Chapter 1 - (Paper II)

Introduction to microprocessor and

organisation of 8085
12th Computer Science
Maharashtra Board
 Block diagram of ALU
1. ALU is an 8 bit unit.

2. It performs arithmetic, Logic, and

rotate operations.

3. All processing and data flow is done

in the system with mpu chip.

4. It consists of a binary adder to

perform addition and subtraction by
2's complement method.
 Block diagram of ALU
1. The result is typically stored in an
accumulator.

2. Accumulator, temporary register flag register

is closely Associated with ALU

3. The Temporary register is used to hold data

during arithmetic / logic operation

4. Flags are set or Reset according to the result

of operations in the Status register.

5. Adder performs arithmetic operations like

addition, subtraction, increment, decrement
etc. with the result being fed back into the
accumulator via an internal data bus.
 Block diagram of ALU
1. Shifters perform logical operations like
rotate Left, rotate right etc. Result is placed
in the accumulator.

2. Status registers are set or Reset according

to ALU operation
The 8085 Pin Diagram and Functions
The 8085 is housed in a 40 Pin dual-in-line package (DIP).
 All the pins of 8085 can be classified into six groups.

1. Address Bus

2. Multiplexed Address / Data bus.

3. Control and status signals.

4. Power supply and frequency signals.

5. Externally initiated signals.

6. Serial I/O ports.

All the pins of 8085 can be classified into six groups.
Address Bus

The 8085 has eight signal lines, A15 - A8, Which

are unidirectional and used as the higher order
address bus.
 Multiplexed Address / Data Bus

1. The signal lines AD7- ADO are bidirectional.

2. They are used as lower order address bus as well as

the data bus i.e. they are used for dual purposes.

3. In executing an instruction, during the earlier part of

the cycle these lines are used as the low - order
address bus.

4. During the later part of the cycle, these lines are

used as a data bus.
Multiplexed Address / Data Bus
5. This is known as multiplexing the bus.

6. The 8085 has a special signal called ALE (Address Latch Enable) for
informing the peripheral when the address / data bus is sending an address
and when it is functioning as a data bus.
Control and Status signals
This group of signals includes two control signals RD and
WR, three status signals IO/M, S1 and S0 and one special
signal ALE.

1. ALE:

• This is address Latch Enable.

• This is a positive pulse generated every time the 8085
begins an operation (machine cycle).
• This indicates that the bits on AD0-AD7 are address bits
• This signal is used to separate the address bits.
Control and Status signals
2. RD:

• This is the Read control signal.

• This is an active low signal.
• This signal indicates that the selected I/O or memory
device is to be read and data is available on the data
bus.
Control and Status signals
3. WR:

• This is the write control signal.

• This also active low.
• This signal indicates that the data on the data bus is to be
written into selected memory or I / O locations.

4. IO/M:

• This is a status signal used to differentiate between I/O

and memory operation.
• When it is high, it indicates an I / O operation.
• When it is low, it indicates a memory operation.
Control and Status signals
5. S0 and S1:

● These are status signals.

● They can identify various operations.
 Control and Status signals
The machine cycle types along with status signals are listed in
figure
Power supply and clock frequency

6. Vcc: +5V power supply.

7. Vss: Ground Reference.

8. X₁ and X₂:
• A crystal having frequency 6 MHz is connected at
these two pins.
• The frequency is internally divided by two.
• The system operates at 3 MHz
Power supply and clock frequency

4. CLK (OUT):
• This is clock output.
• This signal can be used as the system clock for other
devices.
Externally Initiated signals

The 8085 has five interrupt signals-

INTR, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5 and TRAP

These signals can be used to interrupt

a program execution

1. INTR:
• This is the interrupt request signal.
• This is a general purpose interrupt.
Externally Initiated signals

2. RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5:

• These are restart interrupts.

• These are vectored interrupts and transfer the program
control to specific memory locations. They have higher
priorities than INTR.
• Among these three, the priority order is 7.5,6.5 and 5.5.

3. TRAP:
• This is a nonmaskable interrupt and has the highest priority.
Externally Initiated signals

4. INTA:
• This is an interrupt acknowledgement.
• The microprocessor acknowledges an interrupt request by
the INTA signal.
• In addition to the interrupts, three pins - RESET, HOLD and
READY accept the externally initiated signals as inputs.

5. Ready:
• If the signal at this READY pin is low, the microprocessor
enters into a wait state.
• This signal is used primarily to synchronize slower
peripherals with the microprocessor.
Externally Initiated signals

6. HOLD:
• When a HOLD pin is activated by an external signal.
• The microprocessor releases control of buses and
allows the external peripherals to use them.
• For example HOLD signal is used in Direct memory
Access (DMA) data transfer.

7. HLDA:
• This is an acknowledgement.
• Microprocessor acknowledges the hold request by
HLDA.
Externally Initiated signals

8. RESET IN:
• When the signal on this pin goes low, the program
counter is set to zero, the buses are tri-stated and
the MPU is reset.

