Switch

A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a
large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer
device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it
very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch divides the collision
domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.

Types of Switch

● Unmanaged Switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design

and do not offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small
networks or for use as an expansion to a larger network.
● Managed Switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such
as VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more
complex networks and allow for centralized management.
● Smart Switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches
but are typically easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to
medium-sized networks.
● Layer 2 Switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI
model and are responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same
network segment.
● Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI
model and can route data between different network segments. They are more
advanced than Layer 2 switches and are often used in larger, more complex
networks.
● PoE Switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which
allows them to supply power to network devices over the same cable that
carries data.
● Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are
faster than traditional Ethernet speeds.
● Rack-Mounted Switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a
server rack and are suitable for use in data centers or other large networks.
● Desktop Switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in a
small office environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-mounted
switches.
● Modular Switches: These switches have modular design, which allows for
easy expansion or customization. They are suitable for large networks and data
centers.

Gateway
A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work
upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from
one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called
protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more
complex than switches or routers.

Modems
Modems is also known as modulator/demodulator is a network device that is used to
convert digital signal into analog signal of different frequencies and transmits these signal
to a modem at the receiving location. These converted signals can be transmitted over the
cable systems, telephone lines, and other communication mediums. A modem is also
used to convert analog signal back into digital signal. Modems are generally used to
access internet by customers of an Internet Service Provider (ISP).

Types of Modems

There are four main types of modems:

● DSL Modem: Uses regular phone lines to connect to the internet but it is
slower compared to other types.
● Cable Modem: Sends data through TV cables, providing faster internet than
DSL.
● Wireless Modem: Connects devices to the internet using Wi-Fi relying on
nearby Wi-Fi signals.
● Cellular Modem: Connects to the internet using mobile data from a cellular
network not Wi-Fi or fixed cables.

What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a
single medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and
hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.

Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n

input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n
input lines and one output line.

Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available

at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input
and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many
approach.

Why Multiplexing?
○ The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The
medium can only have one signal at a time.
○ If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be
divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available
bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100
units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
○ When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of
collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
○ Transmission services are very expensive.

History of Multiplexing
○ Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which several
telephone calls are carried through a single wire.
○ Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now widely used in
communication.
○ George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.

Concept of Multiplexing

○ The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines
the signals to form a composite signal.
○ The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer
separates a signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective
destinations.

Advantages of Multiplexing:
○ More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
○ The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.
Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

○ It is an analog technique.
○ Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth
of a single transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.

○ In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several

frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given to different devices.
Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.
○ The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
○ The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different
frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
○ Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency
bands and then combined to form a composite signal.
○ The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers.
They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
 ○ FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages Of FDM:

○ FDM is used for analog signals.

○ FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
○ A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
○ It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages Of FDM:

○ FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

○ It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
○ A Large number of modulators are required.
○ It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Applications Of FDM:

○ FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

○ It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different
frequencies, and they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed
signal is transmitted in the air.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

 ○ Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals
are transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
○ WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
○ It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
○ It is an analog multiplexing technique.
○ Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light
with the help of multiplexer.
○ At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their
respective destinations.
○ Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
○ Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals
to form a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a fibre
optical cable.
○ Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.

Time Division Multiplexing

○ It is a digital technique.
○ In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same
time with different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing
technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with different time.
 ○ In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different
time interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
○ A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
○ In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously
rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
○ In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of
time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
○ It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to
multiplex digital signals.

There are two types of TDM:

○ Synchronous TDM
○ Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM
○ A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every
device.
○ In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact
that the device contains the data or not.
○ If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
○ In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are
organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular
time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
○ The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing,
and SONET multiplexing.
○ If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Concept Of Synchronous TDM

In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device is
allocated with some time slot. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether the
sender has data to send or not.

Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

○ The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also
transmitted which is having no data. In the above figure, the first frame is
completely filled, but in the last two frames, some slots are empty. Therefore, we
can say that the capacity of the channel is not utilized efficiently.
○ The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the
input lines. An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous
Time Division Multiplexing.

Asynchronous TDM
○ An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
○ An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the
case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which
have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division
multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations.
○ An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the
devices.
○ In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the
capacity of the channel.
○ Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and
creates a frame that contains only data with no empty slots.
○ In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the
source of the data.
 ○ The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many
slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are
fully utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization
of the capacity of the channel.
○ In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In
Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots
where m is less than n (m<n).
○ The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number of
input lines.

Concept Of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the data, i.e.,
A and C. Therefore, the data of A and C are only transmitted through the transmission
line.

Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

The above figure shows that the data part contains the address to determine the source of
the data.