CHEATSHEF-tpreu.

si on
and
accuracy
•
•

%•% • ••••••

•
:&
•

Low Low low

High accuracy accuracy accuracy High accuracy High precision
low
precision High precision precision

of exactness that a measurement has to the " Affected

Accuracy → degree true value " . by systematic
error

of exactness which a the

Precision → degree measuring instrument can determine accurately So, if all
' .
readings
are the same even are considered " "
though they are far away from the true value they " "
, very precise .

Affected random error

by

significant decimal places

figures and

Determining significant figures:

zero
1 All non
. -
digits are significant .

2 All "captive " zeros ( zeros between non zero digits)

. -
are
significant 3. Leading zeros , whether it is before or
.

decimal
after the point, are not significant .

4. not if left of the decimal if

Trailing zeros are significant they are point 5. Trailing zeros are significant they
.

indicate a measurement or tolerance of decimal

bright point) .

Types of errors
is ± Error in " " Random or
Error that one direction Systematic ( Either + - → will shift each measurement
cause to differ from the value random amount true value consistent amount
from → will readings its true by a by a in a

→ the are shifted in one

random direction each time a measurement is made, so
. Affects precision . that all readings
direction from the true value .

:→
Affects
Causes accuracy .

is
calibration of instrument
-
wrong
 either
( always higher or lower) causes :

perception ,
-
,
w ,, ,
,
| ,
Human em, ,
scale
-
Any "consistent " human error Reading -

one bottom of 1 - bottom of a meniscus

(if always judges Judging the meniscus ) Enthalpy change -

cheat loss /
gain)

Error
mitigation:
Error
Repeat experiment till more
-
mitigation :

consistent
readings are obtained change procedure -
.

change equipment
-

Graphical representation :

-
Random error exists due to low Graphical representation:
when do not sit
precision , points systematic error is present if neatly on the line of best fit line
- .

does not Y the

of best fit pass through origin .

^y c ^D
D

B
A C
XB
>
A
✗
>
Random uncertainties
→ caused the limitations of the and other uncontrollable in
by measuring apparatus variables that are inevitable any
experiment .

→ be eliminated
can never completely .

→ measurements reduces the effect of

Taking repeated random uncertainties.

random uncertainties associated with D

Estimating measuring apparatus Analogue
instruments

of a measurement is half the smallest division on the scale

Rule : uncertainty of an apparatus .
 burette
Example :
readings
? the
The smallest division on a 50Mt burette is 0.10cm Hence, uncertainty should be 1=0.05 c. m3 .

Burette ± 0.05cm
reading =
39.25 3

2)
Digital instruments
of a measurement should be as
Rule : uncertainty quoted ± the smallest division .

Quoting values with uncertainties

Value its should have the same number of decimal
1) quoted and uncertainty places .

The after the

2) uncertainty is usually quoted
to one
significant figure No figures should be quoted
.

uncertainty .

of
Types uncertainty
Absolute
1) uncertainty
Da l with unit)
Relative
2) uncertainty
Data ( no unit )
3)
Percentage uncertainty
✗ absolute 100%
☐a 10040 → uncertainty ×
a
value
percentage
Percentage error vs .
uncertainty
error theoretical
Percentage error = 1 experimental theoretical I ✗ 100% ( % -
)
>% A
1) If % error

of
-
A lot systematic errors
to
-
Procedure needs change
2) If % error < % A
 -
A lot of random errors
needs to needs
-
Equipment change, experiment repeating
of uncertainties
Propagation
Rule
]
Rule lit or ( follow smallest d.
-

p.ly F-
g-
I
→ Value 1: 23.57 I 0.01

Value 2 :
8- 4 I 0I
.

d- ↓
1- : 23-57-18-4 31.97 ( but final answer must be in 1 p ) ↓ = 32-0 ± 0.2
= .

2d p 1. d. p .
.

-i
23-57 8-4 = 15.17
-

= 15.2 I 0.2
Add up absolute D ( uncertainties )
→
ID = 0.01 TO I -

=0.11
) ROUND UP FOR ABS ONLY
match
I 0.2 V I dip to .
dip of smallest value
.

Final 㱺 1- :
32.0=10.2
:
15-2-10-2
-

F- 2-2 T =
g. , 5758 4- 0.02
Tz =24 42 ± 0-02 .

in
Change temperature = 57.58-24.42
=
33-16
0
Addition of absolute D 㱺 ± D= 02-10-02 -

=
0-04
±
Final 㱺 33.16 0.04
Rule
↓
 Value 2 :

÷
3-4561=0-007

Rule 2 : ✗ or ( follow smallest s.fi ) <

] Follow smallest s.fi

I→
F-
g. Value 1 : 2.57 I 0-01

× : 2.57 ✗ 3.456
=
8.88192
→
bsf Between 3 and 4 Sif,3 ↓ ↓ = 8.88 3 s f 2 is smaller
. -
.

3s f 4 s f
. - .
~
d.
2 p Use for
.

final
Add up % A last step
① YOAV, → Da ✗ 100 't
a

( of V
=
0.01 ✗ tool .
percentage uncertainty , )

* wm.ina.i.no
,

② Yo V2 → Da ✗ 100 't
,◦.2- 57

a
0.01 ✗
100 /t
' -
0-007
✗ loot = 0.59165%
.

( of V2
=
0.007 ✗ loot percentage .
uncertainty )
3- 456
 2-
57 3- 456

TE TE
③ Convert -140A to ID Use more precise value ID =
0.59165 ✗ 8.88192
100

=
0.05255
= follow dip smallest g.f.
0.06 - of
-

calculation

\round up ( ONLY FOR THIS STEP)

Final answer →
8-88 I 0.06
↳ 3
Sf s
-2-7 ✗ =
Eg 2-13=10-01

÷ ✗= 4.3281=0.005-4%1 2.13 = 0-4921441774

Y=

328
Y 4- I 0-492 ( 3 Sf ) "
D=
Yo / 001 ✗ 100% ] t [ 0-005 ✗
100% 2-
13
4.328 ]
=
O '5850103703 Yo
=o 58501%
-

=/ D=
0.58501
✗ 0.492,44 } In Pink :5
dip .

100
Final answer → 0-492 I 0-003
=
0.00287
for calculation purposes
I 0-003
 NaOH
F- }
g. 3-2 Qni 25.00cm 1=0.30 of required 21.40cm } -1-0.10 of HCl of concentration 0-100 I 0-003 Mol
-3
dm .

Calculate the concentration of NaOH .

NaOH HCl → NaCl -1 H2O

-1

calculations Errors
}
25.00cm } = 0 -025 dm
✗
①I
}= } % 21.40 0
21 40cm '
0.0214 dm DNHCI = 0.10 ✗ 100%1-0-003 1001 3 . Sf too
-

① NHU = conc
# v1
4
/ Sf = 3.46728% < same = 0.100 ✗ U'
0214 s
- ) %
☐ as

same
= 3-
=
0.00214 Mol ②IT DR NaOH 46728% ✓ mole ratio

N 0.00214 3 Sf
② NaOH = Mol ③ I/ ( NaOH ) 3.46728%-10-30 ✗ tool ③ conc of NaOH = N 25-00 Vol = 4.66721
-
= . . .

=
0-00214 3sf ID [ NaOH ] = 4.6672 ✗ 0.0856
25-0%000 Sf 100
]4 round
-3 = ±
=
0-0856 moldm 0-0039951 up 135ft Final answer → 0.0856 0.0040
Graphical Techniques
the
1) Make graph as large as possible .

BFL the
should occupy at least 3/4 of graph paper .

2) ( changed / variable should be the variable ( which

Independent plotted on x-axis Dependent changes .

because of IV) should be the have units

plotted on y-axis 3) Axes should
.
quantity and .

the marked dots or crosses

4) Plot points, by .

a do not the
5) Draw BFL ( join points ) .

Include R2
the
6) Title graph
42-4
7) Gradient = ,
 ✗ z-× ,

yy
^^

×
> s
proportional /directly proportional Linear

^
^
'
Positive correlation 1 Does not pass through origin ) y y

>×>×
correlation
Negative Inversely proportional
linear
Stoichiometric
Relationships
Required reading pg I -27 .

Formulas
1-
N = mass
Mr

2. N = conc ✗ v01 .

solution
( )
of
3. D= # particles
 6. 02 ✗ 1023

of
4. N =volume gas (gases only )
22.7dm 3

5-
% purity = Pure ✗ 100%
impure

☆ the 7. Limiting / excess

6- % yield actual ✗ 100%
=
Lower pressure, the theoretical more ideal the gas reagent

conditions /Assumptions

1-
Do have
some
\ ☆ Higher the temperature "
, Volume
Of
Gas Particles
are
negligible compared

to the volume of a container

Real gas us Ideal gas
.
.

forces of attraction between

↓2 Negligible
.
gas particles.

the the 1- the

attractive forces the more ideal gas between
.

particles J Exactly obeys gas laws .

the themselves 2. A at do some so

and particles gas behaves like an ideal gas high occupy space
and low do not the
temperatures pressure they
.
exactly obey
If did could
laws they
.
they
into
never condense liquids .

Volume
Ideal gas equation
 Absolute
temperature 1dm >→ 1000cm 3 > 1×10
p ✓ n R 1- =
-3ms ( K) ( 0.001 m3)
'

↓
Of
Pressure volumeG- as constant 1cm 3 → 0.000001ms NO '
8.314 J K 1m01 -1 Im 3 → 1000000cm }
-

Pa Nm-2 moles
( ) ( m3) 1dm} → 0-001 m3
mass ① Moles
PV = RT }
Mr

= mass
p Mr RT

{ V ② Density
P Mr RT
=p

p =%
RT
} ③ Concentration
p =CRT

TB
Practice Questions ( Pg -39 )
35 30°C = 303 k
.

pv= n RT

(1-10×105) (1-50×10-3) =n
(8-31)/303)
n (1.10×105)/1.50-1110
=
3)
-

303
(8-31) ( )
0.065530 Mol
=

=
0.0655 Mo / ( 3s f)

36 -18°C =255 K
.

