PSY 311 – MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION.

TOPIC 1 - MEASUREMENT, EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT.

Definitions of terms
 Measurement - is the process of assigning a quantitative value (numerical) to a student’s
attainment in a given area of learning e.g. 64%.

 Evaluation – refers to the process of assigning a qualitative value to a student’s attainment in

a given area of learning e.g. C+.

Types of Evaluation
There are three types
1. Formative evaluation
2. Summative evaluation
3. Assessment

Formative Evaluation

• It is the progressive assessment of the success with which a program is being implemented. It
shows whether learning objectives are being achieved.
• It is done with a small group of people to "test run" various aspects of instructional materials.
• It is typically conducted during the development or improvement of a program and it is
conducted more than once.
• The purpose of formative evaluation is to validate or ensure that the goals of the instruction
are being achieved and to improve the instruction, if necessary, by means of identification
and subsequent remediation of problematic aspects.
• Formative evaluation is research-oriented.
• Formative evaluation provides information on the product's efficacy (its ability to do what it
was designed to do).

Summative Evaluation
 Summative evaluation is a method of judging the worth of a program at the end of the
program activities. The focus is on the outcome.
 It is typically quantitative and uses numeric scores or letter grades to assess learner
achievement.
 It is action-oriented. That is, on the basis of the findings, the programme can be adopted
entirely, modified or abandoned altogether.

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Assessment
 It is the process by which the quality of an individual’s work or performance is judged.
 It is carried out through observations of pupils’ at work or by various kinds of tests given
periodically.
 When practiced as an ongoing process, such assessment is called continuous assessment.
Types of Assessment
1. Normative Assessment/Testing
 It is also called Norm-referenced assessment/test. It is where the quality of the grade
depends on the average (norms) performance i.e. an individual’s score is judged in
relation to how good the overall performance is or was.
 It is not measured against defined criteria but is relative to the student body undertaking
the assessment i.e. it will tell you how a child compares to similar children on a given set
of skills and knowledge.
 The IQ test is the best known example of norm-referenced assessment. Many entrance
tests (to prestigious schools or universities) are norm-referenced e.g. KCPE or KCSE.
 It is a way of comparing students implying that standards may vary from year to year,
depending on the quality of the cohort.

Advantages
i. It does not enforce any expectation of what all students should know or be able to do other
than what students can actually demonstrate.
ii. Present levels of performance and inequity are taken as fact but not as defects to be removed
by a redesigned system.
iii. Aims of student performance are not raised every year until all are proficient. Scores are not
required to show continuous improvement.

Limitations
(a) It cannot measure progress of the population of a whole, only where individuals fall within
the whole.
(b) It does not set what an individual should profess to prove a mastery of a skill being tested but
rather bases on the set norm.
(c) It judges set benchmarks around items of varying difficulty without considering the ability
level or age of the examinees.
(d) The difficulty level of items that determine the levels passing vary from year to year.

2. Criterion Assessment
PSY 311: MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION. ACADEMIC YEAR: 2024/25 - GROUP- E.
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  It is where a decision is made as to whether a pupil has actually achieved specified level
of learning regardless of the performance of other pupils.
 Here, the criterion or level of achievement which warrants a mastery of certain skills is
set in advance. It is not flexible.
 Criterion-referenced assessment is often, but not always, used to establish a person’s
competence in doing something e.g. the driving test, when learner drivers are measured
against a range of explicit criteria.
 It tells where the person stands in some population of persons who have taken the test.
 Most criterion-referenced tests involve a cut score, where the examinee passes if their
score exceeds the cut score and fails if it does not (often called a mastery test).
 However, not all criterion-referenced tests have a cut score, and the score can simply
refer to a person's standing on the subject domain.

