΔABC in which AB = 8cm, BC = 6cm and AC = 9cm
C

9cm 6cm

A 8cm B

SAS – TWO SIDES AND ONE ANGLE

We can construct a triangle if the lengths of two of its sides and one angle are given. For this
construction we use a ruler, compass and protractor.
To construct a triangle with two sides and one angle known,
- Take one side length as base line and construct to scale
- Measure and mark out the angle at the appropriate end point
- Take the other side length as compass radius and construct an arc to cut the angle line
at a point
- Join the remaining point to the intersection of the arc and the angle line to complete
the triangle

EXAMPLE
Construct ΔPQR in which PQ = 7cm, PQ̂ R = 46° and PR = 5cm
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 R

5cm

46°
P 7cm Q

SAA – TWO ANGLES AND ONE SIDE

We can construct a triangle if two of its angles and any one side are given. For this
construction we use a ruler, compass and protractor.
To construct a triangle with two angles and one side known,
- Take the side length as base line and construct to scale
- Measure and mark out the angles at the appropriate end points of the base line
- Extend the lines to intersect at the third vertex of the triangle

EXAMPLE
Construct ΔXYZ in which XY = 10cm, YX̂ Z = 105° and XŶZ = 32°

105° 32°
X 10cm Y

INSCRIBED CIRCLE
An inscribed circle or in-circle is a circle within the triangle that just touches all the three sides
of the triangle. To construct an in-circle,
- Bisect at least two angles of the triangle
- From the intersection of the two or three angle bisectors and using an appropriate
compass radius construct a circle to touch all the three sides of the triangle
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EXAMPLE
Construct ΔPQR in which PQ = 10cm, PR = 8cm and PQ̂ R = 58°. Construct bisectors for
PQ̂ R and PR̂ Q to intersect at X. From X and an appropriate compass radius construct an in-
circle in ΔPQR
Note that the compass radius can be determined by constructing a perpendicular from the
intersection of bisectors to any of the three sides.

8cm X

58°
P 10cm Q

CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLE
A circumscribed circle or circum-circle is a circle inside which is a given triangle such that all
the three vertices of the triangle are on its circumference. To construct a circum-circle,
- Bisect at least two sides of the triangle
- From the intersection of the two or three side bisectors and using an appropriate
compass radius construct a circle that just touches the three vertices of the triangle

EXAMPLE
Construct ΔFGH in which FG = 6.5cm, FH = 7.3cm and GH = 9cm. Construct bisectors
for FG and GH to intersect at S. From S and an appropriate compass radius construct a
circum-circle for ΔFGH.
H

7.3cm S 9cm

F 6.5cm G

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23.5 OTHER POLYGONS
We can construct any polygon using the skills we have just covered. In general, length of sides
and angles necessary for a particular construction are specified in any situation. Note that
accuracy of measurements is very important in construction. Certain constructions, such as
the in-circle and circum-circle, will be impossible to achieve if the measurements and
bisectors are not accurate.

EXAMPLE
The floor of a sheep pen is in the shape of a quadrilateral ABCD. Each side of the
quadrilateral is 3m long and AB̂ D = 60°.
(a) Using a scale of 2cm to represent 1m draw the quadrilateral ABCD
(b) Draw the axes of symmetry of quadrilateral ABCD
(c) What is the special geometrical name of this quadrilateral?
(d) Measure the diagonal AC giving your answer in metres correct to 1 decimal place
(e) Calculate the area of the floor in square metres giving your answer correct to 2
decimal places

We need to interpret the scale.

2cm : 1m cross multiplying ratio fractions

x : 3m
6cm : x
The quadrilateral will have sides 6cm long.
That is, AB = BC = AD = CD = 6cm

D z C

6cm

60°
A x y B
6cm
SCALE : 2cm : 1m
(a) For this construction,
(i) Construct to scale base line AB = 6cm
(ii) At B construct and mark out 60°
(iii) At A mark out an arc using compass radius 6cm to cut the 60° angle line
at B at D. Join A to D
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 (iv) Mark out any two points x and y on AB
(v) From y and compass radius xD mark out an arc on the same side of AB
as D
(vi) From D and compass radius xy mark out an arc to cut the first arc at z
(vii) Draw a line parallel to AB through D and z
(viii) At B and compass radius 6cm mark out an arc to cut extended line Dz
at C. Join B to C to complete the quadrilateral ABCD

(b) As we saw in Unit 17, a line of symmetry divides a plane shape in identical halves.
The quadrilateral ABCD has two lines of symmetry, the two diagonals, as shown
(c) The quadrilateral ABCD is a rhombus
(d) The diagonal AC is approximately 10.5cm which is 21 metres
(e) The area of the rhombus can be calculated as sum of the areas of two equilateral
triangles ABD and BDC, each of base length 3m and height 2.598m or as area of
a parallelogram form of base length 3m and vertical height 2.598m

𝟏
Area of ΔABD = 𝟐 X 3 X 2.598
= 3.897m2

𝟏
Area of ΔBDC = 𝟐 X 3 X 2.598
= 3.897m2

Area of quadrilateral ABCD = Area of ΔABD + Area of ΔBDC

= 3.987 + 3.987
= 7.794m2

OR
Area of ABCD = base length X vertical height
= 3 x 2.598
= 7.794m 2

Note that the answer should be left to 2 d.p

Area of ABCD = 7.79m2

23.6 LOCUS
Locus, plural loci, is defined as the path of a given point as it moves following a particular
condition. Locus applies to conditions in both two (plane) and three (solid) dimensions.
In general,
(i) Locus of points equidistant from a fixed point gives rise to a circle in plane and a
spherical figure in three dimension
(ii) Locus of points equidistant from a fixed line gives rise to a set of parallel lines in
plane and a cylindrical or conical figure in three dimension
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 (iii) Locus of points equidistant from two fixed points gives rise to a perpendicular
bisector of the line joining the two fixed points
(iv) Locus of points equidistant from two fixed lines gives rise to a bisector of the angle
formed at the vertex of the two fixed lines

(i)
P

F
F P

(ii)
P
P

F F

(iii) (iv)

F1

F1 F2 P
F2

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EXAMPLE
There are three churches, Alpha (A), Beta (B) and Gamma (G) in a certain area. Beta is
13.2km from Alpha and 8.7km from Gamma. Gamma is 10.6km from Alpha.
(a) Using a scale of 1cm to 1km draw triangle ABG showing the positions of the three
churches
(b) Measure and write down the size of angle AĜB
(c) On your diagram construct, inside triangle ABG, the locus of points
(i) P which are equidistant from B and G
(ii) Q which are equidistant from AB and BG
(iii) C which are 7km from A
(d) The point R where the youths from the three churches intend to hold a youth camp
meeting is located within triangle ABG such that RG ≤ BR, AR ≥ 7km and R is
nearer to AB than to BG. Show by shading the region where R must lie

86°

C
P
10.6cm
8.7cm
R
7cm

A 13.2cm B

SCALE: 1cm : 1km

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 (a) Construct triangle ABC in which AB = 10 cm, AC = 9 cm and BC = 7 cm.

̂C .
Measure and write down the size of A𝐁
(b) On your diagram, draw the locus of points within the triangle which are:
(i) 4 cm from B
(ii) equidistant from B and C
(c) Q is a point inside triangle ABC such that it is 4 cm from B , and
equidistant from B and C . Label the point Q .
(d) Another point P within triangle ABC is such that P is:
nearer to B than to C
greater than or equal to 4 cm from B
Indicate clearly, by shading, the region in which P must lie.

2 (a) Draw triangle ABC in which AB = 12 cm, ̂ C = 50° and BC = 7 cm.

A𝐁
̂B .
Measure and write down the size of C𝐀
(b) On your diagram, draw the locus of points within the triangle which are:
(i) 2.5 cm from AB
(ii) equidistant from AC and BC
(iii) 4 cm from C
(c) A point P within triangle ABC is such that P is
less than or equal to 2.5 cm from AB
nearer to BC than AC
less than or equal to 4 cm from C
On your diagram shade the region in which P must lie.

SOLUTIONS
The sketches here are not drawn to scale.
1) C 2)

C
4 cm

9 cm
7 cm
Q P
2.5 cm
35° 50°
A 12 cm B
P 60°
A 10 cm B
4 cm

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 REVISION EXERCISE

1 ̂ R = 105° .
(a) Construct ∆PQR in which PQ = 11 cm, QR = 6cm and P𝐐
Measure and write down
(i) PR
(ii) ̂Q
P𝐑
(b) On your diagram construct the locus of points which are
(i) 6.5 cm from P
(ii) equidistant from P and Q
(iii) 1.5 cm from PR
(c) A point T lies within triangle PQR such that T is
less than or equal to 6.5 cm from P
nearer to Q than to P
less than or equal to 1.5 cm from PR
Indicate clearly by shading the region within triangle PQR in which T must lie.

2 (a) Using ruler and compasses, construct triangle ABC in which AB = 8 cm,
BC = 7 cm and AC = 3 cm .
Measure and write down the size of the largest angle in the triangle.
(b) On your diagram draw and label
(i) the locus of points which are equidistant from A and B.
(ii) the locus of points which are equidistant from B and C.
(c) Draw the circle which touches A, B and C.
(d) The point Q, inside triangle ABC is nearer to B than to A and nearer
to C than to B. Indicate clearly, by shading, the region in which Q must lie.

3 Construct triangle ABC in which AB = 8 cm , ∠ABC = 60° and BC = 7 cm .

On your diagram draw
(i) The locus of points equidistant from A and B.
(ii) The locus of points equidistant from A and C
A point P lies within triangle ABC such that it is nearer to A than to B and nearer
to C than to A . Shade the region in which P must lie.

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 24. GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIALS .

CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
24.1 The X-O-Y Plane
24.2 Linear Functions
24.3 Quadratic Functions
24.4 Cubic Functions
24.5 Rotational Functions
24.6 Gradient of a curve at a point
24.7 Estimating area under a curve

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
24.1 THE X-O-Y PLANE
The X-O-Y Plane, or Cartesian Plane, is a system of grid of units arranged on a horizontal axis,
called the X-axis, and a vertical axis, called the Y-axis. These two axes intersect at a common
unit zero called the Origin. The axes are basically real number lines extending infinitely to the
positive and negative.
Y

0 X

Every point on the plane is a coordinate point corresponding to a specific unit value on the x-
and the y-axis. The coordinate is given in the form (x, y).
The x-axis corresponds to the unit value y = 0
The y-axis corresponds to the unit value x = 0
Units on the x-axis are positive to the right and negative to the left of the y-axis
Units on the y-axis are positive above and negative below the x-axis
All negative units must be indicated with the negative sign on both axes

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Points on the plane can be joined to form a system of graphs determined by relations or
functions called polynomials. Polynomials are classified according to degrees, the highest
index or power of the variable of the polynomial. Here are some examples

y = ax + b first-degree polynomial in the variable x - linear

y = 2
ax + bx + c second-degree polynomial in the variable x - quadratic
y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d third-degree polynomial in x - cubic
y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e fourth-degree polynomial in x - quartic

In this Unit we will cover the first three types of polynomials.

24.2 LINEAR FUNCTIONS

A linear function is a polynomial of the first degree. The general form of a linear function is

y = ax + b, where a and b are constants.

In our analysis of the linear function we will use the notation

y = mx + c
m is the gradient or slope of the line joining all points on the line
c is the y-intercept, the value where the line cuts the y-axis

Given any two points on the function y = mx + c

(x1 , y1) and (x2 , y2)
The gradient is given as
𝐲 − 𝐲
m = 𝐱 𝟐 − 𝐱𝟏
𝟐 𝟐

There are four possible forms of the gradient, m:

m is positive when the linear graph rises from left to right
m is negative when the linear graph falls from left to right
m is zero when the linear graph is a horizontal line parallel to the x-axis
m is undefined when the linear graph is a vertical line parallel to the y-axis

Parallel linear functions have the same gradient. That is,

If the gradient of one line is m1 and the gradient of the other line is m2 , then if the lines
are parallel,
m1 = m2

Perpendicular linear functions, that is, lines that intersect at right angles have gradients that
are negative reciprocals. That is,

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If the gradient of one line is m1 and the gradient of the other line is m2 , then if the lines
are perpendicular,
−𝟏
m1 = 𝐦
𝟐

We can find, and be able to draw the graph of a linear function if we know
Any two points on the line
One point on the line and its gradient
One point on the line and its relation to another line

EXAMPLE 1
The points P(1, 6) and Q(4, 9) lie on the same line. Find,
(a) the gradient of the line PQ
(b) the equation of the line PQ
(c) the value of a, given that the point (-6 , a) is another point on PQ

(a) gradient
𝐲𝟐 − 𝐲𝟏
m = , (1, 6) and (4, 9)
𝐱𝟐 − 𝐱𝟐

𝟗 − 𝟔
= 𝟒 − 𝟏

𝟑
= 𝟑
= 1

(b) equation
y = mx + c
The equation of the line is the form of the linear function with known values of m and c
After we have calculated for the gradient we can find the y-intercept by substituting any
one point on the line into the form y = mx + c and solve for c
y = mx + c , m = 1, (1, 6)
6 = (1)(1) + c
6–1 = c
5 = c
Therefore,
y = (1)x + (5)
y = x + 5 is the equation of the line

(c) the coordinate (-6 , a) on the line y = x + 5

y = x + 5 , y = a, x = -6
a = -6 + 5
a = -1
The point is (-6 , -1)

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EXAMPLE 2
Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (10, 5) and is perpendicular to a
−𝟏
line with gradient 𝟕

Let the line have gradient m1

The gradient of a line perpendicular to this line is a negative reciprocal
−𝟏
Given gradient m2 = 𝟕
m1 = 7
We are looking for the equation of a line with gradient 7 and passes through (10 , 5).
y = mx + c, m = 7, (10 , 5)
5 = (7)(10) + c
5 = 70 + c
5 – 70 = c
-65 = c
y = 7x – 65 is the equation of the line

We can draw the graph of a linear function if we know a minimum of two points that are on
the line.

EXAMPLE 3
Draw the graph of y = 2x – 3
We need to find at least two points on the line. We can make a table of values as follows
X -2 0 1 2

Y -7 -3 -1 1

We make a choice of values of x and substitute in the equation of the line and solve for y
Using the set of coordinate points we can draw the graph of y = 2x – 3
Y
6

2 y = 2x – 3

-4 -2 0 2 4 6 X
-2

-4

-6

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There are four important forms of linear functions
y = 0 is the x-axis and has gradient zero
x = 0 is the y-axis and its gradient is undefined
y = x passes through the origin and has gradient 1
y = -x passes through the origin and has gradient -1

We can also solve for y in an equation like 3y + 6x = 5 to determine the gradient and
y-intercept using the concept of literal equations covered in Unit 8. In this example,
−𝟔 𝟓
y = x + ; m = -2, y-intercept = 12/3
𝟑 𝟑

24.3 QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

This is a polynomial of second degree and has the general form
y = ax2 + bx + c, and a ≠ 0

There are several ways of finding the solution to a quadratic function. We have already
looked at the factor method, completing the square as well as formula method in Unit 7.
We will now look at the graphical analysis of quadratic functions.

Generally, given the function

y = ax2 + bx + c

(i) the graph is a curve that either opens upwards or downwards, giving it turning
points at its minimum and maximum value respectively
(ii) the graph is symmetrical along a line parallel to the y-axis
(iii) the graph opens upwards forming a ‘cup’ if a > 0
(iv) the graph opens downwards forming a ‘cap’ if a < 0
(v) the shape of the curve of a quadratic function is known as a parabola
(vi) the constant c is the y-intercept

We use the same technique of solving for a set of coordinate points that are on the function.
The difference between a linear and a quadratic function is that for the quadratic curve to be
more defined more points on the curve are required.

EXAMPLE
Draw the graph of y = -2x2 – 4x + 1 for the domain -4 ≤ x ≤ 2
using a scale of 2cm to represent 1 unit on the x-axis and 2cm to represent 5 units on
the y-axis. From the graph deduce the exact values, if possible, or estimates of
(a) the coordinates of the turning point
(b) the values of x for which -2x2 – 4x + 1 = 0
(c) the values of x for which -2x2 – 4x – 1 = 0
(d) the values of x for which -2x2 – 4x – 6 = 0
(e) the equation of the axis of symmetry

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The working of graphs is done on printed graph paper. The grid on a standard graph paper is
presented in highlighted 1cm X 1cm and 2cm X 2cm squares.
1cm

1cm

2cm

2cm

The scale given means on the horizontal axis we will take the 2cm grid as 1 and on the
vertical axis we will take the 2cm grid as 5.

First, we find some points on the curve y = -2x2 – 4x + 1

X -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

Y -15 -5 1 3 1 -5 -15

Y
10

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 X
y = -2

y = -2x2 – 4x + 1
-5

y = -7

-10

-15

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 (a) the turning point is (-1 , 3)
(b) the LHS of the equation -2x2 – 4x + 1 = 0 is the same as the equation of the curve
given. In other words we are solving for y = 0 . The solution to this condition are
the points where the curve cuts the x-axis.
x = -2.2 and 0.2
(c) we need to solve the equation of the curve so that it gives us -2x2 – 4x – 1 = 0
we can see by comparison that the two equations differ by the constants
we can therefore realise the change required in the equation of the curve as follows
1 + y = -1 OR -2x2 – 4x – 1 = 0
y = -1 – 1 -2x2 – 4x – 1 + 2 = 0
y = -2 -2x2 – 4x – 1 = -2
This means we need to subtract 2 from the equation of the curve to get the condition
-2x2 – 4x – 1 = 0. In other words, we are looking for values of x when y = -2
From the graph,
x = -2.6 and 0.6
(d) we will relate the equation of the curve to -2x2 – 4x – 6 = 0 in the same way
1 + y = -6 OR -2x2 – 4x – 6 = 0
y = -6 – 1 -2x2 – 4x – 6 + 7 = 0
y = -7 -2x2 – 4x – 6 = -7
This means we find the values of x for which y = -7
From the graph,
x = -3.2 and 1.2
(e) the graph is symmetrical along the line x = -1

24.4 CUBIC FUNCTIONS

A cubic function is of the form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d. A cubic function cuts the x-axis at
at least one point, but not at more than three points. It will usually have one minimum and
one maximum value within a certain range of values. The graphical analysis of cubic functions
is similar to that of other polynomials.

EXAMPLE
Draw the graph of y = x3 for the domain -3 ≤ x ≤ 3. Use a scale of 2cm to represent 1
unit on the x-axis and 2cm to represent 10 units on the y-axis. On the same axes draw the
graph of y = 5x. From the graph estimate the values of x which satisfy the equation x3 = 5x

We first get some coordinate points on the curve y = x 3

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Y -27 -8 -1 0 1 8 27

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 Y y = x3
20
y = 5x

10

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 X

-10

-20

-30

On the same axes we have the line y = 5x with points

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Y -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15

From the graph, x3 = 5x is the set of coordinate points where the cubic and linear
functions intersect. There are three points of intersection,
x = -2.2, x = 0 and x = 2.3

24.5 ROTATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Polynomials of the form y = axn, where n is -1, -2, or -3 are called rotational
functions. The major characteristic of rotational functions is that they have a set of equal
corresponding values with respect to either the x- or the y-axis. They seem to have been
rotated about a fixed point through an angle. The graphs never touch the axes. The axes are
said to be asymptotic to the curves of rotational functions.

EXAMPLE
𝟏
Draw the graph of y = , where x ≠ 0, for the domain -2 ≤ x ≤ 2
𝐱𝟑

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
The given function is not defined for x = 0. This means the graph never touches the axes.
We will find some coordinate points in the given domain the same way we do for other
functions.

X -2 -1.8 -1.5 -1 1 1.5 2

Y -0.13 -0.17 -0.3 -1 1 0.3 0.13

Y
1

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 X

-1

24.6
-1 GRADIENT OF A CURVE AT A POINT
The difference between a straight line and a curve is that a straight line, the graph of a linear
function, has a constant gradient; the gradient is the same across the entire line. For a non-
linear function, however, the gradient keeps changing as the curve moves across the plane. In
order to determine the gradient of a curve we have to refer to a point in particular.
We find the gradient of a curve at a particular point by drawing a tangent to the curve at that
particular point; the gradient of the curve at that point is the same as the gradient of the
tangent, which is a straight line or a linear graph touching the curve only at that point.

We can get the gradient using two methods, as stated below.

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 x Tangent
y
P Curve

The steps to follow are

- draw an appropriate tangent to the curve at the given point
- construct a suitable right-angled triangle with the tangent as hypotenuse
- determine the units on the adjacent sides of the triangle (excluding the hypotenuse)
from the scale of units on respective axes
- use the point-form formula for gradient or simply divide the y-units by the x-units
- ensure that the gradient has an appropriate sign, positive if the tangent is rising from
left to right and negative if it is falling from left to right

24.7 ESTIMATING AREA UNDER A CURVE

We can estimate the area bound by a curve and other conditions by considering the square
units of the plane within the stated boundary. We use the respective units on the x- and the
y-axis and apply them to a unit square. We can then count the number of unit squares we
have under the curve and determine the required area.

EXAMPLE
The following table shows some values of x and y for the curve given by the equation

𝟔
y = 3 – + x
𝐱

X 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5

Y -8.5 -2 0.5 2 4 5.5 r

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
(a) calculate the value of r
(b) using a scale of 2cm to represent 1 unit on the x-axis and 1cm to represent 1 unit
on the y-axis for 0 ≤ x ≤ 6 and -10 ≤ y ≤ 10 , draw the graph of
𝟔
y = 3 – 𝐱 + x

(c) find from your graph the value of x for which y = -4

(d) on the same axes draw the line y = 3x – 6 and use it to estimate the solutions to
the equation
𝟔
3 – 𝐱 + x = 3x – 6
(e) by drawing a tangent to the curve, estimate the gradient of the curve
𝟔
y = 3 – + x at the point where x = 2
𝐱
(f) estimate the area between the curve, the x-axis and the lines x = 2 and x = 5
Y
10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X

-2

-4
𝟔
y = 3 – + x
𝐱
-6

-8

-10

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(a) to calculate the value of r we substitute 5 for x in the equation

𝟔
y = 3 – + x , x = 5
𝐱

𝟔
= 3 – 𝟓 + 5
= 3 – 1.5 + 5
= 1.5 + 5
= 6.5
r = 6.5

(b) refer to the graph above

(c) from the graph, when y = -4, x = 0.8

(d) using the table of values,

X 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5

Y -4.5 -3 -1.5 0 3 6 9

we draw the graph of the linear function y = 3x – 6.

𝟔
The solution to the equation 3 – 𝐱 + x = 3x – 6 is the point of
intersection of the curve and the linear funtion.
From the graph,
x = 0.9 and 3.6

(e) From the graph, our tangent line has a right triangle of adjacent sides of 2 units
vertical and 1 unit horizontal for each 2cm X 2cm square. In the diagram, we have
1.6 units horizontal
4.6 units vertical
𝟒.𝟔
Gradient m = 𝟏.𝟔 = 2.9

(f) From the graph, each 2cm X 2cm square corresponds to 2 units X 1 unit. That is,
each 2cm X 2cm grid square has an area of 2 square units. The area bound within
the specifications given has 5 whole square grids and 3 which are partly covered. By
the rules of approximations, squares that are halfway covered by the curve or more
are counted as whole, whereas those covered approximately less than half are
disregarded. The area in the diagram is therefore
Area under curve = 2 square units X 7 = 14 square units

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Line PQ has gradient 2𝟏𝟐 and passes through the points P(2 , 3) and Q(x , -6) .
(a) Find the equation of line PQ .
(b) Find the x-coordinate of Q .

2 For the linear function 4x – 5y + 3 = 0 ,

(a) Find the gradient of the line .
(b) Find the equation of the line perpendicular to 4x – 5y + 3 = 0 and passes
through the point R(-1, 7) .

3 Find the equation of the line passing through (1, -3) and (15, 4) .

SOLUTIONS
𝟏 𝟓 𝟓𝐱
1 (a) y = mx + c ; m = 2 = , (2, 3) (b) y = – 2 ; ( x , -6)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟓 𝟓𝐱
3 =
𝟐
(2) + c -6 =
𝟐
– 2 multiplying through by 2
3 = 5 + c -12 = 5x – 4
c = -2 -8 = 5x
𝟓𝐱 −𝟖
∴ y = – 2 ∴ x = = -1.6
𝟐 𝟓

2 (a) 4x – 5y + 3 = 0 (b) Perpendicular lines have gradients that are negative

4x + 3 = 5y reciprocals. Thus,
𝟒 𝟑 𝟒 −𝟓 𝟏
x + = y m1 = ; m2 = = -1
𝟓 𝟓 𝟓 𝟒 𝟒
𝟒 −𝟓
∴ m = y = mx + c ; m = , (-1 , 7)
𝟓 𝟒
−𝟓
7 = (-1) + c
𝟒
𝟏 𝟑
c = 7 – 1 = 5
𝟒 𝟒
∴ y = 5 𝟑𝟒 – 1 𝟏𝟒 x

3 (1 , -3) , (15 , 4)
y = mx + c
𝐲𝟐 − 𝐲𝟏 𝟒 − (−𝟑) 𝟕 𝟏
m = = = =
𝐱𝟐 − 𝐱𝟏 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟏 𝟏𝟒 𝟐
𝟏
y = x + c ; (1 , -3)
𝟐
𝟏
-3 = (1) + c
𝟐
𝟏 𝐱
-3 – = c ∴ y = – 3 𝟏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
- 3 𝟏𝟐 = c

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Find the gradient and y-intercept of the following lines.

𝟓𝐱 𝐲− 𝟒
(a) 7x + 2y – 1 = 0 (b) =
𝟐 𝟑

2 The variables x and y are connected by the equation y = 2 – 3x – x2 . Some

values of x and y are given in the following table.
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
y -2 2 4 4 2 -2 r
(a) Find the value of r
(b) Using a scale of 1 cm to represent 1 unit on both axes for -5 ≤ x ≤ 3 and
-10 ≤ y ≤ 6 , draw a smooth curve for y = 2 – 3x – x2 .
(c) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to find the values of x for which
(i) x2 + 3x – 2 = 0
(ii) x2 + 3x = 0
(d) By drawing a suitable tangent, find the gradient of y = 2 – 3x – x2 at (0, 2).
(e) On the same set of axes draw the graph of 3y – 2x = 6
𝟐𝐱
(f) Use your graph to find the values of x for which 2 – 3x – x2 = + 2
𝟑
(g) Estimate the area bounded by the curve, x = -3 , y-axis and the line y = 0 .

𝟐
3 Draw the graph of y = for -4 ≤ x ≤ 4 and -1 ≤ y ≤ 3 .
𝐱𝟐
𝟐
(a) Find the equation of the line of symmetry for the graph of y = .
𝐱𝟐
𝟐
(b) Determine the gradient of the y = at (-2 , 0.5).
𝐱𝟐

Y M
(12 , 20)
4 The graph shows the line MN. The
8 coordinate of M is (12 , 9).
Find,
N (a) The equation of the line MN.
0 X (b) The coordinate of N.

5 Find the equation of the line that passes through (-2, 2) perpendicular to y = 3x + 4 .

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 25. TRAVEL GRAPHS .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
25.1 Distance-Time Graphs
25.2 Velocity-Time Graphs

..................................................................................................................................................
25.1 DISTANCE – TIME GRAPHS
The fundamental formula for distance and time is given as
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝
Speed = 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧
This expression defines speed as the rate of change of distance with respect to unit time. Like
other formulae covered in this book, we can solve for any of the three variables if two of
them are known.

EXAMPLE 1
A train covered a distance of 350km at an average speed of 70km/h. Calculate how much
time the train spent on the journey.

𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
Speed = ; speed = 70km/h, distance = 350km
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

𝟑𝟓𝟎𝐤𝐦
70km/h = cross multiplying fractions
𝐱

70x = 350 dividing through by 70

x = 5
The train took 5 hours for the 350km journey.

We can plot the speed of an object in motion using the variables of distance and time.
Distance is normally set on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal. Since distance as well
as time cannot have negative units, we disregard the negative regions of the two axes.

EXAMPLE 2
A car travels from town A to town B at an average speed of 60km/h. It spends 2 hours at a
garage in town B before returning to town A. It took the car 3 hours to travel from town A
to town B and 2 hours 30 minutes for the return journey.
(a) How far apart are the two towns, A and B?
(b) If the car left town A at exactly 06:00 what time did it arrive at town B?
(c) What was the average speed of the car on its return journey?
(d) Draw the graph to illustrate the car’s journey
(a) We know the speed of the car and how much time it took to cover the distance from
town A to town B.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
Speed = ; speed = 60km/h, time = 3 h
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

𝐱
60km/h = cross multiplying fractions
𝟑𝐡

x = 180km
Town A is 180km away from town B

(b) The car started off at 06:00 and travelled for 3 hours to reach town B
Time of arrival at town B = 06:00 + 03:00 = 09:00
The car arrived at town B at exactly 09:00

(c) the distance from town B to town A is still 180km. The car took 2hours 30minutes on
this return journey.
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
Speed = 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 ; distance = 180km, time = 2h 30min

𝟏𝟖𝟎𝐤𝐦
= 2h 30min = 2 h + 0.5 h = 2.5 h
𝟐𝐡 𝟑𝟎𝐦𝐢𝐧

𝟏𝟖𝟎𝐤𝐦
= 𝟐.𝟓𝐡

= 72km/h
The car travelled at an average speed of 72km/h on the return journey.

