Received 25 September 2023, accepted 9 October 2023, date of publication 13 October 2023, date of current version 24 October 2023.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3324419

Critical Review on Torque Ripple Sources and

Mitigation Control Strategies of BLDC Motors in
Electric Vehicle Applications
N. PRABHU1 , R. THIRUMALAIVASAN 1, (Senior Member, IEEE),
AND BRAGADESHWARAN ASHOK2
1 School of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu 632014, India
2 School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu 632014, India
Corresponding authors: R. Thirumalaivasan ([email protected]) and Bragadeshwaran Ashok ([email protected])
This research is supported by the Royal Academy of Engineering, United Kingdom under the scheme of Distinguished International
Associates (Grant No: DIA-2022-150 & ESMN 2123/2/93), and the authors extend their appreciation to the Vellore Institute of
Technology, Vellore, for this research work.

ABSTRACT In recent years, electric vehicles (EVs) have attracted a lot of attention and are rapidly
growing trends today due to their ability to compete with and overtake fossil fuel-powered vehicles among
all electrified transportation tools. The primary focus of EV evolution is on improving the driving range
and optimizing energy consumption, both of which are essential demands achieved through improved and
developing motor performance. The brushless direct current (BLDC) motor is one of the most superior
choices for dynamic applications in EVs, providing the highest power density and capability of any motor.
BLDCs are gaining popularity in EVs not only for their high performance in speed and position controls but
also for meeting the requirements of smooth torque maintenance with torque ripple mitigation. This paper
provides an overview of various advanced control strategies, such as field-oriented control (FOC), direct
torque control (DTC), intelligent control (IC), controlling input voltage (CIV), current shaping techniques
(CST), model predictive control (MPC), and sliding mode control (SMC). These strategies are used to
regulate the torque ripples produced in BLDC motors, aiming to achieve energy-efficient EV performance
for various applications. Additionally, it describes a cloud-based control system coupled with electric motor
drives to address challenges in predicting current vehicle conditions for improved power distribution between
the motor and battery systems. Furthermore, recent concerns and difficulties in advancing torque ripple
mitigation control strategies are highlighted, with comparisons and discussions for future EV research.
Finally, an evaluative study on BLDC motor drive in EVs with different control strategies reveals its
significance and potential outcomes.

INDEX TERMS Brushless direct current (BLDC) motor, cloud-based torque control, control structural
architecture, electric vehicles (EVs), various control strategies for torque ripple mitigation.

I. INTRODUCTION electronic motor controllers, advances in power electronics,

Electric Vehicles (EVs) have made significant contributions and numerous distinct control techniques. Even though EVs
to the development and global challenges of modern society offer simplicity for cheaper maintenance, high reliability to
by addressing environmental protection and energy savings in reduce component breakdowns, very low electricity costs,
daily life [1], [2]. They are capable of efficiently and effec- more comfort without vibration, increased efficiency, and
tively addressing global challenges through the electrification accessibility compared to other vehicles [3], [4].
of vehicular technology, which includes efficient motors, The improvement of driving range and power management
in EVs is driven by motors that have high power density,
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and high instantaneous power, rapid torque response, robustness,
approving it for publication was Wonhee Kim . and high efficiency over a wide speed range. Today, there
2023 The Authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.
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 N. Prabhu et al.: Critical Review on Torque Ripple Sources and Mitigation Control Strategies

are many different types of electric motors available for some motion-control EV motor drive applications, and gen-
evaluating EV performance, including the permanent magnet erally, the average value of the torque ripple produced by
synchronous motor (PMSM), brushless direct current motor a motor depends on the motor’s construction, design, and
(BLDC), induction motor (IM), switched reluctance motor control parameters [13].
(SRM), and DC series motor [5]. However, BLDC motors Regarding motor control methods, different types of con-
are now more attractive and the most frequently used for trol strategies, such as scalar and vector-based controls, are
EV applications due to their greater benefits when compared initiated to mitigate torque ripples for BLDC motors in EVs.
to all other motors. These benefits include high reliability, Most commonly, the regulation of torque ripple by advanced
high starting torque, high efficiency, a wide range of speed vector controls in closed-loop operation is compared to the
regulation with high torque, and dynamic response [6], [7]. scalar method because it offers high speed and a more
In addition, BLDC motors operate based on rotor position dynamic response against the overall constraints of the motor.
sensing to obtain the optimal voltage applied to the motor It also improves motor output response over a wide speed
for improved performance, using low-resolution sensors or range while maintaining high torque at zero speed, which is
sensorless control [8]. Sensor-based schemes are used to the most essential feature for BLDC motor drives in EVs.
determine the motor’s rotation location with respect to the In this context, a conceptual review of various vector con-
motor stator stationary plane, while sensorless schemes use trol strategies leads to the conclusion that BLDC motor torque
back-electromotive force (EMF) estimation and a flux func- ripple mitigation is necessary to enhance driving performance
tion to operate the motor with synchronous phase currents and meet specific power requirements for EVs. The literature
through the motor controller [9], [10]. review includes various research studies conducted to date
One of the most important control modules in EVs is and suggests ambiguities that future engineers should inves-
the motor controller, which is responsible for driving safety tigate to further improve the performance and significance of
performance, has a significant impact on drive system effi- BLDC motors in EVs.
ciency and is involved in the vehicle’s design comfort. Motor In a discussion focused on BLDC motor hardware, the
controllers in BLDC motors are used to operate and regulate emphasis is primarily on different classifications, operating
the speed, torque, and position of the motor, allowing it to performance characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages
start, stop, and rotate quickly at high torque with variable of various electric motors used in EVs [14], [15], [16]. The
input voltages. In this controller technology, motor-controlled development of different converter topologies to minimize
parameters are used to ensure proper energy flow to the motor current and voltage ripples due to switching power loss issues
in an EV, including commutation current waves, pulse-width is also discussed [17]. Various BLDC motor control strategy
modulation (PWM) processes, current ripples, total harmonic discussions explore different control schemes in terms of
distortion (THD), and electromagnetic torque. Developing sensors or sensorless controllers to improve motor perfor-
a motor controller to regulate rotating systems is a chal- mance and address different power optimization issues in
lenging task accomplished using advanced power electronics real time [18], [19]. Furthermore, the optimal control strat-
components such as insulated gate bipolar junction transistor egy to regulate torque ripples in various control methods
(IGBT)-based converters. Converters are employed to regu- [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30]
late the motor torque and improve the steady-state period of and the investigation of various commutation techniques and
the rotor speed of BLDC motors by properly triggering pulses PWM schemes to control stator current in BLDC motors have
from the PWM vector component and obtaining the optimal been discussed [31], [32], as mentioned in Fig 1. According
voltage more quickly. Here, the PWM duty ratio is calculated to the review, some control strategies have been developed
using current commutation techniques in switching between to improve BLDC motor performance to meet vehicle per-
phases to energize the stator windings and drive the motor to formance requirements, such as driving range and energy
rotate properly, improving the BLDC motor’s performance in optimization in real-time operating conditions.
both steady and dynamic states [11], [12].
Moreover, BLDC motor control is required to achieve and II. MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVE OF PRESENT WORK
sustain smooth torque response and speed with minimum Torque control of BLDC motors has always been an impor-
ripple content, ensuring excellent performance in speed and tant area for research in the field of electric vehicles, and its
position control drives for EVs. Due to uncertain parameter control strategies, as well as ripple reduction, have consis-
variations and load disturbances from the motor, torque ripple tently been crucial for the development of high-performance
effects are seen in BLDC motors, preventing smooth motor vehicles in the future. The extensive literature review on
rotation with a gradual increase and decrease in output torque. various control strategies is more concerned with describing
Torque ripple is caused by various factors, including inter- the unique control modules and their development than taking
actions between magnetomotive forces (MMF) and air gap a critical approach to torque control strategies for BLDC
flux harmonics, as well as speed fluctuations, which degrade motors in the development of EVs. There is a need for future
performance and may trigger resonant frequencies in the research and development of efficient control operations, and
mechanical parts of the drive system, resulting in acoustic improving the control strategies for torque control in BLDC
noise. Torque ripple effects are particularly undesirable in motors is associated with electric vehicle performance. This

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FIGURE 1. Status of existing review work on various control strategies of BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

still prompts extensive work on torque ripple mitigation in wide range of BLDC motor control strategies for EVs in real-
BLDC motors to clarify the various goals associated with dis- time evaluation. Moreover, this review paper provides insight
tinct control strategies and future guidelines for the research. and a critical interpretative view to the readers about BLDC
Even though numerous studies on torque ripple mitigation motor torque control performance in EVs. This review paper
control strategies are available, an evaluation article on the will not impose any new results; instead, it will formulate
in-depth structure of BLDC motors with advanced control the various research activities on torque ripple regulation
techniques in EVs has not been published, and certain objec- for BLDC motors in EVs, additionally discussing the future
tives for this work were developed in response to this research prospects of advanced control strategies for torque ripple reg-
gap. Moreover, such a category of studies will pave the ulation in the future to meet the demands of real-time vehicle
way for improving the overall performance of BLDC motors performance. Finally, the method used in this investigation
in EVs in the future. Within this context, the objective of supports an overview of the possible directions for future
the present work focuses on the critical review of advanced research in this field. To attain these outcomes, Fig. 3 gives
and essential control strategies for reducing torque ripples brief information about the structure and flow of the present
in BLDC motors in a holistic manner. The novelty of this study.
review stems from the collection and integration of stud-
ies that examined architectural systems, thereby increasing III. STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE ARRANGEMENT OF
methodological and technical approaches to motor torque BLDC MOTOR IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES
control in EVs. Eventually, the various literature gaps are The BLDC motor’s structural configuration includes a hall
presented in Fig. 2. The outcome of the stated objective will sensor, motor controller unit, power inverter, or motor driver
serve as an essential guide for future studies and provide a as shown in Fig 4. BLDC motors are similar to DC motors

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FIGURE 2. A schematic illustration of research gap and original contribution of the work.