282cm
O 58.6g →
-
3

→
0 586g
.
0-000282 m3
p = 0.586 = 2078.014
0.000282

Mr RT Note :
P =p
Molar mass 㱺 mass of 1 mole 㱺
Mr = PRT gmol -1 P Mr 㱺 no units
 =
(2078.014×8-31) ( 255)
✗
1- 02 105

=
43.17 gmol -1
I 43 2g not -1 ( 3s f.)
-

( tick if it did not change,

33 ( .
situational Qñ) step 1 :

p✓=n✓pi
write ,

2 the values that did not

step : Tick change step 3 : Group
the constants

4: the pv=
step Make the constant subject KT
PV = K
T
Final =
initial ,
P
scenario
↳
V , = Pzv, initial }
T, T 2-2 final scenario
,

(1.01×1051120.0×10-6) = (1.06×105) ( Va )
(01-273) (381-273)

m3 multiply by 1,000,000
(0-0073992611311)=0.00002170914 ↓
(1-06×105) = 21.7cm} 1×106

Qñ 11 113 MCQS
Homework :
G-as law

Basic of the kinetic ideal

I. assumptions particle theory as applied to an gas are :

The of of size b- The have

A .

gas consists particles or molecules negligible .

gas particles negligible
intermolecular forces The are in constant motion
of attraction c. . gas particles .

d- are elastic molecules bounce

Collisions between molecules perfectly .
The gas apart on collision with no loss in kinetic
do not stick
energy ; the molecules together .
2-
A real gas is most like an ideal gas at :

are
volume of gas particles negligible
lg
Low
a- pressures compared to volume of the container
low are spaced and size since the volume
At
-
pressures, gas molecules widely , therefore,have negligible
occupied the is to the
by gas very large compared gas molecule itself .

also
-
The forces of attraction between gas molecules are virtually zero.

( well above
b-
High temperatures boiling point )

{ _
At
high temperatures , there are negligible
intermolecular attractions
since
the
gas particles
have

sufficient kinetic to overcome it

energy .

3. Ideal
gas equation
Ideal
PV =NRT gas → no 1mF P Pa :
1 atm = 1.01 ✗ 105Pa Volume of gas V m3 1cm :

molecule
3=10-6 m3 negligible
1dm 3--10-3 m3 compared to volume Tof container : Kelvin (1-273) R 831 Jg : -'

K -
l

4.
Graphical Representations
1) For an ideal gas ,PV = constant
T

P, V,= 13 V2
T, Tz

Fa Fa

T
0
> P O>
 constant constant or
2) At temperature , pV= V2 ¥ P, V, = Pzvz

L
, PY,
P
pm

.
Oo> É >P.

3) At
constant
pressure,Vat or ¥ =constant E- ¥ .

a Y,
O > TIK I -273
""
4) constant volume ,V ✗ T
^

P
0> TIK I-
-11°C
Atomic structure
energy
4th Recall shell ✓ small
^ 1) structure of atom ( ) 3rdshell e- €
""

✓
protons, neutrons and electrons/ i
ions by 4$
✓ forms gaining or losing e I ,
_2nd

of
shell ✓ mass atom
㱺
ptn
( nucleus ) '
- I
- -

as is ✓ in
mass of e- negligible 1st shell Maximum no of electrons level =2h2 ✓ No of p = No of
- . .

of a shell closeness to nucleus

e nucleic ✓
Energy depends on
lower
closer a shell is to the nucleus, the more stable and attracted to the nucleus,
-
energy
✓ and neutrons
nucleons =protons
 2) Nuclide nuclide
representation representation 17-7 Atomic number on paper :
of Cl
PT: ( l Number
•
protons 1710 =35-45 35.45 Number of electrons 17 e- mass no
• .
17

Mass number / relative atomic mass atomic no .

-1
•
protons neutrons
of
Average mass
•
isotopes
determined % abundance of
by isotopes
3) Isotopes
of
✓ Atoms of the same element that contains the same number protons, but different number of neutrons .

✓
Electrons are the same .

35 775% 37 22.5% ①②

Cl all
,✗3s '-1
i%# =
35.45
17
# p= 17 # p= 17

# e= It # p= 17 ✗ =77.5%
# n = 18 # n = 20
㱺 35 㱺 37

① ✗ % ② 100 ✗%
-

Questions of
Practice Properties isotopes
✓ chemical have the
same properties they :

same number of electrons as their atom ,

reactions
and chemical depend only on the
and of
number arrangement electrons .

✓ Different
physical properties : different
atoms move
masses mean that their at

different speeds .
 4-35×50-1 83-79 ✗ 52 -1 9-50 × 53-1 236 ✗ 54 = 520552
100
100 100
10°
I52.06

①
7- a. Indium -113 → ✗ %
Indium -115 → 100 ✗
-
%②

- ①
- ②

✗ =
T 100 ✗ 115 114-82
-
✗ ✗ 113
100 100

-
1151100 ×) 114-82
=
113 X t
100 100

113×-1 1151100 ×) =114.8L -

100

1151100-X =
113×-1 ) 11482

113×-1 11500 -115✗ = -18

2x = -1840
-

✗
=
9% of indium -113
of
100 -✗ =
9140 indium -115

Electromagnetic spectrum
①
Frequency ✗ energy
②
Frequency a 1

wavelength
's
Planck _constant
E = he _ speed
of
light

A- wavelength
atom (
F-
g. Hydrogen Ie)
discrete levels
→
e-
are
always in energy
eyes ← observations :
☒
1¥ ←
Ha 4
-
strips of lines spectroscope

←
✓ Different colours
_

red →
← violet

← Clowest ( highest
energy
emitting ) energy)
decreases
light Energy gap
-

dark
Black /
-
background

Linespectmmm-ZE.IR
Energy
low shell
high a 6th
5th
shell
energy energy 4th

"sdhenclntra red, }
shell

2nd Excited

VL
,
{
to
shell state
) loss in CVL
)
corresponds visible light
 energy
- 1ˢᵗ Ground u
shell state
corresponds
(w
nucteusn ) to line on
→ Infra-red ☆ UV
☆ spectroscope n=✗
→
n=3 region n=x→n=1 → region emitted as a ☆ n=x →
-

→ to see in VL wave on the EMF ☆ levels will

n=2 spectrum Energy converge
Practice Question

E
,Yer9Y

;-n=4
FR
(c) n =3 ( )
→

bn=2 (
Visiibgnet)

f
In =\ Luv)

Recap ✗
Yn
"" :( pas Ep!d¥ ) ✗

1) e- are in discrete quantum

levels
energy *
are ?
2) How they arranged

3 and
4) 41k
Na : 2.8.1 (year ¥ ¥

5) × P
×
/ shell

(
1522522 pb 3s year '
9.5 sub -
Principal quantum
numbers ( n)
are used e to number the energy levels
or
quantum
shells
I
→ the number
lower principal quantum , the closer the

tfa of the

shell is to the nucleus orbital → higher

.
shellTotal #

the
principal quantum
number
, the lesser S,
P
,d ,f
the

energy

# of orbitals

:t:
 ::÷
I
s
-
:: - - l - - -

I
 i 2

3 S P d
- I 3 5
-

8
⑤ orbital ④ orbital

y
yy
^^% a
Px
§ ✗ Py pz

e- >
✗
✗ >
✗
>×>×

2L
2h 2h zt spherical

s<p< dat
fill ?
Energy How to up e-
^/ ↑ → fill 3d
.
e- up from lowest to highest energy

!
①
# ↑ #II. Aufbau principle 4P / It/Its / Its / II
 n=4 / ↑↓

4s
exclusion
② Pauli principle
↑↓ 3P Px
/ FATHI ! → 1
"
orbital or box max n =3
"
Ze but opposite spins 35
-
Py Pz

I
.↑H↑H↑↓ ③ Hund , means,
.

↑↓ → Fill up first
-2 / ZP singly
2sthen

n.

↑↓
| pair

n=l is
fill ?
Energy How to up e-
^/ ↑ → fill 3d
.
e- up from lowest to highest energy

!
①
# ↑ #II . Aufbau principle 4P / It/Its / Its / II

n=4 / ↑↓

4s
exclusion
② Pauli principle

/ 14/11/14 → 1
" "
orbital or box max
" 㱺 's bus
11^4/14114 ③ Hund rule ( )
"
"
" " "" """ " " " 35"
Px
Py Pz

→ Fill up first
n=2 / ↑↓ ZP singly

|
25then
pair
A- I ↑↓
IS

Examples no of shells
-

Is 1) Na → He /
-
valence electron is in
3rd shell

2s
2p 15225221263s
'
orbital is spherical
 unpinning
3s ↑↓ ↑↓↑↓↑↓ ↑
valence shell is
3rd shell

3p 3d ↑↓

5g 5p Jd 2) Cl →
17 e- _ , valence electrons :t
2-15=7
1522522106 -3s ≥ 3- PE

3) Ni → 28 e-
[Ar] 452348

4) Br → 355 4 shells
]
[Ar 45234841,65s _ faience e- it
'

152252210635231,64-523410-41,5 Halogen
① Recap on configuration
Practice Qñs
G- a → 31 e- Is
25
[ Ar ] 4523 d °Up ' '
2p

② ,, ,,, ,, ,,,,
,,,,,,
,, , ,,p,,{gyg 35 3d
3p
4s
4p4d4f

Gallium
Example :
( 31 e)

electron
a.
Full configuration
152 3523 4s 2
2522ps pb 3d ' °4p '

b- in a box
Electron configuration
 ☒ ☒ 1141414 ☒ 1*0 ☒ 1-11-17
352 3d ' °
152 252 2106 3p6 452 4101
Question electrons does Ga have ? I electron
type : How many unpaired unpaired

Noble noble Ar 452 3d 10

c. gas configuration →
Use the closest gas [ ] 4p '
before
Practice Qñ :

→
Al 13 e

252 3523
Is 2 Zpb pl
3523
[ Ne ] pl
in state since that is the stable
Written ground most

③ Anomalies
Excited state 1522522 352
wrong ! configuration 1) Chromium → 24 e pb
3p64s⑤d④
↓If I move e- is

É1¥-☐ added
, it will become
correct 344 to make the
configuration ;Ground statevery stable so I e- from config 452 hops to
. .