9.RESET OUT:
• This signal indicates that the MPU is being reset.
• The signal can be used to reset other devices.
Serial I/O Ports
● The 8085 has two pins to implement serial
transmission, SID (Serial input data) and SOD
(serial output data).
● A single bit can be serially inputted through
SID.
● The output pin SOD is set or reset as per 8085
SIM instruction.
 Interrupts
What is an interrupt? Explain in detail.
 Interrupts
What is an interrupt? Explain in detail.
• An interrupt is a subroutine call, initiated by external device through hardware
(hardware interrupt) or microprocessor itself (software interrupt).
• An interrupt can also be viewed as a signal, which suspends the normal sequence of
microprocessor and then microprocessor gives service to that device which has
given the signal. After completing the service, microprocessor again returns to the
main program.
• Microprocessor is connected to different peripheral devices. To communicate with
these devices, microprocessor 8085 uses interrupt method.
• An interrupt is an input signal, which transfers control to specific routine known as
Interrupt Service Routine (ISR). After executing ISR, control is again transfer to main
program.
• Microprocessor 8085 has two types of interrupts :
(i) Software interrupt ii) Hardware interrupt
• The software interrupts has more priority than any hardware interrupt.
• Software interrupts are not requested by external peripheral devices.
• All software interrupts are non-maskable. Some hardware interrupts are maskable.
Interrupts (Hardware)
 Interrupts

● The highest priority interrupt is TRAP.

● This will cause program execution control to transfer to memory location
0024 H.
● This input can not be disabled and therefore it is called a nonmaskable
interrupt.
● The next three interrupts are also called restarts.
● Their priority and address branched to is shown in figure
● All last four interrupts can be enabled or disabled by software.
● Hence they are maskable interrupts.
 Interrupts
What are software interrupts?
 Interrupts
What are software interrupts?
• The normal operation of a microprocessor can be interrupted by special instruction.
Such an interrupt is called a Software interrupt.

• 8085 provides 8 user defined software interrupts RST 0 to RST 7 where RST means
restart.

• These interrupts are vectored interrupts and when these interrupts are called the
control is transferred to the memory location.

• Software interrupts are not used to handle asynchronous events. They are used to
call software routines like single step, break point etc.

• These interrupts are requested by executing interrupt instructions. They can also be
requested due to arithmetic errors.
 Interrupts
What are software interrupts?
• After execution of these interrupts, program counter is incremented. The
microprocessor does not execute any interrupt acknowledge cycle. The microprocessor
executes normal instruction cycle.

• These interrupts cannot be ignored or masked.

• They have more priority than any hardware interrupt.

• They are not used to interface peripherals. That means they does not improve
throughput of the system. They are used in program debugging.
 Chapter 2 - (Paper II)
Instruction Set and Programming of
8085
12th Computer Science
Maharashtra Board
Number System
 Instruction Size
● MOV A, B - 1 Byte instruction size
MOV –> 1 Byte

● MVI A, 23 H - 2 Byte instruction size

MVI - > 1 Byte

+23 H - > 1 Byte
--------------------------------
Total => 2Byte

● LXI H, C002 H - 3 Byte instruction size

LXI - > 1 Byte

+C002 H - > 2 Byte
--------------------------------
Total => 3 Byte
 Byte Places

LXI H, C002 H - 3 Byte instruction size

LXI - > 1st Byte

02 - > 2nd Byte
C0. -> 3rd Byte
PROGRAMMING MODEL OF 8085
Programming model of 8085 is a diagram of programmable registers.

Flags (8) Accumulator A (8)

B (8) C (8)
D (8) E (8)
H (8) L (8)
(Stock pointer ) SP(16)
(Program counter ) PC(16)
 PROGRAMMING MODEL OF8085
• The 8085 microprocessor uses both 8-bit and 16-bit registers.
• The 8085 has eight addressable 8- bit registers.
• Six of these can be used as 8 - bit registers or 16 - bit register pairs.
• In addition, the 8085 contains two more 16-bit registers.

Flags (8) Accumulator A (8)

B (8) C (8)

D (8) E (8)

H (8) L (8)

(Stock pointer ) SP(16)

(Program counter ) PC(16)

 PROGRAMMING MODEL OF 8085
• The result of operation (Arithmetic and Logical) is stored in the accumulator.
• The registers BC, DE and HL are general purpose registers.
• They can be used as six 8-bit registers or three 16-bit registers.
• BC and DE are normally used as data registers while HL register pairs can
be used for address pointing.

Flags (8) Accumulator A (8)

B (8) C (8)

D (8) E (8)

H (8) L (8)

(Stock pointer ) SP(16)

(Program counter ) PC(16)

 PROGRAMMING MODEL OF8085
Flags (8) Accumulator A (8)
• Program counter is 16 bit register.
B (8) C (8)
• It contains the address of the next instruction to be
executed. D (8) E (8)

H (8) L (8)

(Stock pointer ) SP(16)

(Program counter ) PC(16)

C001 H C002 H Instruction 3

C001 H Instruction 2
Program Counter
C000 H Instruction 1
 PROGRAMMING MODEL OF8085
Flags (8) Accumulator A (8)
• Stack pointer is also a 16 bit register.
B (8) C (8)
• It consist of top address of memory location called
stack. D (8) E (8)

H (8) L (8)

(Stock pointer ) SP(16)

(Program counter ) PC(16)

Push Pop

C001 H C002 H
Stack Pointer
C001 H

C000 H
Stack
 PROGRAMMING MODEL OF8085
Flags (8) Accumulator A (8)
• 8085 has Five flags.
• They are Zero (Z), Carry ( Cy ), Sign ( S ), Parity (P) and B (8) C (8)
Auxiliary Carry (Ac ) flag. D (8) E (8)
• The microprocessor uses these flags to test data
conditions. H (8) L (8)

(Stock pointer ) SP(16)

(Program counter ) PC(16)

B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0
S Z - AC - P - CY
 Addressing Modes of 8085 :

• Each instruction requires some data on which it has to operate.