FIGURE 3. Structural overview of a current review article along with section constituents.

with permanent magnets and are referred to as brushless tronically commutated motors’. In addition, it eliminates
because they lack a commutator and brush arrangement, problems associated with the brush and commutator arrange-
therefore these motors are sometimes referred to as ‘elec- ment, such as sparking and commutator brush wear, making

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FIGURE 4. Internal structural architecture arrangement of BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

a BLDC more rugged than a DC motor. Moreover, a BLDC A sensor is required to provide input to the motor control
motor, unlike a conventional DC motor, has an ‘‘inside-out’’ system indicating when the rotor has attained the desired
construction in which the field poles rotate while the armature position. Motor control sensors include voltage, current, and
remains stationary. The stator is made of silicon steel stamp- Hall signals. If the commutation is performed quicker or
ings with a specific number of poles and windings connected slower than the rotor’s speed, the magnets maintain inter-
to a DC supply through a power inverter circuit, and the action with the stator’s magnetic field. So, in both types of
armature is wound on a slotted laminated iron structure. The motor layouts, the rotor position must be sensed for elec-
two layouts of a motor are ‘‘Out runner’’ and ‘‘In runner’’. tronic commutation and control of the entire motor operation
The out runner is designed for high torque requirements, through the controller also the rotor shaft’s position and
while the runner is designed to produce less torque and is speed, are measured using a Hall effect sensor [33], [34]. This
more capable of rotating at very high speeds, in that the sensor is a solid-state device that uses the Hall effect principle
permanent magnet rotates around the stator and the rotor is to determine how stator armature excitation synchronizes
external. with rotor position, speed, and various other aspects such

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as torque and the voltage required to run a BLDC motor produced torque ripples is based on three factors, such as
efficiently, additionally providing rotor position information the construction of the motor, motor parameters, and motor
to a motor controller [35], [36]. control strategies, [13], [39] as shown in Fig 5.
In addition to current detection, the motor is regulated by a
number of control methods or algorithms that are linked to the A. TORQUE RIPPLE SOURCE BASED ON THE MOTOR
current sensor’s accurate monitoring of the motor’s current. CONSTRUCTION
This enables precise synchronization and orientation control According to the behavior structure, torque ripples are asso-
while measuring power, diagnosing control systems, measur- ciated with BLDC motors by three factors: cogging torque,
ing current supply, and controlling complex loads generated reluctance torque, and electromagnetic torque.
by electric motors. Voltage sensors can also measure voltage
in a variety of methods, such as detecting low current levels 1) COGGING TORQUE
and high terminal voltages. This allows for the detection of
The interaction between the permanent magnet rotor slots
load defects, power failures, the regulation of power demand,
and the stator pole slots in BLDC motors is a major factor
temperature, and so on. It’s al crucial to regulate the motor’s
in the generation of cogging torque. The magnetic attraction
speed and torque to obtain transient output suitable for driving
varies according to the magnetic field’s intensity, and this
an electric vehicle. Based on the torque requirements from the
variation leads to the production of unequal torque. Some
driver and other vehicle accessories, the control strategy in the
permanent magnet motor designs exhibit cogging when a
motor controller unit (MCU) will calculate the current to be
motor is operated in an unfavorable manner, particularly at
regulated by the power inverter circuit. It controls the source
low speeds, which leads to fluctuations in the motor’s output
voltage from the battery based on the PWM signal from the
torque and causes torque ripples [40], [41], [42]. Additionally,
MCU in that PWM signals include the command signal for
it is influenced by other factors, including the slot opening
measuring the coil’s energization and current according to the
width, magnet width, skewing, etc., that make the BLDC
required torque [37].
motor unstable and reduce overall performance. Reduce cog-
Based on the regulated current input, the three-phase stator
ging torques when building a motor, increase the air gap,
windings are energized sequentially, which creates the mag-
increase the number of slots per pole, thicken the tooth tips
netic stator poles. In contrast, the permanent magnet field in
to prevent saturation, reduce the slot opening, skew the mag-
the rotor with North and South poles accommodates the stator
net poles, provide dummy slots, and lower the magnet flux
poles, which build the motor, which in turn creates the torque
density while creating a motor [43], [44], [45].
in the rotor shaft. The magnitude of the torque produced
mainly depends on the number of turns of the stator windings,
the amplitude of current, the length of the rotating winding, 2) RELUCTANCE TORQUE
the MMF, the size of the permanent magnets, also the air A reluctance torque is produced simply due to a change in
gap between stator and rotor windings. A typical BLDC reluctance because of the stator teeth’s angular fluctuation
motor’s design and operation parameters refer to variations in the magnetic circuit’s reluctance as viewed by the rotor
in the torque produced at the rotor shaft that produces torque magnets. The reluctance torque, phase coupling, or the rotor
ripples. magnets themselves can be a result of ripple torque [46],
It is mainly due to the rotor magnet’s interaction with the [47]. The unequal direct and quadrature inductances of the
stator slots, the relation of magneto motive forces produced rotor provide the reluctance torque in an internal permanent
by the stator current and air gap flux harmonics, and elec- magnet motor and affect the control accuracy of the drive
tromagnetic torque fluctuations [38]. In the electric vehicle system. Eccentric permanent magnet teeth and compensatory
perceptive, the torque ripple in BLDC motors will affect the windings reduce reluctance torque variability.
vehicle’s performance and further, it will cause large vibra-
tions at specific vehicle speeds during the drive, which will 3) ELECTROMAGNETIC TORQUE
lead to instability of rotational speed. By properly designing The torque electromagnetic a motor’s rotation, which is typi-
the structural uniformity and position of stator poles, the cally equal to the load torque, is known as the electromagnetic
torque ripples are mitigated. Consider the many applications torque. The load torque at no load is equal to the output
oriented towards BLDC motors for electric vehicles; torque electromagnetic torque, which is the torque generated by the
ripple minimization is very important for improving the com- armature on the air gap. The back-EMF waveform is a crucial
fort and overall performance of the vehicle. factor in determining the quality of the generated torque and
its ripple. Significant torque ripple can be caused by the wave-
IV. SOURCES OF TORQUE RIPPLE AND THEIR INFLUENCE form of the back-EMF in conjunction with the waveform
IN BLDC MOTOR FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE APPLICATIONS of phase currents, and then the choice of control strategy
To achieve high performance in speed and position control determines the waveform of phase currents [48]. Addition-
drives of electric vehicles, smooth torque output is necessary. ally, it is influenced by electromagnetic torque, which is
The most impact on the machines with high specific torque developed as harmonics depending on the type and structure
has an inherently large torque ripple. The magnitude of the of the motor. Harmonics are produced by non-idealities in

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FIGURE 5. Sources of torque ripples of BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

the electromagnetic fields created by the interaction of the reactance and increasing the magnetic flux linkages. The
rotor and stator. However, the overall electromagnetic torque rotor magnet generates flux, which is connected to the stator
ripples are significantly lower than in comparable drives [51], [52]. The motor construction behavior mainly depends
with magnetically insulated winding sets, making it advisable on various factors like power, speed, and loading conditions.
to use concentrated windings with non-intersecting winding
ends. 3) NON-IDEAL BACK-EMF
The majority of high-specific torque machines have a big
B. TORQUE RIPPLE SOURCE BASED ON MOTOR torque ripple by nature, which is a drawback that restricts
PARAMETERS their employment in high-bandwidth applications. Current
According to the designing parameters, the torque ripples are harmonics, which depend on control strategy and inverter
associated with BLDC motors by three factors: airgap length, dead time and EMF harmonics are the primary electrical
mutual flux, and non-ideal back-EMF. factors in BLDC motors that contribute to torque ripple.
Electrical machines with non-sinusoidal electromotive forces
1) AIRGAP LENGTH (EMF) which give rise to current harmonics and the torque
The process of designing and operating a BLDC motor ripple typically result from the need to increase specific
involves several procedures, including material selection, torque, decrease volume and weight, and create motors with
machine structure selection, and component geometric siz- less active materials [53]. Regarding the torque ripples of
ing. One of the essential geometrical characteristics is the BLDC motors with non-ideal back-EMF, there are primarily
airgap length, which is determined by mechanical, thermal, two types of resolvents. In one method, the motor’s back-
and electromagnetic factors [49], [50]. The overall strength EMF waveform functions can be used to control current,
of the magnetic circuit and the motor efficiency are both while direct torque control is used in the other. Regarding
impacted by the air gap length, which is a crucial design the direct torque, although a control strategy is used, it is
element. The electromagnetic torque is directly influenced by necessary to measure the back-EMF and phase current, so the
the motor’s back-EMF, so airgap length reduction increases complexity of the circuit and software is increased.
airgap flux density, which in turn increases flux linkage and
back EMF produced in the stator phases. C. TORQUE RIPPLE SOURCE BASED ON MOTOR CONTROL
STRATEGIES
2) MUTUAL FLUX According to various control techniques, the torque ripples
To improve motor performance through the design and con- are associated with the BLDC motor by two factors pulse
trol of the stator parameters by reducing the leakage 8 width modulation method and current commutation.