1522522136
3s
23ps us '
3d
5✓
~ configuration symmetrical 2)
Copper → 29 e-
☆A

half 3d
filled
-
gives
correct
configuration:Ground state
extra
config .
stability
22522 352 4s '
☆ filled 3d extra
Is pb 3106 34 ' ◦ ✓ Fully gives stability
④ 10ns
Practice Qñs:
 I. e- of Cl
write config -
:

352 ✓
Is 2252 2p6 3p6
Correct method

1) start with the Cl atom first

Always
2252
Cl : Is Lpb 3523ps
2) Then add or subtract
152252 3.
(1- : Zp 6 352 p6
↑
addle -

2. e- of KT
Write config :

152252 3523 4s '

:
K Zpb pb
? 152252 352 ✓
k Zpb 3pᵗ
e- of Cu 2-1
3- Write config : remove from the
2252 352 4s '
Cu Is :
Zpb 3pb 3d 1°
Cult Is
:

2252 3s 2 9 4- e-
Zpb 3p 3d 6
Write ⑤ Using PT
for Br 10-1
config : s block
3d last shell first
Br : 1522522106 3523106452 '

352 3d 7
4ps Br ' ◦ +: 152 252
◦
3pᵗ

S'p
 block PG S2 P P2 p 3 pups
- '

d-block
' " "
d d d3 d 45 db d D8 dad
' 't

3 004
45
6
5
67

block
f-
44 e-)
The Periodic Table

Nuclearchargeandshieldingefect
Nuclear
charge → charge in the nucleus
the nucleus contributed
charge in mainly by protons

(
simplified) examples:

✗
✗✗
{ the nucleus and

Factorsatectingthe.MY 1-
Al
Cl attraction between ✗✗ ✗✗

valenceelectwnsyw 17-1
✗
✗
I¥ 13-1
* ✗ ¥¥ ① Nuclear
②
Shielding
✗✗

effect ✗
charge ✗× ✗
✗
✗

-Factor 1

the nuclear force of attraction between valence

Higher charge , the higher the electrons and
nucleus .
shielding effect → number of inner electrons They block the attraction between the valence
.
" "

electrons and the nucleus .

2
- Factor

the shielding effect

Higher , weaker the attraction between nucleus and valence electrons .

Atomic
radius
←talk about 2 factors nuclear ① Atomic radius across period 3 charge and
:

effect
shielding
Atom smaller
-
gets
Explanation
Nuclear increases
① charge as

of increases
number protons

00 ② Same
period = same number
of
OOO
O effect remains almost
O shells shielding
the same

③ Attraction between nucleus and

electrons
valence stronger .

② Atomic radius
down
Group-1 talk about distance and
number of
shells
Atom
-
gets
larger
Explanation
→
cannot use the
two factors
since
they
oppose each
other !
 O①
effect increases)
◦O OO shielding
Nuclear
( charge increases but

Number of
① principal quantum
shells increases
-
distance between nucleus
and valence electrons

increases
attraction weaker
-

Ionic radius
① Ionic radius across Period 3
From Nat to
six-1 :
Nuclear
①
charge
increases .

The
②
effect
shielding
is
exactly
the same because
the first 4
ions
have the same number
of electrons .

-
Attraction increases .

Ionic radius decreases

-
.

From P 3- to 4- :
Nuclear
① charge increases .

The effect is
② shielding exactly
 the same because the last 3
ions have the same number

of electrons .

-
Attraction increases .

Si 4-1 has
-
principle quantum
1

3-
shell lesser than P Jump .

4-1
between Si and Pb due to
addition of pas .

down I
② Ionic radius group
nuclear
* cannot use charge
and effect to
shielding
since contradict
explain they .

PQS
Use no of
.
and distance
to
explain instead
①
Principal quantum shells
increases .

②
Distance between valence
electrons and nucleus increases .

Attraction weaker
-
.

Recall
Nuclear
① charge
the nucleus
-
Charge in

by
Contributed
-
protons only
the nuclear the force
-
Higher charge,the higher of attraction between valence electrons
and
nucleus

② effect
shielding
the valence electrons from the nucleus the effect
Number of inner elections blocking
- -
Higher shielding ,

weaker the attraction between nucleus and valence shells

Ionization
Energy 6 talk about distance
shells ① Ionization (down 1)
and number of First Energy Grp

Trend:
ionization the
First energy decreases down group
- .

and effect both to

-
since both nuclear charge shielding increase, they cannot be used explain !

Principal shell increases

-
quantum
electrons
-
Distance between nucleus and valence increasing weaker attraction
-

ionization across
② First Energy ( Periods)two factorsUse distance specific trends :from
nucleus
-① " : 152252
- 9 2poz⑤ of nuclear
Increase because
--
252
charge Al 152
:
2p63s23?⃝
→

f
Electron removed from 3s
_ -
-

in more
- orbital Mg requires
.

/ energy than an electron / FEW\ Also removed from 3p orbital in / 3523ps 1ER ,
 because is
so
higher Al 3p further
/\ IE because

Na
/ Mg Al
Si p s
④ far'Ve away from nucleus
◦ .
"

1
Easier to remove:
②P :
15225221,63523155--7/7 ④ 3P ^ inter electronic repulsion CIER) -

225221
s:
Is >
6353¥
( 2 electrons → 2 negative charges → repulsion → easier to remove )
,

→
Presence of inter electronic repulsion -

in s lesser
3p orbital of requires energy
to remove an election .

ionization increases across the Nuclear

General trend: First energy generally period .
-
charge increases
effect remains constant
shielding
-

-
Attraction increases
-
First ionization energy increases

Ionization
Energy
→
Ionization to ionize → to form ion CN at)
need to remove the first electron )
( energy
definition :
spam
of
Energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of gaseous atom to form 1 mole gaseous
cation
.

✗
×

ÑaCk
F-
g Na
.
(218/1)¥ : ¥c×
✗✗

itself
Electronegativity Electronegativity → ability to attract electrons F- g. towards
NaÑ Cl ionic [Depends on F-
Nc
)
Nat 11111111 Cl -

bond of
ionic Difference electronegativity :

✗×

whenlower,-ends-oformwvalen-bon
ds(nmwÉ
F-
u%¥¥: "
g. PCI } Covalent
when
higher, tends to form ionic bonds Pee ✗ Cl
"
tug
of war "

ce electrons
' of
sharing

①
Electronegativity
( across Period
]
"° *
""°" -op3EXw)*
①
Intl Fluorine-

② If Oxygen
-

on sense
③☒ Nitrogen
-

Nuclear
-
charge increases
shielding effect constant
-

Attraction between nucleus and electrons increases

-
②
Electronegativity
( down
GwupÑ distance and number of shells
( Follow downward
trend )

shells increases
-
Principal quantum
Distance between nucleus and valence electrons increases -Attraction between nucleus
-

and electrons decreases

The Periodic Table

electron
→
Read affinity .

of
Properties Group 1 elements

→ Read 97
pages , 98,99

with
Reaction oxygen
→ oxide
Metal -1 Oz metal

Reaction with water

metal
Metal + H2O → hydroxide
 of 17 elements
Properties Group

→
Read 99,
100
Memorize : /phosphoric acid Py 010 ( )
s 1-
611204) → 41-131204 Caq)
of
Colours halogens 503 (g) + H2O a) → 1125041991 sulfuric acid
Metal -1 halogen →
metal halide

reactions of
Displacement halogens

oxides of Period 2 1- Period 3 elements

oxides
/\
Me-aloxidesmM N◦n-me-a1o×idesmM_Nen-Mlm)
↓

oxides

I
/ /
Basic-No reactions
with
oxidesm) _@nIf%+ Acidic oxide

o×idesm) acids or bases

Produces OH-①
-
NO

ions
AKO} , Pbf Reacts with
- -

no co
-
Reacts with 2- bases ②
acids
<7 when ③ H2O
Reacts with pH
_
-

in water and bases

Forms both acids alkaline
-

CPH >7) -
solutions Insoluble
_
in water pH of water:7
①
1) Atomic Radius

/\
① ②A
EDgjw-hen-crossthe.nl group period

◦ 0000 Increases -Decreases > Number of - Nuclear charge H SCS principal

- -

increases as number
of increases
quantum protons
effect remains ②
shells increases _shielding
Distance almost
constant due
-
between
^
valence
electrons
to the
same number 000000 and nucleus of shells
between the
increases -Attraction
-
Attraction is valence electrons and
is
weaker nucleus stronger
>
Na A ≥

2) Ionic radius
→
Measure of the size of an ion ①a
①
/ ②\
group
periods
Downthew) Across the
- Increases
◦
000 -
Decreases,and
of
then increases > -Number principal Lit > Cst quantum shells
increases -Eg Period 3 -

-
Distance between a
and
valence electrons 1

nucleus also increases -From p3 to Ct: i

' -

F-
1
g Na vs Nat
.
-
Attraction weaker
effect is
,
I1
AS # p increases -Shielding exactly 1 ! ' '

,
1
I

Nuclear increases ,

1 -
, charge
Element: Na Na -1 D. the same as the first 4 ions have the same
I
# Attraction increases - is Nuclear
p 1 , 11 Nat 54+5" P}? Cl
.. .
-
_ no
-
of electrons # e 'l 10 -From Nat to sat ;
.
-
Election cloud larger
-

increases
charge -
Ionic radius decreases
Na shell less than
in than Nat as # p increases _ Sitt has 1 principal because there are more quantum electrons repelling for the
effect is
Shielding
-
exactly

the same as the first P 3- is the electrons in 4 ions have the same
same nuclear charge Jump
.
due to pulling the
addition of PQS . no of electrons
.