• There are different techniques to specify data for instructions.
• These techniques are called addressing modes.
 Types of Addressing Modes :
Intel 8085 microprocessor has five addressing modes:
Addressing
One Line Description Size
Mode

Register Addressing Operand is in a register. A,B,C,D,E,H,L 1 byte

Operand's address is given directly in

Direct Addressing C000 H (Addr) 3 bytes
the instruction.

Register Indirect
Operand's address is in a register pair HL(M), BC, DE 1 byte
Addressing

Immediate Operand is given directly in the 2 bytes (for 8-bit data), 3

23 H, C000H
Addressing instruction. bytes (for 16-bit data)

Implicit Addressing Operand is implied by the instruction

CMA 1 byte
(Implied) itself.
1. Register Addressing Mode
• In this mode, the operand is in general purpose register.
• A, B, C, D, E, H and L are general purpose registers.
• In instruction, both source and destination are registers.
• Instructions using register addressing are very efficient.
• These instructions only use 1 byte of programming memory space.
• They are also executed quickly because they do not have to fetch
operands from memory.
Eg.1. MOV A, B
Let A = 03 H , B = 04 H
After MOV A, B
A = 04 H B = 04 H

2. MOV A, M,
3. ADD B
 2. Direct Addressing Mode
• In this mode, the memory address of the operand is given in the
instruction itself.
• Either memory address of source or destination is given in the
instruction directly.
• Instructions using direct addressing are 3 byte instruction.
• Example1: Let [A] =35 H, [C000] =04 H
Instruction: LDA C000 H (Source Addresse)
After execution: [A]= 04 H and [C000] = 04 H

• Example2: Let [A] =35H, [C500] =04 H

Instruction: STA C500 H (destination Addresse)
After execution: [A]= 35 H and [C500] = 35 H
• Eg 3. LHLD C000 H
 3. Register Indirect Addressing Mode
• In this mode, the memory address of the operand is specified by (given in)
register pair.
• Either memory address of source or destination is given in register pair.
HL, BC, DE are register pair.
• Instructions using register indirect addressing are 1 byte
• Example1: Let A = 05 H , [HL]=C000F, [C000F]=04 H
Instruction: After MOV A, M (source register pair)
After execution: A = 04 H and [C000F]=04 H

Example2: Let [HL] = F000 H and [F000] = 40 H and [C]= FA H then

Instruction: MOV M, C (destination register pair)
After execution: [C]= FA H, [F000]= FA H

Example3. STAX D
 4. Immediate Addressing Mode
• In this mode, the operand is specified (given) within the instruction itself.
• Either 8 bit data or 16 bit data given in the instruction.
• Instructions using immediate addressing are 2 byte or 3 byte Instruction.

• Eg. 1. Let A = 05 H ,
MVI A, 23 H
A = 23 H

Eg. 2. Let [HL] = C000H

After LXI H, C002 H
[HL] = C002 H
Eg.3 ADI 23 H
 5. Implicit / Implied Addressing Mode
• In this mode, address of source of data as well as address of destination of
result is fixed there is no need to give any operand along with the instruction.

• Instructions using implicit addressing are 1 byte instructions.

•Eg1. CMA
Let A = 04 H
After CMA
A=FB H
Eg2. DAA
Eg3. RLC
Flags 8085 has five flags

• Sign flag
• Zero flag
• Auxiliary carry flag
• Parity flag
• Carry a flag
 Flag register contain data C5H interpret its
meaning.
C5H = 1100 0101

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
S Z - AC - P - CY

● Meaning of each flag:

1. Sign Flag (S) = 1 → The result is negative (MSB is 1).
2. Zero Flag (Z) = 1 → The result is zero (indicating a zero result).
3. Auxiliary Carry (AC) = 0 → No auxiliary carry from bit 3 to bit 4.
4. Parity Flag (P) = 1 → The result has even parity (even number of 1s).
5. Carry Flag (CY) = 1 → There is a carry out from the MSB.
● The accumulator contain data 58H and register B contain
data 07H. What will be the content of Accumulator after
execution of following instruction independently:

(i) ADD B
(ii) ORA B
(iii) ANA B
3. Introduction of
X-86 Family
Computer Science- II
Maharashtra Board
Microprocessors in Intel's X-86 family.
Q. Advantages of the Pentium processor with respect
to the following features

Q. ADVANCE DESIGN FEATURES OF PENTIUM

1. Dual pipelining
2. On-chip caches
3. Branch prediction
4. 64-bit data bus
1. Dual pipelining

• Dual pipelining is a feature in Pentium microprocessors

where two instruction pipelines operate simultaneously,
allowing the processor to execute multiple instructions
in parallel.

• This improves the overall speed and efficiency of the

processor by increasing instruction throughput.
2. On-chip caches

• An on-chip cache is a small, high-speed memory

integrated directly within the processor to store
frequently accessed instructions and data.

• This helps reduce the time required to fetch data from

main memory (RAM), thereby improving processor
performance.
3. Branch prediction

• Branch prediction is a technique used by processors to

guess the outcome of a conditional instruction
(branch) before it is fully executed.

• This helps avoid delays caused by control flow

changes, improving overall performance.

• In modern processors, branch prediction ensures that

the instruction pipeline keeps running smoothly
instead of stalling while waiting for branch resolution.
4. 64-bit data bus

• The Pentium processor (1993) was the first Intel

processor to feature a 64-bit data bus.