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1) PULSE WIDTH MODULATION METHOD current sensors to adjust CTR by measuring the commu-
Nowadays, designing and controlling rotating systems is tation interval and computing a PWM duty ratio based on
more difficult when building an electronics controller that the measured commutation interval. On the other hand, the
uses the PWM technique to operate a BLDC motor; therefore, charged capacitor is used during the non-commutation time to
while possible, integrate the PWM driver with the motor to effectively minimize the CTR and also uses a power inverter
avoid unexpected performance issues. In this driver, a linear that is controlled to make the motor’s input voltage equal to
amplifier is used to change the power delivered to the motor four times the back-EMF amplitude [63], [64].
by a linear variation of voltage, which is done by control elec-
tronics and causes the motor to move in the desired position. V. SCALAR-BASED TORQUE RIPPLE MITIGATION
Because the integrated linear amplifier dissipates power that TECHNIQUES OF BLDC MOTOR
is not delivered to the motor, it is difficult to integrate into the BLDC motor drives are used in such a wide range of appli-
application and must be compensated for with a large heat cations, that the constant torque these devices deliver is
sink. Conversely, a chopping amplifier power transistor uses important for producing outcomes that are efficient, smooth,
turn-on and turn-off logic in terms of altering the duty cycle at and desirable. The efficiency of the motor drive system
a constant frequency to change the stator voltage and currents depends on how effectively the pulsating effects of unde-
within the desired target value while also making a device sirable harmonic components of torque are mitigated. The
more compact, decreasing heating, and improving battery undesirable torque pulsations are caused by any source of
life. Chopping amplifiers frequently use PWM techniques to deviation from ideal circumstances in either the motor or the
determine average current and motor torque by changing the related power converter in a BLDC motor drive. The variation
duty cycle ratio while the current is operating to increase and in torque might be divided into three types: in the first,
decrease over each cycle to generate heat losses in terms of the interaction of the rotor’s magnetic flux and the stator’s
ripple current and an effect on the root mean square (RMS) magnetic reluctance variations causes cogging torque [41],
current without increasing the torque. [42]; in the second, the action of the magneto-motive force
Ripple current still uses energy, which could reduce bat- of the stator current with electromagnetic characteristics cre-
tery life in portable applications and result in iron losses, ated by rotor motion causes mutual torque; [51] and in the
generating circulation eddy currents that are proportional to third, the identical MMF and the rotor’s magnetic reluctance’s
the square of both the motor’s current and speed. Due to the angle deviation causes reluctance torque [46], [47]. In order
squared relationship between iron losses and motor power, to reduce the fluctuations caused by these torque compo-
large current ripples in terms of torque ripples are created nents, requires enhancing the BLDC motor drive construction
in BLDC motors to reduce their performance characteristics for comfort and ensuring that their characteristics are at an
[54], [55], [56]. To prevent current ripples in the BLDC optimal level. Various construction modifications, such as
motor, adjust the power supply voltage without consideration skewing the stator slots or altering the width of the poles,
of speed or power, while also considering PWM frequency might reduce torque ripple, although these involve higher
as an option to reduce current rise time and reduce ripples manufacturing costs and are undesirable operations.
effectively [57], [58], [59]. Another strategy of utilizing control techniques to adjust
for variations of excitation current in the stator is to control
the motor’s output parameters, like rotor flux, torque current,
2) CURRENT COMMUTATION stator magnetic flux linkages, motor torque, rotor back-EMF,
BLDC motors typically use a 120-degree commutation mech- commutation angle, and speed. This technique is most adapt-
anism with three hall sensors to determine rotor position and able for controlling torque ripples (torque pulsation) because
require a trapezoidal back-EMF waveform due to direct input of current ripple and commutation time in BLDC motors,
current. The current spike phenomenon, on the other hand, which have a low cost of manufacture and are more efficient
reduces efficiency and increases noise and vibration because compared to the torque ripples mitigated by all other sources.
of current harmonics. Because of this effect, the current In this paper, we focus on the control-side approach to mit-
changes quickly during commutation in BLDC motors. Nev- igating the torque ripples in BLDC motors. The torque and
ertheless, inductances are present in the motor’s windings, speed control methods applied for variable frequency drives
and when current is commutated from one phase to another, are classified into two types: scalar-based and vector-based
a transient process occurs, resulting in electromagnetic torque control.
fluctuations known as commutation torque ripple (CTR) [60],
[61], [62]. The CTR effect reduces efficiency due to iron and A. SCALAR-BASED CONTROL
copper losses, while accurate phase current control weakens The scalar control techniques are used to control the electrical
during phase current commutation periods. Also, the CTR of machines in terms of speed and torque as a function of voltage
BLDC motors is limited by the output voltage of the power amplitude and frequency. This method is easy to implement
inverter, making it difficult to change rapidly the incoming and controls the motor parameters, among them a simple
phase and outgoing phase current when operating in their design, lower steady state error rate, and lower cost. In addi-
high-speed range. To prevent CTR in the BLDC motor, use tion, this control method is mostly used in all manufacturing

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and industrial settings for controlling the speed required with torque ripples in BLDC motors, which mainly includes field-
a low initial current. Scalar control involves a steady-state oriented control, direct torque control, intelligent control,
model of the motor because it controls the stator flux by vary- controlling input voltage, current shaping techniques, model
ing the amplitude of the voltage and frequency to obtain the predictive and sliding mode control, etc.
control torque [65], [66]. Scalar control techniques of BLDC
motors can be achieved in two categories based on variable A. TORQUE RIPPLE MITIGATION BASED ON
supply voltage control and constant voltage/frequency (V/F) FIELD-ORIENTED CONTROL
control. Field-oriented control (FOC) techniques, commonly refer to
as vector control, are used to manage BLDC motors with
1) VARIABLE SUPPLY VOLTAGE CONTROL good control capability of the entire torque and speed ranges.
This control method is a simple and efficient way to control It operates the motor very smoothly and efficiently to reduce
the speed and torque of a BLDC motor by varying the supply the torque ripples with greater high load efficiency. FOC is
voltage. However, by changing in terms of reducing stator utilized to make the stator magnetic field orthogonal to the
voltage, the developed speed and torque were also reduced. rotor magnetic field in order to provide the desired output in
It is undesirable for many applications oriented toward EVs. a BLDC motor, and vector representation is used to modulate
While vehicles may be moving slowly uphill, the maximum the current flowing through the stator as shown in Fig 6.
torque is required, but it is unable to be provided by the It is the best and is often used in speed control techniques
specific control strategy [67]. For this condition, controlling to manage the amplitude and angle of the stator phase current
motor speed is done by varying the frequency of the sta- and voltages. Initially, express the relationship between the
tor voltage and also by obtaining the maximum torque for electrical angles (ωm ) of the stators and the rotors and the
all-electric drive applications of BLDC motors. angles (θm ) of the winding stators that are described by the
following equations (1 & 2).
2) CONSTANT VOLTS/FREQUENCY (V/F) CONTROL ωs1 + ωs2
This frequency drive control method is used in BLDC motors ωm = (1)
P
for a wide range of speed and torque control with higher θm = θs1 + θs2 (2)
run-time efficiency. During this control, the air gap flux will
tend to saturate if the supply frequency is reduced while The FOC also referred to as decoupling control, is employed
maintaining the rated supply voltage, which causes excessive to achieve the independent control of torque and flux con-
stator current and stator flux wave distortion in the motor. verting to three-phase stator currents (Ia , Ib , and Ic ) from
To keep the airgap flux constant, the stator voltage should be torque-producing components in a stationary reference frame
decreased proportionally to the frequency because the stator and flux-producing components in a rotating magnetic frame.
voltage and its frequency are correlated with the magnitude The three-phase stator currents are measured and determined
flux of the stator [68]. Therefore, if the voltage-to-frequency by Kirchhoff’s current relation is expressed in equation (3).
ratio stays constant, the flux stays constant. Additionally,
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 (3)
maintaining the V/F constant at the specified levels to achieve
variable speed with maximum air-gap magnetic flux keeps This measured motor stator current is mathematically trans-
the developed torque constant, providing the soft start capa- lated into two orthogonal current components (Iα & Iβ ) with
bility. As a result, the BLDC motor’s electromagnetic torque amplitudes that are aligned with the quadrature axis (Iq )
capacity is maximized. and direct axis (Id ) respectively, by using Clark and Park’s
transformation given by the equation (4 & 5).
VI. VECTOR-BASED TORQUE RIPPLE MITIGATION
TECHNIQUES OF BLDC MOTOR Iα = 0.816[Ia − sin (30) Ic − sin (30) Ib ] (4)
The vector control technique is the frequency drive control, Iβ = 0.816[cos (30) Ic − cos (30) Ib ] (5)
and it is widely used in high-performance control system
applications-oriented with the BLDC Motor drives in order The stator current controls in the d-axis components regu-
to maximize the torque and speed performance. In this vector lated the rotor flux magnitude, while the q-axis components
control, various constraints present in the scalar control are handled the output torque. On that axis, the one along the
addressed, like low-speed operation and poor dynamic torque reference vector or rotating magnetic field is called the direct
responsiveness, also the phases of stator current magnitude axis (Id ), and the other axis that makes 90 degrees with the
and frequency. In addition to frequently requiring precise direct axis is called the quadrature axis (Iq ) [69], [70] are
parameter knowledge or rotor flux position, vector controls presented in equation (6&7).
are more expensive and difficult than scalar ones. Even Id = Cos ⊖ Iα − Sin ⊖ Iβ (6)
though it’s able to obtain excellent performance in controlling
Iq = −Sin ⊖ Iα + Cos ⊖ Iβ (7)
the magnitude, frequency, and instantaneous phases of the
stator and rotor phase currents and minimize the changes In steady-state conditions, both Id and Iq are constants, and
in flux linkages. Vector control has been used to reduce their values are compared with the desired reference current

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FIGURE 6. Field-oriented control strategies of torque ripple mitigations in BLDC motor for electric vehicles.

values, Idref & and Iqref respectively, to control the rotor component described in equation (11),
magnetic flux and torque output of the motor. It is based
on the comparison error difference signals that are produced Te = Tavg + Tripple (11)
and fed to the two PI controllers. To achieve the maximum
where, Te is the electromagnetic torque (N-M), Tavg is the
torque, when it makes the reference of flux component Idref
average or smooth torque (N-M) and Tripple is a sum of the
is zero and reference of torque component Iqref generated to
harmonics content in torque.
maximum [71], [72], [73]. The output values from the PI The total torque ripples are primarily related to estimating
controllers provide the voltage vectors Vd and Vq , which are the rotor and stator flux linkage in that way, the phase current
represented in a rotating constant reference frame. The mea- must be chosen to calculate the motor speed based on the rule
sured voltages Vd and Vq were transformed into three-phase that the value of rotor flux of the chosen phase changes with
stator voltages (Va , Vb , and Vc ) by using the inverse Clark rotor position whereas the other two phases have constant
and Park transformation [74], [75] obtained by the following flux value [77]. The amount of torque ripple (equation 12)
equations (8,9&10). is calculated as the difference between the resultant electro-
magnetic torque Te and the cogging torque reference Tcogg.
Va = 0.557Vd (8)
Vb = 0.557[Vq cos (30) − Vd sin (30)] (9) Tripple = Te − Tcogg (12)
Vc = 0.557[−Vq cos (30) − Vd sin (30)] (10) The BLDC motor was controlled using the FOC-controlled
method; the results were effective, and the pursuit of speed
In this manner, new PWM duty cycle values are determined, was perfect despite some sort of disruption in the transition
and the motor is supplied with optimal voltages to create the between portions.
maximum amount of electromagnetic torque while minimiz- The various FOC controllers have been improved to satisfy
ing reduced torque ripples produced by angular fluctuations the distinct demand for electric vehicles (EVs). In general, the
between the stator and rotor teeth due to variation in reluc- different techniques used in conjunction with FOC controllers
tance. Thus, the examination of the electromagnetic torque to obtain the optimum voltage for motor torque control in EVs
can be divided into partial sections focused on the specific are summarized in Table 1.
components in terms of, analyzing the form of the current Most popularly, the strategy of two control loop modules
and the back-EMF component leading to the location and for motor torque control mitigates torque ripples, such as
definition of the torque ripple source. The produced torque through a speed and current control module. According to

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TABLE 1. Performance comparisons of field-oriented control for BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

