 Introduction

 Grain-size
Classification
 Soil Classification
by the Bureau of
Soils
 Methods of
Determining
Percentages of
Gravel, Sand, Silt
and Clay
 Textural
Classification
 Classification by
Engineering Behavior
CHAPTER 4: SOIL
CLASSFICATION
 CHAPTER 4
SOIL CLASSIFICATION

INTRODUCTION

Different soils with similar properties may be classified into groups and subgroups
according to their engineering behavior. Classification systems provide a common language to
concisely express the general characteristics of soils, which are infinitely varied, without detailed
descriptions. Most of the soil classification systems that have been developed for engineering
purposes are based on simple index properties such as particle-size distribution and plasticity.
Although several classification systems are now in use, none is totally definitive of any soil for all
possible applications because of the wide diversity of soil properties.

GRAIN-SIZE CLASSIFICATION
ISO 14688-1:2002 establishes the basic principles for the identification and classification
of soils on the basis of those material and mass characteristics most commonly used for soils for
engineering purposes. ISO 14688-1 is applicable to natural soils in situ, similar man-made
materials in situ and soils redeposited by people.

Size range
Name Size range (approx. in)
(mm)
Large boulder LBo >630 >24.8031
Very coarse soil Boulder Bo 200–630 7.8740–24.803
Cobble Co 63–200 2.4803–7.8740
Coarse gravel CGr 20–63 0.78740–2.4803
Gravel Medium gravel MGr 6.3–20 0.24803–0.78740

Coarse Fine gravel FGr 2.0–6.3 0.078740–0.24803

soil Coarse sand CSa 0.63–2.0 0.024803–0.078740
Sand Medium sand MSa 0.2–0.63 0.0078740–0.024803
Fine sand FSa 0.063–0.2 0.0024803–0.0078740
Coarse silt CSi 0.02–0.063 0.00078740–0.0024803
Silt Medium silt MSi 0.0063–0.02 0.00024803–0.00078740
Fine soil
Fine silt FSi 0.002–0.0063 0.000078740–0.00024803
Clay Cl ≤0.002 ≤0.000078740
SOIL CLASSIFICATION BY THE BUREAU OF SOILS

METHODS OF DETERMINING PERCENTAGES OF GRAVEL, SAND, SILT AND

CLAY
In general, there are two major categories into which the soil classification systems
developed in the past can be grouped.
1. The textural classification is based on the particle-size distribution of the percent of sand, silt,
and clay-size fractions present in a given soil. In this chapter, we will discuss the textural
classification system developed by the Massachussets Institute of Technology (MIT) and U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA).
2. The other major category is based on the engineering behavior of soil and takes into
consideration the particle-size distribution and the plasticity (i.e., liquid limit and plasticity index).
Under this category, there are two major classification systems in extensive use now: a. The
AASHTO classification system, and b. The Unified classification system.

TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION
In a general sense, texture of soil refers to its surface appearance. Soil texture is influenced
by the size of the individual particles present in it. Soils are divided into gravel, sand, silt, and clay
categories on the basis of particle size. In most cases, natural soils are mixtures of particles from
several size groups. In the textural classification system, the soils are named after their principal
components, such as sandy clay, silty clay, and so forth.

Massachussets Institute of Technology (MIT)

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

>2mm 0.06 mm to 2.0 mm 0.002mm to 0.06 <0.002mm
mm

This soil classification system was first developed by Prof. G. Gilboy at Massachussets
Institue in the USA and is based exclusively on grain size. Soil classification is determined by
performing sieve analysis and hydrometer tests. In this system, each soil is given a “group name”.
In order to establish a group name:
 50% - 35%: type of soil
 35% - 15%: adjective
 15% - 5%: some
 <5% - trace of
For example, from the results of sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis, soil has 3%
boulder, 27% gravel, 66% sand, 5% silt, and 0% clay, the group name will be gravelly sand, some
silt, trace boulders.
USDA Soil Classification System
A number of textural classification systems were developed in the past by different
organizations to serve their needs, and several of those are in use today. Next to MIT system,
another one of those textural classification systems is the one developed by the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA). This classification method is based on the particle-size limits as described
under the USDA system.
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
>2mm 0.05 mm to 2.0 mm 0.002mm to 0.05 <0.002mm
mm

