BTCVC603 Transportation Engineering

By
Prof. S. B. Deshmukh
Civil Engineering Department
[Deogiri Institute of Engineering and Management Studies, Aurangabad]
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Course Structure for Semester V [Third
Year]
 Course Title : BTCVC603 Transportation Engineering
 Evaluation Scheme
 CA 20 Marks
 (CA1 + CA2 = 20 Marks)
 MSE 20 Marks
 ESE 60 Marks
 Total 100 Marks
 Detailed Syllabus
Transportation Engineering
 Module 1: Introduction
 Importance of various modes of transportation, Highway Engineering, Road
Classification, Developments in Road Construction, Highway Planning, Alignment and
Surveys

 Module 2 :
 Geometric Design- Cross section elements, Sight distances, Horizontal alignment,
Vertical alignment, Intersections, Construction of Pavements, Construction and
Maintenance of Drainage, Road Arboriculture

 Module 3 : Highway Materials:

 Soil – relevant properties, Various tests, Aggregates – strength, hardness, toughness,
soundness, durability, shape, specific gravity, water absorption, Bituminous materials –
Bitumen, Tar, and Asphalt – various properties, Design of Bituminous paving mixes-
Marshall stability test.
 Module 4: Traffic Engineering
 Traffic Characteristics, Speed, Journey Time and Delays, Vehicle Volume Counts,
Origin and Destination Studies, Analysis and Interpretation of Survey Data, Traffic
Operations, Design of Signals and Rotary intersections, Parking Space Design,
Highway Lighting, Planning and Administration, Road Markings, Signs
 Road Accidents and Safety: Classification, Causes, Mitigation and Control
Measures, Aspects of Safety in Usage of Roads, Type and Design of anti-crash barriers,
Introduction to Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS).

 Module 5: Pavement Design

 Basic Principles, Methods for different Types of Pavements, Design of flexible
pavement using IRC: 37- 2012, Design of rigid pavement using IRC: 58-2011
 Other modes of Transport Introduction to Railways, Airways, Waterways, Pipeline
Transportation, Classification, Requirements, Comparative Studies
 Text Books/Reference Books
 Khanna and Justo, “Highway Engineering” ,
 Khanna S.K., “Highway Engineering” ,
 Arora N. L., “ Transportation Engineering”
 Bindra and Arora, “Highway Engineering” , Standard Publishers
 Vazirani V.N. and Chandola S.P., “ Transportation Engineering” ,
 Shahani P.B, “Road Techniques” Khanna Publishers, N. Delhi
 Kadiyali L.R, “ Traffic Engineering and Transport Planning” ,
Khanna Publishers, N. Delhi.
 Course Outcomes
On completion of the course, the students will be able to:

CO1: Comprehend various types of transportation systems and

their history of the development.

CO2: Comprehend to various types of pavements

CO3: Design the pavements by considering various aspects

associated with traffic safety measures.
Subject-Wise Weightage in GATE EXAM
GATE Syllabus (Sub - Transportation Engineering)
 Transportation Infrastructure: Geometric design of highways - cross-
sectional elements, sight distances, horizontal and vertical alignments.
 Geometric design of railway Track – Speed and Cant.
 Concept of airport runway length, calculations and corrections; taxiway
and exit taxiway design.
 Highway Pavements: Highway materials - desirable properties and tests;
Desirable properties of bituminous paving mixes; Design factors for
flexible and rigid pavements; Design of flexible and rigid pavement using
IRC codes
 Traffic Engineering: Traffic studies on flow and speed, peak hour factor,
accident study, statistical analysis of traffic data; Microscopic and
macroscopic parameters of traffic flow, fundamental relationships; Traffic
signs; Signal design by Webster’s method; Types of intersections;
Highway capacity.
 Transportation Engineering

 Transportation Engineering is the application of

technology and scientific principles to the planning,
functional design, operation and management of
facilities for any mode of transportation in order to
provide for the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable,
convenient, economical, and environmentally
compatible movement of people and goods from one
place to other.
MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
Basic Mode of transportation are
 Land
• Roadway or Highway (Tunnel and Bridge)
• Railway (Tunnel and Bridge)
 Water
 Air
 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
• Highways
Car, Bus, Truck, non- motorized ..etc
• Railways
Passenger and Goods
• Airways
Aircraft and Helicopters
• Waterways
Ships, boats…
• Continuous Flow systems
Pipelines,belts,elevetor,ropeway…etc.
• Merits and Demerits: Based on accessibility, mobility, cost, tonnage..
Airways
• Fastest among all other modes
• More comfortable
• Time saving
• Uneconomical
Waterways
• slowest among all other modes
• It needs minimum energy to haul unit load
through unit distance.
• This can be possible between ports on the sea
routes or along the river
• economical
 Railways
• The transportation along the railways track could
be advantageous by railways between the stations
both for the passengers and goods, particularly for
long distance.
• It depends upon the road transport i.e. road could
serve as a feeder system.
• Energy require to haul a unit load through unit
distance by the railway is only ¼ to 1/5 of that
required by road.
• Safety
 Highways
• It gives the maximum service to one and all
• It gives maximum flexibility for travel with reference to
route, direction, time and speed of travel
• It provide door to door service
• Other modes are depend on it
• It requires small investment for the government
• Motor vehicles are cheaper than other carriers like rail
locomotive and wagons
• It saves the time for short distance
• High degree of accident due to flexibility of
movement
 Scope of Highway Engineering