Advantage
i. Many criterion-referenced tests are high-stakes tests since results of the test have serious
implications for the individual examinee.
ii. Criterion referenced tests are standard-based assessments where students are assessed
with regards to set standards that define what they "should" know.
Limitations
(a) They can be described as, "you lose a lot if you fail to pass” e.g. licensure testing where the
test must be passed in order to progress.
(b) Some tests set a standard that have failed 50 to 80 percent of students at the outset, a higher,
not lower failure rate than is possible with standard definition of 50 percent falling below
average.

3. Diagnostic Assessment
It is the process of finding out the exact nature of a person’s problem or difficulties. In
education, the aim is to give relevant remedial teaching to those who deserve it.

1.4 PURPOSES OF MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

The primary purpose of assessment is to improve student learning.
1. To identify areas of weakness in learning..
2. Helps build a shared understanding of the progress made by pupils in order to provide
pointers for further development
3. Provide feedback to students, staff and parents/guardians on pupils’ progress and
achievements.
4. Timely feedback improves motivation and achievement for the learner.
5. To grade students for purposes of promotion to next level.

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6. Acts as a quality assurance mechanism both for internal and external systems i.e. tells
whether objectives are been achieved.
7. To appraise the effectiveness of a teaching method or methods.
8. To measure specific abilities e.g. IQ, vocabulary, creativity etc.
9. To provide information for effective educational and vocational Counselling.

1.5 TESTS AND EXAMINATIONS

Test - Is a set of questions to which an examinee has to respond.
Examination - Is a set of tests in various areas to which an examinee has to respond.
Types of Examinations
A. Internal Examination
It is usually prepared and marked by the teacher’s in-charge of the subject in question.
Advantages
i. Questions asked are based on the work covered in class and are therefore learner friendly.
ii. The language and format used in setting the questions are familiar to the learners hence
learners experience less stress compared to external examinations.

Disadvantage
i. The results may not be a true reflection of the learners’ ability since the teacher tends to
be subjective in his/her evaluation of the learners’ performance.
ii. Teacher may set the questions based on what has been covered in class hence syllabus
coverage is poor.
iii. Tends to be highly subjective since the setter (teacher) sets based on certain preferences.

B. External examination
Is prepared and marked by a person or body of experts not responsible for teaching the
subject being examined.(subject in question)

Advantages
i. It gives a more objective assessment of the learner since the examiners are unknown to the
examinee.
ii. There is good syllabus coverage since both the teacher and the learner cannot guess the
examinable areas.
iii. Due to objectivity in scoring of examinees abilities across the population, higher institutions
of learning and potential employers prefer selection on this basis.

Disadvantages
PSY 311: MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION. ACADEMIC YEAR: 2024/25 - GROUP- E.
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 i. It invalidates the importance of learning and education since it often turns out examination
oriented.
ii. Encourages cramming of facts rather than application of learned materials.
iii. It increases emotional stress due to over concern about examinations results.

TYPES OF TESTS
A. Objectives Tests
Are questions that demand answers that are either right or wrong and for each of which there is
only one possible correct answer.
Advantages
1. Are easy to mark and grade.
2. Examine a wide coverage of the topics learned hence students read widely.
3. They are practical and handy for relatively large classes.
4. Human error, bias or prejudice by the marker is removed i.e. scoring is extremely reliable.
5. If well set, they have a strong discriminative power between the bright and weak students.
6. Learners obtain feedback on their performance much faster.
Disadvantages
i)Are difficult to set and therefore time consuming.
ii)They are open to guesswork.
ii)They limit the learner’s use of his/her acquired writing and literary skills e.g. creativity,
analysis or evaluation.
iv)They are relatively expensive in terms of materials needed to produce a complete test.
v)The selection of questions may greatly be influenced by the examiner’s bias.

TYPES OF OBJECTIVE TESTS

There are three categories
1) Supply items
2) Selection items
3) Rank order items

1) Supply items
They are also called completion items. These types of tests require a student to recall or
recognize the appropriate term, concept or phrase or to complete a statement.

Sub-types of supply item tests

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 a) Filling in blanks
b) One word answer
c) Information for maps, diagram’s and pictures
d) Practical experiments.

