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Unit 6. Optical Sensors

1. Introduction
2. Effects of optical radiation 光辐射
3. Quantum-based optical sensors 量 光学
4. Photoelectric sensors 光电
5. Charge coupled device (CCD) sensors 电荷耦合
6. Thermal-based optical sensors

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1. Introduction
 Optical sensors are the devices that detect electromagnetic radiation in the broad optical
spectral range (from far IR to UV) and quantify various properties of light (such as
intensity, frequency, wavelength, and polarization) for sensing.
 Optical sensors may adopt direct method of transduction from light to electrical quantities,
such as photoconductive and photoelectric sensors, or indirect methods such as conversion
first into temperature variation and then into electrical quantities such as passive IR sensor
and bolometers.
 More generally, optical sensors include also the methods of sensing based on light
propagation and its responses or effects (such as reflection, transmission, refraction,
interference and resonance), which will be discussed in the next Unit.
 Notably, human eye is a marvelous & complex optical sensor allowing us to perceive the
world around us in minute detail and true colors.

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 Light and spectrum

 Light is an electromagnetic radiation that manifests itself either as an electromagnetic
wave or as photons. The commonly used range of light include infrared, visible (the
radiation can be perceived by human eye) and ultraviolet.
 Accordingly, optical sensors can be classified into UV sensors, visible sensors and IR
sensors. IR sensors can be further classified into near infrared (NIR) sensors, mid
infrared (MIR) sensors, and far infrared (FIR) sensors.

Wavelength:
…… [m]
Fig. 1
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 Types of optical sensors

Optical sensors are also called as detectors and can be generally divided into two broad
classes:
 Quantum-based optical sensors:
– quantum effects
– photoelectric and photoconductive sensors as well as photodiodes and phototransistors
(variations of the photoconductive sensor).
 Thermal-based optical sensors:
– infrared (IR) region (particularly in the far IR region) and come in many variations,
including passive infrared (PIR) sensors, active far infrared (AFIR) sensor.

 Optical sensing systems

Three key components: Light source (emitter); Transmission medium; Sensor (detector).

Emitter Medium Detector

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6.2. Effects of optical radiation

 The interaction of light (radiation) with matter results in absorption of energy in
two distinct ways: thermal effects and quantum effects.

6.2.1 Thermal Effects

 The thermal effect is based on electromagnetic energy absorbed by the medium and
converted into heat through the increased motion of atoms.

Thermal effect: electromagnetic energy → heat - motion of atoms.

=> Heat can be translated into a measures the incident radiation which thus can be
used for sensing of light.

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6.2.2 Quantum Effects

Quantum effect is governed by photons, the particle-like manifestation of radiation.
Photon energy e is given by Plank’s equation:
e  hf (6.1)
where h is Planck’s constant (6.6262×10-34
J/s or 4.1357×10-15eV), and f is the frequency
in hertz.
 Frequency (the shorter the wavelength) ↑ => Photon energy ↑.
 In the quantum mode, energy is imparted to materials by elastic collision of photons and
electrons.
 Photoelectric effects
If an electron acquires energy from a photon, it may release from the surface of a material
by overcoming the work function:
e0  hf  k (6.2)
where the work function e0 is the minimum energy required to release from the surface, and
k is the maximum kinetic energy (k = mv2 /2, v is the maximum velocity of the electron and
m is the mass of an electron) that the electron may have on the surface of the material.
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 Quantum efficiency
The ratio of the number of electrons released from the material surface (Ne) to the number
of photons absorbed (Nph) depends on the quantum efficiency (η) as:

Ne
 (6.3)
N ph

Typical values are around 10% ~ 20%.

 Cutoff frequency
 The frequency at which the photon energy equals the work function.
i. Below cutoff frequency - only thermal effects are observed (except for tunneling
effects)
ii. Above cutoff frequency - both thermal and quantum effects are observed.

 Low-frequency radiation (IR in particular) -> thermal effects occur only,

 High-frequency radiation (UV and above) -> quantum effects dominate.

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 Photoconductive effects
 If a semiconductor material is subjected to photons, they can transfer the energy to electrons.
 If the photon energy is sufficiently high, the electrons can transit from valence band to
conduction band and become mobile, resulting in an increase of the conductivity of
semiconductor.
Therefore, one may use the current as a measure of the radiation intensity (visible light, UV
radiation, and, to a lesser extent, IR radiation).