• Development, planning and location

• Highway design, geometric and structure

• Traffic performance and its control

• Materials, construction and maintenance

• Economic, finance and administration

 ROLE /IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION

• Economic Development

• Social Development

• Cultural Development

• Political Development
 Highway Engineering
 Highways: Highway refers to an important public road that
connects major cities and towns.
 The roads of national or state importance, in a country, are known as
highways.
 National Highways are constructed and maintained by the National Highway
Authority of India. This body works under the supervision of the Central
Public Works Department or the CPWD.
 Highway Engineering: It is the branch of Transportation Engineering
that involves the planning, design, construction, operation & maintenance of
roads, bridge & tunnel to ensure safe & effective transportation of people &
goods.
 It is also called Road Engineering.
 Highway Engineering
 Highway Engineering: It is the branch of
Transportation Engineering that involves the planning,
design, construction, operation & maintenance of roads,
bridge & tunnel to ensure safe & effective transportation
of people & goods.
 It is also called Road Engineering.
 Characteristics of road transport
• Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like
passenger cars, buses, trucks, pedal cycle and animal
drawn vehicle.
• It requires a relatively small investment for the
government.
• It offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer
the vehicle from one lane to another and from one
road to another according to need and convenience.
• Speed and movement is directly related with the
severity of accident.
 History of highway Engineering
Ancient Roads

By foot
These human pathways would have been developed for specie
purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams for drinking water etc.

The next major mode of transport was the use of animals

For transporting both men and materials. Since these loaded
animals required more horizontal and vertical clearances than the
walking man, track ways emerged.
 The invention of wheel
• Led to the development of animal drawn vehicles.
• Then it became necessary that the road surface should be capable of
carrying greater loads.
• Thus roads with harder surfaces emerged.

• After the invention of wheel, animal drawn vehicles were

developed and the need for hard surface road emerged.

• Traces of such hard roads were obtained from various ancient

civilization dated as old as 3500 BC.
• The earliest authentic record of road was found from Assyrian
empire constructed about 1900 BC.
 History of Highway Engineering
Roman roads
• The earliest large scale road construction is attributed
to Romans who constructed an extensive system of
roads radiating in many directions from Rome.

• Appian way which was build by Romans in 312 B.C.

extended over a length of about 580 KM.
 Features of Roman roads

• An earthed road with a graveled surface.

• They were build straight without any gradient.

• The soft soil from top was removed till the hard
stratum was reached.

• The total thickness of road section worked out as

high as 750 mm to 1200 mm.
 Other oldest road transport are

• Treasaguet construction (France) (1716-1796)

• Metcalf construction (England) (1717-1810)

• Telford construction (England) (1757-1834)

• Mecadam construction (England) (1756-1856)

 French roads or Tresaguet road
• The next major development in the road construction occurred during
the regime of Napoleon.
• The signicant contributions were given by Tresaguet in 1764 and a
typical cross section of this road is given in Figure 2:2.

• He developed a cheaper method of construction than the locally

unsuccessful revival of Roman practice

• The pavement used 200 mm pieces of stone of a more compact form

and shaped such that they had at least one at side which was placed on
a compact formation.

• Smaller pieces of broken stones were then compacted into the spaces
between larger stones to provide a level surface.

• Finally the running layer was made with a layer of 25 mm sized

broken stone.
 Telford Construction
• The next development was done by Scottish engineer Thoms Telford
(1757-1834).

• The foundation was prepared for a road with width of 9 m and it was
levelled.

• Large size stones of width equal to 40 mm and depth 170 to 220 mm

were then laid.

• After filling the spaces between foundation stones, two layers of

stones having compacted thickness of 100 and 50 mm respectively
laid in the center of 5.4 m. of width.

• The top layer of road was made of 40 mm thick binding layer of

gravel.
 British roads or Macadam Road
• John macadam (1756 to 1836) put forward an entirely new method
of road construction as compared to all the previous methods.

• The first attempt to improve the road conditions was made by him in
1815.