• Pentium has 64 bit data bus which allows higher speed

of data transfer to it.

• The data transfer speed of Pentium is twice as fast as a

processor with 32-bit data

• the Pentium could fetch twice the amount of data per

clock cycle compared to previous processors.
PROGRAMING MODEL OF 16 bit X 86 family
 PROGRAMING MODEL OF 16 bit X 86 family
Programming model has 3 resister group named as :
1. General purpose register :

• The first group contains 8 general purpose register called as AH, AL,
BH, BL, CH, CL, DH, DL.

• Where AH is higher byte registers and AL is lower bytes register.

• This register are used separately or in combine.

• The 16-bit general purpose registers are called as AX, BX, CX, DX. This
group also has SI (source index), DI (Destination Index) and BP (Base
pointer register) and SP (Stack Pointer) to point their particular
address.
 PROGRAMING MODEL OF 16 bit X 86 family
Programming model has 3 resister group named as -
2. Segment register:

• The second set of the registers are the segment registers.

• This set consist of code segment (CS), stack segment (SS) and two
data segment registers (ES and DS).

• This register manage operation with external memory, address

computation & Data movement are performed here.
 PROGRAMING MODEL OF 16 bit X 86 family
Programming model has 3 resister group named as -
3. IP and Flag register:

• This third set of registers is instruction pointer and flag registers.

• It stores the address of the next coming executable instruction,

special results from data operation are stored in flag registers.
PROGRAMING MODEL OF 32 bit X 86 family
 PROGRAMING MODEL OF 32 bit X 86 family
• X 86 family has advance version of 32 bit microprocessor
• It has 3 group of registers; The first set of registers contains 8 general purpose
registers.
• EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX where E stands for extended each register can be address
in 8, 16, 32 bit models.
• These registers are used to store data during computation.
• It also contains
SI (Source index)
DI (Destination index)
SP (Stack pointer)
BP(Base pointer)
• Pointer registers are used to locate data within a memory segment.
 PROGRAMING MODEL OF 32 bit X 86 family

• The second set of registers consists of segment registers, which manage

memory segmentation.
• These set consist of code segment (CS), Stack segment (SS) and 4 data
segment registers.
• The data segment registers are DS, ES,FS,GS.
• These are 16 bit register for all processor.
• These register manage operation with internal memory.
• Address computation and data moments are performed here.
• The third set of register is instruction pointer (IP) of 32 bit.
• A special result from data operation are stored in flag registers.
4. Introduction to
microcontroller
Computer Science- II
Maharashtra Board
 Define microcontroller.

• A microcontroller is a complete system, consisting of microprocessor

system limited amount of ROM, RAM and parallel I/O ports, built on a
single integrated circuit.
 State any four advantages of the same over microprocessor
Microcontroller vs Microprocessor

Advantages of microcontroller over microprocessor-based system:

• The cost of microcontroller is less than a microprocessor-based system.

• A microcontroller has more I/O components than a microprocessor-based
system.
• Microcontrollers can be used in wide variety of intelligent products such as
in personal computers key-boards.
• Microprocessor-based systems cannot be used in such intelligent
products.
• Many low cost products such as electronic toys, electric drills, microwave
ovens, VCRs are based on microcontrollers.
• This is not the case with microprocessor-based system.
 Microcontroller vs Microprocessor
Feature Microcontroller (MCU) Microprocessor (MPU)
A compact chip that includes a
A processing unit that requires external memory and peripherals to
Definition CPU, memory, and I/O
function.
peripherals on a single chip.
CPU, RAM, ROM (Flash), I/O
Only CPU; requires external RAM, ROM, and peripherals for complete
Components ports, Timers, Serial interfaces,
operation.
all in one chip.
Built-in RAM and ROM (flash
Memory memory) for storing programs Needs external RAM, ROM, and storage.
and data.
Low power consumption
Power Consumption (suitable for battery-powered High power consumption.
devices).
Processing Speed Lower Higher
Used in embedded systems
Used in computers & general-purpose computing (laptops,
Application Type (specific tasks like motor
servers, gaming).
control, sensors, automation).
Small and compact (integrated
Size Larger (requires multiple components on a motherboard).
in a single chip).
Cost Low-cost due to integration. Expensive due to the need for external components.

Examples 8051. 8085

 What are the main features of 8051?

• The 8051 microcontroller has an 8-bit ALU.

• The 8051 has 4KB (4K x 8 bit) ROM or EPROM.
• The 8051 has 128 byte (128 x 8 bit) RAM.
• It has dual 16-bit timer event counter.
• It has four 8-bit input/output (I/O) ports, named P0, P1, P2, and P3, making
a total of 32 I/O lines.
• It has a 16-bit address bus, allowing it to address up to 64KB of memory
for both program (code) memory and data (RAM) memory separately.
• It has powerful instruction set, consisting of 111 instructions.
• It has two external interrupts.
• The 8051 has clock upto 12-MHz frequency
• Full-featured serial port.
 State three expanded features of 8052 over 8051
Microcontroller

8051 :

• 8051 has 4K bytes of onboard ROM and 128 bytes of onboard RAM
• 8051 has a dual 16-bit timer event counter.
• The cost of 8051 is more than that of 8048, 8049, 8050 and less than 8052
 Explain in detail other microcontrollers in 8051 family.

8052 :

• 8052 is a simple expansion of 8051.