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TABLE 1. (Continued.) Performance comparisons of field-oriented control for BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

the speed control module way, the FOC is paired with mod- motor driver, employs adaptive cruise control (ACC) to main-
ified sliding mode control (SMC) to regulate the reference tain a constant speed, while field-oriented control (FOC) was
speed accurately when the performance of the controller is used to regulate the motor to maintain the desired speed
weak in the motor because of uncertainty and nonlinearity independent of the torque load on the motor. It also gener-
parameters. Even though motor parameter fluctuations are ates a negative acceleration to reduce velocity and maintain
present, the sliding mode observer (SMO) is used to esti- safe spacing between the vehicles [84]. Correspondingly,
mate the continuous rotor position and improve the speed the wavelet controller (WC) enhances stability and provides
tracking accuracy at all operating conditions [79]. Besides, smooth control of the two rear drive wheels in EVs, especially
it limits speed overshoot, minimizes steady-state error, and on 12 curved roads [86]. According to the current control
provides good dynamic responsiveness and quick rising and module way of thinking, FOC works together with SMC to
settling times for the minimum phase system motor drive. suppress the torque ripples in the inner loop current control
Although an adaptive feedforward controller (AFFC) is used [79]. To improve the performance of this controller from
in a non-minimum phase system to regulate the motor speed backlash nonlinear action, the high-frequency dither signals
by adding modulation action to the stator at various harmonic are injected in different types of modulation and enhance
frequencies. It periodically tracks disturbances so that the the motor system performance in EVs [80]. Similarly, it is
adaption gain can be changed automatically without disturb- possible to improve system performance by reducing electro-
ing system stability to improve the stator voltage waveform magnetic torque ripples and enhancing current shape through
along with this motor drive controller [83], regarding this THD by using of fuzzy logic concept [81]. Additionally, the

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fuzzy logic controller (FLC) ensures four quadrant opera- and these actual (Td & 9) are compared with the current
tions to control the motor torque without any fluctuations command magnitude with each phase of desire reference
during the accelerating, decelerating, and reversing states. developed torque (Tdref ) and flux linkage (9ref ) [101], [102].
It provides a fast response with the transmission in EV sys- The stator currents are regulated by the hysteresis current
tems compared to all other controllers [87]. More distantly, controller in accordance with the torque and flux deviations,
the smoother torque control with less current motor oper- (equations 19 & 20) which are the variations in the stator
ation is analyzed by space vector pulse width modulation flux linkages and torque and their estimated values from the
(SVPWM) along with this motor drive controller to mitigate motor.
the torque ripples [97]. In FOC, control techniques are used
to ensure effective steady-state performance across all load dTd = Tdact − Tdref (19)
torque and speed ranges. It generates precise torque with a d9 = 9act − 9ref (20)
high switching frequency, which may result in higher energy
costs. Furthermore, EVs do not always require precise torque Depending on the hysteresis current controller output, the
output. optimal stator voltage vector is selected from the switching
lookup table [103], [104]. According to the switching state of
B. TORQUE RIPPLE MITIGATION BASED ON DIRECT the table, the voltage source inverter controls the stator flux
TORQUE CONTROL linkages and torque directly, and the motor is supplied with
Direct torque control (DTC) techniques are reliable and optimal stator currents. This DTC method is used to reduce
energy-efficient vector control methods that are appropri- the torque ripples created by the insufficient commutation
ately used in electric vehicles because of their ability to effect of electromagnetic fluctuations caused by a motor,
control the torque directly with the low sensitivity parameters along with maintaining a constant current and varying the
of BLDC motors. It also delivers precise dynamic torque frequency from minimum to maximum [105], [106].
response and flux control with a compact structure. DTC In a steady state, we may regulate the hysteresis bandwidth
is utilized to make optimal voltage vectors by selecting to control torque ripple. Hysteresis controllers can be added
appropriate switches from space vector modulation control to each stage of the current controlled inverter to raise the
of a three-phase inverter along the variables related to the switching frequency. Due to the fast changes in flux wave-
developed torque and flux linkage of the motor, as shown forms and their unpredictably huge amplitudes brought on
in Fig 7. This technique consists of three main stages: the by a number of parameters, such as winding inductance,
motor model, the hysteresis current controller (HCC), and the load torque, etc., the DTC motor drive is unable to manage
optimal switching lookup table. The motor model estimates stator flux connections. Only electromagnetic torque can be
the developed torque (Td ) and stator flux linkage (9) based controlled.
on the current in the two stator windings and the battery The different DTC controllers have been enhanced to
voltage. The DTC method uses the Clark transformation to ensure the safety and stability of EVs while also providing
convert the motor’s three-phase currents parameters (Ia & Ib ) good dynamic characteristics of the traction chain. Most
to a rotating d-q reference axis frame can be expressed by the of the various approaches used in conjunction with DTC
following equations (13 & 14), controllers to obtain the optimal stator phase currents for
controlling torque in motor drives are summarized in Table 2.
Iα = Ia (13) The DTC is generally built around two hysteresis controller
Iβ = I1.732
a +2Ib
(14) modules that control the switching state voltage vector via
torque and flux linkage modules that regulate the stator
& two-phase independent vector current components (Id & phase currents. Based on the three-level hysteresis torque
Iq ) are given by the following equations (15 & 16), controller, the inverter’s switching frequency can be balanced
while keeping the motor’s common mode voltage at a mini-
9sd −9rd
Id = Ld (15) mum [112].
9sq −9rq Moreover, it reduces torque ripples during sector-to-sector
Iq = Lq (16)
commutation and achieves maximum efficiency with low
where, 9sd and 9sq are the stator flux linkages (d-q axis) frequency, torque ripple-free direct control. Even though a
(wb), 9rd and 9rq are the rotor flux linkages (d-q axis) (Wb) hysteresis controller (HC) combined with PWM improves
and Ld &Lq are inductances of motor (d-q axis) (H). the lookup table of switching devices, the torque ripple in
From this conversion, the estimate of the developed torque commutation is overcome [125]. Here, the four-quadrant
(Td ) and stator flux linkage (9) can be expressed by the operation is obtained to validate the feasibility and effec-
following equations (17 & 18), tiveness of this controller in avoiding large current and
torque ripples. However, to control the torque effectively and
3P directly without flux linkage observation (FLO), using the
Td(act) = (9sd Iq − 9sq Id ) (17)
22 shape function in terms of the amplitude of the back-EMF and
9(act) = 9sd + 9sq (18) stator current estimation [119], the optimal voltage vector is

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FIGURE 7. Direct torque control strategies of torque ripple mitigations in BLDC motor for electric vehicles.

chosen based on the torque error between the given torque that has emerged as an attractive solution for electric vehi-
and the actual torque by using of PI controller. cle applications due to its energy-efficient performance.
Which are designed to drive light electric vehicles and Regarding, this DTC control scheme can provide faster
operate in variable torque and speed conditions with a single torque response, and furthermore it is frequently utilized in
reference input. In addition, the FLC-based speed control is high-performance motion control of electric drives [110],
proposed instead of PI controllers to reduce starting current, [127].
avoid overshoot in torque and speed responses, simplify the
design, and minimize complicated mathematical equations.
Furthermore, the SVPWM combined DTC is preferred for C. TORQUE RIPPLE MITIGATION BASED ON INTELLIGENT
optimum steady-state performance in terms of torque ripple CONTROL
minimization and speed regulation, apart from the necessity Intelligent control techniques are one of the most effi-
for a switching table and a hysteresis controller [115]. cient methods to use for most common problems present
Here, an optimal PI controller has been properly tuned to in BLDC motors for electric drives, like electromagnetic
reduce uncertainties due to load variations. Similarly, DTC inference, fault tolerance, and torque ripples. Today, several
used the synthesized current phase compensation (SCPC) conventional controllers are used in electric vehicle drive
technique to effectively minimize torque ripples in BLDC applications, like PI and PID controllers, but for more optimal
motors. Here, stator current has been synthesized using volt- electric vehicles with maximum efficiency, accuracy, and per-
age vector selection and a new switching technique to modify formance, fuzzy-based intelligent control systems are mostly
three-phase supply currents. Also, the injection of synthe- preferred, as shown in Fig 8. The fuzzy control method has
sized currents with angle advancement increases the torque more features to mitigate the torque ripples with good steady
capacity of the motor control [117]. For further improvement state and dynamics performance of the electric drive system
of the BLDC motor drive by DTC, the nonlinear model by integrating a phase current (square wave) within a por-
predictive controller (NMPC) scheme is used to control the tion of the steady back EMF magnitude [131], [132], [133].
desired torque and speed of the motor by minimizing energy A mostly fuzzy logic-based control system is used to increase
while limiting the supplied current and maximum speed the reliability of the electric vehicle system and improve
[127]. the time domain specifications of the motor control system,
Moreover, this NMPC can be enhanced for real-time like minimizing the rise time, starting current, settling time,
implementation to achieve torque ripple reduction, controlled speed fluctuation, and peak overshoot. It is mainly afforded
degradation, etc. NMPC is a challenging control strategy to non-linearity by the small torque ripples in low-speed

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TABLE 2. Performance comparisons of direct torque control for BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

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TABLE 2. (Continued.) Performance comparisons of direct torque control for BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

operation and is designed for stabilization in EV applications 1, 60◦ < λ ≤ 150◦

[134], [135], [136], [137]. λ − 150
In BLDC Motor the back-EMF mainly depends on rotor 1− , 150◦ < λ ≤ 210◦
60
position and the BEMF of each phase differs by 120 deg − 1, 210◦ < λ ≤ 330◦
phases from the others, hence the equations (21,22 & 23) are λ − 330
described by, −1+ , 330◦ < λ ≤ 360◦ (24)
60
ea = Kb fa (λ)ω (21) fb (λ) = fa (λ + 120◦ ) (25)
eb = Kb fb (λ)ω (22) fc (λ) = fa (λ − 120◦ ) (26)
ec = Kb fc (λ)ω (23) where, the commutation angle functions fa (λ), fb (λ), and fc (λ)
are exactly the same shape as ea , eb, and ec with a maximum
where, λ is rotor angle (electrical degree), ω is angular speed
scale of 1. Also, the electromagnetic torque can be obtained
(rad/sec), Kb is the back EMF constant, and, fa , fb & fc are the
by following equation (27),
trapezoidal signal functions. From the following back EMF
equations, the trapezoidal signal functions can be expressed ea Ia + eb Ib + ec Ic
T(actual) = (27)
by the following equations (24,25 & 26), ω
λ Intelligent control uses a fuzzy logic estimator to control the
fa (λ) = , 0 < λ ≤ 60◦ torque (Tprediction ) (equation 28) in the motor and an artificial
60
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FIGURE 8. Intelligent control strategies of torque ripple mitigations in BLDC motor for electric vehicles.