(d)
Dist.
km

200
Town B
160

120

80

40

Town A
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 Time
Hours

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
25.2 VELOCITY – TIME GRAPH
Other quantities that measure motion are velocity and acceleration, which are extensively
covered in other branches of science, particularly Physics.
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement with respect to time, or simply the
rate of change of distance with respect to time in a specific direction.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
From the above definitions,

𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭(𝐦)
Velocity = ; the units are m/s or ms-1
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞(𝐬𝐞𝐜)

𝐦
𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲( )
𝐬
Acceleration = 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞(𝐬)
; the units are m/s2 or ms-2

We can use the velocity – time graph to find any of the three variables involved. Before we
look at the graphs in detail, note that
 Constant velocity is a horizontal graph
 Uniform velocity is either a graph with positive gradient or a graph with negative
gradient
 Constant velocity implies zero acceleration, since acceleration is the rate of change of
velocity
 Negative acceleration is also known as retardation or deceleration
 Calculations on velocity – time graph use formula for area of the shape of the graph

EXAMPLE
The diagram below shows the velocity – time graph of a motor cycle during a period of 21
seconds.

Velocity
(m/s)

0 7 14 21 Time (s)

The distance travelled in the first 7 seconds is 175m.

Calculate,
(a) The maximum speed of the motor cycle
(b) The total distance travelled
(c) The acceleration in the last 7 seconds

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
(a) the speed or velocity corresponds to the height of the right triangle of the graph for the
first 7 seconds
The area under the velocity – time graph gives the value for total distance travelled.
From the graph,
𝟏
A = 𝟐 X base X height ; Area = distance = 175m
Base = time = 7 sec

𝟏
175 = X 7 X h
𝟐

175 = 3.5h dividing through by 3.5

h = 50 h is the height or velocity
Maximum speed of the motor cycle = 50m/s

(b) the total distance travelled is the area under the graph, a trapezium with parallel sides
7 units and 21 units and vertical height 50 units.

𝟏
A = (a + b) h
𝟐

𝟏
= X (7 + 21) X 50
𝟐

= (28)(25)
= 700
Total distance travelled 700m

(c) the acceleration in the last 7 seconds and it is negative reducing to zero

𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲
acceleration = , velocity = -50m/s , time = 7 sec
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

−𝟓𝟎𝐦/𝐬
= 𝟕𝐬

𝟏
= −𝟕 𝟕 m/s2

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 A lorry leaves town A at 08 00 hours to travel 130 kilometres to town B at an

average speed of 50 km/h. A car leaves town B at 08 24 hours to travel to
town A at an average speed of 60 km/h along the same road.
(a) Draw a distance – time graph for the journeys of both the lorry and the car.
(b) When did the lorry reach town B?
(c) When did the car reach town A?
(d) When and where did the lorry and the car pass each other?

2 The graph below shows the of a particle during a period of 18 seconds.

30
Speed (m/s)

0 12 18
Time (s)
Calculate
(a) The total distance travelled by the particle
(b) The average speed for the whole journey

SOLUTIONS
1 (a) 160 2 (a) Total distance = area of rectangle + area of triangle
𝟏
= (30 x 12 ) + ( x 6 x 30 )
B 𝟐
120 = 360 + 90
LORRY
= 450 m
80
We can also work it out as area of trapezium.

40 CAR 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞

(b) Average speed =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞
𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝐦
A =
08 00 09 00 10 00 11 00 12 00 𝟏𝟖 𝐬
(b) It took the lorry 2 hours 36 minutes, = 25 ms-1
it reached town B at 10 36 hours.
(c) It took the car 2 hours 10 minutes,
it reached town A at 10 34 hours.
(d) The vehicles passed each other at about 09 25 hours,
nearly 70 km from town A and 60 km from town B.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 The velocity of a particle moving in a straight line is shown below.

Velocity (m/s)

0 8 20 x Time (s)

Given that the particle covered a distance of 160 metres during the first 8 seconds,
(a) Find the maximum velocity of the particle.
(b) Find the value of x, given that the particle decelerated through
100 metres before coming to rest.
(c) Calculate the total distance covered by the particle.

2 A bus travels from town T to town Q at a speed of 80 km/h. A light truck travels
from town Q to town T at a speed of 50 km/h. The bus left town T at 06 52 hours
and reached town Q at 10 07 hours.
(a) How long did it take the bus to reach town Q?
(b) How far from town T is town Q?
(c) If the truck arrived at town T at exactly 07 30 hours, at what time did it leave
town Q?

3 Zetile set off from home at 08 10 hours and cycled at a speed of 25 km/h to a
market to buy groceries. She reached the market at 08 55 hours. She spent quarter
an hour shopping and started off for home at a speed of 20 km/h.
(a) How far from Zetile’s home is the market?
(b) How long did Zetile’s return journey take?
(c) At what time did Zetile reach home?

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 26. STATISTICS .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
26.1 Presentation of Data
26.2 Measures of Central Tendency
26.3 Cumulative Frequency Curve
26.4 Quartiles and Percentiles
26.5 Variance and Standard Deviation

..................................................................................................................................................
26.1 PRESENTATION OF DATA
Statistics is the field of study of the collection, analysis and interpretation of numerical
information or data. To make the analysis and interpretation of data practical, the data has to
be presented in a systematic way. There are many ways of presenting data. Some of these
methods are
 Frequency table
 Histogram
 Bar graph/bar chart
 Pie chart
 Line graph
 Frequency polygon

We will go through the frequency table, histogram and pie chart.

FREQUENCY TABLE
Let’s take the weekly wage of 10 workers in rebased Zambian kwacha

Kahemba K55
Steve K42
Ngonga K55
Mwangala K61
Isaac K81
Ngambo K55
Phezo K42
Chiyaze K100
Mbinga K55
Kakuhu K42

From the list above

- The lowest wage is K42 and it appears three times on the wage sheet
- The highest wage is K100 and appears once on the wage sheet
- The wage appearing on the wage sheet the most number of times is K55
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
The numbers in such a list are called scores and the list of numbers is called a distribution.
The number of times a particular score appears in the same distribution is called its
frequency. For example, from the distribution above, the frequency of 42 is 3, that of 55 is
4 and so on.
A frequency table is an easier way of presenting and interpreting data. The same data of
wages above can be presented in a frequency table as follows

WAGE FREQUENCY TALLY MARK

42 3 ///
55 4 ////
61 1 /
81 1 /
100 1 /
TOTAL 10 10

OR

WAGE 42 55 61 81 100
FREQUENCY 3 4 1 1 1

HISTOGRAM
Certain data can be presented well on a set of axes and constructing rectangular bars for the
relation between individual scores and their corresponding frequencies.

EXAMPLE
The ages of 200 pupils at Simfex Academy are in four intervals as shown below

AGE - Years 0 – 5 5 – 10 10 – 15 15 – 20
Number of pupils 53 78 30 39

We can show this information in a histogram as follows

No. of pupils
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

0 5 10 15 20 Age - Yrs

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
PIE CHART
The other way of presenting statistical data is to scale the total distribution as a complete
turn or 360° angular data. The quantities of scores in the distribution constitute the angles
adding up to the total of 360°.

EXAMPLE
Mr Chikomo harvested a total of 3600 by 50kg bags of maize during the 2011-2012 farming
season. He sold 2400 bags to the Food Reserve Agency. He exported 1000 bags and the rest
of his crop he sold to local customers. Draw a pie chart illustrating the distribution of Mr
Chikomo’s harvest.

We need to form a scale or ratio of the number of bags to the associated angle on the pie
chart.
Total 3600 bags : 360° complete turn
Ratios 2400 FRA : x°
1000 Export : y°
200 Local : z°
Once we find the values of x, y and z, we can draw to scale or sketch the pie chart that
illustrates the given data.

3600 : 360°
2400 : x°

𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎
= cross multiplying fractions
𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝐱°

3600x = 864000 dividing through by 3600

x = 240°

In the same way we find y and z

𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
= cross multiplying fractions
𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝐲°

3600y = 360000 dividing through by 3600

y = 100°

𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟎
= cross multiplying fractions
𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝐳°
3600z = 72000 dividing through by 3600
z = 20°

We can now draw the pie chart showing the three angles 20° , 100° and 240°.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 Local
20°
Export

100°
240°
FRA

The pie chart can also be used to represent percentages, in which the total ratio is 100%
corresponding to the total scores in the distribution. The working process remains the same.

26.2 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Many decisions made on statistical data put into consideration three important aspects
- The most frequent score, also known as the mode
- The score in the middle of the distribution when the scores are arranged in
chronological order of ascendancy or descending order, also known as the median
- The average score of the distribution, also known as the mean
The mean, mode and median are called measures of central tendency, since they depict from
the distribution scores of representative value.

Small distributions are normally given as ungrouped data where individual scores in the
distribution are listed.
For example,
Mark Frequency
3 4
5 1
7 2
9 5
11 3
The above distribution is an example of ungrouped data. Each score in the distribution is
associated to its frequency.

Mark Frequency
1–5 2
6 – 10 8
11 – 15 3
16 – 20 7

In this distribution, our interest may not be on individual scores but on a range of values.
Such a distribution is called grouped data.
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
For grouped data , a – b is called an interval , where
a is called the lower limit of the interval
b is called the upper limit of the interval
𝐚 + 𝐛
= x is called the mid-point or mean of the interval
𝟐
b–a= y is called the width or range of the interval

Our analysis of the measures of central tendency may differ slightly depending on whether
the data is grouped or ungrouped.

EXAMPLE 1
For the following distribution find the mean, mode and median score

MARK 1 2 3 4 5 6
FREQUENCY 3 4 1 2 1 1

The mean is given as

∑ 𝐟𝐱
x̄ = ∑𝐟
; where the symbol sigma (Σ) means summation or sum
f is the frequency
x is the score
From the table,
The distribution has the numbers 1 to 6 and 1 appears 3 times, 2 appears 4 times, 3
appears 1 time, 4 appears 2 times, 5 appears 1 time and 6 also appears 1 time.
Therefore,
∑ 𝐟𝐱
x̄ = ∑𝐟

(𝟏 𝐱 𝟑) + (𝟐 𝐱 𝟒) + (𝟑 𝐱 𝟏) + (𝟒 𝐱 𝟐) + (𝟓 𝐱 𝟏) + (𝟔 𝐱 𝟏)
= (𝟑 + 𝟒 + 𝟏 + 𝟐 + 𝟏 + 𝟏)

𝟑+ 𝟖 + 𝟑 + 𝟖 + 𝟓 + 𝟔
= 𝟏𝟐

𝟑𝟑
= 𝟏𝟐
= 2.75

The mode is the most frequent score. The mode for this distribution is 2, appearing 4 times.

In order to get the median, we need to arrange the scores and pick out the one that is in the
middle of the distribution
1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6

In a case where the number of scores in the distribution is even, there will be two scores in
the centre of the list. To get the median we simply find the average of the two numbers, that
is, add the two scores and divide by 2.
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 𝟐+ 𝟐 𝟒
Median = 𝟐 = 𝟐 = 2
Note that if the two middle digits are the same number then the number is the median.

EXAMPLE 2
The following distribution shows the time it took 20 athletes to complete a race. Find the
mean, and the modal and median intervals.

Time (t - sec) 10 < t ≤ 15 15 < t ≤ 20 20 < t ≤ 25 25 < t ≤ 30 30 < t ≤ 35

Number of Athletes 6 2 3 8 1

In order to determine the mean for grouped data we need to find the representative scores
for each interval, the midpoints or average of each interval. We can modify the table with
midpoints as follows

Time (t – sec) 10 < t ≤ 15 15 < t ≤ 20 20 < t ≤ 25 25 < t ≤ 30 30 < t ≤ 35

Midpoints 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5
Number of Athletes 6 2 3 8 1

From the table,

∑ 𝐟𝐱
x̄ = ∑𝐟
; f is the frequency or number of athletes
x is the midpoint representing time in seconds

(𝟏𝟐.𝟓 𝐱 𝟔) + (𝟏𝟕.𝟓 𝐱 𝟐) + (𝟐𝟐.𝟓 𝐱 𝟑) + (𝟐𝟕.𝟓 𝐱 𝟖) + (𝟑𝟐.𝟓 𝐱 𝟏)

= 𝟔 + 𝟐 + 𝟑 + 𝟖 + 𝟏

𝟕𝟓 + 𝟑𝟓 + 𝟔𝟕.𝟓 + 𝟐𝟐𝟎 + 𝟑𝟐.𝟓

= 𝟐𝟎

𝟒𝟑𝟎
= 𝟐𝟎
= 21.5 seconds

The modal class is the interval with highest frequency. From the table, the modal interval is
25 < t ≤ 30

For grouped data, the interpretation, as in the distribution above, is that there are 6 scores
in the range 10 to 15 seconds, 2 scores in the range 15 to 20 seconds and so forth. To
determine the median, we cannot list the intervals or the individual scores which are not
given. However, we use the frequency. Since our total frequency is 20, the middle score is
between the 10th and 11th scores. So we can check through the intervals to find which of
them contains the 10th and 11th scores.
Adding the first two frequencies 6 + 2 = 8
Adding the last two frequencies 1 + 8 = 9
th th
The 10 and 11 scores are in the interval 20 < t ≤ 25, which is the median interval.

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There are other methods used in the analysis of grouped data which are beyond the scope of
our discussion at this level.

26.3 CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY CURVE

Cumulative frequency is obtained from the frequencies of individual scores or intervals in the
distribution. We add up the frequencies as shown in the following example,

MARK FREQ CUM FREQ

100 5 5
200 1 5+ 1 = 6
300 6 6 + 6 = 12
400 3 12 + 3 = 15
500 5 15 + 5 = 20
600 10 20 + 10 = 30
TOTAL 30 30

Calculation for cumulative frequency is the same for grouped as for ungrouped data.
When we plot the scores against the cumulative frequency, the graph arising from this
relation on the pair of axes is known as the cumulative frequency or Ogive curve. For the
distribution above,
MARK FREQ CUM FREQ
100 5 5
200 1 6
300 6 12
400 3 15
500 5 20
600 10 30
TOTAL 30 30
Cum. 30
freq
25

20

15

10

0 200 400 600 800 Mark

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26.4 QUARTILES AND PERCENTILES

QUARTILES
A quartile is a boundary between quarters or fourths of a distribution. That is, if we let the
total distribution be one whole,
1 whole
1/ 1/ 1/ 1/
4 4 4 4

Q1 Q2 Q3
Q1 is the lower quartile and corresponds to 25% of total frequency
Q2 is the middle quartile and corresponds to 50% of total frequency and the median
Q3 is the upper quartile and corresponds to 75% of total frequency

In many practical applications, the formulae for the quartiles are given as
𝟏
Q1 = 𝟒 (f + 1) ; where f is the total frequency of the distribution

𝟏
Q2 = (f + 1) ; where f is the total frequency of the distribution
𝟐

𝟑
Q3 = 𝟒 (f + 1) ; where f is the total frequency of the distribution
Other notations use n instead of f for the frequency of the distribution.

For further analysis of quartiles we have the inter-quartile range given as

Inter-quartile range = Q3 – Q1

Inter-quartile range is simply the difference between the upper and lower quartiles.

The semi inter-quartile range is given as

𝐐𝟑 − 𝐐𝟏
Semi inter-quartile range = 𝟐

Semi inter-quartile range is simply half the inter-quartile range.

PERCENTILES
The cumulative frequency can be converted to percentage. The total frequency corresponds
to 100% and so,
23rd percentile means 23% of cumulative frequency
45th percentile means 45% of cumulative frequency
90th percentile means 90% of cumulative frequency

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In some calculations the percentile is associated with what is known as relative cumulative
frequency. We get the relative frequency by dividing each interval cumulative frequency by
the total frequency of the distribution. For example,

MARK FREQ CUM FREQ RELATIVE CUM FREQ

100 5 5 5 ÷ 30 = 0.1667
200 1 6 6 ÷ 30 = 0.2
300 6 12 12 ÷ 30 = 0.4
400 3 15 15 ÷ 30 = 0.5
500 5 20 20 ÷ 30 = 0.6667
600 10 30 30 ÷ 30 = 1.0
TOTAL 30 30
When using the relative cumulative frequency we set the scores on the horizontal and the
relative cumulative frequency on the vertical axis with units from zero to one.
We will now look at how to work out the concepts covered above.

EXAMPLE
Over a period of one week, the amount of fish in kilograms caught at Lake Mweru by 600
fishermen is shown in the table below.

Mass of fish - kg 300 < x ≤ 310 310 < x ≤320 320 < x ≤ 330 330 < x ≤ 340 340 < x ≤ 350

Number of fishermen 25 75 340 130 30

(a) calculate the mean mass of the fish caught

(b) copy and complete the cumulative frequency table for the mass of the fish caught

Mass of fish - kg ≤ 300 ≤ 310 ≤ 320 ≤ 330 ≤ 340 ≤ 350

No. of fishermen 0 25 600

(c) using a horizontal scale of 2cm to represent 10kg and a vertical scale of 2cm to
represent 100 fishermen, draw a smooth cumulative frequency curve
(d) showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate
(i) the median mass
(ii) the semi inter-quartile range of the distribution
(iii) the 64th percentile of the distribution

(a) in order to calculate the mean we need to modify the distribution for midpoints as
follows:

Mass of fish - kg 300 < x ≤ 310 310 < x ≤320 320 < x ≤ 330 330 < x ≤ 340 340 < x ≤ 350

Midpoints 305 315 325 335 345

Number of fishermen 25 75 340 130 30

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 The mean
∑ 𝐟𝐱
x̄ = ∑𝐟

(𝟑𝟎𝟓 𝐱 𝟐𝟓) + (𝟑𝟏𝟓 𝐱 𝟕𝟓) + (𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝐱 𝟑𝟒𝟎) + (𝟑𝟑𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟑𝟎) + (𝟑𝟒𝟓 𝐱 𝟑𝟎)
=
𝟐𝟓 + 𝟕𝟓 + 𝟑𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟑𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎

𝟕𝟔𝟐𝟓 + 𝟐𝟑𝟔𝟐𝟓 + 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟓𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟎

= 𝟔𝟎𝟎

𝟏𝟗𝟓𝟔𝟓𝟎
= 𝟔𝟎𝟎

= 326.1kg

(b) the cumulative frequency table is as follows

Mass of fish - kg ≤ 300 ≤ 310 ≤ 320 ≤ 330 ≤ 340 ≤ 350

No. of fishermen 0 25 100 440 570 600

(c)
No. of 600 100% Percentile
f/men
500
Q3 It is easier to work out percentiles as
percentages of total frequency.
400
64th Therefore,
64th percentile = 64% of 600
300 Median = 384
We can then take the corresponding
200 unit on the percentile axis as the
Q1 64th percentile, as shown.
100

300 310 320 330 340 Fish

350
kg
(d) (i) median mass corresponds to 50% of total frequency. From the graph,
Median mass = 325kg
(ii) Lower quartile Q1 = 322kg , Upper quartile Q3 = 330kg
Inter-quartile range = Q3 – Q1
= 330kg – 322kg
= 8kg
𝐐 − 𝐐 𝟖𝐤𝐠
Semi inter-quartile range = 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 = 𝟐 = 4kg
(iii) 64th percentile corresponds to 64% of total frequency = 327kg

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26.5 VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION
Interest is shown in the analysis of statistical data in how individual scores differ with or vary
from the mean value of the distribution. This difference between the mean and individual
scores is known as deviation or dispersion from the mean and it is calculated as variance.
∑(𝐱 − 𝐱̄ )𝟐
Variance = ; where x is each score for ungrouped data
𝐍
x̄ is the mean
∑ 𝐟(𝐱 − 𝐱̄ )𝟐
OR Variance = ; where x is each midpoint for grouped data
𝐍
f is the frequency of each interval
N is the total frequency
And standard deviation = √𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞

The steps to follow when calculating for the variance and standard deviation are
- Find the mean as outlined earlier, for grouped or ungrouped data respectively
- Find the deviations from the mean x – x̄
- Find the squares of the deviations (x – x̄)2
- Find the total sum of the squares of deviations ∑(𝐱 − 𝐱̄ )𝟐 or ∑ 𝐟(𝐱 − 𝐱̄ )𝟐
- Divide the sum by total frequency
- For standard deviation, simply square root the calculated variance

EXAMPLE
For the following distribution find the mean, the variance and the standard deviation.
MARK FREQUENCY
1 – 3 35
4 – 6 24
7 – 9 10
10 – 12 13
13 – 15 8
16 – 18 6
19 – 21 3
22 – 24 1
We find the midpoints and calculate the mean. We modify the table as follows
MARK FREQUENCY(f) MIDPOINTS(x) fx (x – x̄) (x – x̄)2 f(x – x̄)2
1 – 3 35 2 70 -5.1 26.01 910.35
4 – 6 24 5 120 -2.1 4.41 105.84
7 – 9 10 8 80 0.9 0.81 8.1
10 – 12 13 11 143 3.9 15.21 197.73
13 – 15 8 14 112 6.9 47.61 380.88
16 – 18 6 17 102 9.9 98.01 588.06
19 – 21 3 20 60 12.9 166.41 499.23
22 – 24 1 23 23 15.9 252.81 252.81
TOTAL Σ 100 - 710 - - 2943

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 ∑ 𝐟𝐱
Mean x̄ = ∑𝐟

𝟕𝟏𝟎
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎

= 7.1

∑ 𝐟(𝐱 − 𝐱̄ )𝟐
Variance = 𝐍

𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟑
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎

= 29.43

Standard deviation = √𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞

= √𝟐𝟗. 𝟒𝟑

= 5.4

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 The following graph shows the number of people diagnosed with three diseases at a
rural health centre within a period of one month.

No. of 12
patients
10

MALARIA
4

BP
TB

Disease

Given that 88 people were diagnosed with Malaria, find

(a) the number of people diagnosed with TB.
(b) the total number of people recorded at the centre.

2 Find the standard deviation of the distribution 10, 11, 10, 13, 15, 12, 14, 15 .

SOLUTIONS
1 (a) Malaria 88 people - 11 units on graph
TB x - 8 units on graph
𝟖𝟖 𝟏𝟏
=
𝐱 𝟖
11x = 704 ; x = 64 people diagnosed with TB
(b) 1 unit on graph represents 8 people
BP 10 units on graph = ( 10 x 8) = 80 people diagnosed with BP
Total number of people recorded = 88 + 64 + 80 = 228

2 For the distribution 10, 11, 10, 13, 15, 12, 14, 15
(𝟏𝟎 𝐱 𝟐)+ 𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟑 + (𝟏𝟓 𝐱 𝟐 )
MEAN ( 𝐱̅ ) =
𝟖
𝟏𝟎𝟎
MARK FREQ x – 𝐱̅ ( x – 𝐱̅ )2 =
𝟖

10 2 -2.5 6.25 = 12.5

∑( 𝐱 − 𝐱̅ )𝟐
11 1 -1.5 2.25 VARIANCE = ∑𝐟
𝟏𝟕.𝟓
12 1 -0.5 0.25 =
𝟖

13 1 0.5 0.25 = 2.1875

14 1 1.5 2.25 STANDARD DEVIATION = √𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 = √𝟐. 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓

15 2 2.5 6.25 = 1.48

∑
8 - 17.5

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 REVISION EXERCISE

1 The mean of the numbers 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, and x is 6.

(a) Find the value of x
(b) Find the mode and median of the distribution

2 A survey was conducted among residents of Muzama on their preferred wild fruit.
Their responses were as recorded in the pie chart below.
A
B 5%
D
Given that 120 people preferred
Mbungombungo, find 20%
(a) the number of people who preferred C
60%
Makolo.
(b) the number of people that were interviewed
in the survey. KEY
A Jicha C Makolo
B Matunga D Mbungombungo

3 A survey was conducted in which 700 airtime vendors were asked how much
worth of airtime they sold per day. Their responses were as recorded below.

AMOUNT-K 200 < x ≤ 205 205 < x ≤ 210 210 < x ≤ 215 215 < x ≤ 220 220 < x ≤ 225 225 < x ≤ 230
No. of 90 120 300 55 89 46
Vendors

(a) Calculate the mean of this data.

(b) Copy and complete the cumulative frequency table below.
Amount - K ≤ 200 ≤ 205 ≤ 210 ≤ 215 ≤ 220 ≤ 225 ≤ 230
Frequency 0 90 210

(c) Using a horizontal scale of 2 cm to represent K5 for 200 ≤ x ≤ 230 and a

vertical scale of 2 cm to represent 100 vendors, draw a smooth cumulative
frequency curve of this distribution.
(d) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate
(i) The semi inter-quartile range (ii) The 56th percentile

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 27. PROBABILITY .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
27.1 Definitions
27.2 Simple Events
27.3 Compound Events
27.4 Addition and Multiplication
27.5 Grid diagrams
27.6 Tree diagrams
27.7 Continuous Sample Space

..................................................................................................................................................
27.1 DEFINITIONS
Probability is the chance or likelihood of an event happening. In day-to-day life we make
statements such as
- I am very sure Frazier will come
- I can almost certainly confirm that they have reconciled
- Senegal had no chance of coming out of the group stage facing opponents like Zambia

Basically, the probability of any event depends on the possible number of outcomes. For
example, if a school leaver sends applications to five colleges, her chances of being accepted
at any one of the colleges is not the same as the chance she would have if she sends
applications to only two colleges.

The total number of possible outcomes of an event is called sample space.

27.1 SIMPLE EVENTS

A fair coin has two sides, one commonly called the head (H) and another side called the tail
(T). When a coin is rolled, it spins several times and stops, falling on either one of its two
sides, the head or the tail.
Sample space will be 2, since we can have two possible results, a head or a tail
Probability that the coin falls head up will be one out of these two possible outcomes
Probability that the coin falls tail up will also be one out of the total sample space
We write the two probabilities as

𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞 𝐮𝐩

P(H) = 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬

𝟏
= when a coin is rolled once, we have one chance of
𝟐
obtaining a head out of two possible outcomes, head or tail

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞 𝐮𝐩
P(T) = 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬

𝟏
= when a coin is rolled once, we have one chance of
𝟐
obtaining a tail out of two possible outcomes, head or tail

A die (plural – dice) has six faces each labelled with a number from 1 to 6.

The sample space for the die when rolled once is 6. This means that the chance of picking
any of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 is one chance out of the six possible outcomes.

𝟏 𝟏
P(1) = P(4) =
𝟔 𝟔

𝟏 𝟏
P(2) = P(5) =
𝟔 𝟔

𝟏 𝟏
P(3) = P(6) =
𝟔 𝟔

If there are 10 pairs of socks in a closet and we wish to pick one pair at random, the chance
we have is one out of ten possible outcomes. However, the socks may be of different colours
or qualities. For example,
4 pairs are black
3 pairs are blue
3 pairs are white.
In this case, if we pick one pair at random, we may pick one of the four black pairs, or one of
the three blue or one of the three white pairs of socks. These possibilities are all out of the
sample space 10.
𝟒
P(black) =
𝟏𝟎

𝟑
P(blue) = 𝟏𝟎

𝟑
P(white) = 𝟏𝟎

Other models used in probability are marbles, discs and playing cards. The analysis of these
probabilities follows similar principles.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
27.3 COMPOUND EVENTS
We can now extend the analysis of simple events to compound events. For example, if we
now roll the coin two or more times instead of just once, how would our outcomes be? Let us
start with two throws.
Possible outcome
st
1 throw H T
2nd throw H T

Since we have rolled the coin twice, we now have a total of four possible outcomes:
A head at first throw and a head at second throw P(HH)
A head at first throw and a tail at second throw P(HT)
A tail at first throw and a tail at second throw P(TT)
A tail at first throw and a head at second throw P(TH)
Our sample space for a coin rolled twice is now four, instead of just the two outcomes of
head or tail. Each of the four outcomes is therefore a probability fraction of the sample space
of four. That is,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
P(HH) = 𝟒 ; P(HT) = 𝟒 ; P(TT) = 𝟒 ; P(TH) = 𝟒

Note that the results P(HT) and P(TH) are not the same. The order of occurrence of events
cannot be reversed and mean the same. P(HT) means a head came up first, followed by a
tail, whereas P(TH) means a tail came up first, followed by a head.

When we look at two or more events as a combined single event, we now call such a
probability a compound event.

EXAMPLE
A bowl contains 1 green marble and 1 red marble. A marble is chosen at random from the
bowl and then replaced before a second marble is selected. Find the probability that
(a) both marbles chosen are green
(b) both marbles chosen are red

Sample space Marble colour

st
1 draw G R
nd
2 draw G R
The compound events arising from this situation are
P(GG), P(GR), P(RR), P(RG)
Each of the four events is one out of the four possible outcomes.

𝟏 𝟏
(a) P(GG) = (c) P(RR) =
𝟒 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏
(b) P(GR) = (d) P(RG) =
𝟒 𝟒

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
27.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
We have three types of events, namely, mutually exclusive, independent and dependent
events.

MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS

When a fair coin is tossed, either a head or a tail comes up. It is not possible to have both the
head and the tail come up the same time. When a die is rolled, a 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 comes up.
It is not possible to have two or more of the six numbers come up the same time. When
events cannot come up the same time in a random draw, they are called mutually exclusive
events.

EXAMPLE
A fair die is cast once. Find the probability that the die draws a 3 or a 5.

For a die,
Sample space is 6 (the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) .
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
P(1) = 𝟔 ; P(2) = 𝟔 ; P(3) = 𝟔 ; P(4) = 𝟔 ; P(5) = ; P(6) =
𝟔 𝟔
Therefore,
P(3 or 5) = P(3) + P(5)
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟔 + 𝟔

𝟐 𝟏
= =
𝟔 𝟑
Note that for mutually exclusive events we add the probabilities. That is, the probability of
one event OR the other event occurring is the sum of the probabilities of the events.