Fig. 2 A model of the photoconductive effect. (a) The photon energy is sufficiently high to move an
electron across the bandgap, leaving behind a hole. (b) The photon energy is too low, resulting in
recombination of the electron and the hole.
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The conductivity of a semiconductor is proportional to the concentrations of both carriers and

their mobilities:

  q( en   p p ) (6.4)

where σ is conductivity, q is the electron charge 1.602×10-19 C, μe and μp are the mobilities
(in m2/V·s or, often, cm2 /V·s) of electrons and holes, respectively, and n and p are the
concentrations (particles/m3 or particles/cm3) of electrons and holes, respectively.
 This change in conductivity or the resulting change in current is the basic measure of the
radiation intensity in photoconductive sensors.
 This effect is called the photoconductive effect, which is most common in semiconductors
because of its relatively small bandgaps.
 It also exists in some insulators - huge band gap energies restrict the electrons release
except at very high energies.

Photoelectric sensors –> Conductors; Photoconductive sensors –> Semiconductors

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Table 1. Work functions for selected materials

Table 2. Bandgap energies, longest wavelength, and working

temperatures for selected semiconductors

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Example 1: Minimum wavelength for photoelectric emission

Consider a photoelectric device intended for light detection.
a) Assuming it is made of a potassium-coated surface, what is the lowest wavelength
that the device can detect?
b) What is the kinetic energy of an emitted electron under red light radiation at a
—
wavelength of 620 nm? 动能

Solution:
f =
岁
a) As the photon energy should be not smaller than the work function, we have
c
f 
e  ch
hf  e0  f  0  Hz     m
h e0
Thus,
ch 3  108  4.1375  10 15
=   7.7544  107 m  775.4 nm
e0 1.6
b) For the light the wavelength of 620 nm, its photon energy is hc/λ. Therefore, one has
3  108
k  hc /   e0  4.1357  1015   1.6  0.4 eV
620  109

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 Spectral sensitivity
 Semiconductor is sensitive to a range of the
spectrum, give a function of frequency or
wavelength.

Law of conservation of momentum: an electron

Fig.3 Spectral sensitivity of a
can only transit into the conduction band to a site semiconductor
of like momentum.
Both energy and momentum must be conserved
when an electron transits to or from conduction
band with the absorption or emission of a photon.

 The upper range (longest wavelength) is defined by

the bandgap (about 1200 nm in Fig. 3).
 The lower range (shortest wavelength) is defined by
the difference between the top of the conduction
band and the bottom of the valence band (etop-
ebottom). It is at approximately 650 nm in Fig. 3.

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 Tunneling effect 毅道效应

 Another important quantum effect is the tunneling
effect in semiconductor devices, where a
wavefunction can propagation through a potential
barrier.
Tunneling effect is a direct consequence of
quantum mechanics and can be fully predicted by
Fig. 4 Tunneling effect in
the Schrodinger equation. It occurs with barriers of
semiconductors.
thickness around 1 ~ 3 nm and smaller.
Tunneling effect is a source of leakage current in
many electronic devices. It is projected to create
physical limits to the size of e.g. the transistors.

 A simple explanation of this curious effect is that

although carriers may not have sufficient energy to
go ‘‘over’’ the gap, they can tunnel ‘‘through’’ the
gap.

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Photocondective 光电导 6.3. Quantum-based optical sensors

光电导传感理选电阻
Photoresistive 光电阻 6.3.1 Photoconductive sensors ,

 Photoconductive sensors, sometimes called as photoresistive sensors, are the simplest

optical sensors.
Photoconductive sensors are typically made from a semiconducting material connected to
two conducting electrodes, as shown in Fig. 5.
Depending on the range of operation wavelength, the semiconductor materials could be:
cadmium sulfide (CdS), cadmium selenide (CdSe), lead sulfide (PbS), indium antimonide
(InSb), and others.