Attraction increases
-

Ionic radius decreases

-

M →m ) + e-
3) First Ionization Energy (g) -1cg
1m01 of elections from 1m01 of of
→
Energy required to remove gaseous atom to form 1 MOI gaseous
cation

① / ②\ Inter electronic
Downtrend Aerossthe.gg Anomaly 2 repulsion

group
period 7 P 1522522pct3523ps - 11-11-10 ☐"" e "" Genera"°
: -
✓
"""" S:
1522522ps 6
352
3104

of
Number
-
principal Eg -

shells
quantum

. Period
3
☒
^ -Ionization ins
increases ② energy is lower as it is easier Distance between to remove
-
an electron Attraction
-

weakens
# C2e- →
2 ve charges

nucleus and valence due to inter electronic elections increases repulsion

→
repulsion → remove)
 Lesser
-
energy required to remove the Distance
te si P
outermost electron
Na
MT sa tr Anomaly 1 from nucleus from a gaseous atom -General trend ; Mg :
1522522106352
Nuclear increases
①a -
charge

1522522 pb
Al :
3s23pl
due to same Magnesium is
✗-shielding effect remains Ionization energy in constant
-
higher
because electron removal
number of shells
increases
from 3s orbital
in
Mg - Attraction requires more energy
More to
-
energy required than election removal in

remove an election the 3p orbital in Al

because is further
> 3p

µ B and
cg Exception Be away from the nucleus B → 1522522pi Bes 152252
:

2. > 2s is
p , less energy
4) required to remove an
Electronegativity e- from B

②
→
Ability for an atom to attract elections towards itself
①
/ \① ^

Downtrend Acrossthew) ×

✗ of Nuclear increases
group period ✗
✗
✗ -Decreases Increases × -Number
-
principal -
charge , quantum
shells as increases Li
Fp g Fr
increases
_
shielding effect constant ② ^
Distance between the as no of shells is the
- .

nucleus and valence same

electrons increases -Attraction between nucleus
Attraction between and valence electrons
-

increases decreases 3
the valence electrons , and nucleus Na > Cl Top electronegative elements:
1-
Iluooine, -0×9gen, roger
Metals → EA → when is
5) Electron affinity low F- A Non metals → high Enthalpy change
-
one electron

added to each atom in one

mole of gaseous atoms under standard conditions .
 F- ✗ + e- → × -
g- (g) cg)

①
/ \ ②

Downthew)
Acnssthew) group period
F- 17 -
- g. Group More exothermic
AF > I> Increase in nuclear
-

charge and a
✗ I
✗
decrease
in
atomic radius across
✗
the period Br
✗
nuclear
F has a higher
-

Cl
charge and a smaller
radius than 0 so the
will
be more from C1 to I
as
Less exothermic election
-
strongly attracted

when size the is to

the increases
the of it brought outer atom shell of the

F
atom due to increase in principal quantum

shells ②
^
,ˢ "
¥ ,

brought into
the Al
✗P outer shell of
-50 -
The election is
-

the atom and as

the atom gets
there is -350
bigger -

a
weaker attraction
between the added
electron and the nucleus as itis
further from the

¥y
-

nucleus
^ From F tool the
-

becomes
"
"
"

electron affinity
more exothermic because
we decrease in electron
electron
repulsion
outweighs the fact that
less
there between electron
is attraction and
the
µ,
man
Sg election
,
48
larger
site
cloud
µ , ,gy ,, , , , µ ,
, ,

6) of elements in →
Properties Group 1 Reactions of an element are determined by the number of Alkali

metals electrons in the outermost shell melting point

have the same number
metals
in the
same
group of
The periodic
{ table

of
→ reactive
Highly , soft,low of their atoms .
Because elements

, may ,
, , ,, , , , ,,µng , µ ,
,

same a. Melting and

the way point boiling point

→ Decreases down the group

 bond decreases
→ Metallic strength
down the nucleus localised electrons and
→
As the
ions
get larger going group,the gets further from the de
the
attraction becomes weaker
Less to break the lattice down
→ energy is required apart going group I

Li
20011
✗

b Na
K ✗
E x Rb Cs ××

02
Group I

b.
Reactivity
ionization decreases
→ Increases down the group , because energy .

C-
Reactions
with
i. Reaction oxygen
react with and all tarnish 2m20 Cs
→
Alkali metals vigorously oxygen rapidly in air → 4M Cs) 1- 02cg ) →
. )
→ is a basic oxide that will dissolve in water to form an alkaline
Mao solution , containing Mt and OH ions-

ii. Reaction with water

React with water
→ rapidly
→ OH ) T Hz
2M Cs) 1- 2h20 (1) → 2M caq (g)
metal bases and ionise
→ An alkaline solution
is
formed The alkali
.
hydroxides are strong
completely in aqueous solution .

17
7) Properties of elements in Group
→
Halogens
metals of diatomic molecules (x2
→ Non - consisting ) .
 a- and
Melting point boiling point
Increases the
→ down group
the
→ As relative molecular masses of the ✗2 halogen molecules increase, the London forces between the
molecules
get stronger

→
more
energy
is
required
to
separate
the molecules from each other
to / >

150 ^✗ 12

8
✓ Bru

# 2

-250
Fz

b-
Reactivity
→
Decreases down the group
is due to the weak F- F
→
Fluorine very reactive exceptionally bond

c.
Reactions
i. with
Reaction alkali metals
→
Forms salts
s Xz 2M ✗ (s
→
2M ( ) t (g) → )
ionic and
→ The salts formed are all white / colourless , typical compounds → contain Mt F- ions

→ All alkali metal chlorides ,bromides and iodides are soluble in water and form colourless, neutral solutions
 ii.
Displacement reaction

reactive less from the

→ The more halogen displaces the halide ion of the reactive halogen solution

Oxides
8)

oxides
/\
↓
Me-aloxidesmM
N◦n-me-a1o×idesmM_Neu-Mlm)
oxides I
/ /
Basic-No reactions
with
oxidesm) -@nCf%+ Acidic oxide

o×idesw) acids or bases

Produces OH_-Alzoz,Pbo,①
-
NO

All plebs-
ions CO -
2- no Reacts with bases ② Reacts with zone
acids
< 7- when ③ H2O
_Reacts with pH -

in water
Forms both acids
-

and bases
alkaline
CPH >7) - (Sio insoluble
solutions Insoluble >→ )
in waterpH of water:7

→
metallic oxides are basic and non metallic oxides are acidic F-g Na> 0 Cs) t H2O (1) → 2 NaOH Caq)
- .
→ oxide the on is
Magnesium because of
, relatively high charges the ions, not very soluble in water but it does react
of
to a small extent to form a solution magnesium hydroxide, which is alkaline
s -1 → ( OH
1490 ( ) H2O (1) Mg )z Cag)

→ does in
Aluminium oxide does not react with water but it display amphoteric behaviour that it reacts with both
→ 3+-1
acids and bases 1) Acids 171203 -1 61-1-1 ZAI
:
3h20
+ At COH
2) Bases : Al> 03 1- 20M -
3h20 → 2 )y-

→
Phosphorus
+ → 41-131003 (
D Py 06 ( s) 61-1204) aq )
2) 010 s 61-120 →4
Pu ( ) 1- a) Hz Poy Caq)

→ sulfur

1) +12503 (
502cg ) t H2O a) → aq)
503 + → Ha 504 Ca
2) (g) H2O (1) 9)

→ oxides
Nitrogen
1) NO
Nz (g) -1 02cg) → 2- (g)
Oz t → HNOZ T HN
2) 2N (g) H2O (1) Caq) 03 Caq)

MP
9) Period 3 / BP
a×
✗

×
×✗ ×.

×
 I 11I
I 1I 1 7
Na Al Si P S
Mg Cl A 4 8 2

From Na to Al :
is to metallic bond
→ MP high ,increases from Nato Al due increasing strength as number of valence

electrons increases

At Si :
→ MP due to molecular
Highest giant structure

From Pu to A :
MP to Weak forces between and
→ is low due simple molecular structure .
dispersion molecules melting point of Ar < Ck
< to
< Pu Sg due increasing number of electrons
Chem
Bonding

chemBondingmT\

Jetai /
covalent

bond
tonic bond(n) bond()
SEFOA -SEFOA -SEFOA
-

between cations between nucleus

shared
metal cation and and anions and pair sea of delocalized of electrons electrons xx
Gks
-
* cec% :
ionic ✗ × • •
giant
structure
G-MLS
-
lattice

\ structure
giant metallic
lattice
/ simple
Giant
Molecular covalent
e-
e- e structure structure ④ ④ ④
⊕
-1-0-1 CSMS) weak ( Ctcs)
 ④ ④ ④ ?⃝
e-
-0¥ IMF
①
Sick
00 8¥ ( sand]

I2 3)strong
covalent 0000 ③
eg Na ,K,Al eg NaCl, KI, MgBr
. .
② Diamond 00 bond Mgsoy y
56
Graphite

- discrete Malleable and common ions :molecule

ductile due to
HC°3
the non directionality
- _-
countable
the
of bonding NO}-
C.
032 Atoms
-_

held
by strong
soy 2- covalent bonds
Poy 3-
intramolecular
( )
N3- -Molecules
held
together
Znzt by weak
intermolecular
Nizt
forces of attraction

GCS :
c-
① Diamond ② silicon dioxide (
sich
)③ Graphite - -
-
-
c c -o
-
i
'
'

i
f , d si it
". .
.
.'
' c.
-
% -
a / .

:
e-,÷: : : :
:C
C1
I
c -c -c C. .
si
ti "
' '
f c. Ccc o f o

- _
, , {T {
,-
" ". -
/
c c
.
.

::
:
:
::
::
:: : : : : .

does have a / BP than Nat ?

D why Mg2t higher MP
 of in is than that in
Magnitude
-
charge Mg 2-1
greater Nat, thus the electrostatic forces of attraction

between the ions and de localised electrons

is
stronger More energy is required
. .._

is the ion in
Mgzt ion smaller than Nation thus de localised elections are closer to the nucleus of
-
positive Mg and
more
are strongly attracted .

2)
Alloys
be than
-
Mixtures of two or more metals , or of a metal with a non metal Alloys may -
.
-
stronger pure metals .
A

sized atom will atoms over

differently prevent planes of metal sliding each other .

of
sequence whole idea bonding ① Draw dot and cross due to electronegativity ( E.N ) ↓
: .

② of molecule DE
shape -
N I✗
.
I

how
↓ Bond & High ↑ ↑ ↑
③ ( tonic covalent IMF
Polarity )( ) ↓ No substance is ever 100% ⑨ ionic or covalent .

