Theory of Computation

TY BTech

CONTEXT FREE GRAMMAR(CFG)

&
PUSH DOWN AUTOMATA(PDA)
 Course Objectives & Course Outcomes
Course Objectives:
• To understand the basics of automata theory and its operations.
• To understand problem classification and problem solving by machines.
• To study computing machines by describing, classifying and comparing different
types of computational models.
• To understand the fundamentals of decidability and computational complexity.

Course Outcomes:
• After completion of this course students will be able:
• To construct finite state machines to solve problems in computing.
• To write mathematical expressions and syntax verification for the formal languages.
• To construct and analyze Push Down Automata and Turing Machine for formal
languages.
• To express the understanding of decidability and complexity.
 Text Books & Reference Books

• Text Books
• John C. Martin, Introduction to Language and Theory of Computation, TMH,
3rdEdition, ISBN: 978-0-07-066048-9.
• Vivek Kulkarni, Theory of Computation, Oxford University Press, ISBN-13: 978-0-
19-808458-7.
• Reference Books
• K.L.P Mishra,N. Chandrasekaran,Theory of Computer Science (Automata, Languages
and Computation), Prentice Hall India, 2nd Edition.
• Michael Sipser, Introduction to the Theory of Computation,CENGAGE Learning, 3rd
Edition, ISBN:13:978-81-315-2529-6.
• Daniel Cohen, Introduction to Computer Theory, Wiley India, 2nd Edition, ISBN:
9788126513345.
• Kavi Mahesh, Theory of Computation: A Problem Solving Approach, 1st Edition,
Wiley-India, ISBN: 978-81-265-3311-4.
 Unit III – CFG & PDA
CFG
Formal definition of Grammar, Chomsky Hierarchy, CFG : Formal
definition of CFG, Derivations, Parse Tree, Ambiguity in grammars and
languages, Language Specification using CFG, Normal Forms: Chomsky
Normal Form and Greibach Normal Form. Closure properties of CFL.

Pushdown automata : Description and Definition, language of of PDA

, Acceptance of PDA by final State and Empty Stack, Designing PDA,
Equivalence of Pushdown automata and CFG, Deterministic Pushdown
Automata, Nondeterministic Pushdown Automata. Intersection of CFLs
and Regular Language , Introduction to context sensitive languages and
context sensitive grammar (CSG)
 Planner - Lectures
Lecture No Topics Covered
1 Chomsky Hierarchy, CFG-Formal Definition, CFL
2 CFG <-> CFL, Derivation, Parse Tree
3 Ambiguity, CNF
4 Conversion of CFG to CNF, Closure Properties
5 GNF, PDA, Formal Definition, ID
6 Acceptance of a string, Designing PDA
7 PDA and NPDA Examples
8 Converting PDA to CFG

Lecture No Topics Covered

9 Intersection of CFLs and Regular Language , Introduction to
context sensitive languages and context sensitive grammar
(CSG)

5
 Introduction

• Finite Automata accept all regular languages and only regular languages

• Many simple languages are non regular:

- {anbn : n = 0, 1, 2, …}
- {w : w a is palindrome}

and there is no finite automata that accepts them.

• Context-Free Languages are a larger class of languages that

encompasses all regular languages and many others, including the two above.
Context-Free Languages and Regular
Languages

Context-Free Languages

Regular Languages
 Formal Definition of a Grammar

Grammar:

Set of
variables
Set of Start Set of
terminal variable productions
symbols
 Language for the Grammar
Grammar:

S→aSb
S→є
Language of the grammar:

L = {a b : n  0}
n n
 A Convenient Notation

We write:
for zero or more derivation steps
Instead of:

Generalizing:
w1  w2  w3    wn
Trivially:
 Formal Definition-CFG

Definition: A context-free grammar is a 4-tuple (V, T, P, S),

where:

• V is a set (each element in V is called nonterminal)

• T is an alphabet (each character in T is called terminal)
• P, the set of rules, is a subset of V × (T ∪ V)*
If (α,β) ∈ P, we write production α β

β is called a sentential form

• S, the start symbol, is one of the symbols in V

 Example of Context-Free Grammar

productions
P={S→aSb,
S→є}

start variable
variables
terminals
 Context-Free Language

A language is context-free
if there is a context-free grammar
with
 Context-Free Language-Example 1

is a context-free language
since context-free grammar :

{S aSb | є}
generates
 Context-Free Language – Example 2
Context-free grammar :

{S aSa | bSb | є}
Example derivations:

Palindromes of even length

 Derivation and Parse Trees

Consider the following example grammar

with 5 productions:

S AB A aaA|ϵ B Bb|ϵ
 Leftmost and Rightmost Derivation
Consider the following example grammar
with 5 productions:
S AB A aaA|ϵ B Bb|ϵ
Leftmost derivation: for the string aab

Rightmost derivation: for the string aab

 Leftmost and Rightmost Derivation
S AB A aaA|ϵ B Bb|ϵ
Leftmost derivation:

Rightmost derivation:

Give same
derivation tree

ϵ ϵ
 Context Free Language for a CFG
Find the CFL generated for the given CFG.
1. S aSb | ab

L(G)={anbn | n>=1}

2. S aB|bA
A a|aS|bAA
B b|bS|aBB

L(G)={x|x containing equal no of a’s and b’s}

 CFG for a CFL
1. Write the grammar for generating strings over
Σ={a}, containing any(zero or more) number of a’s.
S a | aS | ϵ

2. Find the CFG represented by the RE (a+b)*

S aS | bS | ϵ

3. Write the grammar for all strings consisting of a’s

and b’s with atleast 2 a’s.
S AaAaA
A aA | bA | ϵ
 Ambiguous Grammar

A context-free grammar is ambiguous

if there is a string which has:

two different derivation trees

or
two leftmost derivations

(Two different derivation trees give two

different leftmost derivations and vice-versa)
 Ambiguous Grammar – An Example

string has two derivation trees

 Ambiguous Grammar – An Example

string has two leftmost derivations

 Removing Ambiguity
Equivalent
Ambiguous
Non-Ambiguous
Grammar
Grammar

generates the same

language
Unique derivation
tree and leftmost
derivation
For the string
a+a*a
 Simplification of Context Free Grammar
A CFG G can be simplified as:
1. Each variable and terminal of the CFG should appear in the
derivation if at least one word in the L(G).
2. There should not be any production of the form A🡪 B where A
and B are both non-terminals.

Simplification techniques are:

1.Removal of Useless Symbols
2.Removal of Unit Productions
3.Elimination of ∈ production

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 Removal of Useless symbol
Ex.1 Consider the following grammar:
G={ (S,A),(1,0),P,S}
Where P consists of the following productions:
S🡪 1 0|0 S 1|1 S 0|A|S S
Simplify the grammar by removing the useless symbols if any.
Remove S🡪 A, as A is useless symbol.

S🡪 1 0|0 S 1|1 S 0|S S

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 Removal of Useless symbol
Ex.2 Consider the following grammar:
G={ (S,A,B),(a),P,S}
Where P consists of the following productions:
S🡪 A B | a
A🡪 a
Simplify the grammar by removing the useless symbols if any.
B is useless, Remove B
S🡪 A | a
A🡪 a

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 Removal of Unit Production
• A production rule of the form A🡪 B where A and B are both
non-terminals is called a unit production.
• All the other productions (including ∈ productions) are non-unit
productions.
Ex.1 Consider the following grammar:
G={ (A,B),(a,b),P,A}
Where P consists of :
A🡪 B, B🡪 a | b
Simplify the grammar by removing the unit productions if any.
On eliminating unit production A🡪 B
A🡪 a|b

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 Removal of Unit Production
Ex.2Consider the following grammar:
S🡪 a | X b | a Y a | b | a a
X🡪 Y
Y🡪 b|X
Simplify the grammar by removing the unit productions if any.
Simplified grammar is:
S🡪 a | Yb | aYa | b | aa
Y🡪 b

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 Removal of ∈ - Production
A production of the form A🡪 ∈ where A is non-terminal is known
as ∈ - Production.

Ex.1 Consider the following grammar,

S🡪 a S a | b S b | ∈
Simplify the grammar by eliminating ∈ - Productions if any.
Simplified grammar is G’:
S 🡪 aSa | bSb | aa | bb
G’=G-ϵ rules.
L(G’)=L(G)-{ϵ}

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 Removal of ∈ - Production
Ex.2 Consider the following grammar,
S🡪 a|Xb|aYa
X🡪 Y | ∈
Y🡪 b | X
Simplify the grammar by eliminating ∈ - Productions if any.
Simplified grammar is:
S 🡪 a | X b | a Y a | b | aa
X🡪 Y
Y🡪 b | X

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 Chomsky Hierarchy

1. Type 0 grammar (Unrestricted Grammar)

2. Type 1 grammar (Context Sensitive Grammar)
3. Type 2 grammar (Context Free Grammar)
4. Type 3 grammar (Regular Grammar)
 Chomsky Hierarchy
•Type 3 grammar:
It is also called as regular grammar.
A →α
Recognized by FSM.
Two types of Regular Grammar are:
1. Left Linear Grammar 2. Right Linear Grammar

•Type 2 grammar:
It is also called as context free grammar.
A→α where A is NT and α is sentential form.
Start symbol of the Grammar can also appear on RHS.
Recognized by PDA(Pushdown Automata)
 Chomsky Hierarchy
• Type 1 grammar:
It is context sensitive grammar or context dependent.
1. α → β where length of β is at least as much as the length of α
except S→ .
2. The rule S→  is allowed only if start symbol S does not appear
on RHS.
3. Productions are of the form
α1Aα2 →α1 β α2 (β ≠ )
Recognized by TM(Turing Machine).