Fig. 5 Structure of a
photoconductive sensor.
(a) Simple electrodes.
(b) Schematic of a sensor
showing the connections

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When such a sensor is illuminated, its conductivity changes (the conductivity increases and
hence the resistance decreases) depending on the change in carrier concentrations (excess
carrier concentrations) as
  q( en   p p )
  q( e n   p p ) [S/m] (6.5)
where Δn and Δp are the excess carrier concentrations generated by the radiation, μe and μp
are the electron and hole mobilities.
 The carriers are generated by the radiation at a certain generation rate (the number of
electrons or holes per second per unit volume), but they also recombine at a set
recombination rate.
 The generation and recombination rate depends on absorption coefficient of the material,
dimensions, incident power density (of the radiation) wavelength, and the carrier lifetime.
Under steady state condition, the change in conductivity can be written as

  qf ( e e   p p ) [S/m] (6.6)

where τe and τp are the lifetimes of electrons and holes, respectively, and f is the number of
carriers generated per second per unit volume.

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 Resistance
L L
R  [Ω] (6.7)
 wd q( e n   p p ) wd
where L, w and d are the length (the distance between Fig. 6 Examples of
electrodes), width, and thickness of the sensor. photoconductive sensors.

 Gain (or sensitivity or efficiency)

It is the ratio of carriers generated per photon of the input radiation:
V
G ( e e   p p ) [V/V] (6.8)
L2
where V is the voltage across the sensor.
 Carrier density
It is the product of the rate of generation and lifetime (τ) of the carriers:
P 
nc   a carriers/m3 (6.9)
hfd
where η is the quantum efficiency of the material, P is radiation power density, hf is
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* Example 2: Photoconductive sensor

A photoconductive sensor is made of cadmium sulfide (CdS) as shown
in right figure. Its length, width, and thickness are 4 mm, 1 mm, 0.1
mm, respectively. The mobility of electrons and holes in CdS is about
210 cm2 /V·s and 20 cm2 / V·s, respectively. Its dark concentration of
carriers is approximately 1016 carriers/cm3 for both electrons and holes.
At a light density of 1 W/m2, the carrier density increases by 11%:
a) Calculate the conductivity of the material and the resistance of the sensor under dark
conditions and under the given illumination.
b) Assuming a rate of carrier generation due to light of 1015 carriers/cm3 , estimate the
sensitivity of the sensor to radiation at a wavelength of 300 nm.
Solution:
a) Under dark condition, the conductivity can be calculated as
  q  en   p p   1.602  1019  (210  1016  20  1016 )  0.36846 S / cm
Under light condition, the carrier density increases by a factor of 1.11. Then, we get:
  q  en  p p  1.602 1019  (210 1016 1.11  20 1016 1.11)  0.409 S/ cm
The conductivity under dark and light conditions are 36.85 and 40.9 S/m, respectively.
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Then, the resistances can be obtained as

L 0.004
R   1085.5  
 WH36.85  0.001  0.0001
L 0.004
R   978.0  
 WH 40.9  0.001  0.0001
b) As the information on lifetimes are absent, we can know from the change of
conductivity as
  qf ( e e   p p )  q( e n   p p )
 ( e e   p p )  ( e n   p p ) / f
Thus, one has
V  e n   p p  V 210  1.0 1015  20  1.0  1015
G   0.42 ( )
L2  f  1015
 1437 / V
The sensitivity of the sensor is 1437 carriers/volt.

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6.3.2 Photodiodes
 p-n Junction
A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types, p-type and n-type, of
semiconductor materials. It can be forward-biased, reverse-biased or unbiased, as shown
in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7 The semiconducting

(p-n) junction. (a) Forward
biased. (b) Reverse biased.
(c) Unbiased. (d) The I-V
characteristics of the
junction.

• In forward-biased mode, the normal current (not due to photons) is large in comparison to
the current generated by photons and thus is not useful as a photosensor.
• In reverse-biased mode, the diode carries a minute current (i.e., a ‘‘dark’’ current) and the
increase in current due to photons is large in comparison, which is thus called as
photoconductive mode.
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 Photodiode
 Photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction device that converts
light into an electrical current. It operates in reverse bias.

The equivalent circuit of a diode in the photoconductive mode is

shown in Fig. 8.

Iout
Fig. 8. A photodiode
IP
connected in the
photoconductive mode
(reverse biased). (a)
Equivalent circuit. (b) I-V
characteristics.

Ip: Current generated by incident light;

Id: diode current;
I0: leakage current defined by the ‘‘dark’’ resistance R0;
Ic: current through the capacitance of the junction;
Rs: series resistance of the conductors connected to the diode.
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If assume that all light is absorbed, the current generated by incident photons is given
as
 PAq
Ip  [A] (6.10)
hf
where η is the quantum efficiency, P is the radiation (light) power density [W/m2 ], A is
the exposed area of the diode, f is the frequency, h is Planck’s constant.