INDEPENDENT EVENTS
We saw earlier in this Unit that we can toss two or more coins at the same time, or the same
coin several times. Let us look at such a situation once more.

Possible outcome
Coin 1 H T
Coin 2 H T

𝟏 𝟏
Coin 1 P(H) = P(T) =
𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
Coin 2 P(H) = P(T) =
𝟐 𝟐

The result P(H) in Coin 1 has nothing to do with the result P(H) in Coin 2. The events in
the one coin are independent from those in the other. If we wish to find the probability of
obtaining a combination of events in this situation, we multiply the individual probabilities of
the independent events.
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
Therefore,
P(H) in Coin 1 and P(H) in Coin 2
P(H and H) = P(HH) = P(H) X P((H)
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟐 X 𝟐
𝟏
= 𝟒

So for independent events we multiply the probabilities. That is, the probability of one event
AND the other occurring is the product of the probabilities of the individual events.

DEPENDENT EVENTS
If we draw a marble out of a bowl containing several marbles and draw another marble after
that, the second result can be affected by whether the first marble was put back in the bowl
or not. If we don’t replace the marble, our sample space would reduce by one. The outcome
of the second result will therefore be out of a different number of possible chances than the
first marble. Such events are known as dependent events. Calculation of dependent events is
the same as that of independent events, but considering the change in sample space.

EXAMPLE
A marble is drawn out of a bowl containing 5 grey marbles and 3 pink marbles and not
replaced before a second marble is drawn from the same bowl. Express the following
probabilities as fractions in their lowest terms
(a) the probability that both marbles are grey
(b) the probability that both marbles are pink

Sample space 5 grey marbles + 3 pink marbles = 8 marbles

𝟓
P(grey) = 𝟖
𝟑
P(pink) = 𝟖

(a) the probability that the first marble drawn is grey

𝟓
P(grey) = 𝟖
Since the first marble is not replaced, there will now be 4 grey marbles left and the
number of marbles in the bowl reduces to 7.
The probability that the second marble drawn is grey
𝟒
P(grey) = 𝟕
The probability of drawing two grey marbles is therefore
P(grey and grey) = P(grey) X P(grey)
𝟓 𝟒 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟎
= 𝟖 X 𝟕 = 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟐𝟏

(b) following the same reasoning, the probability that the first marble is pink

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝟑
P(pink) = 𝟖
The probability that the second marble is pink
𝟐
P(pink) = 𝟕
The probability of drawing two pink marbles is therefore
P(pink and pink) = P(pink) X P(pink)
𝟑 𝟐
= 𝟖 X 𝟕
𝟔
= 𝟒𝟐
𝟏
= 𝟕

27.5 GRID DIAGRAMS

All the analyses of compound events we have made can be presented on a grid diagram. The
following example demonstrates this.

EXAMPLE
A die and a coin are tossed at the same time. Use a grid diagram to find
(a) the probability of obtaining a head and the number 2
(b) the probability of obtaining a tail and a number less than 5

Grid H T Coin

1 H1 T1

2 H2 T2

3 H3 T3

4 H4 T4

5 H5 T5

Die 6 H6 T6

From the grid diagram,

Sample space 6 head – die combinations + 6 tail – die combinations = 12

𝟏
(a) P(H2) = 𝟏𝟐
(b) The numbers less than 5 are 1, 2, 3 and 4
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
P(T1) + P(T2) + P(T3) + P(T4) = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐 + +
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
𝟒 𝟏
= =
𝟏𝟐 𝟑

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27.6 TREE DIAGRAMS
Another graphical presentation of probability is by a tree diagram.

EXAMPLE 1
A coin is tossed twice. Use a tree diagram to express the following probabilities as fractions in
their lowest terms
(a) the probability that at least one head comes up
(b) the probability that either two heads OR two tails come up
(c) the probability that no heads come up

A tree diagram is a construction of nodes and branches. We follow each set of branches from
the first node which represents the number of rolls of the event.

1st Toss 2nd Toss

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
HH = X =
H 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
T
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
H 𝟐 HT = 𝟐
X 𝟐
= 𝟒

T 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Node 𝟐 H 𝟏 TH = X =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
𝟐
Branch
T 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 TT = X =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒

From the diagram,

(a) the probability that at least one head appears is the sum of the outcomes
P(HH), P(HT) and P(TH)
P(at least one head) = P(HH) + P(HT) + P(TH)

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒

𝟑
= 𝟒

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
(b) similarly, P(HH) OR P(TT) = + = =
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒 𝟐

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(c) the probability that no heads come up is
𝟏
P(no heads) = P(TT) = 𝟒

We can extend this analysis to any other suitable situation.

EXAMPLE 2
A bowl contains 3 black marbles and 4 white marbles. A marble is picked at random and not
replaced before a second marble is picked. Use a tree diagram to express the following
probabilities as fractions in their lowest terms
(a) the probability that both marbles selected are black
(b) the probability that both marbles selected are of the same colour
(c) the probability that at least a white marble is selected

1st Pick 2nd Pick

𝟑 𝟐 𝟔
B 𝟐 BB = X =
𝟕 𝟔 𝟒𝟐
𝟔

𝟑 𝟒
W 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏𝟐
𝟔 BW = X =
B 𝟕 𝟕 𝟔 𝟒𝟐

W 𝟒 𝟒 𝟑 𝟏𝟐
WB = X =
𝟕 B 𝟑 𝟕 𝟔 𝟒𝟐
𝟔

W𝟑 𝟒 𝟑 𝟏𝟐
𝟔 WW = X =
𝟕 𝟔 𝟒𝟐

From the diagram,

𝟔 𝟏
(a) P(BB) = =
𝟒𝟐 𝟕
𝟔 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟖 𝟑
(b) P(BB) + P(WW) = + = =
𝟒𝟐 𝟒𝟐 𝟒𝟐 𝟕
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟔 𝟔
(c) P(BW) + P(WB) + P(WW) = + + = =
𝟒𝟐 𝟒𝟐 𝟒𝟐 𝟒𝟐 𝟕

Note that after the first marble, the total number of marbles left in the bowl reduces to 6.
We also reduce the number of each colour of marbles appropriately after each selection.

With this idea in mind, we can now look at a fairly work-full situation.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE 3
In a group there are 3 Luvale boys, 4 Tonga boys and 5 Chokwe boys. Three boys are
selected at random from the group one at a time. Given that the selected boy does not return
to the group, use a tree diagram to express the following probabilities as fractions in their
lowest terms
(a) the probability that all the three boys selected are Luvale
(b) the probability that all the boys selected are from the same ethnic group
(c) the probability that the boys selected are all from different ethnic groups
(d) the probability that at least two of the boys selected are Tonga
The best way to analyse probabilities using a tree diagram is to complete the diagram with all
probabilities arising from the possible outcomes.
𝟏 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 𝟔
𝟏𝟎 L LLL =
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟏
X
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟒
𝟑 𝟐 𝟒 𝟐𝟒
𝟏𝟎 T LLT =
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟏
X
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎

𝟐 𝟓 𝟑 𝟐 𝟓 𝟑𝟎
LLC = X X =
𝟏𝟎 C 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟐 𝟐𝟒

𝟒 𝟏𝟎 L LTL =
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟏
X
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
L 𝟑 𝟑 𝟒 𝟑 𝟑𝟔
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 T LTT =
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟏
X
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟓 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔𝟎
T C LTC =
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟏
X
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟓 𝟐 𝟏𝟎 𝟑 𝟓 𝟐 𝟑𝟎
C 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 L LCL =
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟏
X
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟒 𝟑 𝟓 𝟒 𝟔𝟎
𝟑 T LCT = X X =
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟐 𝟒 𝟑 𝟓 𝟒 𝟔𝟎
LCC = X X =
𝟐 𝟏𝟎 C 𝟏𝟐
𝟒
𝟏𝟏
𝟑
𝟏𝟎
𝟐
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝟒
L 𝟏𝟎
L TLL =
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟏
X
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟑 𝟑 𝟒 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑𝟔
𝟒 𝟓 𝟏𝟎
T TLT =
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟏
X
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟏
𝟏𝟐 L C TLC =
𝟒
X
𝟑
X
𝟓
=
𝟔𝟎
T 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
T 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 L TTL =
𝟒
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟑
𝟏𝟏
X
𝟑
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟑𝟔
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎

C 𝟓 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 T TTT =
𝟒
X
𝟑
X
𝟐
=
𝟐𝟒
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟏 𝟑 𝟏𝟎 C TTC =
𝟒
X
𝟑
X
𝟓
=
𝟔𝟎
C 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟑 L 𝟏𝟐
𝟒
𝟏𝟏
𝟓
𝟏𝟎
𝟑
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟔𝟎
TCL = X X =
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟎 T 𝟏𝟐
𝟒
𝟏𝟏
𝟓
𝟏𝟎
𝟑
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟔𝟎
𝟒 TCT = X X =
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟎 C 𝟒 𝟓 𝟒 𝟖𝟎
𝟐 TCC = X X =
𝟑 L 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟎 𝟒 𝟓 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑𝟎
L 𝟏𝟏 T CLL =
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝟑 𝟒 𝟔𝟎
𝟒 CLT =
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟏
X
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
T 𝟒 𝟏𝟎 C CLC =
𝟓
X
𝟑
X
𝟒
=
𝟔𝟎

𝟏𝟏 𝟑 L 𝟏𝟐
𝟓
𝟏𝟏
𝟒
𝟏𝟎
𝟑
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟔𝟎
𝟏𝟎 𝟑 CTL = X X =
𝟏𝟎 T 𝟏𝟐
𝟓
𝟏𝟏
𝟒
𝟏𝟎
𝟑
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟔𝟎
C 𝟒
𝟒 CTT =
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟏
X
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟏 𝟑 𝟏𝟎 C CTC =
𝟓
X
𝟒
X
𝟒
=
𝟖𝟎
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟎 L CCL =
𝟓
X
𝟒
X
𝟑
=
𝟔𝟎
𝟒 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟓 𝟒 𝟒 𝟖𝟎
𝟑 𝟏𝟎 T CCT =
𝟏𝟐
X
𝟏𝟏
X
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟎 C 𝟓 𝟒 𝟑 𝟔𝟎
CCC = X X =
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎

From the diagram,

𝟔
(a) P(LLL) = 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝟔 𝟐𝟒 𝟔𝟎 𝟗𝟎 𝟑
(b) P(LLL) + P(TTT) + P(CCC) = 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 = 𝟒𝟒
(c) P(LTC) + P(LCT) + P(TLC) + P(TCL) + P(CLT) + P(CTL)
𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎
= 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎

𝟑𝟔𝟎
= dividing through by 120
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎

𝟑
= 𝟏𝟏

(d) P(LTT) + P(TLT) + P(TTL) + P(TTT) + P(TTC) + P(TCT) + P(CTT)

𝟑𝟔 𝟑𝟔 𝟑𝟔 𝟐𝟒 𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎
= + + + + + +
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎

𝟑𝟏𝟐
= 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
dividing through by 24

𝟏𝟑
= 𝟓𝟓

Note that the sum of all probabilities in one situation is always 1, and also that the
probability of an event not happening is “1 minus” the probability of the event happening.

27.7 CONTINUOUS SAMPLE SPACE

We have looked at situations in which the scores can be listed, for example,
- in a die the chances are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
- in a coin the chances are H, T
- in a pack of playing cards the units are A (1), 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, J, K, Q
- and we can count the number of marbles

In other situations the scores cannot be listed or counted. For example,

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
The disc has four coloured rings called concentric circles. We can express the probability of
each coloured ring as a ratio of the area of the disc, or using other representative values that
may be provided.

EXAMPLE
Four concentric circles have radii 1cm, 2cm, 3cm and 4cm and are drawn to form a darts
board as shown.

2
3
4
5

A player receives 5points for hitting the circle of radius 1cm, 4points for the circle of 2cm
radius, 3points for the circle of radius and 2points for hitting the circle of radius 4cm. Find
the probability that a player hits 5points at least once in two attempts.

The probabilities in such a situation is the ratio of the areas of the concentric circles. We can
see that
Area of white circle = 𝝅 r2 , 𝝅 = 3.142 , r = 1cm
= 3.142 X 1 X 1
= 3.142cm2

Area of blue circle = 𝝅 r2 , 𝝅 = 3.142 , r = 2cm

= 3.142 X 2 X 2
= 12.568cm2

But area available for the player in the blue circle = area of blue circle – area of white circle
= 12.568 – 3.142
= 9.426cm2

Similarly,
Area of orange circle = 𝝅 r2 , 𝝅 = 3.142 , r = 3cm
= 3.142 X 3 X 3
= 28.278cm2

Area available for the player in the orange circle = area of orange circle – area of blue circle
= 28.278 – 12.568
= 15.71cm2

And,
Area of red circle = 𝝅 r2 , 𝝅 = 3.142 , r = 4cm
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 = 3.142 X 4 X 4
= 50.272cm2
Area available for the player in the red circle = area of red circle – area of orange circle
= 50.272 – 28.278
= 21.994cm2

The sample space is the total area available for the player
Area of white circle + available area of other circles
3.142 + 9.426 + 15.71 + 21.994 = 50.272

Note that the sample space corresponds to the area of the largest concentric circle.

Therefore,
𝟐𝟏.𝟗𝟗𝟒
P(red disc) = 𝟓𝟎.𝟐𝟕𝟐
𝟏𝟓.𝟕𝟏
P(orange disc) = 𝟓𝟎.𝟐𝟕𝟐
𝟗.𝟒𝟐𝟔
P(blue disc) = 𝟓𝟎.𝟐𝟕𝟐
𝟑.𝟏𝟒𝟐
P(white disc) = 𝟓𝟎.𝟐𝟕𝟐

For two attempts

P(white disc and white disc) = P(white disc) X P(white disc)
𝟑.𝟏𝟒𝟐 𝟑.𝟏𝟒𝟐
= 𝟓𝟎.𝟐𝟕𝟐 X 𝟓𝟎.𝟐𝟕𝟐

𝟗.𝟖𝟕
= 𝟐𝟓𝟐𝟕.𝟐𝟕

The following pie chart shows statistics of respondents in a survey on people’s perception
about levels of bribery in public offices.

7% said bribery is decreasing

7% 21% said bribery has remained the same
72% said bribery is increasing
21%

72%

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
In this case, the sample space is 100% of the number of respondents in the survey. The
chance of a respondent in the survey perceiving that bribery in public offices has reduced is
7% , for perception that bribery has remained at the same level it is 21% and for perception
that bribery has increased during the period under survey it is 72% of the total number of
respondents in the survey.

As can be seen, probabilities can be applied in many practical situations. In this course we
find it usually integrated with statistics and sets.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Malichi drew out one playing card at random, from a pack of 52 playing cards. Find
the probability that he draw out
(a) the number 5, which was red.
(b) a number less than 3, which had flowers.

2 A bowl contains x white, 10 yellow and 6 red marbles. A marble is selected at

random and not replaced before a second marble is picked. The tree diagram below
shows the probabilities of the two marbles selected.
𝟑 W WW
𝟏𝟗
Y 𝟏𝟎 WY (a) Find the value of x.
𝟏𝟗
𝟔
W x R
𝟏𝟗
WR (b) Find the probability that both marbles
𝟒 YW
W 𝟏𝟗 selected were of the same colour.
Y 𝟏 Y 𝟗
YY
𝟐 𝟔 𝟏𝟗 (c) Find the probability that at least one
R
𝟏𝟗 YR
of the marbles picked was white.
R 𝟒 RW
𝟑 W 𝟏𝟗
𝟏𝟎 Y 𝟏𝟎 RY
R 𝟏𝟗
𝟓
RR
𝟏𝟗

SOLUTIONS
1 (a) A pack of playing cards has four of each card numbered A(1) to 10 and the cards J, K and Q . Two of the four cards are
black and the other two are red. One has ‘diamonds’, the other ‘flowers’, another ‘spades’ and the fourth ‘hearts’. Thus, there
are two ‘5’s that are red out of the 52 cards.
𝟐 𝟏
P(5-red) = =
𝟓𝟐 𝟐𝟔
(b) On a pack of cards, there are two numbers less than 3, the cards 1 and 2. One of the ‘1’s has flowers and only one of the
‘2’s has flowers. Thus, there are only two cards out of the 52 that are less than 3 and have flowers.
𝟐 𝟏
P(less than 3 with flowers) = =
𝟓𝟐 𝟐𝟔

2 (a) Since the first marble was not replaced, the second draw was made on a total of one less than on the first draw. Second draw
was out of 19, first draw was out of 20. Thus,
x white + 10 yellow + 6 red = 20 marbles
x + 16 = 20
x = 20 – 16 = 4 white marbles
(b) P(WW) + P(YY) + P(RR) (c) P(WW) + P(WY) + P(WR) + P(YW) + P(RW)
𝟒 𝟑 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 𝟔 𝟓 𝟒 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏𝟎 𝟒 𝟔 𝟏𝟎 𝟒 𝟔 𝟒
= ( x ) + ( x ) + ( x ) = ( x ) + ( x ) + ( x ) + ( x ) + ( x )
𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟗 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟗 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟗 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟗 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟗 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟗 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟗 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟗
𝟏𝟐 𝟗𝟎 𝟑𝟎 𝟏𝟐 𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟒 𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟒
= + + = + + + +
𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝟑𝟖𝟎
𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝟑 𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝟕
= = = =
𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝟗𝟓 𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝟏𝟗

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 REVISION EXERCISE

1 In a group of 12 farmers, 7 were women and 5 were men. Two farmers were
chosen at random. The tree diagram shows the possible outcomes and their
probabilities.
𝟔
𝟏𝟏 women

women 𝟓
𝟕 𝟏𝟏
𝟏𝟐 men

𝟓
𝟏𝟐 women
men

men

(a) Complete the tree diagram

(b) Expressing each answer as a fraction in its lowest form, find the
probability that
(i) two women were chosen
(ii) at least one woman was chosen

2 The pie chart shows the number of households using one of four malaria prevention
methods. A total of 900 households were involved in the survey.

(a) Find the number of households using repellent

spray
mosquito repellents.
120°
(b) Expressing the answer as a fraction in its 130°

lowest form, find the probability that a coil Mosquito

net
household chosen at random uses
(i) mosquito coil
(ii) treated mosquito net
(iii) bug spray or mosquito coil
(iv) repellent or treated mosquito net

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 28. VECTOR GEOMETRY .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
28.1 Component form
28.2 Addition and subtraction
28.3 Multiplication by a scalar
28.4 Magnitude of a vector
28.5 Directed Line Segments and Position Vectors
28.6 Addition and subtraction of Directed Line Segments
28.7 Algebra of Vectors

..................................................................................................................................................
28.1 COMPONENT FORM
A vector is defined as a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Some examples of
vector quantities are velocity and acceleration. We analyse these two features of a vector by
applying the vector in a plane in two or three dimensions. In this Unit we will concentrate on
the analysis of vectors in two dimensions, that is, using the horizontal and vertical axes.
The component form of a vector is given as a 2 X 1 or column matrix.

𝐚
V = ( ) , where a is the horizontal and
𝐛
b is the vertical component
from the initial point to the terminal point of the vector.

terminal point

initial point
The vector component a is always measured from the initial point to the right or to the left
to the ‘transitory point’

Left a Right

The vertical component b is always measured from the ‘transitory point’ upward or down
to the terminal point
b

upwards to b downwards to b

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 Terminal point

Initial point
a transit point

The component a is negative when the units are left of the initial point and positive to the
right
The component b is negative when the units are downward from the transit point and
positive upwards

A B

D E

We denote a vector by an arrowhead over upper case letters of the initial and terminal point,
or by a bold lower case letter. For example, a vector with initial point at P and terminal
point at Q may be written as

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐏𝐐 or a

From the diagram above, the components of some of the vectors from the given points are
From A to C : 𝐀𝐂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 𝟓 )
−𝟐

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ −𝟗
From B to D : 𝐁𝐃 = ( )
−𝟓

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From F to B : ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−𝟏)
𝐅𝐁
𝟖

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝟏
From D to E : 𝐃𝐄 = ( )
𝟎

𝟎
From A to D : ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐃 = ( )
−𝟓

Note that
- for a vertical vector, the horizontal component a is zero
- for a horizontal vector, the vertical component b is zero

28.2 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

We add and subtract vectors in component form the same way as we did matrices in Unit 15.
The horizontal component of one vector adds or subtracts with the horizontal component of
the other vector; similarly, the vertical component of one vector with the vertical of the other
vector.

EXAMPLE
−𝟑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 𝟒 ) ; find
Given that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐒𝐓 = ( ) and 𝐆𝐇
𝟕 −𝟐
(a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐒𝐓 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐆𝐇
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ – 𝐆𝐇
(b) 𝐒𝐓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

−𝟑 𝟒
(a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐒𝐓 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐆𝐇 = ( ) + ( )
𝟕 −𝟐

−𝟑 + 𝟒
= ( )
𝟕 + −𝟐

𝟏
= ( )
𝟓

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ – ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ −𝟑 𝟒
(b) 𝐒𝐓 𝐆𝐇 = ( ) – ( )
𝟕 −𝟐

(−𝟑 − 𝟒)
= ( )
(𝟕 – (−𝟐))

−𝟕
= ( )
𝟗

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28.3 MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR
Just as we saw when working out matrices, we can multiply a vector by a scalar in a similar
manner. The scalar multiplies the horizontal and the vertical element of the component form
of the vector.

EXAMPLE
𝟗
Given that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁 = ( ) , find
𝟒
(a) 𝐀𝐁 + 𝐀𝐁 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐀𝐁
𝟐
(b) 𝟑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁

(a) from algebra,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐀𝐁
𝐀𝐁 + 𝐀𝐁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝐀𝐁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟗
= 3( )
𝟒
𝟑 𝐱 𝟗
= ( )
𝟑 𝐱 𝟒
𝟐𝟕
= ( )
𝟏𝟐
𝟐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝟐 𝟗
(b) 𝐀𝐁 = ( )
𝟑 𝟑 𝟒
𝟐
(𝟗)
= (𝟑𝟐 )
𝟑
(𝟒)

𝟔
= (𝟐𝟐)
𝟑

28.4 MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR

b q

a
Using Pythagoras’ Theorem, the side q has units of length
q2 = a2 + b2
q = √𝐚𝟐 + 𝐛 𝟐
The length of the vector q is called the magnitude of the vector. That is,
given a vector in component form
𝐚
v = ( ) ; then the magnitude of the vector v is given as
𝐛
|𝐯| = √𝐚𝟐 + 𝐛 𝟐

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EXAMPLE 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 𝟖 ) ; find |𝐗𝐘
Given that 𝐗𝐘 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
−𝟔

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √𝐚𝟐 + 𝐛 𝟐 ; a = 8, b = -6
|𝐗𝐘
= √𝟖𝟐 + (−𝟔)𝟐

= √𝟔𝟒 + 𝟑𝟔
= √𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 10 units

(x2 , y2)

y
0 X

(x1 , y1) x

From the diagram,

The horizontal unit x = x2 – x1
The vertical unit y = y2 – y1
We can get another expression for the magnitude of a vector from an initial point
X(x1 , y1) to a terminal point Y(x2 , y2) on the Cartesian plane as

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(𝐱 𝟐 − 𝐱 𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝐲𝟐 − 𝐲𝟏 )𝟐

|𝐗𝐘

We can see that the component form corresponds to the x- and y- coordinates on the
Cartesian plane.
𝐱
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐗𝐘 = (𝐲)

The magnitude is therefore ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐

|𝐗𝐘

EXAMPLE 2
The point P has coordinates (3, 5) and the point Q has coordinates (-4, 6)
(a) Express ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐏𝐐 as a column vector

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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
(b) Find |𝐏𝐐

(a) the horizontal element of the column vector is the difference in the x- coordinates
x = -4 – 3 = -7
the vertical element of the column vector is the difference in the y- coordinates
y = 6–5 = 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ −𝟕
𝐏𝐐 = ( )
𝟏

(b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(−𝟕)𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐

|𝐏𝐐

= √𝟒𝟗 + 𝟏

= √𝟓𝟎

= √𝟐 𝐱 𝟐𝟓

= √𝟐 x √𝟐𝟓

= √𝟐 x 5
= 5√𝟐

28.5 DIRECTED LINE SEGMENTS AND POSITION VECTORS

A vector from an initial point A to a terminal point B is known as a directed line segment

A
As already stated, the notation for a directed line segment from A to B is

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁 or a

Given a directed line segment a then -a is a directed line segment

with the same magnitude as a but whose direction is a reverse of a . That is, -a

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Vectors are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and same direction. Note also
that a ≠ -a
In component form, equal vectors are also known as column vectors since they have the
same components.

0 X

𝐱
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( ) called a
For any point P(x , y) on the Cartesian plane there corresponds a vector 𝐎𝐏 𝐲
position vector with initial point at the origin and terminal point at P.
Y

From the diagram,

P
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐏 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐐 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐑 are
Q position vectors for the
points P, Q and R .
0 X

𝟐
This implies that given a point K(2 , 5), then the position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐊 = ( )
𝟓
⃗⃗⃗⃗ −𝟏𝟎
Similarly, the position vector 𝐎𝐉 = ( ) corresponds to the coordinates of the point
−𝟕
J(-10 , -7).

A scalar can be multiplied to a directed line segment. A scalar affects a vector in two ways
- magnitude
- direction
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 b
a
c

From the diagram,

Vectors a , c , d and e are parallel.
Parallel vectors only differ by a scalar. For example, analysing the components of the vectors
a to e above,
𝟏
a = ( )
−𝟒

𝟒
b = ( )
−𝟐

−𝟏 𝟏
c = ( ) = -1( )
𝟒 −𝟒

−𝟐 𝟏
d = ( ) = -2( )
𝟖 −𝟒

−𝟏 𝟏
e = ( ) = -1( )
𝟒 −𝟒

As can be seen, c = e ; and vectors a , c , d and e all have the vector component
𝟏
a = ( ) and the scalars -1 and -2 for vectors c , d and e .
−𝟒

28.6 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF DIRECTED LINE SEGMENTS

We can extend the concept of addition and subtraction of vectors in component form to
operations involving directed line segments.
- To add directed line segments we get a third vector by joining the terminal point of
the first vector to the initial point of the second vector. The third vector has its initial
point at the initial point of the first vector and its terminal point at the terminal point
of the second vector.
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 - To subtract vectors, find the reverse of the second vector and add the two vectors as
stated

EXAMPLE
For the vectors t and r , find
(a) t + r
(b) t – r
(c) 2t + 𝟏𝟐 r

r
t

(a) t + r

r
t

t + r

(b) t – r
In order to get t – r we need to find -r , the vector with the same magnitude as r and
with a reverse direction.

-r

We will add the reverse of r to vector t

t – r = t + (-r)

-r

t – r t

𝟏
(c) to get 2t + 𝟐
r we first find the vectors 2t , a vector parallel to t and twice its
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 𝟏
magnitude and the vector 𝟐
r , a vector parallel (and same direction) to r and half its
magnitude.

r
𝟏
𝟐
r
t

2t

𝟏
We are adding the vector 2t and the vector 𝟐
r

𝟏
𝟐
r

𝟏
2t + 𝟐
r
2t

We can now apply the principles we have looked at for further analysis of vectors.

28.7 ALGEBRA OF VECTORS

Much of the integration of algebra in vectors involves the concept of operations on vectors,
addition and subtraction of vectors. It also applies principles from ratios, properties of
common polygons and simplification of fractions.

Before we look at some examples, we restate here that

- Equal vectors are parallel and have the same magnitude
- If two pairs of equal and parallel vectors form a square, the diagonals of the square
are intersecting vectors of equal magnitude
- If two or more points lie on the same vector, they are called collinear points; they
have a common vector component and differ only by a scalar multiple
- The vertex where two or more vectors join is called a coincidental point

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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Let 𝐀𝐁 𝐂𝐀 and 𝐂𝐁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ be three vectors as shown. Using the concept of addition and
subtraction of vectors,
A

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐂𝐁 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐂𝐀 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐀𝐁 .........(i)
B ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁 = 𝐀𝐂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐂𝐁⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .........(ii)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐂𝐀 = 𝐂𝐁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐁𝐀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .........(iii)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐁𝐀 = - ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁 .........(iv)
C ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐂 = - 𝐂𝐀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ..........(v)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐁𝐂 = - 𝐂𝐁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ..........(vi)
The six expressions above are fundamental principles for the operations on vectors.