• 8052 has 8K bytes of onboard ROM and 256 bytes of onboard RAM
• 8052 allows programmers to write larger programs and that can use more
data.
• The cost of 8052 is more than that of 8051.
• The 8052 also has one extra 16-bit counter-timer.
• This counter-timer gives more flexibility.
 Chapter 5
NETWORK TECHNOLOGY
12th Computer Science
Maharashtra Board
 Transmission media
• The pathways through which individual systems are connected in a network are
called as transmission media.

• Transmission media makes transmission of electronic signals possible from

one computer to another.

• These electronic signals are nothing but binary pulses (1/0)

• Each type of transmission media has special characteristics that make it

suitable for a specific type of service.
 Transmission media characteristics.

1. Cost of media
2. Installation requirement
3. Bandwidth
4. Band usage (base band and broad band)
5. Attenuation
6. Immunity from electromagnetic interference.
Cost of media:

1) One major factor in purchase decision of any networking component is its

cost.

2) For a new fast technology, cost is also more expensive.

3) Decision depends upon application and standard of the resources.

4) Therefore, the network designer must settle for something, which is

cheaper and robust.
Installation requirement:

1) Some transmission media requires skilled labor to install.

2) This increases cost of network and it may cause certain delay.

3) Before installation we need to prepare actual physical layout of network.

Bandwidth:

1) Bandwidth is the measure of the capacity of a medium

to transmit data.

2) Data transmission rates is number of bits transmitted

per second.

3) Bandwidth of a cable depends on cable length.

4) A short cable can have greater bandwidth than a long

cable so for all cable designs, maximum lengths for
cable runs are specified.

5) Beyond these limits the highest frequency signals can

declines and error occurs in data signals.
Band usage (base band and broad band) :

1) The bandwidth is shared so that maximum usage is obtained.

2) There are two transmission modes, base band and broadband transmissions

3) Base band devotes the entire capacity of the medium to one communication channel.

4) Broad band enables two or more communication channels to share the bandwidth of
communication medium.

5) Base band is most common mode of operation.

6) Most local area networks (LAN) function in base band mode. In base band, signaling can
be analog or digital.
Attenuation:

1) Attenuation refers to the reduction in signal strength as it travels through a

transmission medium.

2) As signals pass through the medium, part of the signal is absorbed and makes the
signal weak.

3) Attenuation decides the cable length when signal strength falls below certain limits,
then at receiving station noise may appear.

4) Repeaters are used to regenerate signals.

Immunity from electromagnetic interference (EMI):

1. Electromagnetic interference consist of outside electromagnetic noise that distorts

the signal in a medium.

2. EMI is interfering the signals and makes it difficult for computers to decode the signal.

3. An example of electromagnetic interference is the crosstalk.

4. Crosstalk occurs when the signal from one wire is picked by another wire.

5. In computer networks, large number of cables are located close together, therefore
crosstalk is a significant problem in networks.
 Cable Media

● There are three types of network cabling media

1. Coaxial Cable
2. Twisted Pair Cable
3. Fiber-optic cable
Coaxial Cable
In co-axial cable, there are two conductors sharing a
common axis.

The components of co-axial cable are as follows:

a. A center conductor is a solid copper wire or stranded

wire.
b. An outer conductor form a tube surrounding the inner
conductor. This conductor is made of braided wires,
metallic foil or both. The outer conductor is called as
up shield. This serves as a ground and protects
inner conductor from EMI.
c. An insulator layer keeps outer conductor spaced
evenly from the inner conductor.
d. A plastic jacket protects cable from damage.
There are two types of co-axial cables:

a. Thinnet (thin, flexible and inexpensive)

b. Thicknet (thick, hard and expensive)
Thicknet :
● Ethernet-based LANs using thick cable RG8/U cable that is 0.4 inch in
diameter for internet connection are referred to as Thicknet or 10Base5
systems.
● Here 10 means 10Mbps speed that this cable can offer, Base means
baseband, and 5 represents the maximum distance of 500 meters
recommended between nodes/repeaters.

Thinnet :
● Ethernet systems using thinner coaxial cable RG58/U that is 0.2 inch in
diameter referred to as Thinnet or 10Base2.
● Here 2 represents the maximum distance of 200 meters recommended
between nodes/repeaters.
● Thinnet cabling can become damaged if it is sharply bent or twisted, so handle
it carefully.
• Advantages:

1. The co-axial cable is better shielded than the twisted pair cable. So, it can
span longer distance at higher data transmission speed.
2. Its shielding provides better resistance to EMI.
3. Attenuation is less than twisted pair cable

• Disadvantages:

1. It is relatively more expensive than Twisted Pair but less than fiber optic
cable.
2. Bandwidth capacity is comparatively less than fiber optic cable.
 Characteristics of co-axial cable

Cost: Thinnet cable is low cost cable. Thicknet is more costly

Installation: Co-axial is easy to install. Installation of thinnet cable is also inexpensive.

Bandwidth: LANs based on co-axial cable gives bandwidth, in between 2.5 Mbps to 10
Mbps. Thicknet co-axial cable gives higher bandwidth.

Attenuation : Due to attenuation thinnet co-axial cable can transmit

signal reliably upto 185 meters, whereas thicknet cable can run upto 500 meters.

EMI : As co-axial cable consists of central copper conductor, it is sensitive to EMI, but
shielding reduces its sensitivity to EMI. Co-axial cable is less sensitive to EMI than UTP
cable.
Twisted pair cable
• Twisted pair cable consist of two wires of conducting material like copper, insulated
from each other by plastic.

• It consists of two or more strands of copper wire twisted together.