CIawinfdfandcrossw.ms
Rules :
least
① Put the electronegative atom
(
in the centre forms the most # bonds)
Is
② the molecule neutral ? [charge]
/
Hey -⊖ ✓ add e- to most
YET charge electronegative Fill up e- -

fill
charge ✓ up as normal C. start from
octet) ✓ remove e from
outside, obey least I
Fill
-
up
central atom electronegative
1- , -r -1-- - -

normata
penodthTpenodzzwt.lv fill up as
'
 have
1
Max 85 can ≥8eY
for d I * If cannot, ( 3d) charge dative bond
1

applies
" €"
€ ④
①
1- - -- - --
-
--
! →F
Examples
Hisleas-E.N.T-ismostE.N.mg ↑
H2O and
⊖ EN Dot cross Lewis structure
✗✗

H •✗ 0 ✗ •H
H - •✗
single
bond
Top EN
3 elements: I
6
↑
I
:i÷: I
H- H
-
Oxygen

✗
✗ (pair

CO2

Dot and cross Lewis structure

✗
✗
=
•
•
✗✗• ◦ C ¥
• =

:O ::c: :O :
To = c = 03 6 4 6
FNO

Dot and cross Lewis structure

••
oo ✗✗

Ñ
:F•xN¥ :O :'F- =D \- I 5 6
••

Pay -1

pot and cross Lewis structure xx 7 - tt¥

CIF
IÑI
*
clx.p.at

×
>✗ "
✗
✗,
[ § Il
-
P -
|
] × , ,✗
, ×

* CII,I
✗×
> 1111 ,

LINE :O : [ IN
Not
=oT]+
*
Dot
and cross Lewis structure
•@

oxygen
needs 2, so
double bond

soy 2-

Dot and cross Lewis structure ✗

✗
7
2-
← ]
*0¥ 1g ,2- 0¥:&.
 distribute=
s -El ]
• •
✗✗

✗
↓ evenly I

✗
✗ It

* 101
06¥
Dative Bonds Resonance
"

Practice 1 coif Resonance

NHct-wJDAT.ve Bond F- Distribute
1• ◦ ↑ '-
-
+since

charge istvet
✗5
:O:
-
y evenly

NXXH remove
4. ✗ from least I É4
NO it
•
electronegative % :" ×
. .. I
✗
i. 6 "°É- - / -

-
- 2
dative bond : _↓10-1 -2- 1511 2- electrons shared from it 1

the same atom

4¥

µ
- -+
H

¥Éi '

l "
" "

N03[) Dative Bond

÷"
- -
_
_2 3-

-H -112

3
µAll structures
Uni -1=1 - form a
-
:-O :_

atYi1§%¥% ii.
% :_-single-51 _-
_
2- hybrid
É double
-12
0
→
* ÷: is" "'
} ✗
%; ◦ C :

i. o o i:O: -0%1 OF
_
°.
- . weaker than a double bond

Bond
C) Dative
(also N°3É) Resonance
_
resonance) -
- -
- 10-1 -✗
✗
✗✗ 151
IN
☒ ¥ : : : 0¥ " ↓ ◦I-0--70 ,N ,
É
¥0.0
✗ ✗ 00
:*
:| _is ¥
✗ --
✗ -

1-5-5=51 -o - 10-1 1 -
- - 1
_ No ⇐ + .in
f- ¥

I
1!

I_
--
I

# #
Counting bp Ip
(d)
40 HIT "
# bp=4
, } ••
•
#
•
bp= 2
#
Hx . ✗ µ bp=z
 _-=oT
H -C -H # } lp=o ✗✗ # lp=2 } :O : ( ¥ :O: # ,p=o 4 To H%¥H
\

No of e-
-

#bp diagram
# Ip Bond
domain Angle
s

2 0 Linear 180°
2 0-07-0

3 0 Trigonal 1200
3
:
%%ÉÉ
planar

6
2 I Bent
◦¥ trigonal
planar 118° / -2°

4 4 0 0-0%-0 Tetrahedral 109°

,
I ← Tetrahedral
3
trigonal
:
1070
pyramidal ¥
2 2 ◦ Bent
tetrahedral )
105°

thrumming when adding

{nÑ Pink → molecular geometry
(actual)

alonepair.MU subtract 2°

# e-d. basic linear

¥?¥
- -_
bp=3 g. ( shape ) N # Ip =L ② ③ ④ * e-
. "
✗ ×' ✗ ✗ ✗_ Trigonal planar
 tetra
trig planar hedrrl ↓
bent
- Zbp 3bp 101 Ilp Ilp 120¥'
-_
trig 㱻 pyramidal
-

Zbp ZIP bent

Practice
1.
Hslc)'
;" Reactant
- ' -
•

.
Dative product H #
bond
0
←
H''+ ion

# =3 =
I bp

H (614+41414) --
# 1p=1
+436
Electron domain
•
) geometry tetrahedral :
Molecular
•
geometry trigonal pyramidal
:
=

2706
Bond
•
=
angle 107° :

:ii :
2-
CCl4L) @

t.FI: •
◦
×

↑ :C/ •✗
C ✗• Ii : -124 o_O ☒ o_0
/
9C •→c×-• CIB ••
✗ ••

#
↑ ← • •:
o_0
Cl ¥
: .¥¥ bp=4 •.

domain Molecular
•
Electron geometry : tetrahedral •

tetrahedral
geometry :

Bond
•
angle : 109°

3.
COLD
 #
to = c = 51 bp=2
domain linear
•
Electron geometry :

Molecular
•
geometry: linear
Bond
•
angle :
180°

4.
Nathu

ii ¥¥%¥m¥}ie one

both side
,I 't v
i
together
'

\ H iH '

#
'
- _- # bp =3 lp=1
domain tetrahedral Molecular
•
Electron geometry : •

Bond
geometry trigonal pyramidal : •
angle 107° :

Polarity
a molecule
→
Is polar or non polar ? Structuring an Answer "Polar " :
- :

HCl ① is
Example 1 :
partial dipole Cl
H- bond polar positive -

Electrons ② do
side pushed Dipoles not cancel out each other toward Cl due to

H :C /
higher electronegativity
③
Hence
,
?⃝ molecule is
polar 2
2.2
dipole a > moment negative

electronegative
H④
dipole ,
More
true -
-.

full
-
true 1- and
-

Ht Cl -

→ a molecule because the

HCl is polar pull "
"
 is in one direction 's
only -
in el direction .

Ck
Example 2 :

"
Sto > 8- non polar " :
-

Cl % CI ① Cl -Cl is non -polar <I

② out
molecule
g- St Dipoles cancel each other → 42 is a non polar -
③ Hence ,
molecule is non polar -

Example 3 :
H2O
8-
* Look at OH separately

to :r

H
\
, ☆ Draw the right shape
8TH
"
" O-
Polar ① H is
bond polar
"H 's -1

② Dipoles do not cancel out each other ③ Hence ,

is
molecule polar

4:
F-
✗
ample NH }

(sketch ) H# bp =3

( actual ) : polar
;

I
# Ip =L I f- rs -
Trigonal pyramidal s+ / 1^1 I ' '

%
H' HI µ
" "
µH
'
Bond
angle = 107° I

Example 5 :
CO2
,
 )
Csketch) ( actual * oxygen is more 8- 51St g- electronegative
1

Is
# bp=1 11 >
0-1 # 115 = =
II. = 1p=o C 0-1

Linear : non 1 polar

-

Bond
angle -_
180° !

Example 6 : AIC/ 3 !
(sketch ) tlactual )
:#I CTI: clrs s 1
,
- -

# "
VAI}
*7- }
At# bp= 1

%
# 113=0 1
I-

¥•I
"
Trigonal planar CI 's '

Bond =
angle 12001 non -polar
:
.

7:
Example Cci
!
C. sketch) Cls -

ICTI 109° ^ I

I 5 ,109°

I
-#
bp=4 a /CICI , -

#
11 -
C- H 1p=o I 109¥
f Tetrahedral
I
c. /
✓
109 ! 111 I
s -

Bond
angle 109° ! : non polar __ -

and difference i.
* Between carbon hydrogen , very low electronegativity Non -polar

502
Example 8 :

PH
Example 9 :
}
10 : 042
Example
 -
Intermolecular Forces ③ H bond
-

1 I
pd
① London ② pd -
tondonspd-pdsH-bondm.net
( forces
dispersion permanent dipole)
id
( id -
)

① London forces
dispersion
Also known as :
-

instantaneous induced )
•
id id ( -
dipole dipole
( dipole induced )
td id temporary
• -
dipole -

London

> dispersion forces → weakest -Example 1:

"2
✗ +

St S g- -

: 111111111
H -H H -H••• Occurs in :

↓ negative # →
All molecules have id -id ( London ) ☆
↳ more

instantaneous induced
→
dipole dipole Mostly
non
polar -

Factors
-
affecting strength of London :

•
size of electron cloud
㱺
count number of electrons
㱺
greater the size of the electron cloud
㱺 the London forces
stronger
㱺 more
energy required to overcome

the from lowest to

-
Question : rank following highest b.p .
Clz, Bra , Iz, Fz
< <
◦
Ans : Fz Clz Bra < Iz
>
gas solid
② pd pd forces -

Also known as :
-

dipole dipole forces

• -

forces
permanent dipole permanent dipole
• -

-
Example 2 HCl :

8-
8-1 St 8- Occurs in :
1111111 :→ molecules
H - iii. H -H polar ↑
Electrons closer -104
more
as CI is electronegative

Factors of
-
affecting strength pd pd :

difference
•
Electronegativity

I < H Br < H C / < H F}

rank of H Wrong
-
Question : boiling points Cl ,H -Br, H -I, H -F
-
Ans ?
•
H
- - - -

!!

lowest > mistake

highest common
•
Ants reverse of the above
:

the
-
Question : H I has -
highest boiling point
lowest
H -F has the boiling point
?
why
are than the forces
Ans : London forces
•
stronger pd pd -

③
Hydrogen bond ( attraction ) -

criteria
-
: strongest >weakest
°
In 1 molecule , H -F /01N
IF
•
In another molecule ,É //

H2O
-
Example 1 :
 g
f?
◦\ "
- µ "" "
A -7
aO

'
H
H IT H

covalent St H bond bond ( attraction)-

2 : NH
Example
-
}
8-

""" "
_ ' 'n" " " " A
A
NN
/ -HI
"
H
H gt H

CH OH
Example 3
- :
}
H
1
St AA
" HH
µ -g O -H %, S
- -
AA 1

H -O -C -H

London London London

-
Question Rank :
①
CHF ccki, ,
C
-54 } Lowest to highest ②%% boiling point
'

ⁿFiF%F↑eᵈ London
CH
④
Ans ① :
4 , CFY ,CCI 4 ( no of electrons)
-

Ne
② ,Nz , Fz ,HF

/
Energetics Thermochemistry
from at a to
→
Heat is a form of energy that flows something higher temperature something at
lower
a temperature
the of is the
→
Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy particles →system reacting
particles
only
→
Enthalpy change, DH ,is the amount of energy absorbed / evolved in a reaction

yÑxeac-icÑ
→ is
DH negative
→ lower than reactants
Products have energy
more stable than reactants
→
Products energetically
→
Lower energy is more stable
Bond bond
→ forming > breaking
Enthalpy
^

Rea_+- f- a

↓ AH
-

Product
Reaction
> pathway

nnermicReac-ionwTdt
→ is
AH positive
Products have than reactants
→ higher energy
are less
→ Products energetically stable than reactants
→ Bond > bond
breaking forming
alpy
F-
hath

Product

^
f) ↑
to"

a- - -

Reaction
> pathway
Reactant

mthalpychangeofreac-ion,AHr0mIlVe S
gative or
positive

→0
:
standard conditions at 298k , 100 KPa
the react form
→
☐
Hr 0 is enthalpy change when molar amounts of reactants together to
under standard conditions E. 3112 → 2MHz (g) D Hr • =
products g. Nz (g) 1- (g) -92 KJ not -1 Yz Nz (9) -1

3kHz (g) → NH} (g) Hr 0 -46 KJ MOI = -

I

i. 2Nz
Has KJ
(g) + 6142cg ) → 4N (g)
☐
Hr 0=-184 MOI -1

CEmmchan-ndardenthapygu-ion.AT/c0w#fo
mbus
Always

negative

→
☐
Heo is the heat evolved when I mole of substance
is
completely burnt in oxygen under
standard conditions
is as combustion reactions are exothermic E.
→ ☐ Heo always negative g.