2) Selection Items
Require a student to choose one alternative from a range of alternatives.
Sub-types of selection item tests
a) True /False of Right Wrong of Yes/No
b) Matching pairs
c) Multiple choice

3) Rank Order Items

Require a student to indicate the appropriate order (serial, chronological, logical etc.) of the
items presented.

B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE TESTS

There are three types namely;
i) Essay type questions
ii) Assessment of practical skills by observation
iii) Projects

i) Essay type questions

Are questions that require the candidate to supply a single word or a sentence as an answer.
Advantages
a) Are easy to set hence time saving.
b) They are ideal for smaller classes.
c) Are easier to predict.
d) Give room for choice and self-expression i.e. have allowance for creativity.
e) Test both the learner’s understanding and insight.
f) Enable the examiner to follow up answers that may not be clear.
g) Minimize the extent to which a student can use guesswork to find an answer.

Disadvantages
a) Permit and occasionally allow bluffing and cheating.
b) They are tedious and difficult to mark and score
c) Encourage rote memorization as such may not show the extent to which a learner can
apply acquired knowledge.

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 d) Since most questions test knowledge aspect, learner’s higher level of thinking is often
ignored.
e) Scoring tends to be more subjective rather than objective.
f) There is incomplete sampling of candidates’ knowledge due to limited areas of testing.
g) Do not adequately predict future academic performance because success sometimes
depends on a candidate ability to predict possible exam questions.

Types of Essay Type Questions

a) Restricted- response type
Directs the learner as to what information is required.
b) Extended/open-response type
It has no restrictions as to what or how much to write i.e. examinee has a free hand to write
as much on a particular subject.
2) Assessment of practical skills by observation.
Requires the examiner to identify what particular features of the pupils’ performance will be
awarded points and what proportion of the total will be allocated to each of these e.g.
teaching practice, micro-teaching/counselling, home science practical, art work etc..
3). Projects
It is where a study of some particular or local theme is carried out by an individual student
and a write up made e.g. the PORTFOLIO in CIT 299.

Other Types of Tests

1. Intelligence tests.
Measure various mental skills considered relevant to intelligence in order to find the
Intelligence quotient (IQ) of a child.
2. Diagnostic tests
Seek to identify critical weakness in basic education skills for possible remedial action.
3. Achievement tests
Measure a child’s ability in a specific skill in relation to a norm.
4. Personality tests
Help to identify the dominant trait of a child so as to classify him/her personality and provide
the kind of learning patterns best suited for him/her.
5. Aptitude tests
Measure specific abilities considered important for a particular task or role.

Tests can fall in any of the following categories.

a) Closed-books tests
Are tests which do not allow the examinee to make reference on any external material(s). The
examinee is expected to remember the information off head.
b) Open-book tests

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 Here examinees are allowed to use and apply information that they can find in resource
materials e.g. common in language tests.
c) Take-home tests
The examinee is required to make use of community resources such as the library or any
other source of information.

1.6 CONSTRUCTION OF TESTS

Qualities of a Good Test
1. Validity
A good test should measure what it is supposed to measure i.e. it should measure specific
objective(s) of the test set. A test that is set in a language that is not understandable is invalid.
2. Reliability
A good test should yield the same results on a re-test on the same group of learners under
similar conditions.
3. Practicality /Usability
A test is said to be practical or usable if it can be readily used by the teacher in everyday
classroom conditions.
A test which costs too much material to produce or a marking scheme which is hard to make
renders a test useless.
Factors to consider when constructing a Test
1. Specification of objectives
The kind of vocabularies used should elicit the kind of responses required from the
candidates.
2. Content
The examiner should ensure that questions set cover all topics taught/covered in class.
3. Emphasized content areas.
Some content areas/topics should be given more emphasis then others depending on the time
spent to cover and the total number of questions usually set from such topics.
4. Ability level of students
Questions set should be able to differentiate between bright, average and weak pupils.
5. Specification for types of domains to be measured.
Questions set should include cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
6. Specification of the cognitive domain to be measured.
This include (Bloom’s taxonomy)
a. Knowledge –ability to recall facts
b. Comprehension –ability to retell a story or given information in own words.
c. Application –ability to use newly learnt facts in novel situations.
d. Analysis –ability to break down material from component parts e.g. narrating a story
based on a series of pictures.
PSY 311: MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION. ACADEMIC YEAR: 2024/25 - GROUP- E.
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 e. Synthesis -
f. Evaluation –ability to judge the value or worth of a given piece of information.
7. Specification Table or Grid Matrix or Test Matrix.
It shows the number of questions from a certain content area. It also shows the cognitive
domain to test and the number of items to be set from each cognitive domain.

