Assignment 3

Algebra 1: Group Theory

Leto Cavé
Student ID: 14379570

February 23, 2025

Contents

Problem 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Part (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Part (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Part (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Problem 2.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Part (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Part (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Part (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Part (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Problem 2.3

Part (a) Problem 2.3

The symmetric group S3 is the group of all permutations of the set {1, 2, 3}, with function com-
position as the group operation. Explicitly, S3 consists of all bijections σ : {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3}.
The bijective function σ can be formatted the following way:

1 2 3
 
σ= .
σ(1) σ(2) σ(3)

Here the first row represents the original positions 1, 2, 3 and the second row consists of their
corresponding images under σ. The elements of S3 can be classified as follows:

• Identity permutation: Maps each element to itself. 1 7→ 1, 2 7→ 2, 3 7→ 3 (no change),

1 2 3
 
(1) = .
1 2 3

• Three transpositions: 1 7→ 2, 2 7→ 1, 3 7→ 3 (swap 1 and 2 , fix 3 ),

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
     
(1 2) = , (2 3) = , (1 3) = .
2 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 1

1
 • Two 3-cycles: 1 7→ 2, 2 7→ 3, 3 7→ 1 (cyclic shift),

1 2 3 1 2 3
   
(1 2 3) = , (1 3 2) = .
2 3 1 3 1 2

Thus, the complete set of elements in S3 is:

S3 = {(1), (1 2), (2 3), (1 3), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)}.

Part (b) Problem 2.3

The group table (Cayley table) of S3 is constructed by computing the product of each pair of
elements under function composition. Since the elements of S3 are:

S3 = {(1), (1 2), (2 3), (1 3), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)}.

The multiplication table is given by:

(1) (1 2) (2 3) (1 3) (1 2 3) (1 3 2)
(1) (1) (1 2) (2 3) (1 3) (1 2 3) (1 3 2)
(1 2) (1 2) (1) (1 3 2) (1 2 3) (1 3) (2 3)
(2 3) (2 3) (1 2 3) (1) (1 3 2) (1 2) (1 3)
(1 3) (1 3) (1 3 2) (1 2 3) (1) (2 3) (1 2)
(1 2 3) (1 2 3) (2 3) (1 3) (1 2) (1 3 2) (1)
(1 3 2) (1 3 2) (1 3) (1 2) (2 3) (1) (1 2 3)

Part (c) Problem 2.3

We prove that S3 has exactly six subgroups:

{(1)}, {(1), (1 2)}, {(1), (2 3)}, {(1), (1 3)}, {(1), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)}, S3 .

Proof. The group S3 consists of the six elements:

S3 = {(1), (1 2), (2 3), (1 3), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)}.

To classify all subgroups, we consider the Lagrange theorem, which states that any subgroup of a
finite group must have an order dividing the group order |S3 | = 6. The divisors of 6 are:

1, 2, 3, 6.

Case 1: Trivial subgroup (|H| = 1)

The only subgroup of order 1 is:
H1 = {(1)}.
Case 2: Subgroups of order 2
Since a subgroup of order 2 consists of the identity and one element of order 2, we check elements
of order 2 in S3 , which are:
(1 2), (2 3), (1 3).
Each generates a subgroup:

H2 = {(1), (1 2)}, H3 = {(1), (2 3)}, H4 = {(1), (1 3)}.

Case 3: Subgroups of order 3

© A.J.L Cavé (UVA) 2

A subgroup of order 3 must be cyclic and generated by an element of order 3. The elements of
order 3 are:
(1 2 3), (1 3 2).
These generate the same cyclic subgroup:

H5 = {(1), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)}.

Case 4: Subgroup of order 6 (the full group)

By definition, S3 is a subgroup of itself:

H6 = S3 .

Thus, the complete list of subgroups is:

H1 , H2 , H3 , H4 , H5 , H6 .

Since we have accounted for all possible orders dividing |S3 | = 6, these are the only subgroups. ■

Problem 2.11
Let d, n ∈ Z>0 with d | n, so that n = dq for some q ∈ N.

Part (a) Problem 2.11

We prove the existence of a group homomorphism f : Z/nZ → Z/dZ defined by:

f (ā) = ā mod d, ∀a ∈ Z.

Here Z/nZ is the integers modulo n under addition consisting of the elements {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}
with operation + mod n.

Proof. A function f : G → H is a group homomorphism if it is closed under composition:

f (ab) = f (a)f (b), ∀a, b ∈ G.
We define f : Z/nZ → Z/dZ by:
f (ā) = ā mod d.
Here, a in Z/nZ is the equivalence class of a modulo n, defined as: a = a + nZ = {a + kn | k ∈ Z}.
To verify that f is a group homomorphism under addition we observe:

f (ā + b̄) = (a + b) mod d = f (ā) + f (b̄).