Figure 3.1 USDA Textural Classification

 The use of USDA chart can best be demonstrated by an example. If the particle-size
distribution of soil A shows 30% sand, 40% silt, and 30% clay-size particles, its textural
classification can be determined by proceeding in the manner indicated by the arrows in Figure
3.1. This soil falls into the zone of clay loam.
Note that this chart is based on only the fraction of soil that passes through the No. 10 sieve.
Hence, if the particle-size distribution of a soil is such that a certain percentage of the soil particles
is larger than 2 mm in diameter, a correction will be necessary. For example, if soil B has a particle-
size distribution of 20% gravel, 10% sand, 30% silt, and 40% clay, the modified textural
compositions are
10 𝑥 100
𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒: = 12.5%
100 − 20
30 𝑥 100
𝑆𝑖𝑙𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒: = 37.5%
100 − 20
40 𝑥 100
𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒: = 50.0%
100 − 20

On the basis of the preceding modified percentages, the USDA textural classification is
clay. However, because of the large percentage of gravel, it may be called gravelly clay.

Sample Problem 4.1

Classify the following soils according to the USDA textural classification system.
Particle size Soil
distribution A B C D
(%)
Gravel 12 18 0 12
Sand 25 31 15 22
Silt 32 30 30 26
Clay 31 21 55 40

Solution:
Step 1. Calculate the modified percentages of sand, gravel, and silt as follows:
%𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 % 𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑥100
100 − %𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙
%𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 % 𝑆𝑖𝑙𝑡 = 𝑥100
100 − %𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙
%𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 % 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑦 = 𝑥100
100 − %𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙
Thus the following table results:
Particle size Soil
distribution A B C D
(%)
Sand 28.4 37.8 15 25
Silt 36.4 36.6 30 29.5
Clay 35.2 25.6 55 45.5
Step 2. With the modified composition calculated, refer to Figure 3.1 to determine the zone into
which each soil falls. The results are as follows:
Classification of Soil
A B C D
Gravelly clay loam Gravelly loam Clay Gravelly clay
Note: The word gravelly was added to the classification of soils A, B, and D because of the large
percentage of gravel present in each.

CLASSIFICATION BY ENGINEERING BEHAVIOR

Although the textural classification of soil is relatively simple, it is based entirely on the
particle-size distribution. The amount and type of clay minerals present in fine-grained soils dictate
to a great extent their physical properties. Hence, the soils engineer must consider plasticity, which
results from the presence of clay minerals, to interpret soil characteristics properly. Because
textural classification systems do not take plasticity into account and are not totally indicative of
many important soil properties, they are inadequate for most engineering purposes. Currently, two
more elaborate classification systems are commonly used by soils engineers. Both systems take
into consideration the particle-size distribution and Atterberg limits. They are the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classification system and
the Unified Soil Classification System. The AASHTO classification system is used mostly by state
and county highway departments. Geotechnical engineers generally prefer the Unified system.

AASHTO Classification System

The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
system of soil classification was developed in 1929 as the Public Road Administration
classification system. It has undergone several revisions, with the present version proposed by the
Committee on Classification of Materials for Subgrades and Granular Type Roads of the Highway
Research Board in 1945 (ASTM designation D-3282; AASHTO method M145).
The AASHTO classification in present use is given in Table 3.1. According to this system,
soil is classified into seven major groups: A-1 through A-7. Soils classified under groups A-1, A-
2, and A-3 are granular materials of which 35% or less of the particles pass through the No. 200
sieve. Soils of which more than 35% pass through the No. 200 sieve are classified under groups
A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7. These soils are mostly silt and clay-type materials.