neural network concept to maintain the commutation angles system is used in accordance with several other techniques
(λprediction ) (equation 29) of the rotor winding. By using to improve the efficiency, performance, and accuracy of the
this, regulate the commutation angles in the rotor winding system, resulting in a more optimal electric vehicle, as sum-
to sustain the slew rate of commutated phase currents while marized in Table 3. Fuzzy systems with PI controllers are
keeping non-commutating phase currents constant. Also, it’s commonly used for effective speed management to keep the
employed to achieve the new commutation on the analysis of speed constant even when the load fluctuates [141]. Again,
torque control by motor output parameters like rotor phase it uses a particle swarm optimized (PSO) PI Controller to
angle (λactual ) and speed (ω). Here, the actual speed (ωact ) improve motor speed, reduce error to an absolute minimum,
of the motor is compared with the reference speed (ωref ) and and achieve high performance in both steady state and tran-
its difference error signal fed to a conventional PI controller sient responsiveness [146].
in order to obtain the control torque considered as reference Based on the speed, various braking applications are
torque (Tref ) [138], [139], [140]. obtained in electric vehicles to increase driving range.
In regenerative braking mode, the fuzzy-PID hybrid con-
Tprediction = Tactual − Tref (28) troller collaborates to reduce the vehicle’s speed, improve
λprediction = λactual − λref (29) system efficiency, and ensure safe charging battery voltage
status at desired levels [142]. In electro-mechanical braking
Using a fuzzy logic estimator and ANN algorithms to esti- mode (EMB), fuzzy logic with SMC is extremely useful in
mate torque and commutate angles from the intelligent managing the system’s non-linearity and uncertain nature.
controller to optimum stator voltage vectors, torque, motor In this case, fuzzy reduces chattering while the SMC achieves
output power, and speed are controlled adequately with min- the desired drive speed control [143]. Here the state observer
imal torque response ripple [17]. Although these techniques is then created to estimate vehicle states like operating speed
are referred to as commutation torque ripple reduction, they and directional force while considering both normal and
merely swap the speed controller with a fuzzy logic one. emergency braking conditions. Similarly, handling nonlin-
Numerous intelligent control methods have been devel- earity and unpredictability of motor parameter variations
oped to improve the reliability of electric vehicle drives through adaptive PID controller (APIDC) design with fuzzy
through the design of FLC systems. Fuzzy logic is one of the logic is used to optimize the dynamic performance [148].
most advanced control methods for regulating the speed in Depending on the variations, the membership function is
a wide range of various EV applications. The fuzzy control tuned to analyze the steady state, regulation, and motor

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TABLE 3. Performance comparisons of intelligent control for BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

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TABLE 3. (Continued.) Performance comparisons of intelligent control for BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

output parameters like voltage, current, speed, and torque. inductances and resistances influenced by the stator windings
Moreover, for better dynamic performance the Fuzzy PID of the motor.
supervisor online uses the adaptive neuro-fuzzy interface The current ripple causes PWM- controlled power stages
system (ANFIS) controller to validate motor effectiveness and produces power losses in windings, then eddy current
and performance under all operating conditions with constant losses in the iron core, because of which the motor gets
loads and different loads with varying set-up speeds [145]. heated. By this condition reducing the current ripples by
It also analyses the speed response from the time domain controlling the PWM voltage and frequency is obtained from
specifications, like peak time, rise time and peak overshoot, PWM schemes along with power converters.
etc. Regarding, the rotor position, the dynamic behavior of The PWM scheme comprises two controller stages, the
the motor is analyzed through the fuzzy-governed coactive first stage controls the commutation in terms of maintaining
neuro-fuzzy inference system (CANFIS) to obtain a more the trapezoidal back-EMF (Eb ) in phase with the stator phase
attractive tracking performance without the chattering effect currents (Ia , Ib , and Ic ). This PWM scheme is employed to
[147]. achieve the new commutation on the basis of reducing current
It also addresses the issue of nonlinearities and uncertainty ripples and torque control by motor output parameters like
caused by changes in the reference input of the BLDC motor. speed (N) and rotor position done by back-EMF (Eb ). Here,
Even though a fuzzy inference system was used to develop the actual speed (ωact ) of the motor is correlated with the
a neutrosophic FLC (NFLC) to efficiently implement BLDC reference speed (ωref ) and its difference error signal in order
motor speed control, it provides better steady-state error and to obtain the PWM switching stages of the inverter, with this
settling time than all other controllers [151]. The FLC system speed control, the BLDC motor’s current can also be con-
is one that is frequently used to develop the best optimal, trolled [171], [172]. The second controller stage uses a power
effective, and reliable control system for EVs. converter (buck converter) to regulate the current amplitude
and create the three-phase rectangular current pulse width
of 120 degrees with a power inverter. The buck converter is
D. TORQUE RIPPLE MITIGATION BASED ON installed between the DC power supply and the inverter’s DC-
CONTROLLING INPUT VOLTAGE link and depending on the motor speed, the DC-link voltage
Control input voltage techniques are one of the reliable meth- is modified then it’s calculated in equation (30).
ods for eliminating torque ripples in BLDC motors when the Db
trapezoidal back-EMF is non-equivalent to the phase current Vout = Vin (30)
1 − Db
of the stator windings due to the commutation of power
inverter switches, as shown in Fig 9. The torque ripples are where, Vin is the input source voltage (volts), Vout is the
determined by the back-EMF and current waveform; they’re output buck converter voltage (volts) and Db is the duty ratio
also mainly affected by the current ripple because of the of the buck converter.

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FIGURE 9. Controlling input voltage strategies of torque ripple mitigations in BLDC motor for electric vehicles.

PWM is utilized to control the phase currents of a signal can be changed to vary the motor voltage in order to
high-speed BLDC motor and the PWM duty cycle is changed limit the output signal of the torque controller; in this case,
to reduce phase current ripple during commutation. The a buck converter is used, which transforms the fixed voltage
output of both controllers’ stages is combined to produce into a mutable voltage.
a new duty cycle and it’s compared with high-frequency To improve the torque controller even further, the DC-DC
saw tooth waveform to produce PWM signals in the PWM converter has been modified using PWM techniques to con-
generator. The commutation current control duty ratios (Dc) trol the duty cycle length of the firing signals, resulting in
are expressed by the equations (31&32). a controlling speed [172]. Again, here PWM techniques use
a cuk converter to increase the three-phase bridge inverter’s
Dc = 1 means, Vm = Vin (31) input voltage and then meet the voltage demand of the
Dc = 0 means, Vm = Db Vin (32) commutation period while reducing the torque ripple by
maintaining a constant non-commutated current in BLDC
The resulting switching pulses are applied to the inverter’s motor drives [164]. Moreover, in this PWM scheme, the
switches in order to energize the winding and control the sta- motor driving system uses a digital controller to control the
tor input voltages to suppress the torque ripples and maintain speed and torque of the motor output along with the duty cycle
the speed and torque at the specified level [161], [162]. of the PWM output in low and high states. Because of the
This technique is easy to implement and has a low compu- reduced torque ripple and improved current waveform, it pro-
tational complexity for dynamic performance in EVs. It also duces the most average torque with optimal speed response
reduces torque ripple by varying the input voltage, which and less overshoot and settling time [171]. In terms of improv-
also reduces the current ripple. By lowering current spikes ing the current waveform and achieving a controlled DC
in the DC-DC converter output along with the PWM-based voltage from the single-ended primary-inductance converter
technique as well as by using the space vector PWM tech- (SEPIC), it provides effective current ripple suppression dur-
nique with more vectors, torque ripples in the input voltage ing the commutation interval.
technique are now being reduced, as summarized in Table 4.
Here, an electronically switched inverter powered by a DC
power supply commutates the currents, and commutations are E. TORQUE RIPPLE MITIGATION BASED ON CURRENT
addressed by rotor position, which can be determined by the SHAPING TECHNIQUES
position sensor in order to keep the trapezoidal back-EMF in Current shaping techniques are mostly used in BLDC motors
phase with the stator phase currents [166]. Commonly, a DC for high operating speeds and fast response output with opti-
link voltage controller’s (DC-DC converter) PWM duty cycle mal current drive in EVs. This can significantly mitigate the

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TABLE 4. Performance comparisons of controlling input voltage for BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

torque ripples when the motor is caused by non-ideal trape- This current shaping method is a popular one to obtain
zoidal back-EMF due to insufficient commutation, [173], an exact commutation point and optimal torque control of
[174] as shown in Fig 10. Because of this effect. phase a BLDC motor drive for an EV. Also using this method to
current distortion and excitation of torque ripples in terms suppress the torque ripples in the motor in two ways, likewise,
of current harmonics are happening in the motor. Dur- using the current sensor and charged capacitor in electric
ing this effect, the stator current is commutated from one drive. In first known way to determine the exact commutation
phase to another very transiently without a commutation interval from the terminal voltage of stator phase windings
interval period, resulting in the electromagnetic fluctua- and reduce the commutation ripple by using a current sensor
tions produced by the commutation torque ripple in the is to flow out-of-phase current information as feedback to
motor. In BLDC motors, a perfect trapezoidal back-EMF motor drive control and improve motor performance. Here
waveform is needed; however, the spiking phenomenon of the current is controlled by regulating the terminal voltage,
current and the negative impact of harmonic components which is obtained using current hysteresis control (CHC)
produced in the motor causes mechanical vibration, and [178], [179], [180].
acoustic noise, and reduce overall life performance and CHC is most widely used to control a current-controlled
efficiency [175], [176], [177]. voltage source inverter and determines the switching states

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FIGURE 10. Current shaping techniques strategies of torque ripple mitigations in BLDC motor for electric vehicles.