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 Chomsky Hierarchy

•Type 0 grammar:
It is unrestricted grammar that is no restriction on production.
α →β (α ≠ )
Recognized by TM(Turing machines)
These languages are known as Recursively Enumerable
Languages.

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 Normal Forms

There are certain standard ways of writing CFG.

They satisfy certain restrictions on the productions in the CFG.
Then the G is said to be in Normal forms.

1. Chomsky Normal Form (CNF)

2. Greibach Normal Form (GNF)
 Chomsky Normal Form(CNF)

A CFG is in CNF if every production is of the form

A→ a, where A is NT and a is T
A → BC where A,B and C are NTs
S →  is in G if  belongs to L(G).

When  is in L(G),
we assume that S does not appear on the RHS of any production.
e.g. G is :
S→AB| 
A→ a
B→b
 Construction of G in CNF

Step 1. Elimination of null productions and unit productions using

previous method.
Let the G is (V,T,P,S)
Step 2. Elimination of terminals on RHS.
Step 3. Restricting the number of variables on RHS.
 Reduce to CNF
1. Convert to CNF, S🡪 aSa | bSb | a | b | aa | bb
Adding A🡪 a and B🡪 b we can rewrite the grammar as
S🡪 ASA|BSB|a|b|AA|BB
A🡪 a, B🡪 b
Only S🡪 ASA and S🡪 BSB are not in CNF
For S🡪 ASA we can write
S🡪 AR1, R1 🡪 SA
For S🡪 BSB we can write
S🡪 BR2, R2🡪 SB
Grammar in CNF is
S🡪 AR1|BR2|a|b|AA|BB
A🡪 a, B🡪 b
R1🡪 SA, R2🡪 SB
 Reduce to CNF
2. Convert to CNF,
S🡪 bA|aB, A🡪 bAA|aS|a, B🡪 aBB|bS|b
Add R1🡪 a, R2🡪 b
Rewriting the grammar,
S🡪 R2 A| R1 B,
A🡪 R2 AA| R1 S|a,
B🡪 R1 BB| R2 S|b
R1🡪 a, R2🡪 b
A🡪 R2 AA and B🡪 R1 BB are not in CNF
Converted grammar in CNF is
S🡪 R2 A| R1 B,
A🡪 R2 R3| R1 S|a, R3🡪 AA
B🡪 R1 R4 | R2 S|b, R4 🡪 BB
R1🡪 a, R2🡪 b
 Reduce to CNF

1. S→ aAD 3. S→ABA
A→ aB| bAB A→ aA | ϵ
B→b B→ bB | ϵ
D→d

2. S→ aAbB
A→ aA | a
B→ bB | b
 Greibach Normal Form

A context free grammar is said to be in Greibach

Normal Form if all productions are in the following
form:
A → αX
• A is a non terminal symbols
• α is a terminal symbol
• X is a sequence of non terminal
symbols.
It may be empty.
 Closure properties of CFL
CFLs are closed under:
Union
Concatenation
Kleene closure operator
Substitution
Homomorphism, inverse homomorphism
Reversal
CFLs are not closed under:
Intersection
Difference
Complementation

44
Push Down Automata
 Context-Free Languages

Context-Free Pushdown
Grammars Automata

stack

automaton
 Pushdown Automaton - PDA
Input String

Stack

States
 Initial Stack Symbol

Stack Stack

stack
top
head

bottom special symbol

Appears at time 0
 Formal definition of PDA
The PDA is as:
A =(Q,Σ, Г ,δ,q0,Z0,F)
Where
Q : A finite set of states
Σ : A finite set of input symbols
Г : A finite stack alphabet or pushdown symbols
δ : the transition function Q X(Σ U {ϵ } ) X Г to the set of finite
subsets of Q X Г*
q0: the start state
Z0 : the start symbol(pushdown symbol)
F : the set of accepting state or final states
 Transition Function

δ :The transition function is a triple δ(q,a,x)

where
1. q is a state in Q
2. a is either an input symbol in Σ or a =ϵ, the empty string,
3. x is a stack symbol, that is a member of Г.