Thus, f preserves the operation.

To check surjectivity, every b̄ ∈ Z/dZ has a preimage b̄ ∈ Z/nZ, so f is surjective. However, f is

¯ n in Z/nZ map to the same element in Z/dZ.
not injective since multiple values ā, a + ■

Part (b) Problem 2.11

We prove the existence of a group homomorphism

g : (Z/nZ)× → (Z/dZ)× ,

defined by:
g(ā) = ā mod d, ∀a ∈ Z with gcd(a, n) = 1.
Here, (Z/nZ) is the multiplicative group of units modulo n, consisting of all elements that have
×

a multiplicative inverse:
(Z/nZ)× = {ā ∈ Z/nZ | gcd(a, n) = 1}.

© A.J.L Cavé (UVA) 3

The operation in this group is multiplication modulo n.

Proof. We verify that g is a well-defined group homomorphism by checking well-definedness

g(ā) ∈ (Z/dZ)× and preservation of multiplication.
Well-definedness
For g(ā) to be in (Z/dZ)× , we must show that if gcd(a, n) = 1, then gcd(a mod d, d) = 1.

• Since d | n, all prime factors of d also divide n.

• Since a is coprime to n, a is not divisible by any prime factor of n, and therefore not by any
prime factor of d.

• Thus, gcd(a, d) = 1, which means g(ā) = ā mod d ∈ (Z/dZ)× .

Hence, g is well-defined.

Homomorphism Property
We check whether g preserves the group operation (multiplication modulo n):

g(ā · b̄) = g(ab) = (ab) mod d.

Since g(ā) = ā mod d and g(b̄) = b̄ mod d, we have:

g(ā) · g(b̄) = (ā mod d) · (b̄ mod d) = (ab) mod d.

Thus, we conclude:
g(ā · b̄) = g(ā) · g(b̄).
Therefore, g is a group homomorphism. ■

Part (c) Problem 2.11

Let a ∈ Z satisfy gcd(a, d) = 1, and let t be the product of all primes dividing n but not a. We
prove:
gcd(a + td, n) = 1.

Proof. We analyze the structure of n by considering its prime factorization:

n = pe11 pe22 . . . pekk .

Define:

• Sa as the set of prime factors of n that do not divide a.

• Sd as the set of prime factors of n that also divide d.

By assumption, gcd(a, d) = 1, so Sa ∩ Sd = ∅.
We define: Y
t= p ep ,
p∈Sa

where p is the highest power of p dividing n. Since t contains only the primes of n that do not
ep

divide a, we see that:

a + td ≡ a (mod pep ), ∀p ∈ Sa .
Since Sa is exactly the set of prime factors of n that do not divide a, this guarantees that:

gcd(a + td, n) = 1.

© A.J.L Cavé (UVA) 4

Thus, a + td is coprime to n, completing the proof. ■

Part (d) Problem 2.11

We prove that g from part (b) is surjective and provide an example where g is injective when
d < n.

Proof.
To show that g : (Z/nZ)× → (Z/dZ)× is surjective, let:

b̄ ∈ (Z/dZ)× .

By definition, gcd(b, d) = 1. Using part (c), there exists an integer a ≡ b mod d such that:

gcd(a, n) = 1.

Since g(ā) = ā mod d, we have:

g(ā) = b̄.
Thus, every element in (Z/dZ)× has a preimage in (Z/nZ)× , proving that g is surjective.

Example: Injectivity for d < n: For g to be injective, we need to show that if g(ā) = g(b̄), then
ā = b̄ in (Z/nZ)× , meaning:
a ≡ b (mod n).
This is equivalent to:
a ≡ b (mod d) and gcd(a, n) = 1.
If d and n are coprime, then the natural reduction map preserves distinct equivalence classes,
making g bijective.
Consider n = 15 and d = 4. We have:

¯ 13,
(Z/15Z)× = {1̄, 2̄, 4̄, 7̄, 8̄, 11, ¯ 14},
¯

(Z/4Z)× = {1̄, 3̄}.

The map:
g : Z/15Z× → Z/4Z×
sends:
1̄ 7→ 1̄, 2̄ 7→ 2̄, 4̄ 7→ 0̄, 7̄ 7→ 3̄, 8̄ 7→ 0̄.
Since 4̄ and 8̄ both map to 0̄, g is not injective in this case.
However, if d and n were coprime, the natural projection would be injective, as seen in cases where
n is prime and d is a proper divisor. ■

© A.J.L Cavé (UVA) 5