• This twisting reduces the sensitivity of the
cable to EMI (electromagnetic interference)
and also reduces the tendency of the cable
to radiate radio frequency noise.

• This cable is used to connect a PC to either

HUB or MAU(Media Access Unit).

• Also commonly used in telephone network.

• Twisted pair cables are of two types

a. Shielded Twisted pair cable (STP)

b. Unshielded Twisted pair cable (UTP)
Shielded Twisted pair (STP):

• Shielded Twisted pair cable consist of one or more

twisted pairs of cables enclosed in a foil wrap and
braided copper shielding.
• The shield is connected to the ground portion of the
electronic device to which cable is connected.
• A properly grounded shield prevents signals from getting
into or out of the cable.

Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP):

• The unshielded Twisted pair does not have a braided

shield into its structure.
• The characteristics of UTP are similar to that of STP.
• Telephone systems commonly use UTP cable.
• UTP cable is available in 5 grades or categories.
Advantages Twisted pair cable :

I. This medium is inexpensive and easy to install.

II. Since wires are twisted, it reduces EMI and also avoids RF radiation.
III. Twisted wires also reduce cross talk.

Disadvantages Twisted pair cable ::

I. They can be used only for short distance communication.

II. The typical speed of computer data is 1200 bits/seconds (bps).
Shielded Twisted pair (STP):
• Shielded Twisted pair cable consist of one or
more twisted pairs of cables enclosed in a foil
wrap and woven copper shielding.
• The shield is connected to the ground portion of
the electronic device to which cable is
connected.
• A properly grounded shield prevents signals
from getting into or out of the cable.
The characteristics of shielded Twisted pair cable :

(i) Cost: The cost of STP cable is more than that of co-axial or UTP cable. Its cost is less than that of
thick co-axial or fiber optic cable.

(ii) Installation: The installations required for STP cable depends upon the type of network. As per
the type of network, different connectors are used.

(iii) Capacity: STP cable has a theoretical capacity of 500 MBPS. Practically it is around 155 MBPS
with 100 meter cable run. The most common data rate for STP cable is 16 MBPS.

(iv) Attenuation: All Twisted pair cables have attenuations. This limits the length of cable. 100
meter limit is most common.

(v) EMI characteristics: The shield in STP cable results in good EMI characteristics. STP cable has
low sensitivity towards electromagnetic interference.
Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP):

• The unshielded Twisted pair does not have a braided shield into its structure.

• The characteristics of UTP are similar to that of STP.

• Telephone systems commonly use UTP cable.

• UTP cable is available in 5 grades or categories.

The characteristics of Unshielded Twisted pair :

(i) Cost: UTP cable is cheaper than any other cable. The cost of category 5 twisted
pair cable is high.

(ii) Installation: UTP cable is easy to install. The equipment's required are also low cost.
UTP system can be easily reconfigured.

(iii) Capacity: For UTP cable data rate capacity up to 100 MBPS can be achieved.

(iv) Attenuation : UTP cable has similar attenuation characteristic as that of other copper
cables. UTP cable run is restricted to few hundred meters. 100 m is most common limit.

(v) EMI: UTP cable does not have shield. Hence it is more sensitive to EMI than co- axial or
STP cable. Using latest technology, noise can be avoided.
 Differentiate between UTP and STP cable
UTP cable STP cable
UTP consists of a number of twisted pairs STP also consists of a number of pairs but a
with plastic jacket. jacket and pairs. shell usually aluminum or polyester between
Inexpensive and easy to install. Expensive than UTP and difficult to install.
Bandwidth capacity is from 1 to It is 10 to 155 Mpbs up to 100 mtrs.
100 Mbps up to 100 mtrs.
More attenuation and sensitive to EMI. Less attenuation and EMI is reduced to
shielding.
Used in telephone system. STP is used in LAN
Maximum number of nodes 1024. Maximum number of nodes are 270.
 Fiber optic cable.
• The light wave can be efficiently conducted through
transparent glass fiber cables known as optic fiber
cables.

• The center conductor of this cable is a fiber that

consists of highly refined glass or plastic.

• It is designed to transmit light signals with little loss.

• The fiber is coated with cladding or gel that reflects

signals back into fiber to reduce signal loss.

• A plastic sheet protects the fiber from damage.

• This cables can carry much information at a time.

• The fiber optic cable is used in optical transmission system.

• This cable have extremely high bandwidth.

• It has zero sensitivity to EMI and runs over several kilometers.

The characteristics of fiber optic cable are given below:

(i) Cost:
• The cost of fiber optic cable is more than that of co-axial cable and Twisted
pair cable.

(ii) Installation:
• Fiber optic cable requires skilled installation.
• Every cable has minimum bend radius.
• They may get damaged if bent sharply Fiber optic cable cannot be stretched.

(iii) Capacity:
• Fiber optic cable supports high data rates (up to 2,00,000 MBPS), even with
long run cables.
• Fiber optic cable can transmit 100 MBPS for several kilometer.
(iv) Attenuation :
• Attenuation for fiber optic cable is much lower than co-axial cable and
twisted pair cable.
• It can run to larger distance.