CH ) ) → CO2 [ + 21-120 combustion other reins

4cg -1202cg g) (1) D. Hell =-890 KJ not -1 Any

q= most scenario I
⑨tÉ
I 1g
Massot ↓ water / 'k solid

\ → m value
g. or

KJ
is
only water Jk '9- liquid
- '

4-18
↓
AH = -

( water the
q ) em =only liquid,
Mass of _
 fuel
burnt
n@@. H ( ±)-9 =
NOT the solid Practice I NLR
↓
.

LR is the
.

most
q= fuel scenario 2 q = ( 150 ) (4-18) (26-2) A
=
16427.4 I --

liquid liquid is exothermic both

=
16 4274 Kj 㱺 -16.4247 Kj
'
( rain ) •
m
=
liquids
No Of moles 㱺
.

mma# 121.67-120-62--0
=
022786
-

46.08
I
DH = g- 16.4247 = 7208.241903 not
=- - _
'

0022786
0 -
I -720 KJ Mol -
t

Hess 's Law

1) write what want to find first

Always they you DH = ?

2C )+ )→ )
0cg 02cg 2202cg
LHS ( KHS
(
-
) )

F. i.

a :

i. ⊖
㱻
:

Examples
 Cs + ) → 2C ) DH = coz
i. 2C ) 02cg 0cg -222 KJ not -1 2. ( CS) -1 02cg ) → (g)
DH = KJ 2C )t
394
-
not -1 Find 0cg 02cg) → 2. CO2 (g)
SP DH = ? EP

t(Ñ-→ 202cg)
direct -1394×2
☆ tzzz ↑↓

→ -1202cg)

2Ccsj-02✓t02Cg)) ZCCS
)

--
=

AH =-1222-10-(394×2)

2
Example
AM = ?
H2O →
(e) Hzocg) AH =
-1286 to -242

↓↓ -1286 ↑↓ -1242 =
_

Is
> )
Hzcg ) 1-1-20 (g) Hzcg -1102cg)
 Example 3reactant Find : ↳ Hit (g) Hzocg) → ↳
is in excess I not of t
AH, = Oxygen ,

OH H2O DH = -144k burning [

1-15 a) (person who is H2O (1) → lg) ) not -1 ) DHCO
KJ not - ' ✓
Cz Hs
OH
G)] = 1371
-

He ° [ ↳ Haug) ] ≥ -1409 KJ not

-
'

☐
He 0 [ ↳ HSOH Cl
)] : Cztls
OH
(1) t&④g) → - 2102cg -13*2011 DHCO )

④
]
[CzH4Cg) :CzH#t3zcg
)→
202cg ) -1211204) ③ ?
2① 4cg)

H↳
+
Hs
OH (e)
t30zcgsu)
⑤ DH =

↓↓
-1409
↓ ¥37
2€# 2c¥ ↓
↓ -442
 2+-
1-1=-1409-44-10-11371
=
=

Examples
→
Find czts-OHC.ly ↳Hs OH
(g)
OH 1- → > 2. OH 302
1- ( 21-15 4) 302cg) 202cg 1-31-12 OCD DH = 1371 -
Cztls (g) + (g) →
2 ) 1- AH =
Cozcg 3420cg -1415 AH- ?
]
302cg -1<2115
OH
,CzH5 OH (g) + 302cg )
-1415
↓ -1371 ↓
3h20 ) -131120 Ll
202cg) -1 (e) 2102cg )

Energy cycle gives

) EDHCCRJ
☐ HIR) SHIP ,
-
EDHCCPJ -

-11415
DH = 1371 to
-

4-4-14 MOI -1
=

Examp1e5_
) )
Find Brtcg -1252cg → Brfsll)
 f- 1=2 → DH = + (
I. Br (g) 1- Lg) BrF3CD -242kt not -1 2- Br f- 3cg , F- cg ) → Br Fz y DH =

KJ
-158 not -1
"?
Brfscej 7
Br
Fcgj -1213cg]

↓ -242 ¢158
Br
Fzcl) -1 Fzcg)

DH = 242 -158
-

KJ MOI -1
= -400

Exampled
CIF } →
Find (g) 1- Fancy > Clfscg)
( 12 t 3Fz )→ } Clz 5Fz →
1. (g) Lg <elf (g) DH -328 2- (g) 1- (g) 2cL F-g- (g)
=

DH = -510
DH= ?

t → Ll
Clfzcg) Ecg) Fscg)

↓ -1164
↓
-1255
{ clzcgj-3-zfzcgjtfzc.gg

1-1=-91 KJ not -1
E✗ampIe7_
)
Find : Cztscg) 1- 2142cg → ↳ HG (g)
Oz → 2 Coz ☐ 1-1=-1300 ✓
1. ✓ GHz (g) 1- É (g) (g) 1- Hzo ( l) 2. Hz (g) t ± 02cg, →
 11<04
) DH = 286 3- ✓ He (g) 1- 7=202
-
↳
(g) →
Zcozcg) 1-31-1204) AH = -1560

¥zcg )
t ↳
→ +16cg) -1 { 02cg)
DH= ?

) 1-21-10 " ↓ -1300 ↓

↓ -1560

IT )
2.
CO2
(g)
t )
Hzocl 202cg -131120cg -102cg) t2H
) -11420cL

202cg
=- 1300-5721-0 =
DH 312 KJ not -1
-

1560
Examines -1
 ItI '

Find 41-18 (g)

[ T
Hzcgj → <41110cg) Formula

<"" 8

7 H'
" ≤ HCCR) E
' " -
'D
Cy Mio (g) -2877

|
Hzcg -286
) ↓

(-2717-286)-(-287-7)
(
R
)( )
P

AHR
①
② Hf 1 mole of substance formed
③ He 1 mole of substance burnt
④ Attn 1 mole of water formed
Write for
DHF
Element formed
being
must be in !
1) NaCl 1m01 !

Na 1-2cg,-2 NaCl csj (5)

 2) kzcrz 07

2Cr )
2k 1- -17-202 → Kzcrz 070) (s) (s (g)

Energyc-y.de
EefFormation of elementis 0 Find Fez 03cg, + 360cg, →
Zfecsj + 302cg)
Hf 0 [ Fez Ozcs,] = 822 2 Fees> t ¥ 02cg) → Fez 03 Cs, [ CO (g) ]
-
i
' =-
111
Ccs
) + {02cg) →
( CS 02
cocgj "[ cozcg) ] = -394 )t (g) → <02cg) DH= ?

Fes )+
30cg, → 2. Fees, + 3C = =02cg)
↓
↓ -1822 +333 ↓ -11182
ape ,,, , go,,g, ↓ g.peg , , , ,
, 3 ,, go ,g, +

3 Ccs
)tZ0zcgʰ
-DHfCR)-DHfCR)tBHf(P#
DH =
(+8221-333) - 1182
27 KJ not -1
=-

FI
[NH} ESH fer (4×901-61-242)
D.
Hf 0 (g) ] -46
= -
, ,[
1
NO
(g) ] = 90 ) 4C -46) -
11
[
, ]= 1- → 61-1201=9
H 0cg> -242 4 NH} (g) 502cg, 4N0cg) + )-
Examples Hf •
[cztlocg) ] =
-85

cg
¥-12 )t
<
Hzcgj → EH 6cg) 1-10=-311

Hr = btlf I (P
) ZDHFCR)
-

[ 85
311 =
- -
] -[ x]
KJ
x = 85 1- 311 = -1226
-
not -1

=--_

BONDENTHALPIES-calways.tv)
mole of
☆1 covalent bond .

is
Covalent bond gaseous .

H _{ Hcgj
Hz → KJ
1) (g) 214cg) DH 0=+436 not -1

DH 0=+431
2) Hclcg ) → Hcg) -14cg) "
H+ Clog,

Exampled H= ?
1-
C-
21-14 (g) Brcgj → (21-14 Brzeg>

data
Use section 11 of booklet

☆
|bH=BB--BF_|
bonds out
Draw the
✗
cz H↑
" c≠É"+ Br ,- Br → H C -1C H -" -
 H✗ ✗ H BL br
BF
DH = BB -

= [ 614 t4 -1193

bond
] [346
-
+
4 +2 (28-5) =
_¢
!!
Examples cannot do enthalpy unless everything is a gas

DBE :::::::-
:

Calculate DH for
C-
H = 412 ,H-H = 436 ,C- (
=
348

it ↑ ↑
AH ? H - C C C H
= - - -

3
Ccs
,
t€n)H- ↳ Hs lg) h h h II

↓-1445 /
3
696 -13296 Ccg

t.4HTG.IS/=+3q-
)
 3 t
-qz ↓-11744
Leg) 8Hcg) <

DH = 2145 1-17-44 -3992

=
=
at 15
Test yourself Pg 214
+
Qñ 18
kinetics

of Ha
Decomposition 02
H
202 U) → H2O(e) + +202cg)

Factors rate of reaction

affecting
①
Temperature
kinetic
→
particles gain more energy
or to Ea → collision
→
more
particles having energy greater than equal frequency
increases

of effective collisions increase

→
frequency
→ rate of reaction increases
kinetic
Average energy
of is
No of
.
particles particles directly proportional to
temperature
I
 ☒

i
---

* ↓ ↓ kinetic
--
-
-1
-
÷ "

Move with #
particles particles with
<
energy •

a ≥ Ea
F- energy ↳wer
No of particles
temperature

:-.
÷ ""

* ↓ ↓ kinetic
--
-

#
particles with
≥ Ea
energy

② catalyst

^
→
provides an
alternative
pathway Ratalysed ) → more

than
particles having energy greater
p
 or
equal to F- a
→ collision increases
frequency
# of of effective collisions increase
→
frequency →
P des
1
I
rate of reaction increases

☆NochangeinkiretiugI 1
energy
㱺 no

shifting

of the
curve
É¥☒N☒ae* a
F-
a F- energy

[
with
catalystwithout

③ Concentration
• • • •
• •• • • • of

•
•
% : :::
Lower Higher
concentration
concentration
more collision
→
Increase concentration means particles per unit volume → Higher frequency
of effective collisions increase
→
frequency
→ rate of reaction increases
#
if particles
 .É¥*÷÷ energy
.