EXAMPLE 1
In the diagram 𝐎𝐀⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = a , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
𝐎𝐁 = 2b , AC : CB = 3 : 1 and D is the midpoint of 𝐎𝐁
Express in terms of a and/or b
(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐂 O
(iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐂𝐃
D
a 2b

A C B
From the diagram,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐃𝐁
𝐎𝐃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟏 (2b) = b
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟏 𝐎𝐁
𝟐 𝟐
Since AC : CB = 3 : 1 AB has a total of 4 equal parts such that
AC = 𝟑𝟒 AB and CB = 𝟏𝟒 AB

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(i) 𝐀𝐁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐀𝐁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐎𝐁
𝐀𝐎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
- 𝐎𝐀 𝐎𝐁
= - a + 2b
= 2b – a

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(ii) 𝐎𝐂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐂 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐀 + 𝐀𝐂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ we can also work it out as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐂 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐁 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐁𝐂
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐀 + 𝟒 𝐀𝐁 𝟑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

= a + 𝟑𝟒 (2b – a)
= a + 𝟑𝟐 b – 𝟑𝟒 a
= a – 𝟑𝟒 a + 𝟑𝟐 b
𝟏
= 𝟒
a + 𝟑𝟐 b = 𝟏𝟐 (𝟏𝟐a + 3b)
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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(iii) 𝐂𝐃 𝐂𝐁 + 𝐁𝐃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ we can also find an expression for ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐃 and use it
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + (- ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 𝟏𝟒 𝐀𝐁 𝐃𝐁 ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
in the statement 𝐂𝐃 = 𝐂𝐀 + 𝐀𝐃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟏
= 𝟒 (2b – a) + (- b)
= 𝟏𝟐 b – 𝟏𝟒 a – b
= 𝟏𝟐 b – b – 𝟏𝟒 a
= - 𝟏𝟐 b – 𝟏𝟒 a
= - 𝟏𝟐 (𝟏𝟐a + b)

EXAMPLE 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = p , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
In the following diagram 𝐎𝐏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐎𝐐 = q , 𝐎𝐌 𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐐 and PN : NQ = 3 : 1
𝟑
P

N
Q

p X
q
M

O
(a) Express in terms of p and/or q
(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐏𝐐
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐍
(iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐏𝐌

(b) Given that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐎𝐗 = h ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐎𝐍 , express ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐗 in terms of p , q and h
(c) Given also that 𝐏𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = k ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐏𝐌 , show that 𝐎𝐗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (1 – k) p + 𝟏 kq
𝟑

From the diagram,

PQ has a total of 4 equal parts such that
PN = 𝟑𝟒 PQ and NQ = 𝟏𝟒 PQ and also
OM = 𝟏𝟑 OQ and MQ = 𝟐𝟑 OQ

(a) (i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐏𝐐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐏𝐐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐏𝐎 + 𝐎𝐐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= - ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐏 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐐
= -p + q
= q – p

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 (ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐍
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐍 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐏 + 𝐏𝐍 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
we can also use 𝐎𝐍 𝐎𝐐 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐐𝐍
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐏 + 𝟒 𝐏𝐐 𝟑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟑
= p + 𝟒 (q – p)
= p + 𝟑𝟒 q – 𝟑𝟒 p
= p – 𝟑𝟒 p + 𝟑𝟒 q
𝟏
= 𝟒
p + 𝟑𝟒 q
𝟏
= 𝟒
(p + 3q)

(iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐏𝐌
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐏𝐌 𝐏𝐎 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐌
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝟏 𝐎𝐐
= - 𝐎𝐏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟑
𝟏
= -p + 𝟑 q
= 𝟏𝟑 q – p

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = h 𝐎𝐍
(b) 𝐎𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= h (𝟏𝟒 (p + 3q))
= 𝟏𝟒 h (p + 3q)
= 𝟏𝟒 h p + 𝟑𝟒 h q

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = k 𝐏𝐌
(c) 𝐏𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= k (𝟏𝟑 q – p)
= 𝟏𝟑 k q – k p

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐎𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐏𝐗
𝐎𝐏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟏
= p + 𝟑kq – kp
= p – k p + 𝟏𝟑 k q
= p (1 – k) + 𝟏𝟑 k q
= (1 – k)p + 𝟏𝟑 k q hence shown

Note that we cannot use the algebra ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐎𝐗 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐌 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐌𝐗 because we do not have an
expression of MX in terms of k. We also rule out the ratio OX : ON for lack of adequate
information.

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Point A has coordinates (2, 5) and point B has coordinates (-1 , 9).
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ as a column vector
(a) Express 𝐀𝐁
(b) Find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝐀𝐁

Y
2 The diagram shows the points A, B, 22
20
C, D and E with coordinates (3, 6), 18
E

(16, 0), (14, 10), (20, 10) and (6, 18) 16

14
respectively. The position vectors of A 12
C D
and B with respect to O are a and b . 10
8
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ma and
A point F is such that 𝐎𝐅 A
6 a
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = nb .
𝐅𝐂 4
2 b
(a) Find the coordinates of F B
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 X
(b) Determine the values of m and n -2

(c) Express as column vectors,

(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐂 (ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐁𝐅 (iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐃𝐂 (iv) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐃𝐄

SOLUTIONS
1 (a) A(2, 5) B(-1, 9) (b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−𝟑)
𝐀𝐁
𝟒
AB = (-1 – 2 , 9 – 5) = (-3 , 4) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(−𝟑)𝟐 + 𝟒𝟐
|𝐀𝐁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−𝟑)
𝐀𝐁 = √𝟐𝟓
𝟒
= 5 units

2 (a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ma = m(𝟑) = (𝟑𝐦)

𝐎𝐅 Given m =
𝟓
(c) (i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐎𝐂
𝟏𝟒
( )
𝟔 𝟔𝐦 𝟑 𝟏𝟎
∴ F = (3m , 6m) = (5 , 10) F = (3m , 6m) (ii) 𝐁𝐅⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−𝟏𝟏)
𝟏𝟎
𝟓 𝟓 −𝟔
= ((3 x ) , (6 x )) (iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐃𝐂 = ( )
𝟑 𝟑 𝟎
(b) F(3m , 6m) C(14 , 10) = (5 , 10) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−𝟏𝟒)
(iv) 𝐃𝐄
𝟖
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝟏𝟒 − 𝟑𝐦)
𝐅𝐂 = ( )
(𝟏𝟎 − 𝟔𝐦)
But 𝐅𝐂⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = nb = n(𝟏𝟔) = (𝟏𝟔𝐧)
𝟎 𝟎
(𝟏𝟒 − 𝟑𝐦) 𝟏𝟔𝐧
Thus, ( ) = ( )
(𝟏𝟎 − 𝟔𝐦) 𝟎
𝟓
14 – 3m = 16n ….(i) Given m =
𝟑
10 – 6m = 0 ….(ii) 14 – 3m = 16n
𝟓
From (i) and (ii) 14 – 3( ) = 16n
𝟑
10 – 6m = 0 14 – 5 = 16n
𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝟗
6m = 10 ; m = = 16n = 9 ; n =
𝟔 𝟑 𝟏𝟔

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 REVISION EXERCISE

1 The diagram below shows a trapezium ABCO in which AB : OC = 1 : 3 .

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = a
𝐎𝐀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = b . AC and OB intersect at D.
and 𝐎𝐁
A B

a D
b

O C

(a) Express in terms of a and/or b the vector

(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐁𝐂
(iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐂𝐀
(b) Given that OD = hOB , express ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐂𝐃 in terms of h , a and b .

2 The diagram below shows three game management offices O, P and Q located
at strategic points around a game reserve. R is a point within the reserve such that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ −𝟒
𝐐𝐑 = ( ) .
−𝟏
P

(a) Express in component form the route vectors

(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐑 (ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐐 (iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐏𝐑
(b) Express as a single route vector in component form ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐏 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐏𝐐 .

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 29. TRANSFORMATIONAL GEOMETRY .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
29.1 Translation
29.2 Rotation
29.3 Reflection
29.4 Enlargement
29.5 Stretch
29.6 Shear
29.7 Transformation Matrices

..................................................................................................................................................
29.1 TRANSLATION
Transformation is a way of manipulating the size, shape and position of an object. The result
of a transformation is called the image, and it differs from the object either in size, shape or
position.
Translation, T, only changes the position of the object. Its shape and size remain the same.

Translation occurs when each point on the object moves on the plane through the same
number of horizontal and vertical units given as a column vector

𝐚
T = ( ) ; where a is positive to the right and negative to the left
𝐛
of the object, and b is positive upwards and negative
downwards to the image.
The translation factor T is interpreted in the same way as the component form of a vector.

EXAMPLE 1
−𝟏
Find the image P’ of the point P(4, 5) under a translation T = ( )
𝟒
We can find the coordinates of the point P’ by simply adding the translation factor to the
object P(4, 5)
P’ = ((4 + (-1)) , (5 + 4))
= (3 , 9)

The triangle ABC has coordinates A(1, 5) , B(1, 8) and C(6, 8). Find the coordinates of
𝟐
the triangle A’B’C’, an image of ΔABC under the translation T = ( )
𝟒

In the same way,

A’ = ((1 + 2) , (5 + 4)) = (3 , 9)
B’ = ((1 + 2) , (8 + 4)) = (3 , 12)
C’ = ((6 + 2) , (8 + 4)) = (8 , 12)

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We can work out translations graphically by moving the object through the units of the
translation factor.

EXAMPLE 2
𝟓
Draw and label the image of the square PQRS under the transformation T = ( )
𝟐
Y
5
4
3
2
1
P’ Q’
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X
-1
P Q -2
-3
S’ R’
-4
-5
S R
-6
In the diagram, the point P moves 5 units to the right and 2 units up to P’. Similarly, Q, R
and S move by the same factor to their respective positions on the image P’Q’R’S’ as shown.

Transformations are given in three ways

- The object and the transformation are given to find the image
- The object and the image are given to find the transformation
- The image and the transformation are given to find the object
We have looked at the first scenario for translations.

Given the object and image, we can find the translation factor by subtracting the
corresponding coordinates.

EXAMPLE 3
Given that A(1, 1), B(6, 1) , C(6 , 5) and D(1, 5) are coordinates of rectangle ABCD, and
A’(-2 , -1) , B’(3 , -1) , C’(3 , 3) and D’(-2 , 3) are the coordinates of its image A’B’C’D’.
Describe fully this transformation.

𝐚
Let the transformation be T = ( )
𝐛
Then,
A’ = A + T
(-2 , -1) = ((1 + a) , (1 + b))
-2 = 1 + a -1 = 1 + b
-2 – 1 = a -1 – 1 = b
-3 = a -2 = b
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Similarly,
B’ = B + T
(3 , -1) = ((6 + a) , (1 + b))
3 = 6 + a -1 = 1 + b
3–6 = a -1 – 1 = b
-3 = a -2 = b
Working through the rest of the points confirms that each point on the object moved three
units to the left and two units downwards to the image. The transformation is a translation
with a translation factor
−𝟑
T = ( )
−𝟐

Note that if any point on the object has a different column vector, the transformation is not a
translation.

If the image and the transformation are given, we get to the object by reversing the
translation. If the translation factor describes a move to the right for example, the image will
move to the left to get back to its original position. Our calculation algebraically remains the
same, as only the term of the equation changes.

29.2 ROTATION
A rotation, R, moves an object through a given angle about a fixed point. The three features
of rotation are
- Centre of rotation
- Angle of rotation
- Direction of rotation
The direction of rotation is either clockwise or anticlockwise about the centre of rotation.
Clockwise rotation is also called negative rotation and anticlockwise rotation is also known as
positive rotation.
In rotation, only the position of the object changes. Its size and shape remain the same.

We will look at the first scenario, where the object and the transformation are given.

EXAMPLE 1
ΔDEF has coordinates D(-4 , 4) , E(-1 , 4) and F(-1 , 1). A rotation R of 90° clockwise about
the origin maps ΔDEF onto ΔJKL. Draw and label both triangles on the same axes.

When given the object and the rotation, the steps are
1. Join a coordinate point on the object to the centre
2. Measure and mark out the angle of rotation in the stated direction, use a protractor
3. Transfer the distance from centre to coordinate point using a suitable compass radius
onto the marked angle line. Repeat for all coordinate points

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 Y
D E J Note that the points are
5 mapped as follows
4
D J
3
2
E K
F L K F L
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6

When the object and image are given, we can find the rotation by following these steps
1. Join two pairs of corresponding points from the object to the image
2. Construct perpendicular bisectors on the lines joining the pairs of points and extend
the bisectors to intersect at a point
3. The point of intersection of the bisectors is the centre of rotation
4. To determine the angle of rotation and direction
- join one point and its image to the centre
- with the line joining the object point to the centre as base line, measure the
angle using a protractor

EXAMPLE 2
ΔABC has coordinates A(-2 , 5) , B(1 , 5) and C(1 , 1) and ΔA’B’C’ has coordinates
A’(-3 , -4) , B’(-3 , -1) and C’(1 , -1). Draw the two triangles and describe the rotation fully.
Y
A B
5
4
Steps:
3 - join C to C’
2 - join B to B’
1 C - bisect BB’ and CC’
P - mark the centre P
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X
B’ -1 C’ - join B to centre
- join B’ to centre
-2
- measure BP̂ B’
-3
A’ The rotation is 90° positive
-4
(anticlockwise) about the
-5
point P(2 , 0)
-6

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29.3 REFLECTION
Reflection, M, maps an object onto its image across a ‘mirror’ line or a line of reflection.
When the object and the equation of the line of reflection are given, we can find the image by
following the steps outlined below
- Draw the object and the line of reflection
- Construct a line from a coordinate point on the object perpendicular to the line of
reflection and let it extend beyond the mirror line
- Transfer the distance from the coordinate point to the mirror line along the same axis
across the mirror line and mark out its image. Use a ruler or compass
- Repeat for all points
Just as in translation and rotation, reflection only changes the position of an object. Its size
and shape remain the same.

EXAMPLE
The coordinates of a trapezium PQRS are P(-4 , 5) , Q(-2 , 3) , R(-2 , 1) and S(-4 , -1) and it is
reflected along the line x = 1. Draw and label trapezium PQRS and its image P’Q’R’S’ on
the same axes.

P 5  5 P’
Q 4 Q’
3 Steps:
2
- construct perpendicular to
R’ 1 R’ the line x = 1 from Q
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X - measure distance from Q
S’ -1 S’ to the mirror line and
-2 transfer the same length
-3 x=1 across the line to Q’
-4 - repeat for P, R and S
-5 NOTE: where possible, simply
-6 count the units on the graph.

We can also have the object and the image given to find the equation of the line of reflection.
To find the line of reflection we join any point on the object to its corresponding image and
find the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two points. To get the equation of the
line of reflection we apply the concept of graphs of linear functions where we need at least
two points to determine the gradient and the y-intercept for the expression y = mx + c
There are four fundament lines commonly used as mirror lines
- Vertical lines parallel to the y-axis
- Horizontal lines parallel to the x-axis
- The positive-gradient diagonal y = x
- The negative gradient diagonal y = -x

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29.4 ENLARGEMENT
Enlargement, E, transforms the position and the size of the object. Its shape remains the
same. For an enlargement we need a centre of enlargement and a scale factor. The centre of
enlargement and scale factor relates the object and the image in the following ways
Centre
- Centre on the edge of the object
- Centre inside the object
- Centre away from the object

Scale factor
- Scale factor 1
- Scale factor greater than 1
- Scale factor greater than zero but less than 1
- Scale factor negative

From these points are twelve possible combinations of the centre and scale of enlargement.

Interpreting the scale factor,

 A scale factor of 1 means the image is the same size as the object
 A scale factor greater than 1 means the image is larger in size than the object
 A scale factor greater than zero but less than 1 means the image is smaller in size than
the object
 A negative scale factor means the image and the object are on opposite sides of the
centre of enlargement

Here are some model enlargements of an object A and its image A’.

A’
A’
A
A

(i) centre inside object (ii) centre on the edge of the object

A’
A

(iii) centre between object and image, negative scale factor

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 A
A’

(iv) centre away from object, scale factor greater than zero but less than 1

A’
A

(v) centre away from object, scale factor greater than 1

Given the object and the transformation of enlargement, that is, the centre and scale factor
of enlargement, we get the image following the steps below
- join a point on the object to the centre and extend the axis appropriately
- measure the length of distance between the centre and the object point
- multiply the length by the scale factor
- transfer the product length along the same axis in a suitable direction of the centre.
- Repeat for all points

EXAMPLE 1
A square ABCD has vertices A(-4 , 4) , B(-2 , 4) , C(-2, 2) and D(-4 , 2). Find its image
A’B’C’D’ under an enlargement , E, of scale factor 2 and centre (-4 , 5).
Y
5
A B 4
A’ 3 B’ Steps:
D C 2 - join A to the centre (-4 , 5),
1 extending the axis beyond A
- measure length from A to centre
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X
D’ -1 C’ - multiply that length by scale
-2
factor 2, or double the length
- measure the new length from
-3
centre to A’
-4
- repeat for B, C and D
-5
-6

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If the object and image are given, we can find the centre of enlargement and scale factor as
follows
- draw axes through two pairs of points and their corresponding images so that the
axes intersect at a point, the centre of enlargement
- to find the scale factor, k,
. measure the length from the centre to a point on the image
. measure the length from the centre to a corresponding point on the object
. divide the length to the image by the length to the object
- we can also find the scale factor by dividing the length between two points on the
image by the length of the corresponding side on the object

EXAMPLE 2
Find the centre and scale factor of the enlargement mapping ΔFGH with vertices F(-3 , -2) ,
G(-2 , -4) and H(-4 , -4) onto ΔF’G’H’ with vertices F’(3 , -2) , G’(0 , 4) and H’(6 , 4).

Steps:
Y - join F to F’
- join H to H’
5 G’ H’ - mark the point of intersection
4
as centre C(-1.5 , -2)
3
2
- measure the length from
centre to F , CF
1
- measure the length from
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X centre to F’ , CF’
-1
F C F’ - divide the length to F’ by
-2
the length to F to get scale
-3 factor k
-4 𝐆′ 𝐇 ′ 𝟔 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
H G OR k = 𝐆𝐇 = 𝟐 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
-5
-6 k = -3
Note that the scale factor is negative -3 since the object and the image are on opposite sides
of the centre of enlargement (-1.5 , -2)

29.5 STRETCH
A stretch, S, is an enlargement in which one part of the object remains the same. A stretch
enlarges an object by a scale factor with respect to an invariant line. The invariant line makes
a point or line on the object to have the same units as on the image. In general, the invariant
line
- is the x-axis or the line y = 0
- is the y-axis or the line x = 0
- is a vertical line parallel to the y-axis
- is a horizontal line parallel to the x-axis

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Let us look at the expressions for this transformation.

The scale factor of a stretch, k, is generally calculated as a quotient of the areas of the
object and the image, or of distances with respect to the invariant line. That is,

𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞

k = or k =
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞

When the invariant line is a vertical line parallel to the y-axis, the expression for the invariant
line for a point A(x1 , y1) mapped onto A’(x2 , y2) is given as

𝐱𝟐 − 𝐤 𝐱𝟏
x = , where k is the scale factor and x1 is the
𝟏− 𝐤
x-coordinate of the object and x2 is the
x-coordinate of the image ; in which case
the object stretches to left or to the right of its original position.

When the invariant line is a horizontal line parallel to the x-axis, the expression for the
invariant line is given as

𝐲𝟐 − 𝐤 𝐲𝟏
y = , where k is the scale factor and y1 is the
𝟏− 𝐤
y-coordinate of the object and y2 is the
y-coordinate of the image ; in which case
the object stretches upward or downward of its original position.

When the object and the scale factor as well as invariant line are given, we can find the
coordinates of the image by solving for x2 or y2 in the expressions for the invariant line.
Note that when the invariant line is parallel to the y-axis, y-values on the image are the same
as those on the object. Similarly, when the invariant line is parallel to the x-axis, x-values on
the image are the same as those on the object.

Another way of analysing this transformation is by matrix method, which we will look at in a
short while.

EXAMPLE
ABCD is a quadrilateral with vertices A( 1 , 0 ) , B( 3 , 1 ) , C( 3 , 3 ) and D( 0 , 2 ). The
quadrilateral is mapped onto another quadrilateral A’B’C’D’ with vertices A’( 2.5 , 0 ) ,
B’( 7.5 , 1 ) , C’( 7.5 , 3 ) and D’( 0 , 2 ). Draw the two quadrilaterals on the same axes and
find the scale factor and equation of the invariant line of the stretch.

We can see from the set of coordinate points given that y-values are the same on the object
as on the image. This means the stretch has invariant line parallel to the y-axis.

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 Y
10

4
C C’

D
2D’
B B’

0 A 2 A’ 4 6 8 10 X

From the diagram, the coordinates of D( 2 , 0 ) are the same as D’( 2 , 0 ). Since the
object is stretching along the x-axis, the invariant line is the y-axis or the line
x = 0
The point D hasn’t moved because it is on the invariant line.

To find the stretch factor k, we can use the expression

𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞

k = 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞

We can take the distances OA and OA’ or the distance between B and the y-axis and
distance between B’ and the y-axis.

𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞

k = 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝐁′ 𝐘−𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬
= ; B’Y-axis = 7.5 units , BY-axis = 3 units
𝐁𝐘−𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬
𝟕.𝟓
= 𝟑
= 2.5

Note that the scale factor of a stretch is negative when the image is on the opposite side of
the invariant line as the object.

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29.6 SHEAR
A shear is similar to a stretch. The difference is that in a stretch the area of the object is
affected by the scale factor, since it is an enlargement. In a shear, on the other hand, the area
remains the same. The shape of the object changes but its area remains the same as of its
image under a shear.
We describe a shear fully by stating its shear factor k and the equation of the invariant line.

Let us look at the expressions for this transformation.

We calculate the shear factor by the matrix method. Alternatively, we can take a point and its
image and use the following expressions for A(x1 , y1) mapped onto A’(x2 , y2)
𝐱𝟐 − 𝐱𝟏
k = 𝐲𝟏 − 𝐛
for invariant line y = b, parallel to the x-axis

𝐲𝟐 − 𝐲𝟏
k = for invariant line x = a, parallel to the y-axis
𝐱𝟏 − 𝐚

We can find the equation of the invariant line given the shear factor k and the object and
image coordinates by solving for a and b in the expressions for shear factor k stated
above.
The two corresponding expressions for the invariant line are

𝐤 𝐲𝟏 + 𝐱𝟏 − 𝐱𝟐
y = b = HINT: points move parallel to x -axis
𝐤
(to the left or right)
𝐤 𝐱𝟏 + 𝐲𝟏 − 𝐲𝟐
x = a = HINT: points move parallel to y-axis
𝐤
(up or down)

EXAMPLE
A shear with scale factor 3 maps the point ( 1 , -1 ) onto ( 2 , -1). Find the equation of the
invariant line and the image of the point (-1 , -3) under the same transformation.

From the information given, we see that the y-values have remained the same. This means
the shear is along the x-axis, a line y = b is invariant.

𝐤 𝐲𝟏 + 𝐱𝟏 − 𝐱𝟐
y = b = ; k = 3 , x1 = 1 , x2 = 2 , y1 = -1
𝐤

(𝟑)(−𝟏) + (𝟏) − (𝟐)

= 𝟑

−𝟒
= 𝟑
= -1 𝟏𝟑
The invariant line is y = -1 𝟏𝟑

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We can now use the values k = 3 and y = -1 𝟏𝟑 to find the image of the point (-1 , -3 ).

𝐱𝟐 − 𝐱𝟏 −𝟒
k = 𝐲𝟏 − 𝐛
; k = 3, b= , x1 = -1 , y1 = -3
𝟑

𝐱𝟐 − (−𝟏)
3 = (−𝟑) − (−𝟒
𝟑
)

𝐱𝟐 + 𝟏
3 = cross multiplying fractions
−𝟑 + 𝟒𝟑

𝟒
3(-3 + ) = x2 + 1
𝟑

-9 + 4 = x2 + 1
-5 – 1 = x2
x2 = -6
The coordinate of the image point will be (-6 , -3).

29.7 TRANSFORMATION MATRICES

We can apply matrices to transformations. We have already seen that the translation factor is
𝐚
a column matrix T = ( ) . The table below summarises the general forms of
𝐛
transformation matrices.

TRANSFORMATION GENERAL MATRIX VARIABLES DESCRIPTION

a : horizontal Translation factor -
𝐚 Moves object in straight line.
Translation (T) ( ) b : vertical
𝐛 Size and shape remain the
same.

+ : anticlockwise - Angle
𝟎 ±𝟏 - Direction
Rotation (R) ( ) - : clockwise
±𝟏 𝟎 - Centre
Centre
Reflection in the y-axis Moves object across a given
−𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 line with, a linear function of
Reflection (M) ( ) or ( ) Reflection in the x-axis
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 −𝟏 the form y = mx + c
Or x = a and y = b
- Scale factor
𝐤 𝟎
Enlargement (E) ( ) k : scale factor
- Centre
𝟎 𝐤

k : stretch factor - Stretch factor

𝟏 𝟎 𝐤 𝟎 - Invariant line
Stretch (S) ( ) or ( ) x-axis invariant
𝟎 𝐤 𝟎 𝟏 x = a or y = b . Area of
y-axis invariant object and image different
k : shear factor - Shear factor
𝟏 𝐤 𝟏 𝟎 - Invariant line
Shear (H) ( ) or ( ) x-axis invariant
𝟎 𝟏 𝐤 𝟏 x = a or y = b . Area of
y-axis invariant object and image same

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Transformations involving matrices may mostly come in two ways
- Object and image given to find the matrix
- Object and matrix given to find image
We can also have matrix and image given to find the object.

The principle for calculations with transformation matrices is commonly known as pre-
multiplication. The transformation matrix is always written first. The other matrix contains
the coordinate points of the object or image in which the first row represents x-coordinates
and the second row for y-coordinates.

EXAMPLE 1

−𝟐 𝟎
The matrix ( ) maps ΔABC onto ΔA’B’C’. The vertices of ΔABC are A(1 , 1 ) ,
𝟎 −𝟐
B(1, 6) and C(3 , 1). Find the coordinates of ΔA’B’C’.

We formulate a matrix of the coordinates of ΔABC as follows

A B C
1st row x-coordinates 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
( )
nd
2 row y-coordinates 𝟏 𝟔 𝟏
We will multiply the transformation matrix by this matrix of coordinates to get the matrix
containing coordinates of the image.

−𝟐 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑 (−𝟐 𝐱 𝟏) + (𝟎 𝐱 𝟏) (−𝟐 𝐱 𝟏) + (𝟎 𝐱 𝟔) (−𝟐 𝐱 𝟑) + (𝟎 𝐱 𝟏)

( )( ) = ( )
𝟎 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟔 𝟏 (𝟎 𝐱 𝟏) + (−𝟐 𝐱 𝟏) (𝟎 𝐱 𝟏) + (−𝟐 𝐱 𝟔) (𝟎 𝐱 𝟑) + (−𝟐 𝐱 𝟏)

(−𝟐 + 𝟎) (−𝟐 + 𝟎) (−𝟔 + 𝟎)

= ( )
(𝟎 + (−𝟐)) (𝟎 + (−𝟏𝟐)) (𝟎 + (−𝟐))

−𝟐 −𝟐 −𝟔
= ( )
−𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐 −𝟐
The coordinates of the image are
A’(-2 , -2) , B’(-2 , -12) and C’(-6 , -2)

EXAMPLE 2
The vertices of ΔABC are A(0 , 1) , B(1, 4) and C(2 , 2). The vertices of ΔDEF are D(-1 , 0) ,
E(-4 , 1) and F(-2 , 2). ΔABC is mapped onto ΔDEF by a single transformation. Find the
matrix of this transformation.

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 𝐚 𝐛
We form an equation of matrices and solve for the transformation matrix ( ).
𝐜 𝐝
A B C D E F
𝐚 𝐛 (𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟒 −𝟐
( ) ) = ( )
𝐜 𝐝 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐

(𝐚 𝐱 𝟎) + (𝐛 𝐱 𝟏) (𝐚 𝐱 𝟏) + (𝐛 𝐱 𝟒) (𝐚 𝐱 𝟐) + (𝐛 𝐱 𝟐)
LHS : (
(𝐜 𝐱 𝟎) + (𝐝 𝐱 𝟏) (𝐜 𝐱 𝟏) + (𝐝 𝐱 𝟒) (𝐜 𝐱 𝟐) + (𝐝 𝐱 )
)

(𝟎 + 𝐛) (𝐚 + 𝟒𝐛) (𝟐𝐚 + 𝟐𝐛)

= ( )
(𝟎 + 𝐝) (𝐜 + 𝟒𝐝) (𝟐𝐜 + 𝟐𝐝)

𝐛 𝐚 + 𝟒𝐛 𝟐𝐚 + 𝟐𝐛
= ( )
𝐝 𝐜 + 𝟒𝐝 𝟐𝐜 + 𝟐𝐝

We can now equate corresponding elements in the matrix of variables to the matrix of the
image coordinates of ΔDEF .

𝐛 𝐚 + 𝟒𝐛 𝟐𝐚 + 𝟐𝐛 −𝟏 −𝟒 −𝟐
( ) = ( )
𝐝 𝐜 + 𝟒𝐝 𝟐𝐜 + 𝟐𝐝 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐

b = -1 ........... (i)
a + 4b = -4 ..... (ii)
2a + 2b = -2 ...... (iii)
d = 0 ............(iv)
c + 4d = 1 ........(v)
2c + 2d = 2 .......(vi)

From the equations above we have,

b = -1 d = 0

a + 4b = -4 c + 4d = 1
a + 4(-1) = -4 c + 4(0) = 1
a + -4 = -4 c + 0 = 1
a = -4 + 4 c = 1
a = 0

The required matrix is therefore,

𝟎 −𝟏
( ) ; which is a rotation matrix
𝟏 𝟎

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 WORKED EXAMPLES

The coordinates of ∆ABC are A(3, 3), B(6, 3) and C(6, 0). Using a scale of 1cm to
represent 1 unit on both axes, for -4 ≤ x ≤ 8 and -8 ≤ y ≤ 8, draw and label
∆ABC.
(a) A reflection along the line y = x maps ∆ABC onto ∆A1B1C1 . On the same
axes draw and label ∆A1B1C1
(b) Another transformation maps ∆ABC onto ∆A2B2C2 with vertices A2(-3, 3),
B2(-3, 6) and C2(0, 6). Draw and label ∆A2B2C2 , and hence or otherwise fully
describe this transformation.
𝟎
(c) A translation given by T = ( ) maps ∆A2B2C2 onto ∆A3B3C3 . Draw
−𝟏𝟎
and label ∆A3B3C3 .
SOLUTIONS Y

8
B2 C2 C 1 B1
6 y=x
4 A1
A2 A B
2
C
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 X
-2
B3 C3
-4

-6
A3
-8

(b) the transformation is a positive rotation centre (0, 0) through 90° .

or R(C, +90°).