A Test Matrix for ----------------- Test for a Std ------ Class

CONTENT COGNITIVE DOMAINS
AREAS Know Compr Appl Analy Synth Eval Total

TOTAL Grand Total

Importance of specification table

a) Helps to improve the content validity i.e. gives a balanced test.
b) Helps a teacher not to concentrate on a particular domain of objectives
c) Helps in accountability of education i.e. how correct or valid a test measurement is.

8. Format of test items

A test could be oral or written. A written test is better than oral since it also tests a learner’s
understanding of the concept being tested. The examiner also needs to decide before hand
whether essay or objectives test items will be used.
Essay items are preferred if testing on the higher cognitive objectives while objective items
are suitable if testing for knowledge and comprehension.
9. Number of test items
The number of test items to be included in the test must be clearly stated. However, this
depends on:
(i) Items allocated for the test.
(ii) Types of items chosen i.e. objectives or essay.
(iii) Complexity of test items and thought process involved.

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10. Specification of time limits
Time given for a particular test depends on the mental processes involved and the kind of
item format used. For multiple choice item, 45-60 seconds is recommended; complicated
mathematics problem or complex reading selection may require 4-5minutes while vocabulary
items may take 10-15 seconds.

11.Writing the test items

The examiner should have a thorough grasp of the subject matter dealt with in the test. The
setter’s qualifications should be indicated. A single writer may be assigned a particular area
or have several writers assigned to one cell.

1.7.1 Construction of Objective Test Items

A. Completion Test (Filling in Blanks)
 Completion test requires recall and thinking ability. In this type of test, sentences are
presented from which certain words or phrases have been omitted.
 To construct completion items, the following suggestions should be considered.
i. Instructions should be brief and clear.
ii. Rephrase text books sentences or paragraphs to avoid rote memorization.
iii. Do not have too many blanks in a short sentence. Blanks should be placed either at the
beginning, near the end, or at the end of a statement.
iv. Blanks should be of standard length to avoid clues about the length of the completing
word.
v. Always specify in what unit or value a numerical answer should be given.
vi. Use phrases rather than words to avoid ambiguous responses/answers and allow
objective marking.
vii. Guard against clues that may give away the answers by ensuring that completions do
not depend on text book expressions or grammatical form.
viii. Avoid long and winding statements as they tend to lose meaning and confuse pupils
unless well framed.

B. Matching Item Tests

 This consists of two columns, the premises (problem to be answered) and the responses
(answers). The examinee needs to make some association between each premises and each
response.
 The following suggestions need to taken into consideration when constructing matching
items
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 i. Do not have too many items on the list. A minimum of 5 and a maximum of 7 is
preferred.
ii. The responses should be more than the premises in order to reduce correct item
matching by elimination process.
iii. Materials selected should be from the same subject so that a given premise has
several possible matches in the responses.
iv. Names should be arranged in an alphabetical order while dates and numbers in
sequence. This saves the examinees’ time.
v. Watch for irrelevant but revealing association (clues) which may give away the
matching such as singulars and plurals.