• Macadam was the Surveyor General of Road in England and his

new concept of road construction become known by the year 1827.
The important modification made in Macadams method with
respect to the older method and the main feature of the proposed
method are given below
• Macadam realised that the soil subgrade being the lowest portion of the pavement
should be prepared properly and kept drained so as to carry the load transmitted
through the payment. Therefore the subgrade was compacted and was prepared
with a cross section of 1 in 36.
• He was the first engineer to suggest that heavy Foundation stone are not at all
necessary to be placed at the bottom layer of construction.
• Macadam suggest that instead of placing large Foundation stone, small size
broken stone shall be spread over the prepared soil subgrade and compacted.
• Similarly the next layer of the pavement also was constructed above this layer
with small broken stone.
• The total thickness of construction was less than previous method, this technique
could serve as a carriage way in a better way.
The construction steps are:
• Subgrade is compacted and prepared with a cross slope of
1 in 36 upto a desired width (about 9 m).
• Broken stones of strong variety, all passing through 5 cm
size sieve were compacted to a uniform thickness of 10
cm.
• The second layer of stone broken stones of size 3.75 CM
was compacted to thickness of 10 cm.
• The top layer consisted of stones of size less than 2 cm
compacted to a thickness of about 5 cm and finished so
that the cross slope of pavement surface was also 1 in 36.
• A typical cross section of British roads is given in Figure
2:3.
 Difference between Telford and
Macadam road construction
Parameter Telford Macadam

Subgrade slope Horizontal 1 in 36

Foundation stone From 170 mm to 220 mm. From 50 mm to 100 mm.

Base course Two layers of broken One layer of broken stone

stones
Surface course 40 mm thick with slope 1 in 50 mm thick with slope 1 in
45 36

Thickness of cross section 410 mm at center and 350 Uniform 250 mm only.
at edge
 Modern roads

• The modern roads by and large follow Macadam's construction

method. Use of bituminous concrete and cement

• Various advanced and cost- effective construction technologies

are
used.

• Development of new equipment's help in the faster

construction of roads.

• Many easily and locally available materials are tested in the

laboratories and then implemented on roads for making
economical and durable pavements.
 Roman roads

French roads

British roads
Flexible Pavement

Modern roads
Concrete Pavement
 Modern Highway
Roman Roads
 Indian Roads
• India has a large road network of over 3.314
million kilometers of roadways (2.1 million
miles), making it 3rd largest road network in the
world.

• At 0.66 km of highway per square kilometer of

land the density of India’s highway network is
higher than that of the United States (0.65) and
far higher than that of China's (0.16) or Brazil's
(0.20).
 Highway Development in India
• Jayakar Committee (1927)
• Central Road Fund (1929)
• Indian Roads Congress (IRC), 1934
• Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), 1950
• Motor vehicle act (1939)
• National Highway Authority of India (NHAI),1995
• First twenty year road plan ( 1943-61 )
• Second twenty year road plan ( 1961-81 )
• Highway Research board ( 1973 )
• National Transport Policy committee (NTPC),1978
• Third twenty year road plan ( 1981-2001 )
 Jayakar Committee,1927
• After the first World War, motor vehicle using the roads
increases, this demanded a better road network.
• In 1927,Indian road development committee was appointed
by the government with M.R. Jaykar as chairman.
• Road development in the country should be made as a
national interest since local govt. do not have financial and
technical capacity for road development.
• An extra tax should be levied on petrol from road users to
create the road development fund called Central Road Fund.
• To establish a semi-official ,technical institution to pool
technical knowledge, sharing of ideas and to act as an
advisory body.
• To create a national level institution to carry research ,
development works and consultation.
 Central Road Fund
• It was formed on 1st march 1929
• The consumers of petrol were charged an extra leavy of 2.64
paisa per litre of petrol to built up this road development fund.
• From this 20% of annual reveneu is to be retain as a central
reveneu for research and experimental work expenses..etc
• Balance 80% is allowed by central govt. to various
states based on actual petrol consumption or revenue
collected.
• CRF Act has been revised in 2000.
• The rate of duty on petrol and high speed diesel was
then fixed as 1Rs/Lit.
• At present revised cess collected on petrol and disel
towards CRF @ 2Rs/Lit.
 Central Road Fund , 1929
CRF Act , 2000

Distribution of 100% cess on petrol as follows:

57.5% for NH
MORTH (Ministry Of Roads
30% for SH Transportation and Highways

12.5% for safety works on rail-Road crossing.