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 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Quadrilateral ABCD has vertices A(-6 , 6) , B(-2 , 6) , C(-2 , 4) and D(-4 , 4) and
quadrilateral A1B1C1D1 has vertices A1(-6 , 6) , B1(-6 , 2) , C1(-4, 2) and D1(-4 , 4).
Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1unit on both axes for -12 ≤ x ≤ 2 and -12 ≤ y ≤ 8,
draw and label quadrilaterals ABCD and A1B1C1D1 .
(a) What special name is given to quadrilateral ABCD ?
(b) Describe fully the single transformation that maps ABCD onto A 1B1C1D1 .
(c) A1B1C1D1 is mapped onto A2B2C2D2 under enlargement at (-6 , 6). The
coordinate of D2 is (0 , 0) . State the scale factor of this enlargement, and,
hence, draw and label quadrilateral A2B2C2D2 .
(d) A1B1C1D1 is mapped onto A3B3C3D3 with vertices A3(-12 , -6) , B3(-12 , -10) ,
C3(-10 , -10) and D3(-10 , -8) . Describe fully this transformation.

2 Y
6
C2 C1
5
B2 4 B1
D2 D1
3
A2 A1
2
D C
1
B3 A B
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X
-1
-2
C3 -3 D3

-4
-5
-6
(a) Square ABCD is mapped onto A1B1C1D1 by a single transformation.
(i) Find the matrix that represents this transformation
(ii) Fully describe this transformation
(b) Describe fully the transformation that maps A1B1C1D1 onto A2B2C2D2 .
(c) Describe fully the transformation that maps ABCD onto AB3C3D3 .

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 30. EARTH GEOMETRY .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
31.1 Latitudes and Longitudes
31.2 Circumference of a Circle
31.3 Distance between two points
31.4 Shortest distance
31.5 Speed
31.6 Time differences
31.7 Surface area

..................................................................................................................................................
30.1 LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES
Earth geometry analyses the Earth as a sphere with smooth surface area. All physical features
of the Earth such as mountains and rivers are ignored.

Any straight line drawn on the sphere of the Earth results in a circle. There are two special
kinds of such lines
- Latitudes are lines drawn around the sphere of the Earth from West to East
- Longitudes are lines drawn around the sphere of the Earth from North to South.
Longitudes are also known as meridians

Longitudes N

O
W E

Latitudes S

O is the centre of the sphere

Latitudes and longitudes are measured in degrees from the centre of the Earth. Latitudes are
measured from the reference Latitude 0° called the Equator to the North or South whereas
longitudes are measured from the reference Longitude 0° called the Greenwich Meridian.
Note that
- Latitude 0° divides the sphere of the Earth in two equal halves called hemispheres
- All other latitudes are circles whose centres form an axis from North to South through
the centre of the sphere
- All longitudes pass through the same point in the north called the North Pole and
through the same point in the south called the South Pole

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NAMING LATITUDES
The name or degree of a latitude is the angle made by any point along the circle of the
latitude with the horizontal axis of the reference Latitude 0°

78° Latitude 78° N

78°
0° 78° Equator
60° 60°

60° Latitude 60° S

S
As can be seen, Latitude 78°N is the circle of latitude that makes an angle of 78° to the
north of the Equator. Similarly, Latitude 60°S is the circle of latitude that makes an angle of
60° to the south of the Equator.
There are a total of 180 circles of latitude, 90 of them are to the north and the other 90 to
the south of the Equator. Each of these latitudes corresponds to angles between 0° and 90°
Latitude 0° is the Equator
Latitude 90° N is the North Pole
Latitude 90° S is the South Pole

NAMING LONGITUDES
The name or degree of a longitude is the angle made by any point along the circle of the
longitude and the axis of the reference Longitude 0°

Longitude 180° W
180°
Equator
Longitude 0° 56° Longitude 56° E

As can be seen, Longitude 56° E is the longitude that makes an angle of 56° measured to
the east of the Greenwich Meridian. Similarly, Longitude 180° W is the longitude that makes
a straight angle westwards of the Greenwich Meridian.
Note that each circle of longitude is labelled twice, with units 180° apart . For example,
Longitude 0° corresponds to Longitude 180°
Longitude 5° W corresponds to Longitude 175° E
Longitude 5° E corresponds to Longitude 175° W
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Note also that Longitude 180° E and Longitude 180° W is the same longitude.

We can use the latitudes and longitudes to find locations of places on the surface of the
earth. We also use them to analyse distances and times around the ‘globe’.

PLACES ON THE EARTH

Any place on the earth is a point through which one horizontal line of latitude and one
vertical line of longitude pass. We identify the location of a place by the latitude and the
longitude that pass through it.

P
Latitude

Longitude

B 70° The positions of the points A, B, C, D and E are

A
A(20°N , 40°W)
20°
B(20°N , 0°)
0°
C C(0° , 25°E)
50° D(50°S , 40°W)
D
E(80°S , 25°E)
80°
E

100° 40° 0° 25° 50°

Any part of the sphere of the Earth may be presented as a grid of latitudes and longitudes as
shown above. When giving location of a place, always start with latitude before longitude.

Latitude 0° is NEITHER 0° N NOR 0° S ; it is the reference latitude

Longitude 0° is NEITHER 0° E NOR 0° W ; it is the reference longitude

Apart from the reference latitude, all latitudes must be identified with the direction to the
north or south of the Equator

Apart from the reference longitude, all longitudes must be identified with the direction to the
east or west of the Greenwich Meridian

30.2 CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE

The formula for the circumference of a circle is

C = 2 𝝅 r ; where 𝝅 = 3.142 and r is the radius of the circle

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We will analyse two types of circles
- A Great Circle is a circle on the sphere of the Earth whose radius is equal to the radius
of the Earth, given here as
R = 6 370km in kilometres
R = 3 437nm in nautical miles
All longitudes and the Equator are Great Circles
Other circles can be drawn on the sphere such that they have a centre coincidental
to the centre of the Earth. They are also Great Circles.
- All other latitudes are circles with radius less than the radius of the Earth. We get an
expression for the radius of a circle of latitude as follows

Equator O R A
D 𝜽
R
Latitude 𝜽° 𝜽
E C r B

In order to find the radius r of the circle of latitude 𝜽° S we analyse the diagram above as
follows
- DOA is the diameter of the Earth
- DO = OA = OB = R , the radius of the Earth
- ECB is the diameter of the circle of latitude 𝜽° S
- EC = CB = r , the radius of the circle of latitude 𝜽° S
- DOA is parallel to ECB
- AÔB = CB̂ O = 𝜽° , alternate angles

Applying trigonometry, as covered in Unit 18 , to ΔOCB

𝐫
cos𝜽 = 𝐑 making r the subject

r = Rcos𝜽

We can now calculate the circumference of any circle.

- For any Great Circle
C = 2 𝝅 R , where R = 6 370km or R = 3 437nm
- For any other circle of latitude
C = 2 𝝅 r , where r = Rcos𝜽
This can also be written as C = 2 𝝅 Rcos𝜽
Note that the 𝜽 in the formula r = Rcos𝜽 is the name or degree of the circle of latitude.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE
Calculate the circumference of
(a) the Equator
(b) Latitude 43° N

(a) the Equator is a Great Circle with radius R = 6 370km

C = 2𝝅R , 𝝅 = 3.142 , R = 6 370km
= 2 X 3.142 X 6 370
= 40 029.08km

(b) latitude 43° has radius

r = Rcos𝜽 , R = 6 370km , 𝜽 = 43°
= 6370cos43°
= 6370 X 0.7314
= 4 659km
Its circumference is thus
C = 2 𝝅 r , 𝝅 = 3.142 , r = 4 659km
= 2 X 3.142 X 4 659
= 29 277.16km

Note that all Great Circles have the same radius and therefore same circumference.

30.3 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

Since the Earth is assumed to be a sphere with a smooth surface, distances between points
on the surface of the Earth are calculated as arc lengths. As we saw earlier on in Unit 22,

𝛉
Arc length AB = 2𝝅r
O 𝟑𝟔𝟎°

𝜽 𝛉
A = 𝝅r
𝟏𝟖𝟎°

B
If the two points A and B lie on a Great Circle, the expression for arc AB is
𝛉
Arc AB = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝝅 R , where 𝜽 is the angle subtended at the centre of the
Earth and R = 6 370km or R = 3 437nm
If the two points A and B lie on any other circle of latitude, the expression for the arc AB is
𝛉𝟏
Arc AB = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝝅 Rcos𝜽𝟐 , where 𝜽𝟏 is the angle subtended at the centre
of the circle of latitude and 𝜽𝟐 is the name or
degree of the latitude; R is the radius of the Earth

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Any two points on the sphere form an arc which subtends an angle as follows
A B C D 50°
E 25°
0°
F G H I 25°
J 50°

70° 35° 0° 35° 70°

POINTS ON THE SAME LATITUDE
Arc between two points on the same circle of latitude subtends an angle at the centre of the
circle of latitude which is
- The difference between their longitudes if they are on the same side of the reference
Longitude 0°
For example,
Angle between A and B is 70° – 35° = 35°
Similarly, angle between H and I is 70° – 35° = 35°

- The sum of their longitudes if they are on different sides of the reference Longitude 0°
For example,
Angle between A and C is 70° + 35° = 105°
Similarly, angle between G and H is 35° + 35° = 70°

POINTS ON THE SAME LONGITUDE

Arc between two points on the same circle of longitude subtends an angle at the centre of
the circle of longitude which is
- The difference between their latitudes if they are on the same side of the reference
Latitude 0°
For example,
Angle between C and E is 50° – 25° = 25°
Similarly, angle between F and J is 50° – 25° = 25°

- The sum of their latitudes if they are on different sides of the reference Latitude 0°
For example,
Angle between E and H is 25° + 25° = 50°
Similarly, angle between A and J is 50° + 50° = 100°

We can now look at some calculations on distances between points on the surface of the
Earth.

EXAMPLE
The diagram below shows three towns on the sphere of the Earth, Town P , Town Q and
Town R. Town R lies on a longitude directly opposite longitude 140°W.
(a) State in terms of latitudes and longitudes the positions of the three towns
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 (b) Calculate the distance between Town P and Town Q
(c) Calculate the distance between Town P and Town R

R
140°W
0°
P

Q
82°S

(a) From the diagram,

P(0° , 140°W)
Q(82°S , 140°W)
The longitude of R is directly opposite longitude 140°W. The longitudes are
180° apart. Therefore,
Longitude R = 180° – 140° = 40° to the east
That is,
R(0° , 40°E)

(b) Distance between Town P and Town Q

P and Q are points on the same circle of longitude
𝛉
Arc PQ = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝝅 R ; 𝝅 = 3.142 , R = 6 370km , 𝜽 = 82° – 0° = 82°
𝟖𝟐
= 𝟑𝟔𝟎 X 3.142 X 6 370
= 0.2278 X 3.142 X 6 370
= 4 559.3km

(c) Distance between Town P and Town R

P and R are on the same circle of latitude and on different sides of Longitude 0°
𝛉
Arc PR = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝝅 R ; 𝝅 = 3.142 , R = 6 370km , 𝜽 = 140° + 40° = 180°
𝟏𝟖𝟎
= 𝟏𝟖𝟎 X 3.142 X 6 370
= 1 X 3.142 X 6 370
= 20 014.54km

Note that the arc length PR is half the circumference of the Earth because the two points are
on a Great Circle and the angle between them is half a complete turn, that is , a straight angle

So far we have looked at calculations using the radius of the Earth in kilometres. Distances on
the Earth can also be calculated in nautical miles. A nautical mile, nm, is defined as the
distance or arc length on the surface of the Earth along a Great Circle that subtends and angle
of one minute (1‘) at the centre of the Earth.

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We can get an equivalent value of the circumference, C, of the Earth in nautical miles as
follows
1nm : 1min (angle)
C : 360° (complete turn)

𝟏𝐦𝐢𝐧
1nm : 𝟔𝟎𝐦𝐢𝐧 (1 hour = 60 minutes, not implying rotational time)
C : 360° converting ratios to fractions and simplifying

𝟏𝐧𝐦 𝐂
𝟏𝐦𝐢𝐧 = cross multiplying fractions
𝟔𝟎𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝟑𝟔𝟎°

𝟏
C = 360 multiplying through by 60
𝟔𝟎

C = 21 600nm

Since C = 2 𝝅 R , we can also estimate the radius of the Earth in nautical miles

C = 2 𝝅 R , C = 21 600nm , 𝝅 = 3.142
21 600 = 2 X 3.142 X R
21 600 = 6.284 R dividing through by 6.284
R = 3 437.30nm

In our calculations we will use the two values for the radius of the Earth stated earlier as
R = 6 370km in kilometres , or
R = 3 437nm in nautical miles

30.4 SHORTEST DISTANCE

This is the arc length along a Great Circle that passes through two points that lie on the same
circle of latitude. As diagram (i) below shows, we have two arc lengths between A and B,
arc AB along the circle of latitude 39°N and arc AB along the Great Circle ABD. There are
three steps involved in the calculation for shortest distance
- Find the length of the common chord ; use the sine rule
- Find the angle subtended by the arc at the centre of the Earth ; use the sine rule
- Calculate for the arc length along the Great Circle, using an appropriate value of R

Below are two diagrams showing two points on the same circle of latitude 39°N. The full
positions of the two points are
A(39°N , 78°W) and B(39°N , 12°W)

Using this information, we will work out the shortest distance between the two points.

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By drawing a chord through the interior of the sphere we have two isosceles triangles
AO1B and AO2B as shown in diagram (ii)

A A
(i) O2 39° O2
(ii)
B r
O1 0°
B

R
D O1

From the diagrams,

R = 6 370km
r = Rcos𝜽 ; R = 6 370 , 𝜽 = 39°
= 6 370 cos39°
= 6 370 X 0.7771
= 4 950km
AÔ2B = 78° – 12° = 66° Remember that the angle between two points on the
same parallel of latitude is equal to the difference in
their longitudes if the points are on the same side of the
reference Longitude 0°
st
1 Step: Finding length of common chord
(iii) O2
As can be seen in diagram (iii)
33°
AÔ2B = 66° A
BÔ2C = 𝟏𝟐 AO2B = 33° 4 950
C
𝐁𝐂
sin33° = 𝟒 𝟗𝟓𝟎 B
BC = 4 950sin33°
= 4 950 X 0.5446
= 2695.77km 6 370

𝜽
2nd Step: Finding angle at the centre of the Earth
Using same values of BC in ΔBO1C
O1
𝟐 𝟔𝟗𝟓.𝟕𝟕
sin𝜽 = 𝟔 𝟑𝟕𝟎
= 0.4232
BÔ1C = 25°
Therefore, AÔ1B = 2 BÔ1C = 50°

3rd Step: Finding shortest distance

We can now calculate for the shortest distance using the values we have found.
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The information required in the calculation is (iv) A
now given in diagram (iv) O2
66°
𝛉 r = 4 950
Arc AB = 𝝅 R ; 𝜽 = 50° , 𝝅 = 3.142 ; R = 6 370
𝟏𝟖𝟎° B
𝟓𝟎°
= 𝟏𝟖𝟎° X 3.142 X 6 370 50°
R = 6 370
= 0.278 X 3.142 X 6 370
= 5 564km O1

We can confirm that the distance between point A and B is shorter along the Great Circle
than it is along the circle of latitude 39°N.

Along the circle of latitude the distance is

𝛉
Arc AB = 𝝅r ; r = 4 950 , 𝜽 = 66° , 𝝅 = 3.142
𝟏𝟖𝟎°

𝟔𝟔°
= 𝟏𝟖𝟎° X 3.142 X 4 950
= 0.367 X 3.142 X 4 950
= 5 708km

So we can see that along the circle of latitude 39°N the distance is 5 708km while along the
Great Circle passing through the points A and B the distance is 5 564km.

30.5 SPEED
We looked at distance, speed and time in Unit 25. We saw that the expression relating these
three quantities is
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
Speed = 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞

The units of speed are in kilometres per hour , km/h.

But we have seen that we can calculate distances on the surface of the Earth in nautical
miles.
If we use R = 6 370km, the distance is in kilometres and speed will be in km/h
If we use R = 3 437nm, the distance is in nautical miles and speed will be in nm/h
Another expression for the unit nm/h is called the KNOT, and
1 knot = 1 nm/h
We can therefore write a speed of 45nm/h as 45 knots, and vice versa.

The principles on calculation for speed, distance and time remain the same.
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EXAMPLE
Town X is on Latitude 46° South and Longitude 100° East. Town Y is on Latitude 46° South
and Longitude 45° West. Calculate in nautical miles
(a) the distance between Town X and Town Y along the Latitude 46°
(b) the shortest distance between the two towns
(c) the shortest time an aeroplane flying at an average speed of 300 knots would take to
fly between the two towns

(a) the angle the arc XY subtends at the centre of the circle of latitude 46° is the sum of their
longitudes since they are on the same latitude and on different sides of the reference
Longitudes 0°
100° + 45° = 145°
The radius of the circle of latitude 46° is
r = R cos𝜽 , R = 3 437nm , 𝜽 = 46°
= 3 437 cos46°
= 3 437 X 0.6947
= 2 388nm
The distance or arc length XY is therefore
𝛉
Arc XY = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝝅 r ; r = 2 388nm , 𝜽 = 145°

𝟏𝟒𝟓°
= 𝟏𝟖𝟎° X 3.142 X 2 388
= 0.806 X 3.142 X 2 388
= 6 047nm

(b) note that we can work out shortest distance without a sketch, though it is recommended
to have a sketch to follow the three steps accurately.
Referring to our sketch,
1st Step: Half the length of chord XJY O2
𝐉𝐘 72.5°
sinJÔ2Y = 𝐎 𝐘 X
𝟐
2 388
J
𝐉𝐘 Y
sin(145° ÷ 2) = 𝟐 𝟑𝟖𝟖

𝐉𝐘 3 437
sin72.5° = 𝟐 𝟑𝟖𝟖
𝜽
JY = 2 388 sin72.5°
= 2 388 X 0.9537
= 2 277nm O1

2nd Step: Angle at centre of the Earth

𝐉𝐘
sinJÔ1Y = 𝐎 𝐘
𝟏

𝟐 𝟐𝟕𝟕
sin𝜽 = = 0.6625
𝟑 𝟒𝟑𝟕
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 𝜽 = 41.5°
JO1Y = 41.5°
XO1Y = 2 X 41.5° = 83°

3rd Step: Arc Length along Great Circle

𝛉
Arc XY = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝝅 R ; 𝜽 = 83° , R = 3 437

𝟖𝟑°
= 𝟏𝟖𝟎° X 3.142 X 3 437
= 0.4611 X 3.142 X 3 437
= 4 979nm

(c) the shortest distance between the two towns is 4 979nm. The aeroplane will take
minimum time flying around the Great Circle

𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
Speed = ; distance = 4 979nm, speed = 300 knots = 300nm/h
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞

𝟒 𝟗𝟕𝟗
300 = cross multiplying fractions , or multiplying through by t
𝐭
300 t = 4 979 dividing through by 300
t = 16.6hours
𝟔
= 16 hours + of an hour
𝟏𝟎
𝟔
= 16 hours + X 60 minutes
𝟏𝟎
= 16h 36 min

30.6 TIME DIFFERENCES

The Earth makes a full rotation on its axis once in 24 hours. This means that each of the 360
meridians of longitude pass through the overhead sun once in 24 hours. Building our relation
of time and the meridians of longitude in degrees we have

360° = 24 hours
15° = 1 hour
1° = 4 minutes

This is a very important scale when studying time in different places on Earth. Each place lies
on a longitude that is four minutes ahead or behind another longitude. Since the Earth
rotates in the eastern direction, places are ahead in time eastwards, that is, a place on a
longitude to the east is ahead of that to the west.

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Our reference longitude, the Greenwich Meridian acts as a guide on calculations of time.
Places east of the Greenwich Meridian are ahead while those on the west are behind. We
refer to the reference time as Greenwich Meridian Time, GMT.

– GMT +

West East

We can calculate time differences in hours using the scale

15° : 1 hour
Or in minutes using the scale
1° : 4 minutes

EXAMPLE
Town A is on latitude 15° S and longitude 30° W and Town B is on latitude 17° N and
longitude 50° E. Find the local time at Town B when the time is
(a) 17:00 at Town A
(b) 17:00 GMT

(a) As we can see in the sketch, Town A

is 30° to the west of GMT. This – GMT +
translates into B 17°
𝟑𝟎°
= 2 hours time difference
𝟏𝟓°
This means Town A is 2 hours 0°
behind GMT. The GMT when it is A 15°
17:00 at Town A is
17:00 + 2:00 = 19:00 30° 0° 50°

Town B is 50° to the east of GMT. This translates into

𝟓𝟎°
= 3 hours 20 minutes
𝟏𝟓°

If the time is 19:00 GMT, it will be

19:00 + 3:20 = 22:20 at Town B
In other words, it is 22:20 at Town B when the local time at Town A is 17:00.

(b) we have already seen that Town B is 3 hours 20 minutes ahead of GMT. When the time is
17:00 GMT, the local time at Town B is
17:00 + 3:20 = 20:20

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The easiest way to calculate time differences is to divide the degrees of longitude between
places by 15° which determines the number of hours, and then units of degrees less than 15°
should be multiplied by 4 minutes.

In the example above, Town B is 15° + 15° + 15° + 5° east of Longitude 0°

1h + 1h + 1h + (5 X 4)min = 3h 20min

This concept means that places 1° apart require a different time set. Within districts,
provinces or countries people would have to carry around different time sets since at every
point 15° away the time would be 1 hour ahead or behind. This inconvenience is somehow
dealt with by assigning time zones around the globe. Each time zone is 30°. This means
people within an area of 30° will use the same time set.

However, note that this is mainly a practical application of this concept. We will still treat
each meridian of longitude as 4 minutes ahead or behind another, unless the situation
clearly requires us to consider the time zones in our calculations.

30.7 SURFACE AREA

The expression for the surface area of a sphere was given in Unit 22 as
Surface Area = 4 𝝅𝒓𝟐
Since we now know the radius of the Earth as R = 6 370km or R = 3 437nm,
The estimated total surface area of the Earth is
S. A = 4 𝝅 𝐑𝟐 ; 𝝅 = 3.142 , R = 6 370
= 4 X 3.142 X 6 3702
= 509 970 479.2 km2

Using the information we have about latitudes and longitudes

- The surface area of a hemisphere is half that of the Earth, since the equator divides
the Earth in two halves
- A circle of meridian of longitude also divides the surface area into halves
- We can introduce ratios to relate total surface area with a portion of area bound
within given latitudes or longitudes. At the centre of the Earth we make 360° when
we move a point through a complete turn. If we know the angle between any two
points at the centre, this can be expressed as a fraction of a complete turn

EXAMPLE
(a) (i) Draw a sketch of the Earth and label on it the meridians of longitude
(a) 0°
(b) 83° E
(c) 52° W

(ii) What fraction of the Earth’s surface area is covered by the region stretching eastwards
from 52° W to 83° E
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 (iii) Taking 𝝅 = 3.142 , the radius of the Earth, R = 6 370km and the surface area of a
sphere to be 4 𝝅 r2 , calculate the surface area south of the Equator stretching
eastwards from 52° W to 83° E , giving your answer in standard form correct to
3 significant figures

(b) Two towns P and Q are on the same parallel of latitude 35° N. Given that the distance
between the two towns is 1 966nm and that the longitude of town P is 25.5° E , calculate
the position of town Q if it is west of town P

(a) (i)

Equator

52° W 83° E
0°

𝜽
(ii) the surface area between two longitudes is 𝟑𝟔𝟎° of the Earth’s total surface area,
where 𝜽 is the angle between the longitudes.
The angle between 52° W and 83° E is the sum of their longitudes.
52° + 83° = 135°
The fraction of the area bound by the two longitudes is therefore,
𝟏𝟑𝟓° 𝟑
=
𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝟖

(iii) the surface area of the Earth is

S. A = 4 𝝅 𝐑𝟐 ; 𝝅 = 3.142 , R = 6 370
= 4 X 3.142 X 6 3702
= 509 970 479.2 km2

The angle between 52° W and 83° E is the sum of their longitudes.
52° + 83° = 135°
The fraction of the area bound by the two longitudes is therefore,
𝟏𝟑𝟓° 𝟑
= 𝟖
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
The surface area between the longitudes is
𝟑
of the surface area of the Earth Since we only need the
𝟖
𝟑
= 𝟖 X 509 970 479.2 km2 surface area south of the
= 191 238 929.7 km 2 equator, we divide by 2.
= 191 238 929.7 ÷ 2 = 95 619 464.85 km = 9.56 x 107 km2
2

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(b) the arc length between P and Q is given as 1 966nm
The radius of the circle of latitude 35° N is
r = Rcos𝜽 ; where R = 3 437nm , 𝜽 = 35°
= 3 437 cos35°
= 3 437 X 0.8192
= 2 815.6nm
We know that,
𝛉
Arc PQ = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝝅 r ; where the arc length PQ is known, as well
as the pie and radius of the latitude. We have
to solve for the angle the arc subtends at the
centre of the parallel of latitude 35° N

𝛉
Arc PQ = 𝝅r ; Arc PQ = 1 966nm , r = 2 815.6nm
𝟏𝟖𝟎°

𝛉
1 966 = X 3.142 X 2 815.6
𝟏𝟖𝟎°
𝛉
1 966 = X 8 846.6 multiplying through by 180
𝟏𝟖𝟎°

353 880 = 8 846.6 𝜽 dividing through by 8 846.6

𝜽 = 40°
Since the two points P and Q are on the same circle of latitude, the angle 40°
between the two points is the difference in their longitudes. Point P is on
longitude 25.5° E. Point Q is 40° to the west of P, that is,
40° – 25.5° = 14.5°
Point Q is on longitude 14.5° W

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

The positions of four towns on the surface of the Earth are given below.
Town A (39°N , 100°E)
Town B (39°N , 20°W)
Town C (x°S , 20°W)
Town D (x°S , 100°E)
Take 𝝅 = 3.142, R = 3 437 nm and surface area of a sphere as 4𝝅r2 .
(a) Given that Town A and D are 60 latitudes apart,
(i) State the position of Town C and D
(ii) Calculate the distance in nautical miles between A and B,
giving your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
(b) Find the local time at C if the time at A is 13 : 52
(c) Calculate the surface area north of the Equator stretching from
longitude 20°W to longitude 100°E, giving your answer in standard form
correct to 2 significant figures.

SOLUTIONS
(a) 60° – 39° = 21°
(i) Town C (21°S , 20°W) Town D (21°S , 100°E)
(ii) Distance between A and B
𝜽𝟏
Arc AB = 𝝅 Rcos𝜽𝟐 ; 𝜽𝟏 = 120° , 𝜽𝟐 = 39°
𝟏𝟖𝟎°
𝟏𝟐𝟎°
= x 3.142 x 3 437 x cos39°
𝟏𝟖𝟎°
= 5 595.0 nm
(b) A(39°N , 100°E) C(21°S , 20°W)
Longitudes 100° + 20° = 120°
Time difference 120 x 4 min = 480 minutes = 8 hours
Time at C is 8 hours behind time at A 13 : 52 – 08 00 = 05 : 52
𝟐𝟎° + 𝟏𝟎𝟎° 𝟏𝟐𝟎° 𝟏
(c) Fraction of angles between longitudes = =
𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
Surface area bound between longitudes (4𝝅r2) = x 4 x 3.142 x 3 4372
𝟑 𝟑
= 49 488 464.8 nm2
Surface area between longitudes north of Equator = 49 488 464.8 ÷ 2 = 24 744 232.4 nm2
= 2.5 x 107 nm2

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 The diagram below shows a wire model of the Earth. Take 𝝅 = 3.142 and the
radius of the Earth R = 6 370 km.
N
70°E

50°W 50°E
O J
Equator

M L
K 50°S
P Q
S

Given that latitude JML is the Equator, latitude KPQ is 50°S , longitude NMPS is
50°W , longitude NLQS is 50°E and longitude NJKS is 70°E ,
(a) State in terms of latitudes and longitudes the position of
(i) K
(ii) M
(iii) Q
(b) Calculate the distance, in kilometres, between Q and K .
(c) Aircraft X leaves town J and travels eastwards to town M and another
aircraft Y leaves town L and travels westwards to town M. Aircraft X
takes 22 hours and aircraft Y flies at an average speed of 980 km/h.
(i) Estimate the average speed of aircraft X, giving your answer in
kilometres per hour, correct to 1 decimal place.
(ii) Estimate the flight time of aircraft Y, giving your answer correct to
the nearest minute.
(d) The local time at town K is 11 : 15 hours. Find the local time at
(i) Town M
(ii) Town P
(iii) Town Q
2 Show that the radius of the Earth is approximately 3 437 nautical miles.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 31. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS .
CONCEPT OBJECTIVES
31.1 Limits
31.2 Differentiation
31.3 Integration
31.4 Application to motion

..................................................................................................................................................
31.1 LIMITS
Calculus is a branch of mathematics that deals with rates of change. For example, the rate of
change of distance with respect to time is called speed, the rate of change of velocity with
respect to time is called acceleration, and so on.

In Unit 10 we looked at how to solve functions. For example, given f(x) = 3x + 2, the value
of f(2) can be found by direct substitution of 2 into the variable of the function. That is,
f(x) = 3x + 2
f(2) = 3(2) + 2
= 6 + 2
= 8

Under this discussion, we are interested in knowing the behaviour of the function f(x) as x
gets so very close, but not equal to, 2. On the real number line, we can get to 2 either
from the left, when we increase 1 in very small amounts, or from the right, when we
reduce 3 in very small amounts. The following table shows the behaviour of f(x) = 3x + 2
as x approaches 2 from the left and from the right.