C. True-False Items
Yes/No; Right/Wrong; + (Plus) or – (Minus) or Positive/Negative can also be used in the place
of true/false. To construct true/false items, consider the following suggestions:
i. Place the symbol “T” and “F” before each question. This will save time when marking.
ii. The number of true statements should equal those of false statements.
iii. When arranging the items, avoid any form of pattern of true and false answers.
iv. Do not use words which will provide clues or hints as this may give away the answer.
v. Use statements which are absolutely true or false and avoid items which express
opinions or which are trivial/tricky.
vi. Avoid the use of double negatives and single negatives should be used sparingly.
However, if they must be used, they should be underlined, capitalized or italicized.
vii. Do not lift statements/quotations from textbooks since they encourage rote memory and
turn out ambiguous when interpreted out of context.

D. Multiple-Choice or Best-Answer Items

A multiple–choice test consists of two parts, the stem and a list of suggested answers.
 The stem: Contains the statement, questions, phrase or word i.e. the problem part. The
stem may be stated as a direct question or as an incomplete statement
 A list of suggested answers: The correct answer is called the key while the incorrect
responses are called distracters or foils.
.
Types of multiple choice questions
a) The correct-answer variety.
Where out of the options, only one is absolutely correct e.g. Which of the following is the
largest town in Kenya? A) Mombasa B) Kisumu C) Nairobi D) Nakuru

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b) The best-answer variety.
Consists of a stem followed by two or more suggested responses that are correct, appropriate
in varying degrees, or down-right wrong (examine responds with an opinion) e.g. Which of
the following is the leading foreign exchange earner of Kenya?
A) Coffee B) Horticultural products C) Tourism D) Soda ash
c) The multiple-response variety.
Is where a number of clearly correct answers exist and the examinee is instructed to mark all
the correct responses e.g. Which of the following are not capital cities in Africa. Mark the
correct responses. A) Mogadishu B) Dar es Salaam C) Lagos D) Ouagadougou
d) The incomplete-statement variety.
Is where a portion of the stem is incomplete rather than a direct question e.g. The capital city
of the Republic of South Africa is ____________________.
e) The negative variety.
I t is where the examinee is to mark the response that does not correctly answer the question
i.e. the least satisfactory answer e.g. Three of the following are major agricultural towns in
Kenya. Which one is not? A) Bungoma B) Eldoret C) Kitale C) Kericho
f) The substitution variety
It is where samples of originally well written prose or poetry are systematically altered to
include errors in punctuation, spelling, word usage and similar conventions. Selected words
or phrases in these rewritten passages are underlined and identified by a number. Several
possible substitutions for each critical phrase are provided and the examinee is asked to select
the phrase (original or alternative) that provides the best expression e.g. Mr1 Wangila has
been the Principal2 of WUCST3 since the inception of the college4.
(Professor, Doctor, Vice Chancellor, WUST, MMUST, Campus, University, University
college)
g) The incomplete-alternatives variety
Is where incomplete or coded alternatives are used e.g. Which of the following is the fourth
colour in the rainbow? A) Y B) G C) V D) G
h) The combined-response variety
Consists of an item stem followed by several responses, one more of which may be correct.
The examinee is to choose the set of code letters or numerals which designate the correct
responses. This variety tests a mastery of sets of facts and complex organization and
comparative evaluation of facts or concepts e.g. Below are political parties in Kenya. (i) PNU
(ii) ODM-K (iii) ODM (iv) GNU (v) KANU.
Which of the following combination has Kenya’s past and current heads of state been
associated with? A) (i) and (iii) B) (i) and (v) C) (iii) and (v) D) (ii) and (iv)

Suggestions for Constructing Multiple-Choice Items

i. Select problems which present real problem to the examinees and call for critical
thinking.