This classification system is based on the following criteria:

1. Grain size
a. Gravel: fraction passing the 75-mm sieve and retained on the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve
b. Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve and retained on the No. 200 (0.075-
mm) U.S. sieve
c. Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
2mm to 76.2mm 0.075 mm to 2.0 0.002mm to 0.075 <0.002mm
mm mm
 2. Plasticity: The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the soil have a plasticity
index of 10 or less. The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a plasticity
index of 11 or more.
3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are encountered, they are excluded
from the portion of the soil sample from which classification is made. However, the
percentage of such material is recorded.

Table 4.1 Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials

To classify a soil according to Table 3.1, one must apply the test data from left to right. By
process of elimination, the first group from the left into which the test data fit is the correct
classification. Figure 3.2 shows a plot of the range of the liquid limit and the plasticity index for
soils that fall into groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7. To evaluate the quality of a soil as a
highway subgrade material, one must also incorporate a number called the group index (GI) with
the groups and subgroups of the soil. This index is written in parentheses after the group or
subgroup designation. The group index is given by the equation
𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10) Eq. 4.1
where:
F200 – percentage passing through the No.200 sieve
LL – liquid limit
PI – plasticity index
The first term of Eq. (5.1)—that is, (F200 - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)]—is the partial group
index determined from the liquid limit. The second term—that is, 0.01(F200 - 15)(PI - 10)—is the
partial group index determined from the plasticity index. Following are some rules for determining
the group index:
1. If Eq. (3.1) yields a negative value for GI, it is taken as 0.
2. The group index calculated from Eq. (3.1) is rounded off to the nearest whole number (for
example, GI = 3.4 is rounded off to 3; GI = 3.5 is rounded off to 4).
3. There is no upper limit for the group index.
4. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is
always 0.
5. When calculating the group index for soils that belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the
partial group index for PI, or
𝐺𝐼 = 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10) Eq. 4.2
In general, the quality of performance of a soil as a subgrade material is inversely
proportional to the group index, meaning, the higher the value of group index, the lower its
suitability as subgrade material.

Figure 4.2 Range of liquid limit and plasticity index for soils in groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-
6, and A-7
Sample Problem 4.2
Classify the following soil to be used as a highway subgrade material using AASHTO method.
Sieve analysis: % finer
No. 10 sieve = 88%
No. 40 sieve = 75%
No. 200 sieve = 34%
Plasticity for the minus No.40 fraction
Liquid Limit = 39%
Plasticity index = 12%

Solution:

From the table shown:

Percent passing the No. 200 sieve = 34% < 35%, so it is a granular material
A-1, A-2, and A-5 are not satisfied
For A-2-6

Max %passing of sieve No. 200 is 35%, the given in the problem is 34% and is less than 35% (ok)
Max. liquid limit is 40%, the given in the problem is 39% and is less than 40% (ok)
Min. plasticity index is 11%, the given in the problem is 12% and is greater than 11% (ok)

When computing the group index for soils belonging to groups A-2-6 and A-2, use the partial GI.
𝐺𝐼 = 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
𝐺𝐼 = 0.01(34 − 15)(12 − 10)
𝐺𝐼 = 0.38 = 0

Therefore the soil classification is A-2-6 (0).

Sample Problem 4.3
Classify the following soil to be used as a highway subgrade material using AASHTO method.
Sieve analysis: % finer
No. 10 sieve = 100%
No. 40 sieve = 72%
No. 200 sieve = 39%
Plasticity for the minus No.40 fraction
Liquid Limit = 44%
Plasticity index = 24%

Solution:

Refer to the table:

The percent passing the No.200 sieve is 39% which is greater than 35% as shown on table, it is a
silt-clay material.
For A-7, % Finer 200 = 36 min.
LL = 41 min, PI = 11 min.