Increase 1 x f(x) = 3x + 2 f(x) = 3x + 2 x Reduce 3

1 + 0.9 1.9 7.7 8.3 2.1 3 – 0.9
1 + 0.99 1.99 7.97 8.03 2.01 3 – 0.99
1 + 0.999 1.999 7.997 8.003 2.001 3 – 0.999
1 + 0.9999 1.9999 7.9997 8.0003 2.0001 3 – 0.9999
1 + 0.99999 1.99999 7.99997 8.00003 2.00001 3 – 0.99999
2 2 8 8 2 3–1
Approaching 2 Left Right

1 2 3

We can see that as x approaches 2 from either side, the function f(x) = 3x + 2
approaches 8. We say “the limit of f(x) as x approaches 2 is 8,” and this is written
as lim 3x + 2 = 8 .
x 2
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
For most functions, we can determine the limit by direct substitution.

EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
lim 2x2 + 3x – 1 lim 𝐱− 𝟑
Determine Determine
x -1 x 6 𝟐𝐱

lim 2x2 + 3x – 1 = 2(-1)2 + 3(-1) – 1 lim 𝐱− 𝟑 (𝟔)− 𝟑

x 6
=
x -1 𝟐𝐱 𝟐(𝟔)
𝟑
= 2(1) – 3 – 1 = 𝟏𝟐
𝟏
= 2 – 4 = 𝟒
= -2

In some cases, the function has to be reduced or simplified by factorisation. There is also a
principle known as L’Hopital’s Rule. It is used to determine the limits of certain functions by
differentiation. Here are some examples on the functions simplified by factorisation.

EXAMPLE 3
lim 𝐱𝟐 − 𝟗
Determine x 3 𝐱 − 𝟑
By direct substitution, the given function is undefined since substitution with 3 gives zero
on both the numerator and the denominator. However, we can simplify the numerator by
difference of two squares and reduce the fraction as follows:

lim 𝐱𝟐 − 𝟗 lim (𝐱 − 𝟑)(𝐱 + 𝟑)

=
x 3 𝐱− 𝟑 x 3 𝐱− 𝟑

lim
= x + 3
x 3
= (3) + 3
= 6

EXAMPLE 4
lim 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟓𝐱 + 𝟔
Determine
x -3 𝐱 + 𝟑

lim 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟓𝐱 + 𝟔 (𝐱 + 𝟑)(𝐱 + 𝟐)
= lim
x -3 𝐱 + 𝟑 x -3 𝐱 + 𝟑

= lim x + 2
x -3
= (-3) + 2
= -1

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
There are certain functions that have no limit at a point. Such functions approach infinitely
small or large numbers from either side of the point.

EXAMPLE 5
𝟒
Determine lim
x 1 𝐱− 𝟏

By direct substitution, the denominator is zero. We can check for the limits of the function as
x approaches 1 from the left and the right as shown below.

Increase 0 x f(x) f(x) x Reduce 2

0 + 0.9 0.9 -40 40 1.1 2 – 0.9
0 + 0.99 0.99 -400 400 1.01 2 – 0.99
0 + 0.999 0.999 -4000 4000 1.001 2 – 0.999
0 + 0.9999 0.9999 -40000 40000 1.0001 2 – 0.9999
0 + 0.99999 0.99999 -400000 400000 1.00001 2 – 0.99999
,, ,, -∞ +∞ ,, ,,
Approaching 1 Left Right

0 1 2

As can be seen, when x approaches 1 from the left, f(x) approaches a very large
negative number, called negative infinity ( - ∞ ). Similarly, as x approaches 1 from the
right, f(x) approaches a very large positive number, called positive infinity ( + ∞ ). In other
words, f(x) approaches two different limits as x gets so close to 1 from the left and from
the right. Therefore, the limit of the function does not exist as x approaches 1.

31.2 DIFFERENTIATION
We saw earlier in Unit 24 that the gradient of a linear function in point form is
𝐲 − 𝐲
m = 𝐱 𝟐 − 𝐱𝟏 , in which the expression (y2 – y1) represents an increase
𝟐 𝟏
along the y-axis and (x2 – x1) represents an increase along the x-axis.

It was also stated that the gradient of a linear function is constant along the entire graph
whereas that of a curve varies.

Differentiation relates the gradient of a curve at a point to the limit of the function at that
point, expressing it as a gradient function denoted as

𝐝𝐲 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐡) − 𝐟(𝐱)
= lim ; where h represents a very small increase in x.
𝐝𝐱 h 0 𝐡

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EXAMPLE 1
Find the gradient function for the curve of f(x) = x2
Y

y = x2

B Tangent
f(x + h)

f(x) A

x x + h X

From the graph, as point B(x + h, f(x + h)) approaches A(x, f(x)) the small change in x,
h approaches zero. For the given function, the coordinates of the two points are
A(x, x2) and B(x + h, (x + h)2). The gradient of the curve changes as point B moves closer to
A until its value approaches that of the tangent to the curve at A. Based on this analysis, we
can substitute the coordinates of A and B in the equation of the gradient function

𝐝𝐲 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐡) − 𝐟(𝐱) Note that the expression for the

= lim gradient function is the same as the
𝐝𝐱 h 0 𝐡
general form, as related below:
lim (𝐱 + 𝐡)𝟐 − 𝐱 𝟐
= h 0 𝐡 A(x1 , y1) B(x2 , y2)

lim 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐱𝐡 + 𝐡𝟐 − 𝐱 𝟐 A(x , f(x)) B(x + h , f(x + h))

= h 0 𝐡

lim 𝟐𝐱𝐡 + 𝐡𝟐 𝐲𝟐 − 𝐲𝟏
= factoring h m =
h 0 𝐡 𝐱𝟐 − 𝐱𝟏

lim 𝐡(𝟐𝐱 + 𝐡) 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐡) − 𝐟(𝐱)

= h 0 m = (𝐱 + 𝐡) − 𝐱
𝐡

lim 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐡) − 𝐟(𝐱)

= 2x + h = 2x + (0) =
h 0 𝐡
= 2x

EXAMPLE 2
Determine the gradient function of f(x) = 3x 2 + 2x

Applying the same principle, the two coordinates on this function are
A(x , (3x2 + 2x)) and B(x + h , 3(x + h)2 + 2(x + h))

Substituting these in the gradient function we have

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 𝐝𝐲 lim 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐡) − 𝐟(𝐱)
= ; f(x) = 3x2 + 2x, f(x + h) = 3(x + h)2 + 2(x + h)
𝐝𝐱 h 0 𝐡

lim 𝟑(𝐱 + 𝐡)𝟐 + 𝟐(𝐱 + 𝐡) − (𝟑𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐱)

=h 0 𝐡

lim 𝟑(𝐱𝟐 + 𝟐𝐱𝐡 + 𝐡𝟐 ) + 𝟐𝐱 + 𝟐𝐡 − 𝟑𝐱 𝟐 − 𝟐𝐱

=h 0 𝐡

lim 𝟑𝐱𝟐 + 𝟔𝐱𝐡 + 𝟑𝐡𝟐 + 𝟐𝐱 + 𝟐𝐡 − 𝟑𝐱 𝟐 − 𝟐𝐱

=h 0 collecting like terms and simplifying
𝐡

lim 𝟔𝐱𝐡 + 𝟑𝐡𝟐 + 𝟐𝐡

= factoring h
h 0 𝐡

lim 𝐡(𝟔𝐱 + 𝟑𝐡 + 𝟐)
=h 0 𝐡

= lim 6x + 3h + 2 = 6x + 3(0) + 2
h 0
= 6x + 2

The gradient function of f(x) is called derivative and is written using any of the following
notations:

𝐝𝐲
, Dx , y’ , f’(x)
𝐝𝐱

The method of finding the derivative of a function by gradient formula as shown above is
known as differentiation by First Principles.

We can therefore determine the value of the gradient of a curve at a point by substituting the
value of x in the gradient function or derivative at that point.

EXAMPLE 3
𝟏
Find the gradient of the curve y = 4x2 + 3x – 1 at x = 𝟖

From first principles,

𝐝𝐲 lim 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐡) − 𝐟(𝐱)
= ; f(x) = 4x2 + 3x + 1 , f(x + h) = 4(x + h)2 + 3(x + h) + 1
𝐝𝐱 h 0 𝐡

lim 𝟒(𝐱 + 𝐡)𝟐 + 𝟑(𝐱 + 𝐡) + 𝟏 − (𝟒𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟑𝐱 + 𝟏)

=h 0 𝐡

lim 𝟒𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟖𝐱𝐡 + 𝟒𝐡𝟐 + 𝟑𝐱 + 𝟑𝐡 + 𝟏 − 𝟒𝐱 𝟐 − 𝟑𝐱 − 𝟏

=h 0 collecting like terms
𝐡

lim 𝟖𝐱𝐡 + 𝟒𝐡𝟐 + 𝟑𝐡

=h 0 factoring h and simplifying
𝐡

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 lim 𝐡(𝟖𝐱 + 𝟒𝐡 + 𝟑)
= h 0 𝐡

= lim 8x + 4h + 3 = 8x + 4(0) + 3
h 0
= 8x + 3

𝟏
When x = the gradient of the curve is
𝟖
𝟏
8x + 3 = 8(𝟖) + 3
= 1 + 3
= 4

𝐝𝐲
Note that given any function y = axn , its derivative is given by = naxn – 1 .
𝐝𝐱

EXAMPLE 4
Find the gradient of y = 7x3 + 4x2 – 9x + 2 at x = 3

Each of the terms of the function is treated as an independent form of y = ax n, with the
constant term 2, having a = 2 and the variable x0 where n = 0 .
Therefore,
y = 7x3 + 4x2 – 9x + 2

𝐝𝐲
= (3)(7) x(3 – 1) + (2)(4) x(2 – 1) – (1)(9) x(1 – 1) + (0)(2) x(0 – 1)
𝐝𝐱

= 21x2 + 8x – 9

At x = 3, the gradient is
21x2 + 8x – 9 = 21(3)2 + 8(3) – 9
= 21(9) + 24 – 9
= 189 + 24 – 9
= 204

31.3 INTEGRATION
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. Given a derivative function F(x), the
process of integration leads to the function f(x) for which it is its integral. In short,
Differentiation of y = axn gives the derivative y’ = naxn – 1

Integration of y’ = naxn – 1 gives the integral y = axn

However, the general integral formula is given as follows:

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝐚𝐱 𝐧 + 𝟏
Given F(x) = axn, then f(x) = + c ; where n ≠ -1 and c is called an
𝐧 + 𝟏
arbitrary constant of integration.
The symbol for the process of integration is ∫

EXAMPLE 1
Find the integral of y = 3x4

∫ 𝐲𝐝𝐱 = ∫ 𝟑𝐱 𝟒 dx The expression ∫ 𝒚𝒅𝒙 is read as “integral of y with respect

to (w.r.t.) x.”
𝟑𝐱 𝟒 + 𝟏
= + c
𝟒+ 𝟏

𝟑 5
= 𝟓
x + c

EXAMPLE 2
Integrate y = 2x5 + 5x4 + x3 – 4x2 + 3x + 7

Each of the terms is treated as an independent function of the form y = ax n , with the
constant term 7 having a = 7 and the variable x 0 , where n = 0 .

∫ 𝐲dx = ∫(𝟐𝐱 𝟓 + 𝟓𝐱 𝟒 + 𝐱 𝟑 − 𝟒𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟑𝐱 + 𝟕 )dx

= ∫ 𝟐𝐱 𝟓 dx + ∫ 𝟓𝐱 𝟒 dx + ∫ 𝐱 𝟑 dx – ∫ 𝟒𝐱 𝟐 dx + ∫ 𝟑𝐱dx + ∫ 𝟕dx

𝟐𝐱 𝟓 + 𝟏 𝟓𝐱 𝟒 + 𝟏 𝐱𝟑 + 𝟏 𝟒𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟏 𝟑𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟏 𝟕𝐱 𝟎 + 𝟏
= + + – + + + k
𝟓+ 𝟏 𝟒+ 𝟏 𝟑+ 𝟏 𝟐+ 𝟏 𝟏+ 𝟏 𝟎+ 𝟏

𝟐 6 𝟓 5 𝟏 4 𝟒 3 𝟑 2
= x + x + x – x + x + 7x + k
𝟔 𝟓 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐

𝟏 6 𝟏 4 𝟒 3 𝟑 2
= x + x5 + x – x + x + 7x + k
𝟑 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐

Note that the k is the sum of all constants of the six separate integrals.

EXAMPLE 3
The gradient function of a curve is given as y = 3x + 2 . Find the equation of the curve
given that the point (0 , 4) lies on the curve.

Since y = 3x + 2 is a gradient function, we need to find its integral.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 y = 3x + 2

∫ 𝐲dx = ∫(𝟑𝐱 + 𝟐)dx

= ∫ 𝟑𝐱dx + ∫ 𝟐dx

𝟑𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟏 𝟐𝐱 𝟎 + 𝟏
= + + k
𝟏+ 𝟏 𝟎+ 𝟏

𝟑 2
= x + 2x + k
𝟐

𝟑
The equation of the curve is therefore y = 𝟐 x2 + 2x + k .
We can find the value of k by substituting the point (0, 4), since it lies on the curve.

𝟑 2
y = x + 2x + k ; x = 0, y = 4
𝟐

𝟑
(4) = 𝟐 (0)2 + 2(0) + k
4 = k

𝟑 2
∴ y = x + 2x + 4
𝟐

31.4 APPLICATION TO MOTION

Differentiation and integration are applied to displacement, velocity and acceleration as
follows:

DIFFERENTIATION
𝐝𝐬
- Velocity v = differential of distance w.r.t. time
𝐝𝐭

𝐝𝐯
- Acceleration a = differential of velocity w.r.t. time
𝐝𝐭

INTEGRATION
- Velocity v = ∫ 𝐚dt integral of acceleration w.r.t. time

- Distance s = ∫ 𝐯dt integral of velocity w.r.t. time

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
EXAMPLE 1
A particle moves in a straight line so that its distance s in metres, from a fixed point after
t seconds is given by the formula s = 5 + 6t – t2 . Find
(a) The initial velocity
(b) The velocity after 2 seconds
(c) The velocity after 4 seconds
(d) What is the meaning of negative velocity?

Velocity is a gradient function of distance.

Given s = 5 + 6t – t2

𝐝𝐬
v = = (0)(5)t0 – 1 + (1)(6)t1 – 1 – (2)(1)t2 –1
𝐝𝐭

= 6 – 2t

(a) Initial velocity is when t = 0

v = 6 – 2t ; t = 0
= 6 – 2(0)
= 6 m/s

(b) Velocity when t = 2 seconds

v = 6 – 2(2)
= 2 m/s

(c) Velocity when t = 4 seconds

v = 6 – 2(4)
= -2 m/s

(d) Negative velocity means retardation

EXAMPLE 2
The acceleration of a particle moving along a straight line is given by the formula a = 2t – 3.
Find the expressions for the velocity v and the distance s given that s = 25 m and
v = 0 when t = 4.

Velocity is an integral of acceleration.

a = 2t – 3

v = ∫ 𝐚dt = ∫(𝟐𝐭 − 𝟑)dt

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 = ∫ 𝟐𝐭dt – ∫ 𝟑dt

𝟐𝐭 𝟏 + 𝟏 𝟑𝐭 𝟎 + 𝟏
= – + k
𝟏+ 𝟏 𝟎+ 𝟏

= t2 – 3t + k

v = t2 – 3t + k ; v = 0, t = 4
(0) = (4)2 – 3(4) + k
0 = 16 – 12 + k
0 = 4 + k
-4 = k
∴ v = t2 – 3t – 4

Distance is an integral of velocity.

v = t2 – 3t – 4

s = ∫ 𝐯dt = ∫(𝐭 𝟐 − 𝟑𝐭 − 𝟒)dt

= ∫ 𝐭 𝟐 dt – ∫ 𝟑𝐭dt – ∫ 𝟒dt

𝐭𝟐 + 𝟏 𝟑𝐭 𝟏 + 𝟏 𝟒𝐭 𝟎 + 𝟏
= 𝟐 +𝟏
– 𝟏+ 𝟏
– 𝟎+ 𝟏
+ k

𝟏 3 𝟑 2
= t – t – 4t + k
𝟑 𝟐

𝟏 3 𝟑 2
s = t – t – 4t + k ; s = 25, t = 4
𝟑 𝟐

𝟏 𝟑
(25) = (4)3 – (4)2 – 4(4) + k
𝟑 𝟐

𝟏 𝟑
25 = (64) – (16) – 16 + k
𝟑 𝟐

𝟔𝟒
25 = – 24 – 16 + k
𝟑

𝟔𝟒
65 – = k
𝟑

𝟏𝟑𝟏
k = 𝟑

𝟏 3 𝟑 2 𝟏𝟑𝟏
∴ s = t – t – 4t +
𝟑 𝟐 𝟑

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1 Find the derivative of the following function by first principles.

y = 5x2 + 4x – 7

2 The distance s in metres covered by a ball in t seconds is given by the formula

s = 25t – 4.9t2
Find
(a) Its initial velocity
(b) Its velocity after 2 seconds
(c) Its velocity after 3 seconds

SOLUTIONS

1 y = 5x2 + 4x – 7
𝐝𝐲
=
lim 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐡) − 𝐟(𝐱)
; f(x) = 5x2 + 4x – 7 , f(x + h) = 5(x + h)2 + 4(x + h) – 7
𝐝𝐱 h 0 𝐡

lim 𝟓(𝐱 + 𝐡)𝟐 + 𝟒(𝐱 + 𝐡) − 𝟕 − (𝟓𝐱𝟐 + 𝟒𝐱 − 𝟕)

=
h 0 𝐡

lim 𝟓𝐱𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝐱𝐡 + 𝟓𝐡𝟐 + 𝟒𝐱 + 𝟒𝐡 − 𝟕 − 𝟓𝐱𝟐 − 𝟒𝐱 + 𝟕

= h 0 𝐡

lim 𝟏𝟎𝐱𝐡 + 𝟓𝐡𝟐 + 𝟒𝐡

=
h 0 𝐡

lim 𝐡(𝟏𝟎𝐱 + 𝟓𝐡 + 𝟒)
=
h 0 𝐡

= lim 10x + 5h + 4 = 10x + 5(0) + 4

h 0
= 10x + 4

2 (a) s = 25t – 4.9t2 (b) v = 25 – 9.8t ; t = 2

𝐝𝐬
v = = (1)(25)t1 – 1 – (2)(4.9)t2 – 1 = 25 – 9.8(2)
𝐝𝐭
= 25 – 9.8t = 25 – 19.6
v = 25 – 9.8t ; t = 0 = 5.4 ms-1
= 25 – 9.8(0) (c) v = 25 – 9.8t ; t = 3
= 25 ms-1 = 25 – 9.8(3) = -4.4 ms-1

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 REVISION EXERCISE

1 Find, where it exists, the limit of the following.

lim 5x2 + 2x + 8 lim
(a) (b) x -8 3 – 2x – x3
x 2

lim 𝐱𝟐 − 𝟏 lim 𝟐𝐱 𝟐 − 𝟑𝐱 + 𝟏
(c) (d) x 1
x -1 𝐱 + 𝟏 𝐱− 𝟏

2 Find the gradient of the curve at the point indicated.

(a) y = 3x2 + 4x + 1 ; x = 0
(b) y = 8 – x – 2x2 ; x = 1
(c) y = x3 + 2x2 + x – 12 ; x = 1
𝟑
(d) y = 4x2 + 3 ; x = 𝟒

3 Find the equation of the graph whose gradient function with the point is given.
(a) y = 3x2 ; (2 , 0)
(b) y = 2x – 4 ; (1 , 1)
(c) y = 5x4 + 3x ; (2 , 40)
(d) y = 1 – x2 ; (0 , -5)

4 The acceleration of a particle from a fixed point is 2 ms-2 .

(a) Find the equation of the velocity of the particle if v = 3 ms-1 when t = 1 second.
(b) Find the velocity of the particle after 5 seconds.

5 The distance, in metres, covered by a particle after t seconds is given by the formula
s = 2t + t2 + 3t3
Find
(a) The initial velocity of the particle
(b) The velocity of the particle after 2 seconds
(c) The acceleration of the particle after 2 seconds

6 The velocity of a ball is given by the formula v = t + 3 . Find the formula for the
distance covered by the ball if s = 25 metres when t = 4 seconds .

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 EXAM-TYPE EXERCISES .
Some questions here have been reproduced from Examinations Council of Zambia Past
Papers. The worked solutions to these questions are the most probable solutions following
the standard of work presentation and layout expected of the student in the examination
situation. Note that a degree of tolerance is administered on the exactness of any particular
solution and examination markers determine the extent to which the difference with the
expected solution, or the procedure of the calculation, may be considered acceptable. It is
therefore, strongly advised that students follow the instructions stated in each question as
carefully as possible, to avoid loss of marks.

..................................................................................................................................................

1 The diagram shows a rectangle ABCD in which the length AB is lcm and the width BC is
bcm. Within the rectangle are two semi circles of equal diameter as shown.

A B (a) given that l = 2b, find in terms of r

and π the formula for the shaded area
(b) calculate the value of the shaded
area when l = 14cm and b = 7cm
Take π to be 22/7

D C

2 Given that y = mx + c
(a) express m in terms of y, x and c
(b) find the value of x when y = 4, m = 2 and c = -2

3 The diagram shows a square whose diagonal is 10cm.

Find the length of its sides

10cm

4 List down the prime numbers between 60 and 100

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 5 Three automated bells ring at different times. One bell rings every 10 minutes. The
second bell rings every 12 minutes. The third bell rings every 20 minutes. If the bells
are started at the same time, find the next time they will ring at the same time.

6 Given that a = 2b + c express b in terms of a and c

b

7 Three volumes of water, 450l, 460l and 480l are to be measured using one container.
The container is such that it will make whole measures of all the three volumes. Find
the greatest possible volume of the container.

8 State whether the following are TRUE or FALSE

(a) 9(6 + 3) = (9 X 6) + (9 X 3)
(b) 3 ÷ (6 X 7) = (3 ÷ 6) X (3 ÷ 7)
(c) 7 – (12 + 8) = (7 – 12) + (7 – 8)

9 A girl of height 120cm had a shadow stretching on the ground to a length of 160cm
Find the distance between the tip of her shadow and her head.

120cm

160cm

F S

H: HEAD, F: FEET, S: SHADOW

10 (a) Evaluate 5 𝟏𝟒 – 2 𝟐𝟑 X 1 𝟑𝟒 leaving your answer as a fraction in its lowest terms.

(b) Factorise mn – km – hn + hk .

𝟖 𝝅 𝐫𝟐 − 𝟐 𝝅 𝐫𝟒
(c) Simplify 𝟒 𝝅 𝐫 + 𝟐 𝛑 𝐫𝟐

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝐱 − 𝟏 𝟐𝐱 − 𝟑
11 (a) Express – as a simplified single fraction.
𝟑 𝟓

𝟐 𝟓 𝟑 −𝟓
(b) Given that P = ( ) and Q = ( ) , evaluate
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟏 𝟐
(i) PQ
−𝟑
(ii) PQ ( )
𝟏
(c) Solve the equation 5x2 – 2x – 1 = 0 giving your answers correct to two
decimal places.

12 (a) E = { x : x < 10 , x ∈ Natural numbers }

P = { x : x is a prime number }
Q = { x : x is an even number }

(i) List down the elements of

(a) P.
(b) Q .
(ii) Find n( P ∩ Q ) .

(b) In the diagram, A, B, C and D are points on the circumference of a circle. Line
DC produced meets BF at E. The point O is the centre, DF and BF are
tangents to the circle.
D

A
75° O X
C

B E F
Given that BÂD = 75°, find
(i) angle x
(ii) BĈE
(iii) OD̂ F
(iv) BF̂D

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
13 The diagram below shows vertical metal bars BD and AE welded to horizontal metal
bars AB and EC. Another metal bar from A to D cuts EC at F.

D
40°
11.5

E C
F

A 10.2 B

Given that AB = 10.2m, DE = 11.5m, and CD̂ F = 40°, calculate, correct to 1 decimal
place
(a) the length of CD
(b) the length of AF, given that AD = 15.9m
(c) angle AÊD

14 (a) Given that 𝐎𝐏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−𝟑) , and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝟓

𝐎𝐐 = ( ) and T is a point on line PQ
−𝟐 −𝟐
such that 5 PT = 3 TQ , express as column vectors
(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐏𝐐
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐓𝐐

(b) A survey carried out among school leavers in a certain town, involving three
institutions, showed that 118 applied to the University of Zambia (UNZA) , 98
applied to the Copperbelt University (CBU) and 94 applied to the Natural
Resources Development College (NRDC). To increase the chances of selection,
42 applied to UNZA and CBU , 24 applied to CBU and NRDC , 34 applied
to UNZA and NRDC and 8 applied to all the three institutions.
(i) Show this information on a Venn diagram
(ii) Calculate the total number of school leavers who took part in the survey

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
15 The diagram below represents a metallic window frame of a sports hall. It consists of a
rectangular frame ABCE and a semi-circular arc CDE. The two parts are wielded
together at point C and E.
D

E C

2.3m

A 1.4m B
𝟐𝟐
Given that AB = 1.4m and BC = 2.3m. (Take 𝟕 for 𝝅 )
(a) Calculate,
(i) the length of the metal CDE
(ii) the total length of the metal required to make the frame ABCDE
(b) Glass panes would be required to cover this window frame. Find the area of the
total sheet of glass panes required
(c) Given that glass costs KR42.5 per square metre, calculate how much was spent
on glass panes for the window

16 Over a period of one week, the amount of fish in kilograms caught at Lake Mweru by
600 fishermen is shown in the table below

Mass of fish – kg 300 < x ≤ 310 310 < x ≤320 320 < x ≤ 330 330 < x ≤ 340 340 < x ≤ 350

Number of fishermen 25 75 340 130 30

(a) calculate the mean mass of the fish caught

(b) copy and complete the cumulative frequency table for the mass of the fish caught

Mass of fish – kg ≤ 300 ≤ 310 ≤ 320 ≤ 330 ≤ 340 ≤ 350

No. of fishermen 0 25 600

(c) using a horizontal scale of 2cm to represent 10kg and a vertical scale of 2cm to
represent 100 fishermen, draw a smooth cumulative frequency curve
(d) showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate
(i) the median mass
(ii) the inter-quartile range of the distribution

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (e) One fisherman was picked at random. Calculate the probability, as a fraction in its
lowest terms, that he caught more than 340kg of fish

17 The variables x and y are connected by the equation y = x 2 – 4x + 3.

Some of the corresponding values of x and y , correct to one decimal place where
necessary are given in the table below

X 0 0.2 0.5 0.8 1 1.5 2 2.3 2.5 2.8 3

Y 3 2.2 r 0.4 0 -0.8 -1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.4 0

(a) calculate the value of r

(b) using a scale of 4cm to represent 1 unit on the horizontal axis and 2cm to
represent 1 unit on the vertical axis, draw the graph of y = x2 – 4x + 3 for
0 ≤ x ≤ 3
(c) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to find the two values of x which
𝟏
satisfy the equation x2 – 4x + 3 = − 𝟐 .
(d) By drawing a suitable straight line on the same axes, use your graph to find the values
of x which satisfy the equation x2 – 4x + 3 = -x + 1 .
(e) By drawing a suitable tangent, find the gradient of the curve at the point
where x = 1.5

18 (a) Calculate the length of the sides of a rhombus whose diagonals are of lengths 22cm
and 15cm.
(b) The diagram below is an extract form an Atlas of the World map.
90°

NEW ORLEANS 60°

LENINGRAD
30°
CAIRO

0°
DURBAN

30°

60°

90° 60° 30° 0° 30° 60° 90° 90°

Write down the position (in Latitude and Longitude) of the town

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (i) New Orleans
(ii) Cairo
(iii) Durban
(c) Taking 𝝅 to be 3.142 and R = 6 370km , calculate the distance, in kilometres ,
from
(i) Durban to Cairo
(ii) New Orleans to Leningrad

(d) When the time in Leningrad is 15 05 hours , calculate the time in

(i) Cairo
(ii) New Orleans

19 During a soccer training session, the goal keeper (G) was standing at the centre of the
goal posts; a shooting player (S) was standing 21 metres from the goal keeper’s position;
the trainer (T) was 19 metres from the goal keeper and angle TGS = 110° , as shown
in the diagram below. S

T
21
19 m
110°
m
G
(a) Calculate the area of GST to the nearest square metre.
(b) The trainer (T) rolls a ball along TS for a shooting player (S) to kick to the goal
mouth. Calculate the distance TS.
(c) The goal keeper (G) is free to intercept the ball at any point along TS before it
reaches the player at S. Find the shortest distance which the goal keeper could run
in order to intercept it.

20 (a) Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1 unit on each axis, draw x and y axes for
-12 ≤ x ≤ 8 and -16 ≤ y ≤ 8. Draw and label ΔABC whose vertices are A( 4 , 4 ),
B( 6 , 4 ) and C( 6 , 8 ).
(b) ΔABC is mapped onto ΔA1B1C1 by a rotation of 90° anticlockwise. Given that
ΔA1B1C1 has vertices A1( -1 , 3 ), B1( -1 , 5 ) and C1( -5 , 5 ),
(i) draw and label ΔA1B1C1
(ii) find the coordinates of the centre of rotation
(c) The point A2( 0 , 0 ) is the image of A under a reflection in the line L. Draw and
label the line L and find its equation.
(d) An enlargement E has its centre at the origin and maps ΔABC onto ΔA3B3C3 . If
B3 is ( -12 , -8 ) ,
(i) find the scale factor of the enlargement
(ii) draw and label ΔA3B3C3
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝟏 −𝟐
(e) Transformation Q is represented by a matrix ( ) and maps ΔABC onto
𝟎 𝟏
ΔA4B4C4
(i) draw and label ΔA4B4C4
(ii) describe transformation Q fully

21 (a) Mr Phone moved in a new house on 1st January 2007. During the first three months,
the electricity meter reading was being recorded. Below is the record in part:

DATE 1st January 1st February 1st March

Meter
00000 00143 00……..
Reading

(i) Write down the number of units used in January

(ii) Given that the Electricity Company charges KR1.225 per unit of electricity
used, how much was paid for the month of January?
(iii) Given that in February a total of KR271.950 was paid to the Company for
the units used,
(a) how many units were used in February?
(b) what was the meter reading on 1st March 2007?