given motor output parameters like rotor-sensing current (Iact ) non-commutating current is directly controlled using cur-
and speed(ω). rent hysteresis control (CHC), and its function is obtained
The switching states of the inverter are mostly imple- by employing various PWM techniques and an adjustable
mented by modifying the duty cycle of the PWM in order DC-DC converter to maintain a dc-link voltage with constant
to eliminate phase current ripple during commutation. It is voltage [190]. In addition, CHC has unconditional stability,
expressed in equation (33), is insensitive to system parameters, has a fast response time,
D is simple to implement, has a low CTR, and responds quickly
Vdc = Vin (33) to transients that occur during insufficient commutation.
1−D
In terms of commutation control, self-commutation is used to
where, Vin is input source voltage(volts), Vdc is output DC
keep the rotor’s rotation in sync with the rotary field velocity
link voltage(volts) and D is the duty ratio of the controller.
on the BLDC motor stator, as well as its combination with
In a second way, charged capacitors are added to a voltage
fuzzy controllers to improve steady performance and more
source that is inverter-controlled to deliver a more steady
effectively control current strategies to reduce commutation
DC voltage while limiting variations due to the inverter’s
torque control [188]. For more improvement in motor current
irregularly high current demands, and is also used to step up
control, switching vectors are combined with a diode-assisted
the voltage during the commutation period [181], [182]. It’s
inverter to suppress CTR and motor speed regulation during
described in equations (34,35 & 36),
both the commutation and normal conduction periods.
Vin = 4Eb (In ideal condition) (34) This method effectively controls insufficient commutation
Vin > 4Eb (In low-speed condition) (35) across the entire speed range by employing unified switching
vectors during the commutation period, and it can be devel-
Vin < 4Eb (In high-speed condition) (36)
oped to prevent increasing the voltage stress in inverter bridge
This technique is one of the predictive current controllers switching devices [183]. Although achieving a smooth CTR
that analyses the various switching logic levels to provide with a fast response is relatively difficult, this is typically
adequate powered low-voltage DC current to various compo- based on the varied fast switching rate line current during
nents used in EVs. This technique employs various operations the commutation period. For this reason, it is necessary to
to change the switching vectors to regulate non-commutation maintain constant incoming and outgoing current phase rates
phase current and efficiently mitigate CTR in low-and throughout the commutation period for the hysteresis-based
high-speed applications, as summarized in Table 5. To reg- field programmable gate array (FPGA) controller to function
ulate the electromagnetic torque in terms of CTR, the during both the conduction and commutation intervals [184].

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TABLE 5. Performance comparisons of current shaping techniques for BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

Here, the FPGA controller generates control pulse signals bility, power efficiency, simplicity, and low cost. Similarly,
to regulate the stator current, and in comparison, to other control the stator phase current in the reverse direction dur-
digital implementation methods, it improves speed, relia- ing the braking operation; as a result, the CTR can be

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reduced in the speed range from the rated speed to zero loop bandwidth must be low. Depending on HCC, the stator
using only common braking PWM strategies, and the braking phase currents are governed by a defined switching frequency
torque can be maintained with superior dynamic performance by effectively generating the switching pulse commands to
[187]. three-phase voltage source inverters based on the rotor posi-
To improve braking even further, the PWM-OFF-PWM tion information [159]. Here, PID controllers are used to
method can reduce non-commutation torque ripple caused by generate the reference current (Iqref ) to control the speed and
non-conductive freewheeling and address the CTR generated the reference current (Idref ) is zero in accordance with the
by the turn-off time being shorter than the turn-on time. speed error [199]. The MPC uses the cost function (CF) to
Controlling the PWM duty periods to the non-commutation calculate the future control signals to achieve the optimum
current in the commutation interval will make the system reference tracking performance by comparing reference and
more stable in terms of reduced CTR at low speeds and predicted currents.
prevent an increase in the power dissipation on the switching The objective function expands as the difference between
devices in the inverter [189]. the reference (Iref(k+1) ) and predicted non-commutated cur-
rents (Inon−comm(k+1) ) develops, therefore it is possible to use
F. TORQUE RIPPLE MITIGATION BASED ON MODEL the simple sum of errors of the currents in d and q as the target
PREDICTIVE CONTROL TECHNIQUES function. However, the sum of squared errors is preferred for
The Model predictive control (MPC) is the most popular and extensive tracking.
has been extensively implemented in BLDC motors due to The cost function is described as equation (40),
its simple control architecture and improved output [197].
It is a feedback control technique that employs a system CF = Iqref (k + 1) − Iqnon−comm (k + 1)
to predict future outputs of a motor drive in an EV in + Idref (k + 1) − Idnon−comm (k + 1) (40)
order to manage complex dynamics, handle multiple input
and multiple output systems, and deal with constraints in where, Iqref (k+1)& Idref (k+1) are the output of the speed loop
a systematic manner [198]. The MPC approach regulates (reference quadrature and direct current), Iqnon−comm (k+1)&
electromagnetic torque by considering possible future states Idnon−comm (k+1) are the output of the current loop predictive
for all available voltage levels, as shown in Fig 11. It can value of non-commutated phase current during commutation
solve the problems of commutated phase current control by (non-commutated quadrature & direct current) and k+1 is the
eliminating complicated current controllers, suppressing the (k+1)th sampling time.
commutation torque ripple over the full range speed, and then It is the best model-based method for predicting the future
providing good steady-state performance while maintaining behavior of a system over a specific time horizon. According
a fast dynamic response [208]. This technique consists of two to the predefined cost function, the optimal switching state is
main loops, called the inner and outer control loops, respec- directly selected and applied during the next sampling period,
tively, the current control loop, performed as the inner loop to maintain a constant non-commutated stator phase current
depending on a hysteresis controller, regulates the BLDC during commutation and efficiently minimize commutation
phase currents, while the speed control loop, performed as torque ripples [200], [201]. For a BLDC motor, the Model
the outer loop, is designed using MPC to regulate the motor predictive controller provides each of the three-phase primary
speed in accurately and rapidly [212]. voltages required to exactly follow the reference path, in order
The non-commuting currents obtained from the MPC con- to ensure the future output error is equal to zero by minimiz-
troller are described as equations (37,38 & 39), ing the cost function value.
This MPC approach is an advance over conventional con-
dt
Idnon−comm (K + 1) = Id (k) + ∗ (Vd (k)(R∗ Id (k) trol methods in that it can effectively mitigate torque ripples
L and current ripples without affecting the dynamic perfor-
+ (ω(k)∗ L∗ Iq (k))) (37) mance of a BLDC motor to simulate the loading effects on
dt the driver motor of the EV.
Iqnon−comm (K + 1) = Iq (k) + ∗ (Vq (k)(R∗ Iq (k)
L This scheme is proposed to provide a popular solution in
+ (ω(k)∗ L∗ Id (k))) (38) motor drive and achieve faster dynamic performance with
Inon−comm (k + 1) = Idnon−comm (k + 1) EV controllers. MPC can now be combined with diverse
+ Iqnon−comm (k + 1) (39) control concepts to create an adaptable controller design that
regulates electromagnetic torque at desired voltage levels,
where, Iq(k) & Id(k) are quadrature and direct current in Kth as summarized in Table 6. Most commonly, MPC controllers
time, Vq(k) & Vd(k) are quadrature and direct voltage in Kth use two control loop modules to mitigate torque ripples in
time, R, L are resistance (ohm), the inductance of motor different speed conditions via the current and speed loop
(henry), & ω(k) is the speed in kth time (rad/sec). modules. As specified by the current module, the model
To achieve the desired control effect, the current con- predictive deadbeat current controller (DBCC) employs the
trol loop bandwidth must be high while the speed control motor model to generate reference voltage for state vec-

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FIGURE 11. Model predictive control strategies of torque ripple mitigations in BLDC motor for electric vehicles.

tor PWM during commutation to minimize torque ripples loss minimization, controlled degradation, etc. Furthermore,
[210], [213]. During the commutation period, the MPC gen- these techniques address the issue of over-excitation in EV
erates the desired current and operates the electric vehicle applications to reduce the machine’s overall energy con-
in constant torque ranges. Besides, it performs admirably in sumption, thereby increasing the vehicle’s driving range.
both high and low-speed operations, reducing current and Moreover, an adaptive MPC (AMPC) is used to estimate
torque ripple while maintaining average torque at its rated speed and power demand using a global positioning system
value. Similarly, MPC in association with an SMC functions (GPS) and to provide control torque to electric vehicles using
as a current loop to control overcurrent constraints in the optimization algorithms [218].
motor and enhance its ability to reduce load torque uncer- It is much more capable of dealing with constraints by
tainties [203]. using an open-loop optimization and closed-loop feedback
Also, it is used to limit tracking error, peak time, and system 28 to continuously evaluate and upgrade the vehicle
transient response, and improve stability of motor variables. mass in real time. Even now, MPC uses a deep learning
Additionally, a current control loop has been developed by artificial neural network (DLANN) algorithm to control the
using of finite control set MPC (FCS-MPC) to handle har- motor’s speed and torque, additionally providing a more
monic current injections, provide the appropriate switching robust, simple, and effective operation with less settling
states in terms of the cost function, and obtain the smooth time [204]. Again, for future development, the MPC cou-
torque [214]. It can reduce machine power dissipation, pled with the PWM method can effectively reduce current
provide high transient output, and easily incorporate non- and torque ripples at lower or higher speeds without chang-
linearities and constraints into controller design. Although ing the circuit topology [210]. This PWM-MPC control
this current control scheme does not require any modu- method achieves constant current of the conducted phases
lators, it significantly reduces implementation complexity, during non-commutation and constant non-commutation cur-
especially in multiphase systems. As specified by the speed rent during commutation in the full speed range by estimating
module, an NMPC technique has been suggested for the the PWM duty ratio. In this case, new MPC techniques
speed control of constrained nonlinear lightweight electric are used to predict the value of electromagnetic torque and
vehicles due to its energy-efficient performance [219]. The non-commutating current by selecting an appropriate PWM
proposed NMPC can be further developed for real-time duty ratio that efficiently controls the non-commutating cur-
implementation with goals such as torque ripple reduction, rent to reduce CTR. Currently, MPC techniques are used

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TABLE 6. Performance comparisons of model predictive control for BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