Pressure for a reactant

④ Conly gas that is )
O
O
°
◦ → 000
OOO

More
→ particles per unit volume
→ collision increases
frequency
of effective collisions increase
→
frequency
→ rate of reaction increases

⑤ surface area ( only for solids that are reactants) ⊖ ✓ °

g 000

ooo
◦ ☆ Decrease in size = increase in area

→ ↑ of collisions → collision
Increase in surface area results in frequency frequency
increases

of effective collisions increase

→
frequency
→ rate of reaction increases

Effective collision
Must with
① collide sufficient energy to overcome the F- a ② Must collide with the correct
orientation
How do we measure rate ?

①
volume
Measuring of gas produced overtime
-
collect gas using gas syringe
It gas is insoluble in water, water displacement ②
-

✗→

→ ≤ * change in mass
of

100g 100g

only
system if gas
100g is evolved

Measure
③ pressure
Use in
-
pressure sensor to measure change pressure of gas
colour
④ treasure intensity
colorimeter
-

Measure
⑤ change in ④of solution
④
HT
[ ] or [OH ]
-

reactants /
in
Definition of rate : change concentration of Products time

Different
types of rates
 EM S

Ñynnge 15

v01 of
"±:÷+÷
☆
gradient rate 30
__
00

gas/n.cm}
☆
gets slower
as time ran has
proceeds completed
↓ 100
-

I1

¥ !
I
,
time/

0(5 30 45 90 5

① rate =
Average 1004,71
=
222cm3s -1
= at -1=0
② Initial rate gradient
[
↑ fastest /steepest]

Cat)
at any point in time
③ Instantaneous rate =gradient
Mass of

system /g time/
100 0

Maass ◦f- system /g 95 10 85 20

 8;33-
Equilibrium
F-
g- Caco } ( )
s
= Cao Cs) 1- 02cg )
reversible
reaction
}/

I
[email protected]

Causes) open
①
②
③ .
→
㱻
p
closed
←
0
coz -1

Cao

80%801 caco} ••③•|•• →

pg
280 Chem Textbook
p Cao
 backward

㱺
① Forward ← rate ☒☒ forward ,

backward Rb
= Rf →
rate
+
cawzc.gg ≈ Crocs) Cozcg)
②
Equilibrium R^④ can be achieved

② No

has
observable
changes •:÷i once
a
system

in
any position ,
 reached equilibrium
•¥ ¥ 1.
> ,,, More R

Time still
⑨ Backward and forward mins taking place
⑤ Reactants andCountrat?⃝
equilibrium

products
all
are present atA
equilibrium ,,te9m ,-
F- 9m
w⑤^ At Mm Less
p

, i > Time

☆Position of
-113 equilibrium → POE
A I CTD
 POE to the
shifts left 㱺 More AtB_
less
C
the more
POE shifts to right 㱺 ctD_
less
AtB_

④ Rf=④ original
and
① Concentration → right new
rate not A 1- B & Ct D ← left the same ! !
↑
* change : [ A ]
A the
* effect : ↓[ ] 㱺 POE will shift to right new
new
Rt > Rb until Rf=Rb_

* B
change: remove
* effect add B 㱺 POE will shift to left
:

new Rb
①Rb > Rf until Rf = ②
to ↑ CB] by the to
when B is removed,[B) decreases System wants .
shifting position of equilibrium
the left and ③
, forming more reactants less products ④

② / ≈ )
Pressure(gasonly One reactant product
is
gas 2A (g) Bcg Lesser gas produced ,
↑ of
lesser pressure * change : pressure system
wants to ↓ P lesser POE the
* etect : system by forming gas molecules % shifts to right

forming more B and less A

Enle Eu1es
 t
Acs, Bcg, ≈ Ccaq, t Dce)
* ↓ P of
change :
system
more
* eteit : ↑ Pot system 㱺 form gas molecules
more
◦ % POE shifts to the left forming gas

ÑÉÉ=cu+%csÉ
* 㱺 wants to ↑P
change :
↓P system
㱺 no shift in POE

&
Acs ) T 2B (e) Zccaq) -1 3. Dug
* 㱺 no shift in POE
change :
↑p

③ Temperature exo ④
KJ
④ At B = Ct D DH =
-52 not -1
of
* change :
↑ 1- system
wants to ↓ -1
* effect : system
by endothermic reaction
favouring
the
-
:
POE will shift to left,forming more A and B and less C and D until new equilibrium is
reached .

*
④Nzcg )
+
3112cg, & 2MHz (g) AH = -92 KJ not -1
change :
↓ -1 of system
④
* effect: system wants to ↑ -1
the exothermic reaction
favouring
the more less
. : POE will shift to right, forming NHS and Nz and Hz until new

equilibrium is reached .
 →
Equilibriumconsoant (Homogeneous
eqm : P and
R have same

aA TBB & cc + DD state caq) Caq) Caq) Caqj

[ c)< ✗
Equilibrium ← Kc
=
Products = × [ D)d constant ↓ Reactants [ A) a [B) b
conc

① Nzcg ) + 3112cg ) & 2MHz (g) /md?⃝ Kc = [

NH
332 units = [ mold m 3 ] " =
-

Cmoldm
-372 [Nz] [ HIT 3 [ mu / dm -3] 4/2 = not -2dm 6

② 2502 Cgd T 02cg) ≈ 2503cg)

[ 50332 =
Kc = units ( Mol dm 3) 2 =
Mol -1dm
3

2 02
[ 502 ] [ ] ( mold m 3) 3
-

)
③ Ns Ou cg I 2N 02cg)
[ Nose ] 2
Kc = units = moi am-3

m÷z=m◦t'dm3wMdm [Nzoy ]
Nz ] > >
④ 05cg t N 02 cg & 3 NO (g)

Kc = [ N°273 units = not dm-3

[ Nz 05 ] CNOZ]
) ) -1 H2O
⑤ cocg) + 3112cg ≈ CH
4 cg (g)
= CCH
Kc 4) [ H2O] units = Mol -2dm 6
CO
[ ] [ Hs] 3
Kc = [
⑥ A)'[ B] = no units
'

[ ] [ D]
C ' '
 Kc
constant
by
Affected
-
temperature only

A ≈
/ (e) + 1 Ble] lccej-IDC.es

D]
Kc = [c) [ products

Ñy reactants

scenarios linterpretation)

㱺
① Kc > I products > reactants
the
POE lies to right
is
Forward rxñ favoured
② Kc __
I

③ Kc < I 㱺 reactants > products

left
POE lies to the
Backward rxñ is favoured
Example ⑤ :

t
H2 ( g) Brzeg, & 2HBr cgj Kc = 1019

Reaction Quotient 㱺 indicator which tells us how the reaction will proceed at any point in time

} What
Qn : Mix 2m01 of HBR,Imo / of the and 1m01 of Bru in a 1dm vessel .
happens ?concentration
 Q=
[HB
i.si#-CHzJCBrz =
]
4
Kc = 1019
a < Kc
-
until
products
'

Q= Kc
to more
-
The forward rin will be favoured form

2MHz Kc =
④ t④ Nzcg) t
3112
(g) = (g) 2.0
Example :
④

An : N 2=1 moldm
-3
a= [NHI2 CHI = [
Hz = 2 Mol dm-3 [ Nz] Hz] 3
[1) [273 NH } =
4

mold m -3
=
¥
=
zoo

Q= is at
Ko -2 Reaction equilibrium
(8) 2
④ Qn :
Nz = I moldm
-3
Q= CNMI =
H2 = Imo / dm -3 [ Nz ] [Hu] 3
3 NH
=
} 8m01 dm
-3

=
64

to
Q
>
Kc → Backward reaction will be favoured form more reactants,until Q= Kc

2N ) NLOY
02cg = (g)
If order is reversed,
Kc=
{4%1}-2 =
0-69
must
reciprocal

} way rin is

Nzoycg, I 2N is
•
02cg ) written important!
 ki-E.FI?;-=o!-g-- " 45

If moles are hawed,

must
Hzcgj Ing) ← ZHI egg square
root

←
"
' -2,4152¥ =
54
{ "" * moles ateets '
"!