(b) JKLMNOPQ is a prism of uniform cross section JKLM, as shown below.

JK = 5cm , ML = 9cm and LQ = 15cm . O

P
N

J
5cm

K
M Q

9cm
15cm

L
(i) Name the polygon JKLM
(ii) Given that KM = 8cm , calculate
(a) the length of JL

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (b) the volume of the prism

22 A point Q lies on a bearing of 079° from another point R. The bearing of R from S is 320°
and Q is due north of S. RS = 32km. Using a scale of 1 : 1 000 000 ,
(a) Sketch the map of QRS
(b) Find the bearing of S from R
(c) Calculate the size of angle RQ̂ S
(d) Given that RQ = 48km, find QS
(e) What is the bearing of S from Q?

23 (a) Simfex Academy offers tuition in three G.C.E subjects, Mathematics, English and
Science. During the December 2010 holiday, 120 students registered with the centre.
70 students registered for all three subjects
99 students registered for Mathematics
86 students registered for English
85 students registered for Science
4 students registered for Mathematics and Science only
5 students registered for Mathematics and English only
1 student registered for English and Science only
(i) Illustrate this information in a Venn Diagram
(ii) Find the number of students who registered for one subject only
(iii) Write down the ratio of students who registered for one subject to that of
students who registered for at least one subject
(b) For any three sets A, B and C draw Venn diagrams to show by shading
(i) A ∩ B ∩
(ii) A ∩ (B ∩ C)’
(iii) A U B U C

24 (a)

Vectors a and b are given in the graph above.

(i) Write down the components of a and b

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (ii) Find in component form a + b and a – b
(iii) Sketch in geometric presentation the vectors a + b and a–b

(b) OABC is a parallelogram in which OD = DC, OE:EB = 1:3, OA = a and OB = b

Express in terms of a and/or b
A B
(i) AB
b
a (ii) OD
E
(iii) DA

O D C
(iv) AE

(v) Given also that AE = kED,

express ED in terms a, b and k

25 (a) Given that p = -3, q = 2 and r = -1, find

(i) pq – r
(ii) p + 2(q – 2r)

(b) Simplify (4/16)-½

(c) Factorise completely 2x2 – 18

x2 + 6x + 9

(d) Solve 7 – x = x + 3
2 4

26 (a) In the diagram, PQ//RS, PQ = 9cm, RS = 12cm QP̂ T = 38°, TR̂ S = 22° and TS = 4cm.
Q
Find
9cm
(i) RT̂S
(ii) PT
P 38° (iii) RT when TQ = 5cm
T 4cm
S

22° 12cm

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (b) Calculate the mean and median of the following distribution of marks

Mark 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency 3 2 9 5 1

27 The diagram shows two right-angled triangles ABC and ADB. AC and BD
intersect at E. AD = 14cm, BD = 16cm and BC = 6cm. Calculate,
(a) side AB (b) angle AD̂ E (c) angle CB̂ E

A B

E 6cm
14cm

16cm C
x

28 (a) Solve 2(x – 2) = 3(2 – x)

(b) Express as a single fraction

𝟓 𝟐
𝐱− 𝟏
– 𝐱 + 𝟑

(c) Given that y is inversely proportional to x2 and that y = 100 when x = 2 , find the
value of y when x = 5.

29 Isaac, Rhoda and Hanah were each left with K24 000 000 in their father’s will.
(a) Isaac decided to spend his money on clothes, disco equipment and furnishing his house in the
ratio 4 : 5 : 7 respectively. How much did he spend on furnishing his house?
(b) Rhoda invested her money in a bank account at 12 𝟏𝟐 % simple interest for 3 years. Calculate
the total amount of money she had in her account at the end of 3 years.
(c) Hanah spent all her money on mini-buses. After two years, she decided to sell all her buses. If
their values had fallen by 25% at the end of the first year and by a further 10% at the end of
the second year, find the value of the minibuses
(i) at the end of the first year
(ii) at the end of the second year

349
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
30 (a) It is given that the mean of the six numbers p , q , 5 , 7 , 2 , 8 is 5. If p is doubled, the
mean of the six numbers becomes 6. Find the values of p and q.
(b) D

E C

O
42°

A 38°
B

In the diagram, AC is the diameter of a circle with centre O. AB = BC, AB̂ E = 38° and
DÂE = 42° . Find the size of
(i) AD̂ E
(ii) DÂC
(iii) AÊD
(c) Construct a triangle PQR, in which PQ = 7cm, QR = 5cm and angle PQR = 123°.
(i) Measure PR
On the diagram construct,
(ii) the locus of points 4cm from P
(iii) the locus of points 3.5cm from Q
(iv) show clearly on your diagram, the locus of points which lie in the triangle PQR and lie
less than 4cm from P, and lie less than 3.5cm from Q.

31 Mr. Zimba’s business has employed 80 unskilled workers, 2 skilled workers for every
10 unskilled workers and 1 supervisor for every 4 skilled workers.
(a) How many workers are employed by Mr. Zimba’s business?
Each supervisor earns K400 000 per month and each skilled worker earns K300 000 per month.
(b) If Mr. Zimba’s monthly wage bill is K20 800 000 , how much does each unskilled worker
earn per month?
All workers earning K200 000 or more pay 30% tax to Zambia Revenue Authority.
(c) How much does Mr. Zimba take to Zambia Revenue Authority every month?
Due to economic hardships, Mr. Zimba has decided to retire 10 unskilled workers. Management
and the Union resolved that the retirement package should be as follows:
6 months salary plus 20% of that sum.
(d) How much will Mr. Zimba spend on the retirement package?

350
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
32
E G
I

x 6 10

3
4 5

2x 30
B

In a certain year, among world soccer giant nations that qualified for the world cup
championship were Germany (G) , Italy (I) and Brazil (B). Before matches began, 100
sports writers were asked to predict which country/countries stood the best chances of
winning the cup. 30 chose none of these three. The other results were as shown in the
diagram. Find
(i) the value of x
(ii) how many sports writers chose at least two of the name countries
(iii) what percentage chose Brazil
(iv) copy this diagram and shade the region (G ∩ B) ∩ I’

33 (a) On a map of scale 1 : 300 000

(i) The distance between Mongu and Limulunga is 7cm. Calculate the actual
distance in kilometers
(ii) On the same map, a cashew nut rectangular field of 15cm by 20cm is shown.
Calculate its actual area in km2

(b) In this question take 𝝅 to be 3.142

70cm

70cm
351
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
The diagram shows a metallic frame to be fitted to a window of a shop. It consists of 4 semicircular,
4 quarter-circular and a circular metal sheet, all of the same radius.
(i) Given that the radius is r, show that the shaded area reduces to 4 𝝅 r2
(ii) Express the area of the shaded part as a percentage of the area of the square, giving your
answer correct to 2 decimal places

34
N 18km

15°
A
12km 0

A is 12km due west of O, B is 18km from O on a bearing of 015°. Calculate,

(a) the bearing of O from B
(b) the distance AB
(c) the angle ABO
(d) the area of triangle AOB , giving your answer correct to 1 decimal place

35 12m
x

x x 10m

(a) The diagram shows a rectangular lawn measuring 12m by 10m. A rectangular swimming
pool is to be dug on the lawn so that a path x metres wide is to be left all round the pool. If
the depth of the pool is to be x metres, show that the volume of the soil to be removed is
4x(6 – x)(5 – x) m2

(b) For the function y = 4x(6 – x)(5 – x) , copy and complete the table of corresponding values
of x and y

X 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5

Y 80 94.5 96 87.5 72 r 32 0

(c) Using a scale of 4cm to represent 1 unit on the x-axis and a scale of 2cm to represent
20 units on the y-axis, draw the graph y = 4x(6 – x)(5 – x) for values of x and y in the
range 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 100.

352
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (d) Use your graph to estimate
(i) the volume of water in the pool if the depth is 2.2 metres
(ii) the greatest volume of water in the pool
(iii) the volume of water if the length of the pool is 10.5 metres

36 (a) A 2a B

2b X

O 3a C

In the diagram, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐎𝐀 = 2a , 𝐎𝐂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3a and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁 = 2a . The lines OB and AC intersect at X.
(i) Express as simply as possible in terms of a and/or b
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(a) 𝐎𝐁
(b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐁𝐂
(ii) Given that 𝐂𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = h ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐂𝐀 , express ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐂𝐗 in terms of a , b and h.
(iii) Show that 𝐎𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3 – 3h) a + 2h b

W Z
(b)

S R

12cm
X 7cm Y
6cm 6cm

30° 30°
P 9cm Q
PQRSWXYZ represents a wooden prism with a horizontal rectangular base PQRS.
XYQP is a trapezium. XP̂ Q = PQ̂ Y = 30° , XP = YQ = 6cm , PQ = 9cm , XY = 7cm and
QY = 12cm. Calculate
(i) the height of trapezium XPQY
(ii) the area of trapezium XPQY
(iii) the volume of the prism

353
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
37 The vertices of the parallelogram ABCD are A(2 , 2) , B(4 , 2) , C(6 , 4) and D(4 , 4) .
The vertices of the parallelogram A1B1C1D1 are A1(-2 , 2) , B1(-2 , 4) , C1(-4 , 6) and D1(-4 , 4).

(a) (i) Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1 unit of each axis, draw x and y axes for
-10 ≤ x ≤10 and -13 ≤ y ≤ 9. Draw and label the parallelograms ABCD and A1B1C1D1 .
(ii) Describe fully the transformation which maps ABCD onto A1B1C1D1.
(b) Parallelogram A1B1C1D1 is mapped onto parallelogram A2B2C2D2 by an enlargement with
centre at the origin and a scale factor -2.
Draw and label parallelogram A2B2C2D2 .
𝟏 𝟎
(c) A transformation represented by the matrix ( ) maps the parallelogram ABCD onto
𝟎 𝟐
A3B3C3D3 .
(i) Draw and label the parallelogram A3B3C3D3 .
(ii) Describe fully this transformation.

38 A typing test was taken by 100 pupils. The number of words typed per minute were recorded.
The results are shown in the table below.

No. of
50 < x ≤ 55 55 < x ≤ 60 60 < x ≤ 65 65 < x ≤ 70 70 < x ≤ 75 75 < x ≤ 80
Words
No. of 14 22 31 18 9 6
Pupils

(a) Copy and complete the following cumulative frequency table.

No. of
≤ 50 ≤ 55 ≤ 60 ≤ 65 ≤ 70 ≤ 75 ≤ 80
Words
No. of 0 14 36
Pupils
(b) Using a scale of 2cm to represent 5 words on the horizontal axis and a scale of 2cm to
represent 10 pupils on the vertical axis, draw a smooth cumulative frequency curve for this
distribution.
(c) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate
(i) the number of pupils who passed if the passing speed is 62 words per minute
(ii) the median number of words
(iii) the inter-quartile range of this distribution
(d) Two pupils are chosen at random. Calculate as a fraction in its lowest terms the probability
that both pupils typed more than 70 words per minute.

𝐚 𝐛
39 (a) Given that a = 3 , b = 2 and c = 4 , find the value of 𝐛
+ 𝐜
(b) Solve 3(m – 5) = 7 – 2(m – 3)
(c) Factorise completely 4 – 16x2

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
40 (a) A straight line is given by the equation 2x + 3y = 3, find its gradient.
𝟑 𝟏 − 𝟐𝐱
(b) Express as a single fraction in its simplest form 𝟐 – 𝟒𝐱
(c) Solve the equation 3x2 – x – 1 = 0 , giving your answers correct to two decimal places.

𝐜𝐛 − 𝐚
41 Given that 𝐜
= 1 , express c in terms of a and b .

42 Factorise completely 3w2 – 12 .

𝟐 𝟓 𝟑 −𝟓
43 Given that M = ( ) and N = ( )
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟏 𝟐

(a) Find the following matrices

(i) MN
(ii) NM
(b) What is the relationship between the two matrices M and N

44

Xm
Xm

Lusungu’s maize field was designed as shown in the diagram. It was composed of a square of
side X metres and two semi-circles as shown in the diagram.
𝟐𝟐
( Take 𝝅 to be 𝟕 )

𝟑𝟔 𝐱
(a) Show that the distance around her maize field reduces to m.
𝟕
Given that the actual distance around the maize field is 720m,
(b) Find the value of x
(c) What is the area of Lusungu’s maize field?
In the year 2001, Lusungu’s maize field yielded 280 bags of maize.
(d) What was the average yield per hector in 2001? (1 hector = 10 000m 2)
𝟏
Lusungu reserved 𝟓 of her maize yield for home consumption and sold the rest to National
𝟏
Milling Co-operation at KR28 per bag. She then decided to give of her earnings to a
𝟏𝟎
charity that was helping orphans and deposited the rest in her Bank account.
(e) How much money did she take to the Bank?

355
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝟐𝐱 − 𝟏
45 Given that f(x) = 2(x – 5) and g(x) = 𝟑
, find

(a) f(-5)
(b) g(𝟏𝟒 )
(c) f-1(x)
(d) gof(x)

𝟓 −𝟐 𝟔
46 (a) A = ( ) and B = ( ) ,
𝟑 𝐱 𝟒
(i) Given that the determinant of A is 21 , find x .
Hence find
(ii) A-1
(iii) AB
(b) In the diagram below, triangle ABC is right angled. Given that AB = 5cm , AC = 13cm
that BCD is a straight line, find
(i) the area of ΔABC
(ii) cos AĈD
A

13cm
5cm

B C D

47 Write 0.001282 as a number in standard form correct to 2 significant figures.

48 A beam is an alloy made up of metal C and metal D in the ratio 10 : 1 . Given that metal
D is 15kg , find the mass of the beam.

49 Under a translation T, the point (1 , 4) is mapped onto (2 , 1). Given that T maps (2 , 1)
onto (x , y) , find x and y.

𝟐 𝟗
50 Solve the equation 𝟑
= 𝟐𝐫
.

𝟑 𝐲 𝟐 − 𝟒𝟖
51 Simplify .
𝐲 𝟐 − 𝐲 − 𝟐𝟎

356
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 ANSWERS TO REVISION EXERCISES .
UNIT 1: REAL NUMBER SYSTEM (PAGE 26) UNIT 4 : ALGEBRA (PAGE 48)
1 Odd and composite : 9, 15, 21, 27 1 (a) (s + t)(r + k) (b) (w – p)(q + y)
𝟕
2 (c) 2(t2 + 2)(t2 – 2) (d) (m + 1)(4m + 5)
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝟓𝐱 + 𝟑𝟏 −𝟓𝐩 − 𝟕
3 12 kg 2 (a) (b) (𝐩 − 𝟓)(𝟏− 𝐩)
𝟏𝟒
𝟐𝟐 − 𝟕𝐭 𝟑 − 𝟖𝐲
4 (a) 25% (b) 12 000 (c) 1 000 (c) (d) (𝟐𝐲 + 𝟑)(𝟗 − 𝟒𝐲)
𝟏𝟐
𝟔
5 2 x 2 x 67 3 (a) 22 (b) (c) 5 (d) 35
𝟕
𝟐𝛑(𝐫 + 𝟒) 𝟏+ 𝐱 𝐧 𝟏
6 (a) 6.046187 (b) 48.34 (c) 2 𝟒
𝟕
4 (a) (b) (c)
𝐫+ 𝟏 𝟐+ 𝐱 𝟓𝐧 + 𝟏
𝐩+ 𝟏 𝟑− 𝐡 𝐚− 𝟕
7 (d) (e) (f)
𝐩− 𝟐 𝟏+ 𝐡 𝟐𝐚(𝟐 − 𝐚)
-3 0 9

{-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

UNIT 5: INDICES (PAGE 52)

UNIT 2: APPROXIMATIONS (PAGE 31) 1 (a) x = 5 (b) z = 7
1 (a) 1.29 x 106 km2 (b) 1 300 000 km2 (c) v = 5 (d) x = -3
𝐱
2 (a) 1.30 x 107 (b) 13 000 000 2 (a) (b) q10
𝐲

3 (a) 2 x 108 km (b) 150 000 000 km 3 (a) Let a 0 ÷ an = a0 – n = a-n

𝐚𝟎
4 (a) 3 x 105 km/s (b) 3 x 108 m/s =
𝐚𝐧
𝟏
5 (a) 2 s.f. (b) 9.5 x 1012 = ; since a0 = 1
𝐚𝐧
6 (a) 7.69 x 10-4 (b) 1.9 x 10-1 20 ÷ 23
𝟐𝟎
(c) 3.14 x 100 (d) 7.530 x 107 =
𝟐𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
(e) 5 x 103 = =
𝟐𝟑 𝟖
𝐧 𝟏
7 12.12 cm2 (b) Let 𝐚𝐦 = (𝐚𝐧 )𝐦
𝐦 𝟏 𝐦
= √𝐚𝐧 ; since 𝐚𝐦 = √𝐚
𝟑 𝟏
𝟒 𝟐 = (𝟒 ) 𝟑 𝟐

UNIT 3: SET THEORY (PAGE 39) = √𝟒𝟑

1 (a) x = 2 (b) E N = √𝟔𝟒
(c) 19 1 10
A = 8
2
2
(d) 7 2 6 4 (a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 9
𝟏
7 (d) 8 (e) 16 (f)
M 𝟐
2 n = 6 5 (a) 36 (b) 4 096 (c) 3
E A
3 n = 7 4 B (d) 256
R
Q
S
P
C

357
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
UNIT 6 : LINEAR EQUATIONS (PAGE 59) UNIT 7 : QUADRATICS (PAGE 68)
1 (a) y = -7 (b) q = 13 1 (a) x = 2 or 4
−𝟏
(c) x = -1 𝟏𝟕 (d) x = 2 (b) t = -3 or 𝟐
𝟒
2 (a) x = 1 ; y = 1 (c) f = -1 or 𝟓
𝟒
(b) p = 3 ; q = 1 (d) x = 3 or 𝟑
(c) m = 15 ; n = 2 2 (a) t = -3.30 or 0.30
(d) r = -5 ; s = 2 (b) p = -0.80 or 0.63
3 (a) x = 5 ; y = -2 (c) x = -1.45 or 3.45
(b) h = 2 ; w = 2 (d) x = -0.11 or -4.39
(c) f = 1 ; e = 3 3 (a)

Speed (m/s)
(d) a = 1 ; b = -11
4 (a) x = 1; y = 2 28 𝟏𝟖
y
2x + y = 4 7
x+y=3 4
3 (1 , 2)
2 0 𝟏 3 𝟑𝟒 7 7 𝟏𝟐 8 Time(s)
𝟐
0 12 3 x
v = 15t – 2t2

(b) x = 0 ; y = -6
y
2x + y = -6 y+6=x
(b) (i) t = 0 and 7 𝟏𝟐
𝟏
-3 0 6 (ii) t = and 7
x 𝟐

-6 (0 , -6) (c) Maximum speed 28 𝟏𝟖 m/s at time

t = 3 𝟑𝟒 seconds
(c) x = 3 ; y = -2 4 (a) Area = (1 000 + 90x – x2) km2
y
3x + y = 7 (b) x = 70 km or 20 km
7 5x – 3y = 21
0 𝟕 𝟐𝟏
x
5 After 2 𝟏𝟒 months
𝟑 𝟓
-7 (3 , -2)

(d) x = 10 ; y = 5
y
4x + 3y = 55
𝟓𝟓 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓
𝟑 y=
(10 , 5) 𝟑

0 𝟓 𝟓𝟓 x
−𝟓 𝟐 𝟒
𝟐

5 (a) 13 , 26 (b) Shasha 12 , Faliya 96

(c) 400 (1983) , 500 (1984)

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
UNIT 8 : FORMULAE AND LITERAL UNIT 10 : RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
EQUATIONS (PAGE 75) (PAGE 94)
𝐳 𝐳
1 (a) x = (b) x = 1 (a) (i) 5 (ii) 2𝟏𝟐
𝟕
(iii) -4𝟏𝟔
𝟐− 𝐲 𝐲− 𝟏
𝐳𝟐 − 𝐲𝟐 𝐲− 𝟓 𝟐(𝐱 + 𝟏) −𝟐
(c) x = (d) x = (b) (i) (ii) (iii) 4 𝟏𝟑
𝐳𝟐 𝟓𝐳 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏
2 (a) A = 𝝅R2 (iv) 3x – 7
𝟐
(b) A = r2(𝝅 – 1) + 3r – 2 2 (a) y = 4x + 1 (b) y = 21
(c) A = 2x2 (d) A = r2(6 – 𝝅) 3 (a) “food source of” and “food product of”
𝐛𝟐 + 𝐜𝟐 − 𝐚𝟐
3 (a) cosA = (b)
𝟐𝐛𝐜 MILK
𝟐𝐏 𝐀− 𝟐𝛑𝐫 𝟐
(b) b = (c) h = PLANT CHEESE
𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐂 𝟐𝛑𝐫
𝟐𝐀 − 𝐚𝐡
𝟕
√𝐲 + 𝟏 BREAD
(d) b = (e) x = EGGS
𝐡 𝟑 ANIMAL
𝟑 𝐤 PASTA
(f) x = √𝟐𝐲 HAM
(g) h = x – √𝐫 𝟐 − (𝐲 − 𝐤)𝟐

(h) c = √𝐚𝟐 + 𝐛 𝟐 − 𝟐𝐚𝐛𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐂

MILK
𝐲 − 𝐚 𝐱𝟐 − 𝐱
(i) b = CHEESE PLANT
𝐱
BREAD
EGGS ANIMAL
PASTA
HAM

UNIT 9 : VARIATIONS (PAGE 85) 4 (a) (i) 5 (ii) -3 (iii) -2 𝟑𝟖

1 (a) y = 2x (b) (i) x = -3 or 1
(b) y y = 2x (ii) 6 𝟏
𝟑
(iii) x = -4 or 2
4

0 2 x

𝟓𝐱 𝟐
2 (a) k = 5 (b) y = 𝐳
(c) x = 10 (d) y = 80
3 (a) 5:6 (b) 108
4 (a) Milkbread 150 Rollbread 90
Twistbread 30
(b) (i) 80 (ii) 4 : 3
5 4 hours

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
UNIT 11 : LINEAR INEQUATIONS 3 y ≥ x
(PAGE 100) y < 3
𝟏 −𝟑
1 (a) x > ; x ∈ R y ≥ x + 3
𝟏𝟒 𝟐
(b) x ≤ 91 ; x ∈ Z 4 (a)
y
(c) p < 1 𝟑𝟒 ; p ∈ R
y=0
(d) t ≥ 8 ; t ∈ Z 0 4 x

2 (a) 3y – 4x < 6 – x x=0 x=4

y < x + 2 -2 y = -2
y
y=x+2

(b) y=x
y
-2 0 x 8

1
(b) 5x + 2 ≥ 3(x + 4)
y=0 0 1 8 x
x ≥ 5
x=1 x=8
y

x=5

(c) y
0 5 x
y=5
5
3
𝟐𝐱 − 𝟑
(c) y ≤ 𝟐
y
-3 0 x
𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑
y = 𝟐 y = -x
x = -3 x=0

0 𝟑 x
𝟐

−𝟑
𝟐

𝐲 y
(d) > 3 (d)
𝟐+ 𝐱 y=x+4
4
y > 3(2 + x) y = -x
y y = 3(2 + x)
2
6

y=0 -4 -2 0 x

-2 0 x

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
UNIT 12 : LINEAR PROGRAMMING UNIT 14 : SEQUENCES AND SERIES
(PAGE 107) (PAGE 127)
1 (a) x + y < 8 (b) -2 1 (a) 102 – 2n (b) 22
2 (a) x + y ≤ 10 ; x ≥ 4 ; y ≤ 6 ; y ≥ 2 2 (a) n2 (b) 400
(b) y
3 (a) 20 minutes (b) 470 minutes

10
x = 4 (c) 86 hours 40 minutes
y = 6
6
4 K614.4
5 (a) a = 5, d = 2 (b) 96
y=2
2 6 (a) -1 , 4 , 27 , 80 (b) 285
x + y = 10

0 4 8 10 x

(c) Maximum of 10 beds ,

Either 4 single and 6 double beds, or UNIT 15 : MATRICES (PAGE 139)
8 single and 2 double beds. 1 x = 2 ; y = 2
𝟔𝟒 𝟖𝟎
(d) For maximum profit, the carpenter 2 (a) ( ) (b) p = -5
𝟒𝟖 𝟗𝟔
𝟏𝟕 𝟒 −𝟏 𝟏𝟑
makes 4 single and 6 double beds. (c) ( ) (d) ( )
−𝟔 𝟑𝟑 𝟏𝟑 −𝟐𝟓
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
Profit = K4 400 3 (a) ( ) (b) ( )
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
(c) Inverse matrices
𝟑 −𝟏
−𝟐 𝟑
4 (a) (−𝟏
𝟒 𝟖
) (b) ( )
𝟐
𝟏
𝟒
𝟖 𝟏𝟐
−𝟏
𝟎
UNIT 13 : COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC (c) ( 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
)
𝟔 𝟐

(PAGE 119) 5 (a) z = 2 (b) z = -3

1 (a) K2 035 (b) 12% 6 (a) r = 2 (b) r = 0
2 (a) 3 100 (b) 1 860 (c) 85%
3 (a) K93 000 (b) K199 500
(c) K179 025

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
UNIT 16 : ANGLES (PAGE 151) UNIT 19 : BEARINGS (PAGE 183)
1 (a) x = 70° , y = 110° , z = 70° 1 (a) (i) 41.8° (ii) 6.7 m (iii) 38°
(b) a = 60° , b = 60° , c = 110° (b) (i) 2.8 m (ii) 36.3°
2 (a) 135° (b) octagon 2 (a) 6.5 m (b) 61.4°
3 v = 135° , w = 22.5° , x = 45° (c) (i) 1.6 m (ii) 2 m
y = 67.5° , z = 90°
4 (a) a = 30° , b = 30° , c = 60°
(b) a = 120° , b = 120° , c = 30°
5 (a) 30° (b) right-angled triangle UNIT 20 : CIRCLE THEOREMS
(PAGE 195)
1 (a) 52° (b) 24° (c) 46°
(d) 40° (e) 110°
UNIT 17 : SHAPES AND SYMMETRY 2 (a) (i) 30° (ii) 60° (iii) 30°
(PAGE 157) (iv) 60°
1 (a) { G , Z } (b) { A , B , C , U , M , Y } (b) ∆AOD , ∆CDE
(c) { H } (d) {H,O} 3 (a) 63° (b) 90° (c) 63°
2 (a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 53°
(d) 6 (e) 2 (f) 4
3 (a) (i) 4 (ii) 4
(b) (i) 1 (ii) 1
(c) (i) 4 (ii) 4
UNIT 21 : SIMILARITY AND CONGRUENCE
(PAGE 201)
1 (a) 6 cm (b) 8:1
UNIT 18 : TRIGONOMETRY (PAGE 176) 2 (a) 9.6 cm (b) 1 215 cm 2
1 (a) 1.6 km (b) 350 564.3 m2 3 20 cm3
(c) 435.9 m 4 3 cm
2 (a) (i) 11 cm (ii) 45.8° (iii) 13.8 cm
(b) (i) 15.2 m (ii) 18.4 m (iii) 14.5 m
3 59° , 301°

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
UNIT 22 : MENSURATION (PAGE 212) UNIT 24 : GRAPHS OF POLYNIMIALS
1 (a) 2 375.4 cm2 (b) 415.3 cm2 (PAGE 241)
𝟏
(c) 17 442.6 cm3 1 (a) gradient -3 𝟏𝟐 ; y-intercept 𝟐
2 (a) (i) 25 mm (ii) 11 524.9 mm2 (b) gradient 7 𝟏
𝟐
; y-intercept 4
(b) (i) 124 706.0 mg (ii) 7 390 mg 2 (a) r = -8
(b) y
4
3y – 2x = 6
2

-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x

UNIT 23 : CONSTRUCTION AND LOCUS -2

(PAGE 227)
R -4
1 1.5 cm
50° -6

14 cm -8
6 cm
6.5 cm
T
(c) (i) x = -3.6 ; 0.6
105°
P 11 cm Q (ii) x = -3 ; 0
(d) -2
2 C (f) x = -3.67 ; 0

3 cm
100° (g) 10 sq. units
7 cm
Q 3 y
3
𝟐
A 8 cm B y =
𝒙𝟐
2

-4 -2 0 2 4 x
C
-1
3
7 cm
P
(a) y = 0
𝟏
(b) 𝟐
60°
A 8 cm B 4 (a) y = x + 8 (b) (-8 , 0)
𝟏
5 y = 𝟑
(4 – x)

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
UNIT 25 : TRAVEL GRAPHS (PAGE 247) UNIT 27 : PROBABILITY (PAGE 276)
𝟔
1 (a) 40 m/s (b) x = 25 (c) 740 m 1 (a) women
𝟏𝟏
2 (a) 3 hours 15 minutes (b) 260 km
women 𝟓
𝟕
(c) 02 18 hours 𝟏𝟐
𝟏𝟏
men
3 (a) 18.75 km (b) 56 minutes 15 seconds
𝟕
𝟓
(c) 10 06 hours 𝟏𝟐
𝟏𝟏 women
men 𝟒
𝟏𝟏
men
𝟕 𝟐𝟖
(b) (i) (ii)
𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟑
2 (a) 300
𝟏 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟏
UNIT 26 : STATISTICS (PAGE 261) (b) (i) (ii) (iii)
𝟒 𝟑𝟔 𝟑𝟔
𝟐𝟓
1 (a) x = 6 (iv) 𝟑𝟔
(b) mode 6 ; median 6
2 (a) 360 (b) 600
3 (a) K213
(b)
K ≤200 ≤205 ≤210 ≤215 ≤220 ≤225 ≤230 UNIT 28 : VECTOR GEOMETRY
FREQ 0 90 210 510 565 654 700 (PAGE 291)
1 (a) (i) b – a (ii) 2b – 3a
(c) (iii) 4a – 3b
100
Percentile

700
(b) 3a + (h – 3)b
𝟐 𝟔 𝟎
No. of Vendors

600
2 (a) (i) ( ) (ii) ( ) (iii) ( )
Q3 𝟑 𝟒 −𝟒
𝟔
500
(b) ( )
𝟒
400 56th

300

200 Q1

100

205 210 215 220 225 230

200 Amount - K

(d) (i) K3.95 (ii) K213

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
UNIT 29 : TRANSFORMATIONAL UNIT 30 : EARTH GEOMETRY (PAGE 325)
GEOMETRY (PAGE 307) 1 (a) (i) K(50°S , 70°E)
1 (ii) M(0° , 50°W)
y
(iii) Q(50°S , 50°E)
12
(b) 1 430 km
10
8 (c) (i) 1 213 km/h
A B
6 (ii) 11 hours 21 minutes
D
C 4 (d) (i) Town M 03 15 hours
B1 C1
2 (ii) Town P 03 15 hours
D2
-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x (iii) Town Q 09 55 hours
-2 y = -x 2 1 nm = 1”
-4 C = 360°
A3 B2 C2
-6 𝟏
D3 1 nm = 𝟔𝟎
-8
B3 C3 C = 360
-10 𝐂
= 360
-12 𝟔𝟎
C = 360 x 60 = 21 600 nm
(a) Trapezium But C = 2𝝅R
(b) Reflection along y = -x 21 600 = 2 x 3.142 x R
(c) Scale factor 3 21 600 = 6.284R
−𝟔 𝟐𝟏 𝟔𝟎𝟎
(d) Translation by factor T = ( ) R = = 3 437.301082
−𝟏𝟐 𝟔.𝟐𝟖𝟒
𝟏 𝟎
2 (a) (i) ( ) = 3 437 nm
𝟐 𝟏
(ii) shear with factor 2 and x = 0
(y-axis) invariant.
(b) Reflection along x = -1
(c) Enlargement centre (1 , 0) scale
factor -3

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
UNIT 31 : INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS (PAGE 337)
1 (a) 32 (b) 531 (c) -2 (d) 1
2 (a) 4 (b) -5 (c ) 8 (d) 6
𝟑
3 (a) y = x3 – 8 (b) y = x2 – 4x + 4 (c) y = x5 + x2 + 2
𝟐
𝟏
(d) y = x – x3 – 5
𝟑
4 (a) v = 2t + 1 (b) 11 ms-1
5 (a) 2 ms-1 (b) 42 ms-1 (c) 38 ms-2
𝟏 2
6 s = t + 3t + 5
𝟐

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 ANSWERS TO EXAM-TYPE EXERCISES .
The following are the suggested solutions to the fifty one past exam and exam-type
questions. The first twenty questions have been worked out.