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TABLE 6. (Continued.) Performance comparisons of model predictive control for BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

in EVs to enhance fast torque generation, steady-state, design a sliding surface to make sure the system meets the
and dynamic performance along with vehicle performance. necessary design constraints. An essential part of the control
However, in terms of computational burden, EVs are the strategy, the sliding surface controls how the system’s states
main issue with MPC, but this burden is alleviated by evolve while it is in operation. During the procedure, the Hall
various advanced techniques such as artificial neural net- effect estimator serves two primary operations. It estimates
works (ANN) and machine learning (ML) algorithms, among the rotor’s position and serves as a communication switch
others. with the inverter. It also assesses the BLDCM’s actual speed
by determining the difference between the desired and mea-
sured speeds. Here speed error(e) is introduced in equation
G. TORQUE RIPPLE MITIGATION BASED ON SLIDING (41),
MODE CONTROL TECHNIQUES
The sliding mode controller (SMC) presents a robust control e = ωref − ωact (41)
strategy for dealing with nonlinear BLDC motor states and where, Nref and Nact are the respective reference torque
parameter uncertainty, assuring system stability and flexibil- and the actual torque is developed by motor and e is the
ity. This strong and versatile technology is gaining popularity torque error. Establishing a straight-line switching surface in
because to its ability to handle the complex terrain of electric terms of speed error(e), its derivative is given as equation
motors in electric vehicles [EV]. The design and development (42),
of the SMC for managing the speed dynamics of the BLDC
de
motor is a challenging exploration inside this environment. σ =e+C (42)
The SMC approach efficiently reduces commutation torque dt
ripple (CTR) over the whole speed range and achieves good where, C > 0 is a strictly positive real constant de
dt is the speed
performance in both dynamic and steady-state modes by error at Kth sampling interval.
effectively switching the power inverter’s three conduction The second step is to choose a suitable control law (U)
states during commutation [224], [225], [226], as shown in that ensures the system’s state is drawn to the sliding surface.
Fig 12. The control input (U) is defined by the equation (43) below
The procedure begins with two critical steps, each of which as,
is part of the complicated control system: as a design of
sliding surface and as a selection of control law. The first step U = −K sign(s) (43)

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TABLE 7. Performance comparisons of sliding mode control for BLDC motor in electric vehicles.

where, U is control input, k is the constant parameter, s is the to achieve σ = 0 using equivalent control are described in
switching function, sign(s) is sign function of switching equations (44 & 45),
The above equation describes the differences from the
desirable condition. If the sliding surface is reached and U = −1 for σ > 0 (44)
maintained, then σ = 0. The speed error-switching surface is
a straight line in the phase plane. The simplest control input U = +1 for σ < 0 (45)

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FIGURE 12. Sliding mode control strategies of torque ripple mitigations in BLDC motor for electric vehicles.

According to the error in the current and the error in the rotor SMC techniques increase the speed regulation of BLDCM in
speed, the sliding surface (σ ) can be changed to a straight the absence and presence of external load, improving system
line in the phase plane. Here, the real speed is compared to parameters such as settling time, steady-state error, rising
the reference speed by the SMC controller and is capable of time, and disturbance and noise rejection [231]. Similar to
maintaining stable operation while precisely tracking desired this, SMC operates senselessly and employs a higher-order
set points. In this context, SMC maintains constant electro- sliding mode observer (HOSMO), mostly for speed and
magnetic torque, effectively eliminating commutation torque position estimates. It is suitable for electric vehicle (EV)
ripples that are mainly based on stator switching vectors of applications because it produces consistent results with low
the three-phase inverter by commutation logic circuit [227], estimation error, improved speed tracking efficiency, and
[228]. minimal torque ripples [232], [236].
This algorithm is implemented to drive the BLDC motor In addition, the Hysteresis controller and SMC work
with efficient torque control, which is growing popularity together to improve motor current control, it can track the ref-
in EVs, and it efficiently handles torque ripples, enabling erence signal with a reasonable response time even when the
smooth cornering and increased vehicle performance, also the motor’s parameters are changed, and SMC does not need any
vehicle tracks the input speed and provides the control sys- additional sensors for current measurement [233]. To further
tem’s reliability. SMC is currently compatible with a variety protect the BLDC motor from torque ripples, an integral time
of control principles to produce a flexible controller design SMC is used, allowing the system states to achieve the equi-
that manages speed and electromagnetic torque at predeter- librium point in finite time and eliminating chattering with
mined voltage levels, as summarized in Table 6. The SMC its higher dynamic response and robustness operation [234].
controller is most typically used alongside the intelligence Similarly, using an SMO with RBFNN (Radial Basis Func-
of a fuzzy inference system to address the critical issue of tion Neural Network) increases the motor control system’s
speed control in BLDC motors, which have a wide range transient specification, making it more responsive to changes
of speed capabilities [229]. Fuzzy SMC (FSMC) eliminates in load conditions and improving the overall reliability of the
peak overshoot, reduces rise time, and reduces settling time control system [235].
compared to the conventional controller. The use of cascaded
sliding mode controllers for inner loop current control and
outer loop speed control can improve the performance of the VII. COMPARISONS OF VARIOUS TORQUE RIPPLE
BLDC motor drive system [230]. CONTROL MITIGATION STRATEGIES IN BLDC MOTOR
This can result in more precise control of the motor’s speed The basic control characteristics of all controllers are exam-
and current, which is beneficial in applications where accu- ined and contrasted to define the nature of the control strate-
rate control is required in EVs. Furthermore, adaptive fuzzy gies, and also investigate their impact on drive performance

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(in steady state & and transient state) with implementation constant current in the commutation region, the various PWM
complexity, as shown in Fig 13 (a). switching stages are enhanced by current shaping techniques
Also, discussed are the advantages and disadvantages of to provide less commutation torque ripples with minimal
various control strategies for mitigation of torque ripples in switching losses. This technique is more robust and effective
BLDC motors, as shown in Fig 13 (b). Advanced control than conventional FOC using PWM technology at reducing
methods are investigated to overcome the complexity of the current ripple and changing the switching logic, while over
coordinate transformation, which requires knowledge of the current, increased speed, or overloading occurs in BLDC
rotor orientation and thus the machine parameters. FOC is motor drive systems [193]. Also, the SMC achieves good
not robust against parameter variations, such as stator and speed regulation in order to achieve appropriate time domain
rotor resistance being more influenced by temperature, which specifications and avoid chattering caused by high-frequency
causes estimation errors and has a negative impact on control switching. Moreover, to improve motor performance in elec-
accuracy. To avoid coordinate transformation and create a tric vehicles, the concept of MPC techniques is included to
control strategy that is independent of the machine param- easily select switching vectors using a cost function with
eters, DTC has been developed. In contrast to FOC, flux, system constraints. MPC, such as DTC, has fast dynamics
and torque can be directly controlled by adjusting the inverter and good torque response despite operating with variable
switching states. DTC is further improved by combining the switching frequency [242].
PWM technology concept used in FOC with DTC to reduce The MPC approach outperforms others due to its low
torque ripples without the need for coordinate transformation torque ripple, low torque and speed pulsations, low power
[238], [239]. DTC is a good alternative to FOC because it has reactive and active ripples, and high-quality waveforms of
better dynamic performance and a simpler control strategy the stator 34 currents drawn by the motor with low THD
without knowing the rotor orientation. In most applications, [243]. Even though MPC techniques have a higher compu-
FOC and DTC methods are adequate. However, with the tation burden than FOC and DTC controllers, this burden
advancement of digital signal processing (DSP) and FPGAs, might be eliminated with further development of artificial
more research into nonlinear controls has been conducted intelligence (AI) like deep learning techniques and machine
[240]. Moreover, to provide an accurate evaluation of the learning algorithms to improve the performance of vehicles.
performance of the two control schemes, the average switch- The artificial intelligence (AI) technique is being devel-
ing frequency must be approximately the same. In terms oped to overcome this major issue in BLDC motors in EVs
of steady-state performance based on current ripples, the by following variations in speed references and stabilizing
amplitude of the torque ripple in DTC is slightly higher than output speed during load variations. In this case, the AI
that of FOC, because of the same average switching and good approach collaborated with FOC to optimize the speed reg-
high-order harmonic suppression effect; as a result, FOC con- ulation of an electric current space vector-controlled BLDC
tinues to hold the leading position in the field of EVs [241]. motor and improve the drive system’s stability, accuracy, and
According to rotor speed-based transient state perfor- rapid reaction, as well as increase motor torque dynamic and
mance, DTC has a better torque response in terms of settling steady-state responsiveness. Using DTC when combined with
time and overshoot, whereas FOC has a longer settling time. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) helps to reduce torque rip-
Likely, intelligent controllers are thought to provide good ples in BLDC motors, resulting in smoother motor operation.
control performance for further improvement of time domain In addition, it has a faster time reaction than conventional
specifications to obtain an optimal, effective, and reliable controllers, which improves the overall performance of the
BLDC motor control system. Which has numerous advan- motor system. Fuzzy-based ANN controller for achieving
tages, including reduced overshoot, reduced speed errors, and desired steady-state performance and improving dynamic
increased control precision. In this case, if an FLC is used performance of BLDC motor operating parameters.
to regulate speed and deliver high performance, then torque In this regard, the SMC controller paired with the AI
ripple could be reduced by increasing the membership func- method provides highly effective rejection of disturbances
tions used in torque and flux fuzzification. The fuzzy-based such as load torque and feedback noise, steady state, and tran-
PID controller provides better and more stable performance sient performance making it suitable for applications requir-
than the conventional FOC, along with PI control, reduced ing high precision position control to obtain efficient torque
speed fluctuation, torque stability, and good control perfor- ripple rejection. Present-day MPC still uses a deep learning
mance. For more enhanced control performance, employ artificial neural network (DLANN) algorithm to regulate the
DC-DC choppers to regulate PWM schemes and describe a motor’s speed and torque, producing a more reliable, straight-
technique for reducing torque ripple by controlling the input forward, and efficient operation with a shorter settling time.
voltage to minimize current ripple and maintain a constant
current in the freewheel region [242]. Here digital controllers VIII. CLOUD-BASED TORQUE CONTROL OF BLDC MOTOR
are used to control the duty cycles of PWM to effectively IN EV APPLICATIONS
regulate the speed and torque of the motor driving system dur- Now a days the improvement of the vehicle’s driving range
ing the commutation region, and then reduce the amplitude and optimization of its energy usage are key features of EV
of the commutating current. Similarly, in order to maintain a development. These requirements are dependent on torque

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FIGURE 13. (a). Inferences and applications on various control strategies in BLDC motor for electric vehicles. (b). Advantages and disadvantages
of various control strategies in BLDC motor for electric vehicles.