 Avalanche photodiode (APD)

To enhance the sensitivity of photodiode, photodiode can
be modified to add an multiplication layer and operate at
high bias voltage. Light
Then, the absorbed electrons will tend to be accelerated
and collide with other electrons to create more carriers
via impact ionization.
With the avalanche effect, the current generated by APD
is
 PAq
I p'  M  I p  M [A] (6.11)
hf
where M is multiplication gain.
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The diode current depends on the operation temperature and its dark current as
qVd
I d  I 0 (e nKT  1) [A] (6.12)

where I0 is the leakage (dark) current, K is Boltzman’s constant (K=1.381×10-23 J/K), q is

the charge of the electron, Vd is the voltage across the junction, also called the voltage
barrier or built-in potential, T is the absolute temperature [K], and n is an efficiency
constant between 1 and 2.

Therefore, the output current of a photodiode sensor is (using n = 1)

 PAq qVd
I out  I p  I d   I 0 ( e KT  1) [A] (6.13)
hf
For an APD with a multiplication gain M, the output current is

 PAq qVd
I out  I p'  I d  M  I 0 ( e KT  1) [A] (6.14)
hf

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6.3.3 Photo-transisters
Phototransistor can be viewed as two diodes connected back to back. As shown in Fig. 9
for an n-p-n transistor, the upper diode (the collector–base junction) is reverse biased while
the lower (base–emitter) junction is forward biased.

Fig. 9 An n-p-n phototransistor.

(a) Schematic structure and
junctions. (b) The circuit
schematic. (c) The two junctions
form diodes as shown. (d) The
biasing of a phototransistor

In a regular transistor, a current Ib injected into the base is amplified to:

Ic   Ib [A] (6.15)
where Ic is the collector current and β is the amplification or gain of the transistor that depends
on a variety of factors, including bias, construction, materials used, doping, etc.
The emitter current Ie is
I e  I b (   1) [A] (6.16)
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 Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

The unique in a phototransistor is the means of generating the base
current. Its base connection is usually eliminated and a provision is
made for the radiation to reach the collector–base junction. Therefore,
its base current is supplied by the photon interaction with the
collector–base junction (which is reverse biased).
Under dark condition, the collector current is small and is almost entirely due to leakage
currents, designated here as I0. This causes a dark current in the collector and emitter as

Ic   I0 , I e  I 0 (   1) [A] (6.17)

When the junction is illuminated by light, the base current is the current generated by
photons :
 PAq
Ib  I p  [A] (6.18)
hf
The collector and emitter currents are then
 PAq  PAq
Ic   I p   , I e  I p (   1)  (   1) [A] (6.19)
hf hf
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Fig. 10 The I-V characteristics of a

transistor as a function of base
current. In a phototransistor the base
current is supplied by photon
interaction

 The operation of phototransistor is similar to photodiode except the amplification, β,

provided by the transistor structure.
 Amplification is linear in most of the operation range (see Fig. 10).
 The high amplification allows phototransistors to operate at low illumination levels.
 On the other hand, thermal noise could be a relatively big problem because of the
amplification.

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6.4. Photoelectric sensors

 Photoelectric sensors, including photomultipliers, are based on photoelectric effect
(also called the photoemissive effect). This type of sensors is one of the oldest
optical sensors.
6.4.1 Photoelectric Sensor
The working principle of a photoelectric sensor is shown in Fig. 11.
• The photocathode is made of a material with
low work function to allow efficient release of
electrons.
• Electrons absorb radiation whose photon
energy is higher than work function (i.e. hf >
e0) can be released from the surface of the
material.
• With the biasing circuit, the electrons will be
Fig. 11 Photoelectric sensor and
accelerated toward the photoanode due to the biasing circuit.
potential difference between the anode and
cathode.
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• Signal: the current in the circuit is the measure of radiation

intensity.
• Quantum efficiency: the ratio of the numbers of emitted
electrons to incident photons, which mainly depends on the
material used for the photocathode (its work function).
• Materials: many metals may be used for photoelectric sensors.
o Old devices: Highly resistant cathodes (low work function) – Tantalum or
chromium coated with alkali compounds.
o New devices: Negative electron affinity (NEA) surfaces – Cesium or cesium
oxide deposited on the surface of semiconductor.
 Cesium-based materials are widely used due to their low work functions and
responses to wide spectrum range from UV to NIR (up to 1000 nm).
• Devices: the sensors are housed in an evacuated tube or in a tube with a noble gas
(argon) at low pressure.
 The presence of gas increases the gain of the sensor (defined as the number of
electrons emitted per incoming photon) by internal collisions between emitted
electrons and the atoms of the gas through ionization of the gas.