..................................................................................................................................................

1 (a) Length = lcm Width = bcm Diameter = 2 r = bcm

Length = 2b = 2(2 r) = 4 r
Area of rectangle = length X breadth ; length = 4 r , breadth = 2 r
= 4r X 2r
= 8 r2

Area of 2 semi-circles = 2 (𝟏𝟐 𝝅 r2 )

= 𝝅 r2

Shaded area = Area of rectangle – Area of 2 semi-circles

= 8 r 2 – 𝝅 r2
= r2 (8 – 𝝅 )

𝟐𝟐
(b) Length = 14cm , Breadth = 7cm , 𝝅 = 𝟕
Diameter = 2 r = 7
𝟕
r = 𝟐
Shaded area = r2 (8 – 𝝅)
𝟐𝟐
= (𝟕𝟐 )2 (8 – 𝟕 )
𝟒𝟗 𝟖 𝟐𝟐
= (𝟏 – )
𝟒 𝟕

𝟒𝟗 𝟓𝟔 − 𝟐𝟐
= ( )
𝟒 𝟕

𝟒𝟗 𝟑𝟕
= ( )
𝟒 𝟕

𝟏𝟖𝟏𝟑
= 𝟐𝟖
= 64.75cm2

2 y = mx + c
(a) y = mx + c (b) y = mx + c
y – c = mx (4) = (2)x + (-2)
𝐲 − 𝐜
m = 𝐱 x = 3
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
3 Diagonal = Hypotenuse = 10cm
c2 = a2 + b2 ; c = 10 , a = b = x
102 = x2 + x2
100 = 2x2
50 = x2
x = √𝟓𝟎 = 7.07cm

4 Using the Sieve of Eratosthenes,

- List all natural numbers from 1 to 100
- Cross out 1
- Circle 2, cross out all multiples of 2
- Circle 3, cross out all multiples of 3
- Circle 5, cross out all multiples of 5
- Circle 7, cross out all multiples of 7
- Circle all remaining numbers
The circled numbers are prime numbers between 1 and 100
Prime numbers between 60 and 100 : 61 , 67 , 71 , 73 , 79 , 83 , 89 , 97 .

5 1st Bell rings every 10 minutes

2nd Bell rings every 12 minutes
3rd Bell rings every 20 minutes
10 = 2 X 5
12 = 2 X 2 X 3 = 22 X 3
20 = 2 X 2 X 5 = 22 X 5
L.C.M = 22 x 3 X 5
= 4 X 3 X 5
= 60
The bells will ring at the same time after 60 minutes or 1 hour.

𝟐𝐛 + 𝐜
6 a = ; making b the subject
𝐛
ab = 2b + c
ab – 2b = c
b(a – 2) = c
𝐜
b = 𝐚 − 𝟐

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
7 Volume 1 450l
Volume 2 460l
Volume 3 480l

450 = 2 X 225
= 2 X 3 X 75
= 2 X 3 X 3 X 25
= 2 X 3 X 3 X 5 X 5

460 = 2 X 230
= 2 X 2 X 115
= 2 X 2 X 5 X 23

480 = 2 X 240
= 2 X 2 X 120
= 2 X 2 X 2 X 60
= 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 30
= 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 15
= 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 3 X 5

H.C.F = 2 X 5 = 10
Volume of container : 10l

8 (a) 9(6 + 3) = (9 X 6) + (9 X 3) TRUE : Distributive under addition

(b) 3 ÷ (6 X 7) = (3 ÷ 6) X (3 ÷ 7) FALSE
(c) 7 – (12 + 8) = (7 – 12) + (7 – 8) FALSE

9 c2 = a2 + b2 ; a = 120cm , b = 160cm
c2 = 1202 + 1602
= 14400 + 25600
= 40000
c = √𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 200
Distance from tip of shadow to head : 200cm

10 (a) 5 𝟏𝟒 – 2 𝟐𝟑 X 1 𝟑𝟒
𝟐𝟏 𝟖 𝟕
= – X
𝟒 𝟑 𝟒
𝟐𝟏 𝟓𝟔
= –
𝟒 𝟏𝟐
𝟔𝟑 − 𝟓𝟔
= 𝟏𝟐
𝟕
= 𝟏𝟐

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (b) mn – km – hn + hk
= m(n – k) – h(n – k)
= (n – k)(m – h)

𝟖 𝝅 𝐫𝟐 − 𝟐 𝝅 𝐫 𝟒
(c) 𝟒 𝝅 𝐫 + 𝟐 𝛑 𝐫𝟐
Numerator 8 𝝅 r2 – 2 𝝅 r4
= 2 𝝅 r 2 ( 4 – r 2)
= 2 𝝅 r2 (22 – r2)
= 2 𝝅 r2 (2 – r) (2 + r)

Denominator 4 𝝅 r + 2 𝝅 r2
= 2 𝝅 r (2 + r)

𝟐 𝝅 𝐫 𝟐 (𝟐 – 𝐫)(𝟐 + 𝐫)
= 𝟐 𝝅 𝐫 (𝟐 + 𝐫)
r
𝟐 𝝅 𝐫 𝟐 (𝟐 – 𝐫)(𝟐 + 𝐫)
= 𝟐 𝝅 𝐫 (𝟐 + 𝐫)

= r(2 – r)

𝐱 − 𝟏 𝟐𝐱 − 𝟑
11 (a) –
𝟑 𝟓

𝟓( 𝐱 − 𝟏 ) − 𝟑 ( 𝟐𝐱 − 𝟑 )
= 𝟏𝟓

𝟓𝐱 − 𝟓 − 𝟔𝐱 + 𝟗
= 𝟏𝟓

𝟗 − 𝟓 − 𝟔𝐱 + 𝟓𝐱
= 𝟏𝟓

𝟒 − 𝐱
= 𝟏𝟓

𝟐 𝟓 𝟑 −𝟓
(b) P = ( ) and Q = ( )
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟏 𝟐

𝟐 𝟓 𝟑 −𝟓
(i) PQ = ( ) ( )
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟏 𝟐

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (𝟐 𝐱 𝟑) + (𝟓 𝐱 – 𝟏) (𝟐 𝐱 – 𝟓) + (𝟓 𝐱 𝟐)
= ( )
(𝟏 𝐱 𝟑) + (𝟑 𝐱 – 𝟏) (𝟏 𝐱 − 𝟓) + (𝟑 𝐱 𝟐)

(𝟔 + −𝟓) (−𝟏𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎)

= ( )
(𝟑 + −𝟑) (−𝟓 + 𝟔)

𝟏 𝟎
= ( )
𝟎 𝟏

−𝟑
(ii) PQ ( )
𝟏

𝟏 𝟎 −𝟑
= ( ) ( )
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏

(𝟏 𝐱 – 𝟑) + (𝟎 𝐱 𝟏)
= ( )
(𝟎 𝐱 – 𝟑) + (𝟏 𝐱 𝟏)

(−𝟑 + 𝟎)
= ( )
(𝟎 + 𝟏)

−𝟑
= ( )
𝟏

(c) 5x2 – 2x – 1 = 0

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
x = ; a = 5 , b = -2 , c = -1
2𝑎

−(−2) ± √(−2)2 −4(5)(−1)

= 2(5)

𝟐 ± √𝟒 + 𝟐𝟎
= 𝟏𝟎

𝟐 ± √𝟐𝟒
= 𝟏𝟎

𝟐 ± 𝟒.𝟖𝟗𝟖𝟗𝟖
= 𝟏𝟎

𝟐 + 𝟒.𝟖𝟗𝟖𝟗𝟖 𝟔.𝟖𝟗𝟖𝟗𝟖 𝟐 − 𝟒.𝟖𝟗𝟖𝟗𝟖 −𝟐.𝟖𝟗𝟖𝟗𝟖

= = OR =
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎

x = 0.69 OR – 0.29 to 2 d.p

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
12 (a) E = { x : x < 10 , x ∈ Natural numbers }
P = { x : x is a prime number }
Q = { x : x is an even number }

(i) (a) P = { 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 }
(b) Q = { 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 }
(ii) n( P ∩ Q )
P ∩ Q = {2}
n( P ∩ Q ) = 1

(b)
(i) BÔD = 2BÂD angle at the centre is twice angle at the circumference
x = 2(75°)
= 150°

(ii) BÂD = BĈE exterior angle is equal to interior opposite

BĈE = 75°

OR

BÂD + BĈD = 180° opposite angles of cyclic quadrilateral ABCD

75° + BĈD = 180°
BĈD = 180° – 75°
BĈD = 105°
BĈD + BĈE = 180° straight line
105° + BĈE = 180°
BĈE = 180° – 105°
BĈE = 75°

(iii) OD is radius, DF is tangent at D

OD̂ F = 90° radius perpendicular to tangent at point of contact

(iv) BF̂D + OD̂ F + DÔB + OB̂ E = 360° angles of a quadrilateral

BF̂D + 90° + 105° + 90° = 360°
BF̂D + 285° = 360°
BF̂D = 360° – 285°
BF̂D = 75°

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
13 (a) c2 = a2 + b2 ; c = 11.5, a = 10.2, b = CD
2 2
11.5 = 10.2 + CD 2

132.25 = 104.04 + CD2

132.25 – 104.04 = CD2
28.21 = CD2
CD = √𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟏 = 5.3m

(b) In ΔCDF,
𝜽 = 40°, Adjacent = 5.3m, Hypotenuse = ?
(CAH)
𝐀𝐝𝐣𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭
cos𝜽 = 𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐬𝐞

𝟓.𝟑
cos40° = cross multiplying fractions
𝐅𝐃

FDcos40° = 5.3

𝟓.𝟑
FD = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟒𝟎°

𝟓.𝟑
= 𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟔𝟎
= 6.9m
AF = AD – FD
= 15.9 – 6.9
= 9m

(c) In ΔCDE,
𝜽 = ?, Opposite = 5.3m, Hypotenuse = 11.5m
(SOH)
𝐎𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞
sin𝜽 = 𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐬𝐞

𝟓.𝟑
sin𝜽 = dividing fraction
𝟏𝟏.𝟓

sin𝜽 = 0.4609
𝜽 = sin-1 0.4609
= 27.4°
Angle AÊD = AÊD + DÊF
= 90° + 27.4°
= 117.4°

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ −𝟑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝟓
14 (a) 𝐎𝐏 = ( ) , and 𝐎𝐐 = ( )
−𝟐 −𝟐

(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐏𝐐 𝐏𝐎 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐐
= - 𝐎𝐏 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐎𝐐
−𝟑 𝟓
= -( )+ ( )
−𝟐 −𝟐
𝟑 𝟓
= ( ) + ( )
𝟐 −𝟐
(𝟑 + 𝟓)
= ( )
(𝟐 + −𝟐)
𝟖
= ( )
𝟎

(ii) 5 PT = 3 TQ dividing through by 5TQ

𝐏𝐓 𝟑
= 𝟓
𝐓𝐐
The ratio is PT : TQ = 3 : 5
PT = 𝟑𝟖 PQ , TQ = 𝟓
𝟖
PQ

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐓𝐐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟓
𝐏𝐐
𝟖
𝟖
= 𝟓𝟖 ( )
𝟎
(𝟓𝟖 𝐱 𝟖)
= ( 𝟓 )
(𝟖 𝐱 𝟎)
𝟓
= ( )
𝟎

(b) (i)
E U U for UNZA
C
C for CBU
N for NRDC
50 34 40
U ∩ C ∩ N = 8
8 U ∩ C only = 42 – 8 = 32
26 16 U ∩ N only = 34 – 8 = 26
C ∩ N only = 24 – 8 = 16

44 UNZA only = 118 – (34 + 26 + 8) = 50

CBU only = 98 – (34 + 16 + 8) = 40
N
NRDC only = 94 – (26 + 16 + 8) = 44

(ii) Total = 50 + 40 + 44 + 26 + 34 + 16 + 8
= 218
218 students took part in the survey.

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝟏 𝟐𝟐
15 (a) (i) Length of CDE = 𝝅d ; 𝝅 = , d = AB = EC = 1.4m
𝟐 𝟕

𝟏 𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟒
= X X
𝟐 𝟕 𝟏𝟎

𝟑𝟎𝟖
= 𝟏𝟒𝟎

= 2.2m

(ii) Total length of frame = arc CDE + EA + AB + BC + CE

= 2.2 + 2.3 + 1.4 + 2.3 + 1.4
= 9.6m

(b) Total area = area of semi-circle CDE + area of rectangle ABCE

𝟏
= 𝟐 𝝅 r2 + lb ; r = 𝟏𝟐 (1.4) = 0.7 , l = 2.3 , b = 1.4

𝟏 𝟐𝟐
= X X (0.7)2 + 2.3 X 1.4
𝟐 𝟕

𝟐𝟐
= X 0.49 + 3.7
𝟏𝟒

= 0.77 + 3.7
= 4.47m2

(c) 1m2 of glass cost KR42.5

Cost of 4.47m2 of glass = 42.5 X 4.47
= KR189.975

16 (a)

Mass of fish - kg 300 < x ≤ 310 310 < x ≤320 320 < x ≤ 330 330 < x ≤ 340 340 < x ≤ 350

Midpoints 305 315 325 335 345

Number of fishermen 25 75 340 130 30
The mean
∑ 𝐟𝐱
x̄ = ∑𝐟

(𝟑𝟎𝟓 𝐱 𝟐𝟓) + (𝟑𝟏𝟓 𝐱 𝟕𝟓) + (𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝐱 𝟑𝟒𝟎) + (𝟑𝟑𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟑𝟎) + (𝟑𝟒𝟓 𝐱 𝟑𝟎)
= 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟕𝟓 + 𝟑𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟑𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎

𝟕𝟔𝟐𝟓 + 𝟐𝟑𝟔𝟐𝟓 + 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟓𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟎

= 𝟔𝟎𝟎

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝟏𝟗𝟓𝟔𝟓𝟎
= 𝟔𝟎𝟎

= 326.1kg

(b) cumulative frequency table

Mass of fish - kg ≤ 300 ≤ 310 ≤ 320 ≤ 330 ≤ 340 ≤ 350

No. of fishermen 0 25 100 440 570 600

(c)
No. of 600
f/men
500
Q3
400

300 Median
(e)
200
Q1
100

300 310 320 330 340 Fish

350
kg
(d) (i) median mass corresponds to 50% of total frequency. From the graph,
Median mass = 325kg
(ii) Lower quartile Q1 = 322kg , Upper quartile Q3 = 330kg
Inter-quartile range = Q3 – Q1
= 330kg – 322kg
= 8kg
𝟔𝟎𝟎− 𝟓𝟕𝟎
(e) P(more than 340kg of fish) = 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟎
= 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝟏
= 𝟐𝟎

17 (a) y = x2 – 4x + 3 ; x = 0.5
= (0.5)2 – 4(0.5) + 3
r = 0.25 – 2 + 3 = 1.3

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (b)
Y

2
y = x2 – 4x + 3
𝟏
y= −
𝟐 0 1 2 3 X

-2 y = -x + 1

(c) x = 1.3 and 2.6

(d) x = 1 and 2

𝟐.𝟐
(e) m = − 𝟐.𝟐 = -1

18 (a) Sketch
7.5cm By P.T
11cm c2 = a2 + b2 ; a = 7.5 , b = 11
= 7.52 + 112
= 56.25 + 121
11cm 7.5cm
= 177.25
c = √𝟏𝟕𝟕. 𝟐𝟓 = 13.3cm

The sides of the rhombus are 13.3cm.

(b) (i) New Orleans (60° N , 60°W)

(ii) Cairo (30° N, 30°E)
(iii) Durban (30° S , 30° E)

(c) (i) Distance from Durban to Cairo

𝜽
Arc length Durban to Cairo = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝝅 R ; 𝜽 = 30° + 30° = 60° , R = 6 370
𝟔𝟎°
= 𝟏𝟖𝟎° X 3.142 X 6 370
= 6 671.5km

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (ii) Distance from New Orleans to Leningrad
𝜽𝟏
Arc length New Orleans to Leningrad = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝝅 R cos𝜽𝟐 ; 𝜽1 = 90° , 𝜽2 = 60°
R = 6 370

𝟗𝟎°
= 𝟏𝟖𝟎° X 3.142 X 6 370 X cos60°
= 0.5 X 3.142 X 6 370 X 0.5
= 5 003.6km

(d) Time in Leningrad is 15 05 hours

(i) Time in Cairo = 15 05 hours ; same meridian of longitude
(ii) Time in New Orleans
Difference in longitudes = 60° + 30° = 90°
𝟗𝟎°
Difference in time (hours) = 𝟏𝟓° = 6 hours
Time in New Orleans is 6 hours behind time in Leningrad
15 05 – 06 00 = 09 05
Time in New Orleans = 09 05 hours.

𝟏
19 (a) Area of GST = b c sinA ; A = 110° , b = 19m , c = 21m
𝟐
𝟏
= 𝟐 X 19 X 21 X sin110°
= 0.5 X 19 X 21 X 0.9397
= 187.47m2
= 187m2 to the nearest square metre

(b) Distance TS
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2cbcosA ; A = 110° , b = 19m , c = 19m
= 192 + 212 – 2(21)(19)cos110°
= 361 + 441 – 798(-0.34202)
= 802 + 272.93
= 1074.93
TS = √𝟏𝟎𝟕𝟒. 𝟗𝟑 = 32.8m

(c) Shortest distance

𝟏
A = X base X height ; A = 187m2 , base = TS = 32.8m
𝟐

𝟏
187 = 𝟐 X 32.8 X h
187 = 16.4 h
𝟏𝟖𝟕
h = 𝟏𝟔.𝟒 = 11.4m

Shortest distance from G to TS is 11.4m

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
20 Y

C4
8 C
e(i)
6
C1 B1
b(i)
A4 B4 4 A B
A1
2

A2
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 X
L
-2

-4

-6

B3 A3
-8

d(ii)
-10

-12

-14

C3
-16

(b) (ii) centre of rotation (2 , 1)

(c) y = mx + c through (0, 4) and (4, 0) ; m = -1 , c = 4
y = 4 – x
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐁
(d) (i) scale factor of enlargement = 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐁𝟑
−𝟏𝟐
= 𝟔
= -2
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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝟏 −𝟐 𝟒 𝟔 𝟔 (𝟏 𝐱 𝟒) + (−𝟐 𝐱 𝟒) (𝟏 𝐱 𝟔) + (−𝟐 𝐱 𝟒) (𝟏 𝐱 𝟔) + (−𝟐 𝐱 𝟖)
(e) (i) ( )( ) = ( )
𝟎 𝟏 𝟒 𝟒 𝟖 (𝟎 𝐱 𝟒) + (𝟏 𝐱 𝟒) (𝟎 𝐱 𝟔) + (𝟏 𝐱 𝟒) (𝟎 𝐱 𝟔) + (𝟏 𝐱 𝟖)

(𝟒 − 𝟖) (𝟔 − 𝟖) (𝟔 – 𝟏𝟔)
= ( )
(𝟎 + 𝟒) (𝟎 + 𝟒) (𝟎 + 𝟖)

−𝟒 −𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎
= ( )
𝟒 𝟒 𝟖

Coordinates of ΔA4B4C4 are A4(-4 , 4) , B4(-2 , 4) and C4(-10 , 8)

(ii) The transformation is a shear with a shear factor -2

A line y = b is the invariant line since points have moved along a horizontal line

𝐤 𝐲𝟏 + 𝐱𝟏 − 𝐱𝟐
y = b = 𝐤
; (4 , 4) mapped onto (-4 , 4) , k = -2

(−𝟐)(𝟒) + (𝟒)− (−𝟒)

= −𝟐
−𝟖 + 𝟖
= −𝟐 = 0
y = 0 or the x-axis is the invariant line.

..................................................................................................................................................
ANSWERS ONLY

21 (a) (i) 143 units (ii) KR175.175 (iii) (a) 222 units (b) 365
(b) (i) Kite (ii) (a) 11.1cm (b) 666cm3

22 (a) Sketch N
N
Q
4.8cm
079°
R

Scale 1 : 1 000 000

3.2cm

S
320°

(b) 140° (c) 079° (d) 28.5km (e) 180°

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
23 (a) (i)
E M
S
M for Mathematics
20 4 10 S for Science
E for English
70
5 1

10

(ii) 40 students
(iii) 1 : 2

(b) (i) A B (ii) A B

C C

(iii)
A B

𝟑 𝟎
24 (a) (i) a = ( ) , b = ( )
−𝟒 𝟓

𝟑 𝟑
(ii) a + b = ( ) , a – b = ( ) a
𝟏 −𝟗

(iii) a+ b a – b

b -b
a

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (b) (i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁 = b – a
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐎𝐃 = 𝟏𝟐 (b – a)
(iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟏 (3a – b)
𝐃𝐀 𝟐
(iv) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐄 = 𝟏𝟒 (b – a)
(v) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐄𝐃 𝟏 ( 𝟏 b – a )
𝐤 𝟒

25 (a) (i) -5 (ii) 5 (b) 2 (c) -2 (d) 3𝟐𝟑

26 (a) (i) 120° (ii) 3cm (iii) 6.7cm

(b) Mean = 15.9 , Median = 16

27 (a) 7.7cm (b) 30° (c) 30°

𝟑𝐱 + 𝟏𝟕
28 (a) 2 (b) (𝐱 − 𝟏)(𝐱 + 𝟑)
(c) 16

29 (a) K10 500 000 (b) K33 000 000 (c) (i) K18 000 000 (ii) K16 200 000

30 (a) p = 6 , q = 2
(b) (i) 38° (ii) 10° (iii) 100°
R
(c)

4cm 10.6cm
5cm

3.5cm
123°
P 7cm Q

31 (a) 90 (b) K220 000 (c) K6 240 000 (d) K15 840 000

32 (i) 14 (ii) 18 (iii) 40%

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (iv)
E G
I

14 6 10 (G ∩ B) ∩ I’

3
4 5

28 30

33 (a) (i) 21km (ii) 2 700km2

(b) (i) 4 semi-circles = 4(𝟏𝟐 𝝅 r2) = 2 𝝅 r2
4 quarter circles = 4 (𝟏𝟒 𝝅 r2) = 𝝅 r2
1 circle = 𝝅 r2
Shaded area = 2 𝝅 r + 𝝅 r2 + 𝝅 r2 = 4 𝝅 r2
2

(ii) 78.55%

34 (a) 195° (b) 24.1km (c) 28.7° (d) 104.3km2

35 (a) Length 12 – 2x = 2(6 – x)m

Width 10 – 2x = 2(5 – x)m
Depth = xm
Volume = 2(6 – x) X 2(5 – x) X x
= 4x(6 – x)(5 – x)m3

(b)

X 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5

Y 80 94.5 96 87.5 72 52.5 32 0

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 (c)
Y
100

80
Volume m3

60

40

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 X
Metres
(d) (i) 94m3 (ii) 96m3 (iii) 1 039.5m3

36 (a) (i) (a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐎𝐁 = 2(a + b) (b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐁𝐂 = a – 2b
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐂𝐗 = h(2b – 3a)
(iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐎𝐂
𝐎𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐂𝐗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 3a + h(2b – 3a)
= 3a + 2hb – 3ha
= 3a – 3ha + 2hb
= (3 – 3h)a + 2hb

(b) (i) 3cm (ii) 24cm2 (iii) 288cm3

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
37
Y
10

D3 C3
8
c(i)
C1
6
a(i) D B3
B1 4 A3 C
D1

A1 2 A B

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 X

-2

A2
-4

-6

(b) D2
-8 B2

-10

-12 C2

-14

(a) (ii) Rotation through 90° anticlockwise about the origin

(c) (ii) Stretch with scale factor 2, x-axis invariant

385
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
38 (a)
No. of
≤ 50 ≤ 55 ≤ 60 ≤ 65 ≤ 70 ≤ 75 ≤ 80
Words
No. of 0 14 36 67 85 94 100
Pupils

(b)
100

80
No. of Pupils

60

40

20

0 60 70 80
No. of Words

(c) (i) 52 students (ii) 62.3 words (iii) 9.1 words

𝟒𝟗
(d) 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎

39 (a) 2 (b) 5𝟑𝟓 (c) 4(1 – 2x)(1 + 2x)

−𝟐 𝟖𝐱 − 𝟏
40 (a) (b) (c) 0.77 , -0.43
𝟑 𝟒𝐱

𝐚
41 c = 𝐛 − 𝟏

42 3(w – 2)(w + 2)

𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
43 (a) (i) ) ( (ii) ( )
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
(b) M and N are inverse matrices

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 𝟐𝟐
44 (a) Length = x , diameter = x , 𝝅 = 𝟕
, 2 semi-circles = 1 circle
Perimeter = x + x + 𝝅 x
𝟐𝟐𝐱
= 2x + 𝟕

𝟏𝟒𝐱 + 𝟐𝟐𝐱
= 𝟕

𝟑𝟔𝐱
= 𝟕

(b) 140m (c) 35 000m2 (d) 80 bags per hector

(e) KR 5 644.8

−𝟏 𝐱 + 𝟏𝟎 𝟒𝐱 − 𝟐𝟏
45 (a) - 20 (b) (c) f-1(x) = (d) (gof)(x) =
𝟔 𝟐 𝟑

𝟏 𝟐
𝟐𝟏 𝟏𝟏
46 (a) (i) 3 (ii) (−𝟏
𝟕
) (iii) 2( )
𝟕
𝟓
𝟐𝟏
𝟏𝟓
−𝟏𝟐
(b) (i) 30cm2 (ii) 𝟏𝟑

47 1.3 X 10-3

48 165kg

49 (3 , -2)

50 6𝟑𝟒

𝟑(𝐲 − 𝟒)
51 𝐲− 𝟓

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 NOTES

388
MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
 NOTES

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI
Mega Math is a preparatory handbook for students taking the
Ordinary Level Syllabus. It is structured in a self-study style with
concept objectives, examples and exam-type exercises, as well as
support notes for the major topics covered at Senior Secondary
Level (Grade 10 – 12).
For new Syllabus D Mathematics 4024

A Secondary School Mathematics Revision Handbook

©2013 by Isaac K. Likuji

ISBN: 978 – 9982 – 22 – 650 – 9

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MEGA MATH I.K. LIKUJI