(v) EMI :
• Fiber optic cable does not use electrical signals to transmit data, therefore
they are free from EMI.
• The data transfer in fiber optic cable have high security, as it cannot be
detected by electronic wave dropping equipment's.
Compare any four attributes of UTP and Optical
Fiber Cable.
UTP Optical Fiber Cable
(1) Cost Cost of UTP cable is less than that Optical fiber cable are
of optical fiber cable. expensive.
(2) Installation Installation of UTP cable is easy. Optical fiber cable requires
skilled
(3) Capacity Data rate capacity is from 1 to 100 Optical fiber cable can
MBPS up to 100 mtrs. transmit
100 MBPS for several
kilometers.
(4) EMI More sensitive to EMI. This cable has no sensitivity to
EMI.
(5) Attenuation Attenuation is more than optical In optical fiber cable
fiber cable. attenuation is very less.
Compare the characteristics of fiber optic cable
and co-axial cable
Co-axial cable Optical Fiber Cable
(1) Cost Cost of co-axial cable is less than Optical fiber cable are
that of fiber optic cable. expensive.
(2) Installation Installation of co-axial cable is Optical fiber cable requires
cheap and easy. skilled
(3) Capacity Data rate capacity is from 1 to 10 Optical fiber cable can
MBPS transmit
100 MBPS for several
kilometers.
(4) EMI Co-axial cable is less sensitive to This cable has no sensitivity to
EMI. EMI.
(5) Attenuation Attenuation is more than optical In optical fiber cable
fiber cable. attenuation is very less.
 Compare the co-axial cable with Twisted pair cable.
Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable
(1) It consists of a pair of wires or one or more pairs of (1) It is a hallow cable with a solid copper at the center
two twisted copper wires insulation. of the cable surrounded by plastic from

(2) This is inexpensive medium. (2) Relatively expensive i.e. twice or thrice than twisted
pair.
(3) EMI effect is maximum. (3) EMI effect is minimum.

(4) Attenuation is more than coaxial cable. (4) Attenuation is less than twisted pair cable.

(5) Bandwidth capacity is from 1 to 100 Mbps upto 100 (5) Bandwidth capacity is from 500 Mbps upto 100
mtrs. mtrs.
(6) They can be used only for short distance (6) It is commonly used in network.
communication.
 Q.19 Compare any four attributes of Coaxial thicknet Cable
with UTP cable.
Coaxial Thicknet cable UTP Cable
1.More expensive. 1. Less expensive.

2.Difficult to install. 2. Easy to install.

3.Bandwidth upto 500 meters 3. Bandwidth upto 100 meters.

4.Attenuation less. 4. Attenuation more.

5. Less sensitive to EMI. 5. More sensitive to EMI.

6. Used in LAN. 6. Used in telephone system

The differences between WAN and LAN are as follows:
WAN LAN

A WAN (Wide Area Network) is the interconnection of A LAN (Local Area Network) is a group of computers
LAN or MAN can interconnected within a small area such as room,
be located entirely within a state, country or around building or a campus.
the world.
Data transfer rate is comparatively slower Data transfer speed is comparatively high

In WAN, links may be established by using telephone Co-axial cables are generally used to connect the
cable or microwave towers or satellite computer and other devices.
While WAN works on the principle of point to point.
LAN operates on the principle of broadcasting.

In this network, short circuit errors, noise errors, Due to short distance, short circuit errors or other
atmospheric errors are higher than any other noise errors are minimum.
networks.
For example: bank, which includes its branch offices For example: A computer lab in a college.
and ATMs
 Network topology and categories

• Topology refers to the way in which network of computers is connected.

• A topology defines the arrangement of nodes, cables and connectivity

devices that make up the network.

• There are two categories:

(i) Physical topology

(ii) Logical topology
• Physical topology describes actual layout of the network transmission media. It
defines the way the network looks.

• Logical topology describes the logical pathway a signal follows as it passes

among the network modes. It defines the data passes among the nodes.

• Physical and logical topologies can take several forms.

• The most common are:

1. Bus topologies
2. Ring topologies
3. Star topologies
4. Mesh topologies
 1. BUS topology :
• In a BUS physical topology, all the devices are connected to a common shared cable, called as
backbone of the network.
• The bus is available for each node to send its data to each and every computer node.
• Most of the buses transmits signals in both directions on backbone cable and hence all
workstations are able to receive signals.
• But some buses are unidirectional and data is transmitted only in one direction of backbone
cable.
• Hence only downstream devices can receive signals.
 1. BUS topology :
• The backbone cable carries transmission message along the cable.
• As message arrives at a workstation, it checks whether the destination address matches to its
own or not.
• If not, it does no more and the message goes to next workstation.
• The bus cable is terminated at each end by placing terminators to prevent signals from reflecting
back.
• The commonly used implementation for BUS topology is ethernet at 10 MBPS.
Advantages of BUS topology :

• The bus system is much faster.

• The bus topology can be extended with sub branches to form

another topology.

• Breakdown of any failure node does not affect other node's communication.

• Bus topology is widely used in LAN network.

 2. RING topology.
• RING topologies are wired in a circle.
• Each node is connected to its Neighbours on either
side, and the data transmits along the ring in one
direction only.

• Each device incorporates a receiver and a

transmitter and serves as a repeater that passes the
signal onto the next device in the ring.

• RING topologies are suited for networks

that uses token passing access methods.

• The token passes around the ring, and the only node
that holds the token can transmit data.
 2. RING topology.
• This topology is always implemented as a
logical topology.
• e.g. In token ring network, the topology is physically
a STAR topology. But logical topology is
RING topology

• The commonly used implementation for

RING topology is token ring at 4-16 MBPS.
Advantages:

• Cable failure affects limited users.

• Each node has equal access speed to the ring.

• Equal access for all users.

Disadvantages:

• Costly wiring is required for RING topology.