The output of δ is a finite set of pairs (p,ɤ )

Where
p is the new state and
ɤ is the string of stack symbols that replaces x at the top of the
stack.
 Instantaneous Description of a PDA

The configuration of a PDA by a triple (q,w,ɤ) where

1. q is the state
2. w is the remaining input
3. ɤ is the stack contents
we show the top of the stack at the left end of ɤ and
the bottom at the right end.
Such a triple is called an Instantaneous Description
or ID of a PDA.
 δ(q, a, b) = (q, c)

stack
top Replac
e
 δ(q, a, b) = (q, cb)

stack
top Pus
h
 δ(q, a, b) = (q, ϵ)

stack
top Po
p
 δ(q, a, b) = (q, b)

stack
top No
Change
 A PDA Example

A =(Q,Σ, Г ,δ,q0,Z0,F)
Q={q0, q1, q2}, Σ={a,b}, Г={Z0, a}, F={q2}, δ as below

Move no State input stack Move

symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1,∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q2, Z0)
 Acceptance by PDA using final state
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1,∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q2, Z0)

For the string aabb

(q0, aabb , Z0) String aabb is
Ⱶ (q0, abb , aZ0) accepted, as final
Ⱶ (q0, bb , aaZ0) state q2 is
Ⱶ (q1, b , aZ0) reached on
Ⱶ (q1, ∈ , Z0) reading string
Ⱶ (q2,∈ , Z0) aabb completely
 Rejection by PDA
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1,∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q2, Z0)

For the string aabbb

(q0, aabbb , Z0) String aabbb is rejected as q1 is not
Ⱶ (q0, abbb , aZ0) final state and string aabbb is not
Ⱶ (q0, bbb , aaZ0) read completely.
Ⱶ (q1, bb , aZ0)
Ⱶ (q1, b , Z0)
 Acceptance by PDA using null store or empty
store or empty stack
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1,∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q1, ∈)

For the string aabb

(q0, aabb , Z0) String aabb is
Ⱶ (q0, abb , aZ0) accepted, as
Ⱶ (q0, bb , aaZ0) stack is empty on
Ⱶ (q1, b , aZ0) reading string
Ⱶ (q1, ∈ , Z0) aabb completely
Ⱶ (q1,∈ , ∈)
 Rejection by PDA
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1,∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q1, ∈)

For the string aabbb

(q0, aabbb , Z0) String aabbb is rejected as string
Ⱶ (q0, abbb , aZ0) aabbb is not read completely and
Ⱶ (q0, bbb , aaZ0) stack is not empty.
Ⱶ (q1, bb , aZ0)
Ⱶ (q1, b , Z0)
 Acceptance by PDA

Acceptance of input strings by PDA can be defined in terms of final

states or in terms of PDS(pushdown store).
Let A= (Q,Σ, Г ,δ,q0,Z0,F) be a PDA.

The set accepted by final state is defined by

T(A) ={w ϵ Σ* | (q0,w,Z0 ) Ⱶ * (qf , ʌ, α ) for some qf ϵ F and α ϵ Г*}

The set accepted by null store(or empty store)is defined by

N(A) = {w ϵ Σ* | (q0,w,Z0 ) Ⱶ * (q , ʌ, ʌ ) for some q ϵ Q }
 PDA for L={anbn | n>0 }
Logic:
W

Let
A= (Q, Σ, Г , δ, q0, Z0, F)
Q={q0,q1},
Σ={a,b},
Г={a,Z0},
F={q1}
is a PDA.
 δ (Transition Function) by Final State is
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1,∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q1, Z0)

Acceptance of a string aabb

(q0, aabb , Z0)
Ⱶ (q0, abb , aZ0)
Ⱶ (q0, bb , aaZ0)
Ⱶ (q1, b , aZ0)
Ⱶ (q1, ∈ , Z0)
δ (Transition Function) by Empty stack or Empty
store or Null stack is
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q1, ∈)

Acceptance of a string aabb

(q0, aabb , Z0)
Ⱶ (q0, abb , aZ0)
Ⱶ (q0, bb , aaZ0)
Ⱶ (q1, b , aZ0)
Ⱶ (q1, ∈ , Z0)
Ⱶ (q1, ∈ , ∈)
 Ex: PDA to accept language of palindromes with the
marker. i.e. L={xcxr | x ∈ {a,b}*}