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 ii. Select distracters which are attractive and plausible so that weak students can more often
select them.
iii. There should be only one key and no unintentional help/clue should be given.
iv. The stem should be clear and responses should not borrow phrases from the stem.
v. Avoid the use of negatives but if they must be used, they should be underlined,
capitalized or italicized.
vi. The key and the detractors should be more or less for equal length and should be short.
vii. Avoid making the correct answer to the items appear in a fixed pattern.
viii. Avoid the use of none of the above or all of the above. If not make them the correct
detractor.

E. Maps, Diagrammatic and Pictorial Test Items

These are questions that require interpretation, recognition of parts or features etc. The following
should be considered when designing such test items.
i. Maps, pictures and diagrams must be simple and clear.
ii. Do not shade pictures as they tend to be complicated beyond recognition.
iii. Those with poor drawing skills should trace or use actual /real pictures, maps or
diagrams.
iv. Descriptive titles should be given to maps, pictures and diagrams and where necessary
they should be framed.

CONSTRUCTION OF ESSAY QUESTIONS

When to use essay questions.
1. When the group is small and the test is not to be re-used.
 Do not remind the candidates of the time left frequently. This can be done after 1hr or so
or after completing one section of the paper.
 Examination timetable should be released and given at least one a week in advance to
enable students prepare adequately.

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EXAMINATION CHEATING

It means to act dishonestly or unfairly in order to win an advantage or profit. It means to

deceive and involves dishonest tricks in order to pass exams.

Methods used.

 Impersonation- sitting an exam on behalf of somebody.

 Gaining access to exam papers or confidential material or information related to the exam
prior to sitting of the exam.
 Deliberate attempt to obtain or pass information concerning the exam when it is in
progress. Information may be obtained from fellow students, invigilators, teachers or
smuggled materials, whispering or “flashing” answers. Occasionally it involves seeking
to go for a call of nature only to refer to information concealed somewhere.
 Practical subjects- teachers help in setting up equipments or offering answers or over
scoring by teachers-in-charge.
 Use of mobile phones to text the answers to a candidate before or during the exam.
 Writing on the shirt sleeves, petticoats, desks or the thighs particularly by female
university students.

Causes of Cheating
 Academic weakness of some of the students/teachers.
 Euphoria attached to exam results-goods grades are a source of pride to self, families
and institutions.
 Need to excel due to stiff competition.
 Corruption and lack of transparency especially those charged with the responsibility of
handling exam materials.
 Cheating as an easy way out. Quest for knowledge has seemingly lost meaning.
 Lack of commitment among students especially the lazy ones who don’t take studies
seriously.
 Congested curriculum and the belief that some subjects are difficult or impossible to pass.
 Uncertainty of employment among some course graduates leading to enrolment in others
which may be demanding.
 Nature of examinations e.g. practicals. There is the temptation to look at one’s neighbor’s
work.
 Traditional way of delivery lecturers with exams taking the same pattern. This makes it
easy to guess and cheat.

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Effects of cheating

Diminishing credibility of examination as a measure of one’s ability and in the

examiner(s).Those who cheat can’t compare in any way with those who don’t.
 Loss of confidence in those charged with the handling of exams.
 Promotion to higher grade of education or training of the wrong people-who in turn
perpetuate the practice.
 Kills teachers’ morale especially those hard working ones.
 Kills morale of the hard working and honest students.
 Cause misunderstanding between the cheats and honest candidates especially when no
action is taken against such.
 May often lead to result cancellation of the cheats with a doomed and painful future.
 Leads to repeating, suspension or expulsion form college causing more stress.
 Innocent students may suffer where results for a centre are cancelled.
 Compromises the education standards. Possible employers and other institutions doubt
the authenticity of their academic credentials.
 Lead to criminal prosecution for the culprits and their accomplices and loss of job(s).

NB: Cheating in exams is just an aspect of moral decadence of the society. It is a manifestation
of a sick society, devoid of a working culture and whose moral fiber has degenerated to
irredeemable levels

“Truly, truly, I say to you, he who does not enter the sheep fold by the door, but climbs in by
another way, that man is a thief and a robber; but he who enters by the door is the shepherd of
the sheep.

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