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control and are met by developing and improving motor in order to get acceptance and widespread deployment. Fur-
performance. Smooth torque output is required for electric thermore, the prior challenges of torque, current ripples, total
vehicles to operate with great performance in their speed and harmonic distortion, achieving desired steady-state perfor-
position control drives. The torque ripple affects the motor mance and so on must be overcome to ensure the technology’s
with high specific torque the most and can lead to noise, smooth development. Based on the review conducted and
vibrations, and problems with motor drives in addition to presented in this study, a few salient points are emphasized as
poor speed-torque characteristics. Recently the development well as suggested below on the further research on this topic
of cloud-based motor torque control has been an advanced as shown in Fig 15.
research area, integrating them into EVs for improving effi- 1. Developing and improving high computing techniques
ciency as well as providing new ideas for developing motor with advanced controller design strategies is the capability
performance as shown in Fig 14. Cloud-based technology has to manage and engage the performance together with safety
made significant advances in EVs, bringing feasibility and in EVs in real-time. It might be influenced by developed
problem-solving systems to all electrical sectors. vehicle models under all distinct operating circumstances
Cloud-based condition monitoring (CM) systems have and to deploy vehicles in emergence for specific missions’
mostly been used for detecting and diagnosing unexpected impact on reliability, comfort, efficiency, and stability. The
motor behavior caused by torque ripples. With the devel- emergence and execution of an EV controller utilizing
opment of cloud-based CM systems, they may now share optimization techniques, such as artificial intelligence (AI)
motor data with experts over the cloud, allowing for better machine learning programs, to continue and learn complex
defect detection, faster response times, and reduced machine functions in order to achieve optimal performance.
downtime. Also, gives a direct connection to the cloud, where 2. To integrate the two control strategies into a single
data from CM systems and devices can be transmitted. The unit in order to demonstrate the BLDC motor’s superior
cloud provides more processing capacity and extensive analy- performance, particularly at steady state, by adopting these
sis choices due to the coupling of this data with other machine techniques to obtain better dynamic performance like miti-
control data. In this context, real-time motor performance gating torque ripple, maintaining the lowest possible THD in
monitoring is accomplished by electric motor CM systems the stator current, improve the power density, uncertainties of
using a range of sensors and data analysis techniques. This load torque and over current constraints of the motor.
enables systems to discover potential problems of torque 3. The development of autonomous driving in EVs accom-
and current ripples before they become serious and take plished the optimal overall power management result over the
corrective action immediately. Furthermore, these technolo- duration of a driving cycle and it quickly achieves starting,
gies can be utilized to predict the futur motor parameter stopping, and steering control, which is then attained by spe-
variations, problems and arrange preventative maintenance cific electric motor systems. It employs an embedded-based
appropriately. Here, sensors collect data to monitor critical communication system linked with high-resolution sensors to
motor operating parameters such as vibrations, noise, current operate vehicles safely and collect accurate road along with
ripples, and torque on real-time. Besides, cloud-connected operation data without a driver being present.
computing devices gather and analyses a lot of information 4. A potential future change in the direction of the wireless
to improve motor control parameters performance as part of motor (WM) control drive entails improving the flexibility
the Internet of Things (IoT). and performance of the EVs system, with the electric motor
It permits the real-time transmission of data to the cloud, being directly fed by the wireless power transfer (WPT)
where it can be analyzed and processed using artificial intel- system. Also, with the rapidly increasing demand for WPT
ligence (AI) based learning techniques. This enables the in various motors, use a broad range of potential applications
detection of defects and the identification of their poten- prospects which include eliminating power components in the
tial occurrence, allowing for timely maintenance activities system, power conversion inverters, as well as reducing the
to eliminate the need for extensive checking. Based on the size and weight of motor drives.
transmission of information in real-time between the cloud 5. Additional advances in cloud-based technology for
and vehicles, is a critical aspect in calculating and satisfying motor torque control drives could increase the depend-
the driving motor torque ripples minimization solution. ability and intelligence of EVs and solve many problems
with energy management control system fault diagnostics.
IX. FUTURE CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES It analyses the torque distribution and energy consumption
In this paper, a sustainable review of the long-established relationship via online cloud mode to adjust the vehicle
used control strategies of torque ripple mitigations in BLDC torque based on current speed and road condition. Further-
motors for EVs is presented. EVs have enormous potential more, its integration with electric motor drive systems via
and interesting opportunities in the future. The most sig- IoT and AI satisfies the driving motor power requirement
nificant barriers to attaining excellent torque control BLDC to provide intellectual, robust, secure, and reliable vehicle
motor to EV driving performance are overcome with a high systems.
level of safety and trust. Under all conditions, EVs must 6. Multilevel topology converters are becoming increas-
operate consistently and without errors or malfunctions 36 ingly important in modern power electronics applications

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FIGURE 14. Cloud-based control strategies of torque ripple mitigations in BLDC motor for electric vehicles.

FIGURE 15. Future challenges for the advancement of control strategies in BLDC motor for electric vehicles.

for controlling motor torque and making EVs more efficient tor, diode clamped, and H-bridge) with less harmonic and
by utilizing AC-DC, DC-DC, and DC-AC converters. The reduced stress voltage in addition to the use of high switching
output of the converter is simple and smoothly functioning frequency to minimize the excitation torque ripple with high-
as the number of levels increases (such as flying capaci- speed operation.

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X. CONCLUSION plex dynamics and multiple input and output systems, also
This work presents a comprehensive review of various control providing a popular solution in motor drive and achiev-
strategies associated with mitigating the torque ripples of ing faster dynamic performance with EV controllers. Even
BLDC motors in EVs that have been meticulously exam- though recent advancements in research have focused on
ined in terms of their function and control procedures. The cloud-based motor torque control, which can be integrated
studies reviewed in this paper focus on BLDC motors, which into EVs to increase efficiency and offer fresh perspectives
have become increasingly popular for use in EV applications on how to improve motor performance compared to all vector
due to their compactness, accuracy, and cost-effectiveness. controllers. It can also more precisely predict information
Along with a fundamental understanding of torque ripple about the vehicle’s current driving conditions for improved
mitigation for the development of effective control techniques power distribution between the motor and battery system.
with a high degree of dynamic performance and superior These control approaches are used to improve motor sys-
efficiency. This performance is mainly based on the archi- tem performance and guarantee smooth torque operation in
tecture of the control system for BLDC motors in vehicles, order to maintain energy efficiency in EVs. Furthermore,
which includes controlled and uncontrolled variables such the real-time evaluation processes of control strategies of
as speed, torque, stator phase currents, terminal voltages, BLDC motors, as well as crucial characteristics of energy
back-EMF, hall sensors, etc. Although machines with a management for the optimum functioning of EVs, have been
high specific torque inherently have large torque ripples, analyzed.
the significance of torque ripples produced is determined
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[232] P. Shah, P. Ubare, D. Ingole, and D. Sonawane, ‘‘Performance N. PRABHU received the M.E. degree from the
improvement of BLDC motor speed control using sliding mode con- PSG College of Technology, Anna University,
trol and observer,’’ in Proc. Int. Symp. Asian Control Assoc. Intell. Chennai, India, in 2011. He is currently pursu-
Robot. Ind. Autom. (IRIA), Goa, India, Sep. 2021, pp. 247–252, doi: ing the Ph.D. degree with the Vellore Institute
10.1109/IRIA53009.2021.9588766. of Technology (VIT), Vellore, Tamil Nadu. His
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sliding mode control for a brushless DC motor,’’ in Proc. IEEE 23rd development for electric motors used in electric
Int. Multitopic Conf. (INMIC), Bahawalpur, Pakistan, 2020, pp. 1–5, doi: vehicles. His research interest includes advanced
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control strategies for torque ripple mitigation of
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various electric motors.
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a sliding mode control for a brushless DC motor with RBFNN and dis-
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trol with sliding mode speed control for brushless DC motor,’’ in Proc. R. THIRUMALAIVASAN (Senior Member, IEEE)
IEEE 9th Int. Power Electron. Motion Control Conf. (IPEMC-ECCE received the B.E. degree in electrical and electron-
Asia), Nanjing, China, Dec. 2020, pp. 2234–2238, doi: 10.1109/IPEMC- ics engineering from Madras University, Chennai,
ECCEAsia48364.2020.9367634.
India, in 1999, the M.Tech. degree from the Col-
[238] M. A. Begh and H. G. Herzog, ‘‘Comparison of field-oriented con-
lege of Engineering, Anna University, Guindy,
trol and direct torque control,’’ Tech. Univ. Munich, Munich, Germany,
Chennai, India, in 2002, and the Ph.D. degree from
Tech. Rep., 2018, doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.21677.59360/1.
the Department of Electrical Engineering, Jawa-
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Two viable schemes for induction motors torque control,’’ IEEE harlal Nehru Technological University, Hyder-
Trans. Power Electron., vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 779–787, Sep. 2002, doi: abad, India, in 2014. He was a Postdoctoral
10.1109/TPEL.2002.802183. Fellow with the Engineering Systems Design Pil-
[240] F. Wang, Z. Zhang, X. Mei, J. Rodríguez, and R. Kennel, ‘‘Advanced lar, SUTD, Singapore, from 2015 to 2016. He is currently a Professor with the
control strategies of induction machine: Field oriented control, direct School of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore,
torque control and model predictive control,’’ Energies, vol. 11, no. 1, India. His research interests include electric vehicles, FACTS, HVdc, wind
p. 120, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.3390/en11010120. energy conversion systems, real-time digital simulation of power electronics,
[241] L. Yunfei and Z. Chengning, ‘‘A comparative experimental analy- and power systems.
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computing-based real-time global optimization of battery aging
and energy consumption for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles,’’ BRAGADESHWARAN ASHOK received the
J. Power Sources, vol. 479, Dec. 2020, Art. no. 229069, doi:
Ph.D. degree from the School of Mechanical Engi-
10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.229069.
neering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT),
[245] J. Yuan and L. Yang, ‘‘Predictive energy management strategy for con-
Vellore, in 2017. He is currently an Associate
nected 48 V hybrid electric vehicles,’’ Energy, vol. 187, Nov. 2019,
Art. no. 115952, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2019.115952.
Professor with the Department of Automotive
Technology, School of Mechanical Engineering,
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mation for electric vehicle equipped with integrated motor-transmission VIT. His research work is aimed at motor control
system,’’ Mech. Syst. Signal Process., vol. 99, pp. 647–660, Jan. 2018, doi: algorithm development for electric vehicle appli-
10.1016/j.ymssp.2017.07.006. cations. His research interests include automotive
[247] H. A. Raja, H. Raval, T. Vaimann, A. Kallaste, A. Rassõlkin, and engineering, electric and hybrid vehicle power-
A. Belahcen, ‘‘Cost-efficient real-time condition monitoring and fault train calibration, IC engines, and automotive electronics. Recently, he has
diagnostics system for BLDC motor using IoT and machine learning,’’ in been awarded as ‘‘World’s Top 2% Scientists’’ by a study conducted from
Proc. Int. Conf. Diag. Electr. Eng. (Diagnostika), Pilsen, Czech Republic, researchers at Stanford University.
Sep. 2022, pp. 1–4, doi: 10.1109/Diagnostika55131.2022.9905102.

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