If PI <LL – 30, the soil classification is A-7-5

If PI >LL – 30, the soil classification is A-7-6
PI = 24
LL – 30 = 44 – 30 = 14
PI ? LL – 30
24 ? 14
24 > 14
The soil is A-7-6.

𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)

𝐺𝐼 = (39 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(44 − 40)] + 0.01(39 − 15)(24 − 10)
𝐺𝐼 = 4.24 = 4

Therefore the soil is classified as A-7-6(4).

Sample Problem 4.4
The results of the particle-size analysis of a soil are as follows:
• Percent passing the No. 10 sieve = 42
• Percent passing the No. 40 sieve = 35
• Percent passing the No. 200 sieve = 20
The liquid limit and plasticity index of the minus No. 40 fraction of the soil are 25 and 20,
respectively. Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.

Solution:
Since 20% (i.e., less than 35%) of soil is passing No. 200 sieve, it is a granular soil. Hence it can
be A-1, A-2, or A-3. Refer to Table 4.1. Starting from the left of the table, the soil falls under A-
1-b (see the table below).

Parameter Specifications in Table 3.1 Parameters of the given soil

Percent passing sieve
No. 10 ---
No. 40 50 max 35
No. 200 25 max 20
Plasticity index (PI) 6 max PI = LL – PL = 25 – 20,
respectively.

The group index of the soil is 0. So, the soil is A-1-b(0).

Sample Problem 4.5
Ninety-five percent of a soil passes through the No. 200 sieve and has a liquid limit of 60 and
plasticity index of 40. Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.

Solution:
Ninety-five percent of the soil (which is > 36%) is passing through No. 200 sieve. So it is a silty-
clay material. Now refer to Table 4.1. Starting from the left of the table, it falls under A-7-6 (see
the table below).

Parameter Specifications in Table 3.1 Parameters of the given soil

Percent passing No. 200 36 min. 95
sieve
Liquid Limit (LL) 41 min. 60
Plasticity Index (PI) 11 min. 40
PI > LL - 30 PI = 40 > LL-30 = 60 – 30 = 30

𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)

𝐺𝐼 = (95 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(60 − 40)] + 0.01(95 − 15)(40 − 10)
𝐺𝐼 = 42
So, the classification is A-7-6(42).

Unified Soil Classification System

The original form of this system was proposed by Casagrande in 1942 for use in the airfield
construction works undertaken by the Army Corps of Engineers during World War II. In
cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, this system was revised in 1952. At present, it
is used widely by engineers (ASTM Test Designation D-2487). The Unified classification system
is presented in Table 3.2. This system classifies soils into two broad categories:
1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature with less than 50% passing
through the No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with a prefix of G or S. G stands for
gravel or gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil.
 2. Fine-grained soils are with 50% or more passing through the No. 200 sieve. The group
symbols start with prefixes of M, which stands for inorganic silt, C for inorganic clay, or
O for organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used for peat, muck, and other highly organic
soils.
Other symbols used for the classification are:
• W—well graded
• P—poorly graded
• L—low plasticity (liquid limit less than 50)

• H—high plasticity (liquid limit more than 50)

Table 4.2 Unified Soil Classification System

For proper classification according to this system, some or all of the following information
must be known:
1. Percent of gravel—that is, the fraction passing the 76.2-mm sieve and retained on the
No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening)
2. Percent of sand—that is, the fraction passing the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening) and
retained on the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm opening)
3. Percent of silt and clay—that is, the fraction finer than the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm
opening)
4. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc)
5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil passing the No. 40 sieve.
 The group symbols for coarse-grained gravelly soils are GW, GP, GM, GC, GC-GM, GW-
GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, and GP-GC. Similarly, the group symbols for fine-grained soils are CL,
ML, OL, CH, MH, OH, CL-ML, and Pt. In using these figures, one needs to remember that, in a
given soil,
• Fine fraction = percent passing No. 200 sieve
• Coarse fraction = percent retained on No. 200 sieve
• Gravel fraction = percent retained on No. 4 sieve
• Sand fraction = (percent retained on No. 200 sieve) (percent retained on No. 4 sieve)
Gravel Sand Fines (Silt and Clay)
4.75mm to 76.2mm 0.075 mm to 4.75 <0.0075mm
mm
Sample Problem 4.6
From the given data, shows a sieve analysis of soil samples A, B and C.
Soil Sample
Sieve No. Diam. (mm) A B C
Percent Passing
#4 4.760 90 100 100
#8 2.380 64 90 100
#10 2.000 54 77 98
#20 0.840 34 59 92
#40 0.420 22 51 84
#60 0.250 17 42 79
#100 0.149 9 35 70
#200 0.074 4 33 63
Characteristics of -40 Fraction
LL - 46 47
PL - 29 24
Classify the three soil samples using USCS method.