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6.4.2. Photomultipliers
 Photomultipliers are a development of the classical photoelectric sensor and can multiply
the available current to achieve a sensitivity higher than simple photoelectric cell.
The construction of photomultiplier is shown schematically in Fig. 12:
• An evacuated tube (or a low-pressure gas-filled tube) is made of metal, glass, or metal-
coated glass with a window for the incoming radiation.
• The photocathode and photoanode of the basic photoelectric cell are maintained, but
have higher potential difference (about 600 V).
• There are a sequence of intermediate electrodes, i.e. dynodes, made of materials with
low work functions, such as beryllium copper (BeCu). They are placed at potential
differences (typically 100 V) with respect to preceding dynodes, as shown in Fig. 12b.

Fig. 12 (a) Basic structure

of a photomultiplier. (b)
Biasing of the dynodes
and photoanode.

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• Working principle of the sensor:

○ Incident radiation impinges on the cathode and
releases a number of electrons, say, n0.
○ These electrons are accelerated toward the first dynode by the potential difference, V1. Each
of impinging electrons will have sufficient energy to release, say, n electrons.
○ The number of electrons emitted from the first dynode is n0×n. These are again accelerated
toward the second dynode, and so on, until they finally reach the photoanode.
○ The multiplication effect results in a very large number of electrons reaching the
photoanode for each photon impinging on the cathode.

Assuming there are k dynodes (typically 10 ~ 14) and n is the average multiplication factor
of dynodes, the gain may be written as:
G  nk (6.20)
which depends on the construction, the number of dynodes, and the accelerating inter-
electrode voltages.

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For such a sensor with multiplying effect, the noise performance is very important.
Particularly, the dark current, which is both potential and temperature dependent, is the
most critical. The dark current in a photomultiplier is given as
 e0
I 0  aAT 2 e KT [A] (6.21)
where a is a constant depending on the cathode material, generally around 0.5, A is a
universal constant equal to 120.173 A/cm2 , T is the absolute temperature, e0 is the work
function of the cathode material [e·V], and K is the Boltzmann’s constant.
 As the cathode of photomultiplier is cold and the thermal emission is low, the dark current
is usually small.
 A major concern is their susceptibility to magnetic fields since magnetic field forces
electrons out of their normal paths and thereby reduces gain and distorting the signal.

Fig. 13 A photomultiplier. The

light enters through the top
surface. The dynodes are the
curved surfaces on top

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Example 3: Dark current noise of a photomultiplier

A photomultiplier with 10 dynodes has a cathode coated with potassium to increase
sensitivity. Calculate the thermally produced dark current at the cathode and at the anode at
25 ͦ C, assuming that each incoming photon is energetic enough to release six electrons and
that each accelerated electron releases six electrons.
Solution:
The work function of potassium is 1.6 eV, and the absolute room temperature is 273.15 + 25
= 298.15 ͦ K. With the Boltzmann constant, K= 8.62×10-5 eV/ ͦ K, we get
 e0
I 0  aAT 2e KT  0.5  120.173  104   298.15  e 1.6/(8.6210
2 5
298.15)
 4.9  10 17 A.
This is a mere 4.9×10-8 nA. Since each accelerated electron releases six electrons, the gain
of the photomultiplier is
G  n k  610  6.05  107
Therefore, the current at the anode due to thermionic emission is
I a  4.9  1017  6.05 107  2.96 109 A

 The dark current is very low and just under 3 nA, which is the reason why the photomultiplier
is so very useful and has survived into the age of semiconductors.
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6.5 Charge Coupled Device (CCD) Sensors

 Charge coupled devices (CCDs) are the core of electronic cameras and video recorders. They
are also widely used for very low light applications by cooling the CCDs to low temperature.
 Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) structure
Typical CCDs are made of a conducting substrate on which a p- or n-type semiconductor
(SC) layer is deposited. Above it, a thin insulating layer made of silicon dioxide on SC to
insulate the silicon, as shown in Fig.14.