•
{ Hzcg) + { Izcg ) HI cg )

Kc = CH =
v54

Fifty =
7-35

Questions:

An 5 Textbook
] 2 Kc =
D Hz (g) 1- CI Leg = Hclcgj 1033
É
{ HLCG) -1
Clz (g) = Hclcg ] Kc = Ñ3
=
2) Hz (g) -1 Brcg) 2HBrcg, Kc =
1019

ZHBR
(g) I Hzcg )
+
Brzeg) Kc = ¥9
HBR
(g) = ≤ Hzcg ) 1- ÉBr2C97 Kc
=
JES
affect value of Kc ?
How
does
temperature ④④
Hz
g. Wcg) 1- 2112cg) = (
F-
011cg ,DH = -90 KJ not -1
 ↓ value smaller
Kc =[CH}0H3_ 㱺 Kc gets
[ Hz
uo3↑[ ] 24

㱺
T↑ system wants to lower T
the
favour endothermic min
㱺
POE will shift to the left
less
forming more reactants and products
:
. Kc ↓

T ↓ 㱺 system wants to increase T

favour the exothermic rin
POE the
㱺 will shift to right
and less reactants
forming more products
i.
Kc ↑

Addition of catalyst Hers

◦
alternative
reaction
pathway
that has lower C-a

① POE ② Kc
-
unchanged unchanged -

affected by
only
-
temperature

③ Rate of rin
of
-
Increase rate rin for both
forward and backward mins

a uncut
 ↑F cat
µ Ea'
cuncat)

-P Ea Coat)
'

>

in °ᵗ
Factor Effect on POE

Pressure
* There must be a
gas
✓ * The
molecule
be a diff in A-
Temp -
|✓
erature
✓ catalyst ✗

J nan+ Effect on Kc ✗

at

ⁿ""""ˢ""
 """| ✗
✓✗

POE left
②④
Kc same
POE
right
Kc
↑

POE right
Kc ↑
POE Kc
right
same

POE same
right Kc POET
Kc same

Bases
Prior Acids and Knowledge Acid Base Arrhenius
"
" "" " " """

""
"
⑧ " """" """ "

ions conduct conduct

◦
electricity ions
•
electricity (electrolyte) (electrolyte) pH
◦
<
7 pH
◦

77
° '
blue litmus turns red • red litmus turns blue

[
acid -1 reach'll → salt + Hz
 metalbase + acid → salt + H2O
+ salt -1 +
acid carbonate → salt -11120 alkali + ammonium → NHS 1- coz salt H2O
acid -1 metal
→ salt H2O
oxide / -1
soapy feeling
•

hydroxide

acid + base → salt -1 Hao

•
sour taste

B.
roasted Lowry -
theory
Ht : Ip
H+=t Oe ☆☆
On
Bronsted acid → proton donor
Ht
( )
→
Bnnsted base proton acceptor
CH -1)
base conjugate
Bwnsted acid Bronspeq conjugate

e- }
Ot

Base acid

1- H2O
& CH H
① CH3C00④ } Coo t
-

lost Ht gained Ht

B-
A → c. B.
.

→ c. A
BB- .

acid base
Conjugate -
pair ① CH} COOH e CH } Coo
: -

H2O I H30+
µ②
it
differs by
1¥
I -

Bwnsted
Bronsted
Conjugate conjugate base acid
acid
base
NH
② NH } + H2O ≈ 4-1-1011

lost
gained Ht Ht

① NH} & NH4 -1

② H2O & OH -

Arrhenius
Bronsted
Amphiprotie vs amphoteric .

"; donate
( B.
A.)

ÑH< ¥→ OH ◦
-
 ¥
( B- B) "
1430-1

② Hcoz > coz 2-

✓

✗
☒ 11203
Pbo
10*1203 ② ZnO ③

"+

pH scale \OH -

1%
1- basis

◦ 14

alkaline ↓ ↓
[Hᵗ]=[°H]
[Ht] > [OH] [ OH ] > [Ht]
-
 ⑦ pH = log
- to
(1-57×10-3)
/\ [ Ht] 2- ,
= 80

e. -3
g. [Ht] 1-57×10-3 not dm
=

-10910
e.
g. HCl Laa )
3- 50
PH =
[H ] = ?
-1

CHT
3- 50 = -log ]
log ,[ Ht] = -3-50
log to a = b
a= lob
[ Ht ] = 10-3-50
=
0 000316
.

-3
=
3.16 ✗ to not dm -3,

+1
pH
=L [Ht] =
to ✗ 10-1
=
0.1
☆
Increase of ↳ PH 2 [
= Ht
] = 1.0×10-2 = 0.012 :-/ o pH by 1
decreases =3 [Ht] factor
pH =
1.0×10-3 = 0.001 [ Ht] by a
of 10
1=1
Dptt causes -1-10 in [Ht]

pH = 5 [Ht ] =
I not In-3
-3
pH =/ [ Ht ] new 104m01 dm
=

Anto ionization of water

-

+
H2O 㱺 Ht OH
_

Kc = [ Ht] [ OH ]
 H2O
[ ]

- ]

He
Kc ✗ [ H2O] = [ ] [ OH -

ftp.#--Kw--CH-TC0H-]
For
neutral solution,EH -1 ] = [ OH ]
= 2
10 -14 ✗

✗= 10-7 not dm -3

/
Ht
[ ] = 10-7 [ OH ] = 10 -7 -

Hug
log ,[ Ht] = -10g
-
, to
,◦
-7
| ,, [OH ] = -log 10-7 PH =7
-
,☐
p OH
=
7

pH + POH = pkw
] Pkw = 14
kw = [Ht] [ OH ] 7 +7=14 kw logo [He =-
Coty -] , at
25°C
pkw = -40910
[
HT]
+

]
10910 [ OH
-
)
[ Ht Cott
pkw = -logo ] log to ]
-

pkw pH + p OH
=

H2O & Ht OH AH -1
= + -
ve
Bier@- 80°C
↑ -1 㱺 system
wants to ↓T

" "" " " ""

㱺 favours the
endothermic
rx-nthomqthet.ua 㱺"
 㱺
Forming
more Ht
and OH
°
"
} " P"
⇐ "

80°C
㱺 ↓6
[Ht] ↑ pH

,
[OH] ↑
㱺
pay
↓
} drop by same
factor

↓ ↑ PH + poll =pkw = 12

-10g
④ =.
pH
is relative
✓ Does not start at origin

in
-

Exponential
•

>
I
temp
Strong vs weak
.
 acid 㱺 disassociates in Ht
strong completely water HCl , Hzsoy , HNO } to give
ions

base 㱺 disassociates in water to

strong completely NaOH, KOH give OH ions
-

e. HCl
g.
HCl
Ht
•
•→ •
•-• • • •<d-

•-• →
•
•-• •
• ••
•-•

water

㱺 disassociates in to Ht ions
weak acid partially water CH}COOH give

㱺 disassociates in water NH to
weak base partially } give OH ions -

ctiscoo
H
Properties o_O •-• •-• ←• ①
••
Electrical
conductivity →
• & •→ 㱺
strong
acid conducts
•→

• better
•→ electricity
•→

water 㱺 more mobile ions

② React with carbonate or a

metal
㱺 acid :
strong vigorous
bubbles
 㱺 slow
weak acid : rate of
bubbles
formed
calculate acid
Type A :
pH of strong
a

0.00150 dm -3
not of Hot
E-
of
g. calculate the pH -

→
step 1 Hcl :
Ht + ce
0.00150 0-00150 0 -00150
-3
step 2 CH-1] :
= 0.00150 not In
0.00150
step 3 : pH = -log
=
2.82/1

E- the 0.500 not -3

g- calculate pH of dm of 112504

step : Hzsoy → 211-1 + 5042

1 -

0<5 / 0 -

2 : Ht -3
Step [ ) = 1^0 no 1dm
step 3 pH = log 1-0
: -

=
0

Calculate Ha 2-
E-
g. concentration of Ht for 112504, given pH = 4. I step :
504 → 2Mt + soy

4. I = -log [Ht]
[ Ht] =10-4-1
=
0-0000794
-3
=
7.94×10-4 moldm
 112504
[ ] =7-94xz.IO#
3.97×10-4 not dm -3
=

pH of a base
Type B calculating
:
strong

e. -3
g. calculate the pH of 0.200 not dm KOH @ 25°C .

step 1 :
KOH → Kt + OH -
0200 0-200 0-200
[ OH cut -1
step 2 : ] = 0-200 moldm-3Colditz
-
20h -
3:
step p OH
=
0.698
POH 0.698
step 4 pH : =
14 - Econ ] = 0Th
- =
14 - putt =
=
13.302
I 13 30g
-

Acid
Deposition

5.6
Rainwater pH = :
-7
H2O
CO
2cg -1
)
(e) 112003 =
)
Cair carbonic acid
Hzcoz ≈ H -1 t HCO}_

< 5-6
Acid rain pm < :

carbon in not for acid rain → other factors

→ dioxide the air is responsible contributing
-
:

502 and N°2

rain
@@ major contributors gonna_Fuels contains to acid
( man-made
sulfur )

Volcanic
\ eruptions
Creatural
) 502cg)
+ Hzocl →
) Hzcozcaq, 1. Scs) 02cg ,
t →
s0zcg?⃝ sulfurous
acid )→ trioxide 503 H2O → 112504
2. 2502cg)
1-
02cg 2503cg ) [ sulfur ] 3- (g) 1- (e)
Caq)

hot
N0C) (
man-made
) -o
source
{Internal combustion engine
when strikes bolt of cnatural
lightning :
lightning ,it is a ) energy Nitrogen in .

will neutral :
air react ←
. NO
W
oxides

N ) 02 → ZNO
2cg t (g) (g) Hao
ZNO 1- 02 → 2N
(g) (g) 02cg)
2N ) H2O H ) HN ( )
02cg 1- (e) → Nozcaq T 03 aq
m
Problems
health
-
Vegetation, pH of soil
of
Corrosion
-
buildings
bodies
water
-
,lakes and rivers

solutions
1.
catalytic converters Cin cars)
Rhodium , Palladium, platinum
-

the to harmless
Converts•
oxide the gas
2-
Electric cars
Public
3. knowledge
4-
Addition of Cao or Cac OH )z to water bodies to neutralise F- g Cao -1 Hzsoy → Casket H2O -

5- and to before
Pre post combustion method remove 502 emissions Pre combustion
•
:
burning

Fuel ?⃝ *
try to
remove

theˢMt → Pre combustion

-

sulfur
desulfurizalion

combustion
Post -
•
desulfurization

-03
Winkler 's Method and BOD
coat
chimney
with Caco
}/
Ca COM)z
EH
1) Parts per million [ppm ]
when with
-
Used dealing very small concentrations .
 dm -3
-
lppm = 1mg .
.

of solute in 106g or
-
lppm = 1g present 106cm}of solution .

Dissolved
2) oxygen
Not
very soluble in water
-
.

from and also for the dissolved in

-
Dissolved oxygen comes photosynthesis atmosphere -Concentration of
.
oxygen
water at 20°C is about dm-319 ) with
9mg ppm which decreases increasing temperature .

Biochemical Demand ( Bob

3) oxygen )
used the aerobic in water to the
-
The amount of oxygen by microorganisms decompose organic matter in the
fixed ( 5 fixed ( )
water over a period of time usually days) at a temperature usually 20°C
waste
Higher BOD → more organic
- .

Good water -2 BOD less than

-
quality 1
ppm.

5
-
Unpolluted water → BOD less than ppm .

4) Winkler 's Method

method for amount of dissolved
-
Typical determining the oxygen is the Winkler titration method .

Basic
-
equation : manganese (1) sulfate is added to water and the manganese 111 ) ions are oxidised under alkaline
to Civ the
conditions manganese ) by oxygen in the water .