• Expensive adapter cards.

• Difficult connections.
 3. STAR topology.
• In a STAR topology all the workstations are connected to
central hub.

• The hub receives signal from a workstation and routes it to

the proper destination.

• STAR physical topology is often implemented to

implement BUS or RING logical topology.
Advantages:

• Adding a new workstation is easier than that in BUS or RING topology.

• The control is centralized due to use of hub.

Disadvantages:

• Hub failure affects all users.

• Hubs are slightly expensive.
• STAR topology requires more cabling. Hence, it costs more.
 4. Mesh topology
• A mesh topology is a hybrid model.

• It incorporate all topologies.

• In mesh, every device is connected to every other device.

• This increases fault tolerance but involves extra work.

• If media break, data transfer can take alternative routes.

• Caballing is complicated here.

 Connectivity Devices
• Modem
• Hubs
• Repeaters
• Routers
 Modem
1) Computers store digital data, while telephone lines can only transfer analog
data. If a computer is to be connected to internet through telephone, then it
must convert digital data to analog data before transmitting the computer
signals.

2) Converting one signal form to another form is called modulation and

reconverting it to original form is called as demodulation.

3) Modem is modulator/demodulator. Modem is used to connect computer to

internet. Modems convert digital data to analog data and vice-a-versa.

4) They have two advantages:

i. Modem allows higher speed of transmission on any given analog line.

ii. Modem reduce effect of noise and distortion.
(6) Modems are classified into two categories according to transmission method:

i. Asynchronous modems
ii. Synchronous modems
 Q.38 What are the two types of modems. Explain
them.
Modems are classified into two categories depending upon transmission methods:

1) Asynchronous modems
2) Synchronous modems
1) Asynchronous modems :
• An asynchronous modem transmits data character by character, with each byte framed
by start and stop bits.
• It does not require a clock signal for synchronization.
• Uses start and stop bits to mark the beginning and end of a data unit.
• Data is sent in small packets instead of a continuous stream.
• Extra bits (start & stop) increase transmission overhead.
• Typically supports slower data transfer rates.
2) Synchronous modems :

a) Synchronous modes uses clocks on transmitting and receiving devices.

b) It uses a 'sync signal, which is a bit pattern and can be easily recognised by the receiver.
c) A wide variety of data types can be transmitted.
d) A long series of bits can also be transmitted.
 Hubs
1) Hubs:

1. In some network topologies, mostly star topologies, a device hub is used.

2. Hub is a connecting device in which cables can be connected without
soldering wires to centralise network traffic through a single connecting point.
3. It manages the cabling in the network and sends signal to the other
components of the network.
(4) Hubs are of three types:

i. Active hub (Regenerates and amplifies )

ii. Passive hub (Connecting network devices without amplifying)
iii. Switching hub (Send data only to the intended recipient)
● Active Hub:
• Functionality: An active hub, also known as a multiport repeater, not only connects
network devices but also regenerates and amplifies the data signals as they pass
through. This regeneration of signals helps to extend the distance over which the data
can be transmitted, overcoming the signal degradation that occurs over longer cables.
• Usage: Active hubs are used in situations where network cables need to run longer
distances than standard Ethernet cables allow without losing signal quality. They are
also useful in larger networks that require the maintenance of signal strength across
all connections.
● Passive Hub:
• Functionality: A passive hub serves simply as a channel for the data, connecting
network devices without amplifying or regenerating the data signals. It relies on the
power of the connected devices to transmit data, which means it does not require its
own power supply.
• Usage: Because passive hubs do not enhance the signal, they are used in smaller or
more cost-sensitive network environments where signal distance and degradation are
not significant issues. They are simpler and less expensive than active hubs but have
limitations in terms of network size and cable length.
● Switching Hub:
• Functionality: A switching hub, commonly known as a network switch, operates at a
more advanced level than traditional hubs. It connects devices in a network and uses
hardware addresses to process and forward data to the specific destination device,
rather than broadcasting the data to all connected devices as traditional hubs do.
• Usage: Switching hubs are used in most modern networks because they reduce
unnecessary traffic and collisions by sending data only to the intended recipient. This
makes networks more efficient and significantly increases network performance,
especially in environments with a lot of traffic.
 Repeater

(1) A repeater is a hardware unit mostly used in Ethernet to extend.

(2) A repeater reshapes and amplifies the signal from one Ethernet segment to
another.
(3) A backbone cable runs vertical up in the building and a repeater is used to
attach an Ethernet segment running in each floor of the office to the backbone
cable.

(4) No two Ethernet workstations can have more than two repeaters between
them, if they have to communicate reliably.

(5) The main disadvantage of repeaters is that they repeat noise in the system.

(6) Separate power supply is needed for repeaters.

 Router
• Routers are internetwork connectivity devices. They are used to connect two
topologically similar or dissimilar LANS. ie. the LANs can be different e.g. they can
be ethernet and token ring. Each LAN is logically separate and is assigned an
address.

• Routers can use network address to assist efficient delivery of message. Delivering
packets according to logical network address is called as routing. Routers
performs routing.

• Routers are intelligent. They can use algorithms to determine most efficient path
for sending a packet to any given network.
• Routers can also be used to divide large, busy LANs into smaller segments.
• Routers are also employed to connect LAN to wide area network (WAN).

• Routers are of two types:

1. Static routers
2. Dynamic routers

Static routers do not determine paths, but you need to specify them. Dynamic
routers have capacity to determine paths (routes).