Fig. 14 The basic CCD cell. (a) In

forward-biased mode, electrons
accumulate below the MOS layer.
(b) In reversed-biased mode the
charge is sensed by discharging it
through an external load.

○ The electrode (also called a gate) and the substrate form a capacitor.
○ For an n-type semiconductor, the gate is biased positively with respect to the substrate to
form a depletion region in the semiconductor.
○ If optical radiation illuminates, photons penetrate through the gate and oxide layer and
generate electrons in the depletion layer. These electrons can form a current as a measure
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 The main value of CCDs is in building one-dimensional or two-dimensional arrays of

MOS devices for the purpose of images.

Fig. 15. Method of sensing the

charge in a CCD array. (a) The
charge is moved in steps to the
edge and discharged through a
resistor. (b) Two-dimensional
scan of an N1 × N2 image.

○ The method is to move the charges of each cell to the next -‘‘musical chairs’’ sequence by
manipulating gate voltages, as shown in Fig. 15a. In this method, the transfer is one cell
per step and the current in the resistor for each step corresponds to a particular cell.
○ For two dimension case, as shown in Fig. 15b, the data are moved vertically one row at a
time, that is, all cells move their data one row lower, whereas the lowest row moves it to a
shift register. The scan stops and the shift register is to moved to the right to obtain the
signal for one row. The next row is shifted until the whole array has been scanned.

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6.6. Thermal-based optical sensors

 The thermal effects of radiation, i.e. conversion of radiation into heat, are most pronounced
at lower frequencies (longer wavelengths). What is measured is the temperature associated
with radiation.
6.6.1 Passive IR (PIR) sensors
A PIR sensor has two basic components: an absorption section that converts radiation into
heat and a proper temperature sensor that converts heat into an electrical signal.

 Thermopile sensors
A thermopile is made of a number of thermocouples
connected in series. Based on the thermoelectric effect, a
thermocouple generates a small potential across a junction
made of two different materials.
As thermocouples can measure temperature differences only,
thermopile is made of alternating junctions, as shown in Fig.
Fig. 16 The structure of a PIR
16. All ‘‘cold’’ junctions are held at a known (measured) sensor showing the thermopile
lower temperature, while all ‘‘hot’’ junctions are held at the used to sense temperature (under
sensing temperature. an IR absorber). A temperature
sensor monitors the temperature
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the cold junctions.

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 Pyroelectric sensors
 The pyroelectric effect is an electric charge generation in response to heat flow through the
body of a crystal.
IR radiation input → Electric output without external power.
 The pyroelectric effect is an electric charge generated in response to heat flow through the
body of a Phyroelectric crystal (ex. PZT, PVF and PVDF).
When a pyroelectric material is exposed to a temperature change ΔT, a charge ΔQ is
generated as
Q  PQ AT (6.22)

where A is the area of the sensor and PQ is the pyroelectric charge coefficient defined as:
PQ  dPs / dT [C/m 2  K] (6.23)
where Ps is the spontaneous polarization [C/m2] of the materials.
For a sensor with the thickness of h, the change in voltage across the sensor is
h
V  PQ T (6.24)
 0 r
 It should be noted again that our main interest here is not in measuring the change in
temperature, but rather the change in radiation that causes this change in temperature.
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Typical structures of a pyroelectric sensor is shown in Fig. 17.

Fig. 17 The basic structure of a

pyroelectric sensor. (a) Single
element; (b) dual element in series.

○ As shown in Fig. 17a, a pyroelectric sensor could be very simple: a pyroelectric ceramic
plate and two electrodes deposited on the opposite sides of the plate.
○ Alternatively, dual elements can be used and connected in series, as shown in Fig. 17b.
The second element can be shielded from radiation and acts as a reference.

Table 3. Pyroelectric materials and some of their properties.