Solution:

Soil A:
Passing #200 sieve = 4% < 50% coarsed grain soil
#4 sieve = 90%

% of gravel = 100 – 90
% of gravel = 10%
 % of sand = 90 -4
% of sand = 86%

% of fines = 4%
% of sand > % of gravel

4% < %5% pass #200 sieve

𝐷60 2.3
𝐶𝑢 = =
𝐷10 0.17
𝐶𝑢 = 13.52 > 6

(𝐷30 )2 0.702
𝐶𝑢 = =
𝐷60 𝐷10 2.3(0.17)
𝐶𝑢 = 1.25 < 3
From table:

The soil is SW, 10% < 15% gravel

Therefore, soil A is SW, well graded sand.

Soil B:
%passing sieve number = 33%
%retained sieve number 200 = 100 -33 = 67% > 50%
Soil is coarse grained

Coarse fraction = 100 – 33 = 67%

50% coarse fraction = 67% (0.50) = 33.5% < 100% (soil is sand)

Classification of basis of percentage of fines:

% passing sieve number 200 = 33% > 12% (soil is either SM or SC)

If PI > 7, the soil is SC.

If PI< 7, the soil is SM.

PI = LL – PL
PI = 46 – 29
PI = 17 > 7

Therefore, soil B is SC (clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures)

Soil C:
%passing sieve number 200 = 63% > 50% (fine grained soil)
LL = 47 < 50 (soil is either ML, CL, or OL)

PI = LL – PL
PI = 47 -24
PI = 23 (It plots above A – line under CL)

Therefore, soil C is CL (inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity, gravelly clays).

Comparison between AASHTO and USCS

Both soil classification systems, AASHTO and Unified, are based on the texture and
plasticity of soil. Also, both systems divide the soils into two major categories, coarse grained and
fine grained, as separated by the No. 200 sieve.
According to the AASHTO system, a soil is considered fine grained when more than 35%
passes through the No. 200 sieve. According to the Unified system, a soil is considered fine grained
when more than 50% passes through the No. 200 sieve. A coarse-grained soil that has about 35%
fine grains will behave like a fine-grained material. This is because enough fine grains exist to fill
the voids between the coarse grains and hold them apart. In this respect, the AASHTO system
appears to be more appropriate. In the AASHTO system, the No. 10 sieve is used to separate gravel
from sand; in the Unified system, the No. 4 of soil-separated size limits, the No. 10 sieve is the
more accepted upper limit for sand. This limit is used in concrete and highway base-course
technology.
In the Unified system, the gravelly and sandy soils clearly are separated; in the AASHTO
system, they are not. The A-2 group, in particular, contains a large variety of soils. Symbols like
GW, SM, CH, and others that are used in the Unified system are more descriptive of the soil
properties than the A symbols used in the AASHTO system.
The classification of organic soils, such as OL, OH, and Pt, is provided in the Unified
system. Under the AASHTO system, there is no place for organic soils. Peats usually have a high
moisture content, low specific gravity of soil solids, and low unit weight.
Liu (1967) compared the AASHTO and Unified systems. The results of his study are
presented in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Comparison of the AASHTO System with the Unified System