Let
A= (Q, Σ, Г , δ, q0, Z0, F) is a PDA.
where
Q={q0,q1,qf},
Σ={a,b,c},
Г={a,b,Z0},
F={qf}
δ (Transition Function) by Final State is

Move no State input stack Move

symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 b Z0 (q0,bZ0)
3 q0 a a (q0,aa)
4 q0 b b (q0,bb)
5 q0 a b (q0, ab)
6 q0 b a (q0, ba)
7 q0 c Z0 (q1,Z0)
8 q0 c a (q1,a)
9 q0 c b (q1,b)
10 q1 a a (q1, ∈)
11 q1 b b (q1, ∈)
12 q1 ∈ Z0 (qf, Z0)
δ (Transition Function) by Empty stack or Empty
store or Null stack is
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 b Z0 (q0,bZ0)
3 q0 a a (q0,aa)
4 q0 b b (q0,bb)
5 q0 a b (q0, ab)
6 q0 b a (q0, ba)
7 q0 c Z0 (q1,Z0)
8 q0 c a (q1,a)
9 q0 c b (q1,b)
10 q1 a a (q1, ∈)
11 q1 b b (q1, ∈)
12 q1 ∈ Z0 (q1, ∈ )
 Examples for practice
1. PDA for L={anb2n | n>0}
2. PDA for L={anbncmdm | n, m>0 }
3. PDA for L={ambn | m>n>=1}

Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 68

 Deterministic and non-deterministic PDA

DPDA:
transition function is :
Q X Σ X Г 🡪 Q X Г*
e.g. δ(q,a,Z) is either empty or a singleton.
δ(q,a,Z) ≠ Ø

NPDA:
Q X Σ U {ϵ } X Г 🡪 finite subsets of Q X Г*
e.g. δ(q,a,Z) = {(p1,ɤ1) ,(p2, ɤ2)…..(pm, ɤm)}
DPDA and NPDA
 NPDA and DPDA

• For every NPDA, there may not exist an equivalent DPDA.

• The NPDA can accept any CFL, while DPDA is a special case of
NPDA that accepts only a subset of the CFLs accepted by the
NPDA.

• Thus, DPDA is less powerful than NPDA.

 NPDA to accept language of palindromes without the
marker.

Let
A= (Q, Σ, Г , δ, q0, Z0, F) is a PDA.
where
Q={q0,q1,qf},
Σ={a,b},
Г={a,b,Z0},
F={qf}
 NPDA to accept language of all palindrome strings

Move no State input stack symbol Move

1 q0 a Z0 {(q0,aZ0), (q1, Z0)}
2 q0 b Z0 {(q0,bZ0), (q1, Z0)}
3 q0 a a {(q0,aa),(q1,a)}
4 q0 b a {(q0,ba), (q1,a)}
5 q0 a b {(q0, ab), (q1,b)}
6 q0 b b {(q0, bb), (q1,b)}
7 q0 ∈ Z0 {(q1,Z0)}
8 q0 ∈ a {(q1,a)}
9 q0 ∈ b {(q1,b)}
10 q1 a a {(q1, ∈)}
11 q1 b b {(q1, ∈)}
12 q1 ∈ Z0 {(qf, Z0)}
 CFG to PDA
Theorem: If L is a CFL then we can construct a PDA A accepting L by empty
store ie. L=N(A).
Proof: We construct A by making use of productions in G.
Let L=L(G) where G=(V, T, P, S) is a CFG.
We construct PDA A as
A= (Q, Σ, Г , δ, q, Z0,F)
where Σ=T
Г is (V U T)
Z0 = S
F=Ф
δ is defined as
R1 : δ(q, ∈, A) = {(q, α ) | A🡪 α is in P}
R2 : δ(q, a, a) = {(q, ∈ ) } for every a in Σ.
 CFG to PDA
1 .Construct a PDA for the CFG
S🡪 0BB
B🡪 0S | 1S |0
Test whether 0104 is in N(A).

We construct PDA A as
A = (Q, Σ, Г , δ, q, Z0,F)
Q = {q}
Σ = {0,1} Move State input stack symbol Move
Г = {S, B, 0, 1} no
Z0= S 1 q ∈ S {(q,0BB)}
F=Ф 2 q ∈ B {(q,0S), (q,1S), (q,0)}
3 q 0 0 {(q, ∈)}
4 q 1 1 {(q,∈)}
 CFG to PDA
1 .Construct a PDA for the CFG
S🡪 0BB
B🡪 0S | 1S |0
Test whether 0104 is in N(A).

2. Convert the grammar

S🡪 aSb | A
A🡪 bSa |S| ∈

To a PDA that accepts the same language by empty stack.

Thank You…!!!

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