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* Example 4: Pyroelectric sensors for motion monitoring

A motion sensor based on a PZT ceramic is used to turn on lights in a room as a person enters
the room. The sensor is made of two conducting plates with a PZT chip (8 mm wide; 10 mm
long; 0.1 mm thick) forming a capacitor. One plate is exposed to motion, whereas the other is
connected to the body of the sensor and held at its temperature. As the person enters the room,
the person’s body temperature causes the exposed plate’s temperature to temporarily rise by
0.01 ℃ because of the IR radiation produced by the body. Calculate the charge produced on
the plate and the potential difference across the sensor due to the rise in temperature.
Solution:
The potential across the plates is
h 0.1  103
V  PQ T  4.2  10 4   0.01  0.0296 V
 0 r 1600  8.854  1012
The capacitance of the sensor is
  A 1600  8.854  1012  0.008  0.01
C r 0   1.1333  108 F
h 0.1  103
The charge produced is
Q  C V  1.1333  10 8  0.0296  3.355  10 10 C

 To produce a useful output, the output must be amplified. For example, if the output requires
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(typically) 5 V, then amplifying the voltage by about 170 will produce the required output.

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 Bolometers
 Bolometers are very simple radiation average power sensors useful over the whole spectrum
of electromagnetic radiation, but they are most commonly used in microwave and far-IR
ranges.
 They can employ any temperature-measuring device, though a small RTD or a thermistor is
usually used.
The working principle of bolometer is as follows:
The radiation is absorbed by the device directly, causing a change in its temperature. This
temperature increase is proportional to the radiated power density at the location of
sensing. This change can be measured by using e.g. the resistance-based sensing element,
as shown in Fig. 17a.

Fig. 17 Equivalent circuit of

electrically biased bolometer (a) and
design of optical bolometer (b)

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For a resistance temperature detector-based bolometer, the sensitivity to radiation can be

written as follows:
 s ZT R0 T
 (6.25)
2 (1   0 T )[1  ( )2 ]

where α =(dR/dT)/R is the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR), εs is its surface

emissivity, ZT is the thermal impedance of the bolometer, R0 is its resistance at the
background temperature, ΔT is the increase in temperature, ω is the frequency, τ is the
thermal time constant.

 Bolometer’s responsivity ↑ when electrical resistance ↑ and thermal impedance ↑.

 Ideal bolometer should have a large resistance at background temperatures and high
thermal impedance.
 Bolometers are fabricated as very small thermistors or RTDs, usually as individual
components or as integrated devices.
 Bolometers have been used for many applications in the microwave region, including
mapping of antenna radiation patterns, detection of IR radiation, testing of microwave
devices, and much more.

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6.6.2 Active Far-Infrared (AFIR) sensors

 An active far-infrared (AFIR) sensor can be considered as a
power source that heats the sensing element to a
temperature above ambient and keeps its temperature
constant, as shown in Fig. 18.
 When used to sense radiation, additional heat is provided
to the sensors through this radiation. The power necessary Fig. 18 AFIR element radiates
to keep the temperature constant is now reduced and the thermal flux Φh toward its housing
difference in power is a measure of the radiation power. and absorbs flux Φb from the object

Under these conditions the power supplied to the sensor through an electric circuit that
heats it up to a constant temperature Ts is
P  PL   [W] (6.26)
where P = V2/R is the heat supplied by a resistive heater (V is the voltage across the heating
element and R its resistance), PL is the power loss through conduction through the body of the
sensor, and Φ is the radiation power being sensed. The power loss is
PL   s (Ts  Ta ) [W] (6.27)
where αs is a loss coefficient or thermal conductivity, Ts is the sensor’s temperature and Ta is
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Given the power supplied as P = V2 /R, the sensed temperature, Tm, is

1 V 2 
Tm  4 Ts4     s (Ts  Ta )  (6.28)
A  R 
where A is the sensor’s surface area, ε is total emissivity, σ is the electric conductivity of
the sensor medium.

 This relation gives the temperature as a function of voltage across the heating element. By
measuring this voltage, a reading of the radiation power is obtained.
 AFIR devices are much more complex than simple PIRs, including bolometers, they have
the advantage of a much higher sensitivity and an independence from thermal noise that
other IR sensors do not possess.
 AFIR devices are used for low-contrast radiation measurements where PIRs are not
suitable.

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Classwork 6:

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References:
1. Nathan Ida, Sensors, Actuators, and their Interface: A
Multidisciplinary introduction, SciTech Publishing, an imprint of the
IET, 2014.
2. Jacob Fraden, Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and
Applications, 5th Ed. 2016.
3. Paul P.L. Regtien, Sensors for Mechatronics, Elsevier Inc., 2012.

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