50% cess on diesel for Rural Road development

 Indian Roads Congress, 1934
• Central semi official body known as IRC was formed in
1934.
• To provide national forum for regular pooling of experience
and ideas on matters related to construction and
maintenance of highways.
• It is a active body controlling the specification,
standardization and recommendations on materials,
design of roads and bridges.
• It publishes journals, research publications and standard
specifications guide lines.
• To provide a platform for expression of professional opinion
on matters relating to roads and road transport.
 Motor vehicle act

• It was formed in 1939

• To regulate the road traffic in the form of
traffic laws, ordinances and regulations.
• Three phases primarily covered are control
of driver, vehicle ownership and vehicle
operation
• It was revised on 1988
Central Road Research Institute(1950)
 Engaged in carrying out research and development
projects.
 Design, construction and maintenance of roads and
runways, traffic and transportation planning of mega and
medium cities, management of roads in different terrains,
 Improvement of marginal materials.
 Utilization of industrial waste in road construction.
 Landslide control.
 Ground improvements, environmental pollution.
 Road traffic safety.
 Ministry of Road Transport & Highways
(MORTH)
• Planning, development and maintenance of
National Highways in the country.
• Extends technical and financial support to State
Governments for the development of state roads
and the roads of inter-state connectivity and
economic importance.
• Evolves standard specifications for roads and
bridges in the country.
• It stores the data related to technical knowledge on
roads and bridges.
 Highway Research Board(1973)

• To ascertain the nature and extent of

research required
• To correlate research information from
various organisation in India and abroad.
• To collect and correlation services.
• To collect result on research
• To channelise consultative services
Table shows the Total length of India's road network by type of
road and Administering Authority as of 31 March 2020
Category Managing Authority Length (km) Length percentages

National Ministry of Road Transport

151,000 2.19%
Highways and Highways

Public works department of

State highways 186,528 3.00%
state/union territory

Public works department of

District Roads 632,154 10.17%
state

Rural roads Panchayats and PMGSY 4,535,511 72.97%

Municipal corporations and

Urban roads 544,683 8.76%
municipalities

Various government
Project roads 354,921 5.70%
departments of states

Total Total roadways 6,215,797 100%

 Classification of Highways
Depending on weather
 All weather roads
 Fair weather roads

Depending the type of Carriage way

 Paved roads (Hard Pavement)
 Unpaved roads (earth road or gravel road)

Depending upon the pavement surface

 Surfaced roads (bituminous or cement concrete
road)
 Unsurfaced roads
 Classification of Highways
Based on the Traffic Volume
 Heavy
 Medium
 Light

Based on Load or Tonnage

Class 1 or Class 2 etc or Class A , B etc Tonnes per
day

Based on location and function ( Nagpur road plan )

 National highway (NH)
 State highway (SH)
 Major district road (MDR)
 Other district road (ODR)
 Village road (VR)
 Based on Modified system of
Highways Classification
• Primary
 Expressways
 National Highways

• Secondary
 SH
 MDR

• Tertiary
 ODR
 VR
 Expressways
•Heavy traffic at high speed (120km/hr)
•Land Width (90m)
•Full access control
•Connects major points of traffic generation
•No slow moving traffic allowed
•No loading, unloading,
parking.

The Mumbai-Pune Expressway as seen

from Khandala
 National Highways
• NH are the main highways running through the length and
breadth of India, connecting major parts,foreign
highways,capital of large states and large industrial and
tourist centres including roads required for strategic
movements for the defence of India.
• The national highways have a total length of 70,548 kms.
Indian highways cover 2% of the total road network of India
and carry 40% of the total traffic.
• The highway connecting Delhi-Ambala-Amritsar is denoted
as NH-1, whereas a bifurcation of this highway beyond
Jalandar to Srinagar and Uri is denoted NH-1-A
• The longest highway in India is NH7 which stretches from
Varansi in Uttar Pradesh to Kanyakumari in the southern
most point of Indian mainland.
 National Highways cont…
 The shortest highway is NH47A which stretches from
Ernakulam to Kochi and covers total length of 4 Kms.
• Golden Quadrilateral – (5,846 Kms) connecting Delhi
Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai
 NH-2 Delhi- Kol (1453 km)

 NH 4,7&46 Che-Mum (1290km

 NH5&6 Kol- Che (1684 m)

 NH 8 Del- Mum (1419 km)

 State Highways
• They are the arterial roads of a state,
connecting up with the national highways of
adjacent states, district head quarters and
important cities within the state.

• Total length of all SH in the country is 1,37,119

Kms.
• Speed 80 kmph
 Major District Roads

• Important roads with in a district serving

areas of production and markets ,
connecting those with each other or with
the major highways.

• India has a total of 4,70,000 kms of MDR.

• Speed 60-80kmph
Other district roads
 serving rural areas of production and
providing them with outlet to market centers,
taluka head quarters, important roads like MDR
or SH.
 Speed 50-60kmph
Village roads
• They are roads connecting villages or group of
villages with each other or to the nearest road of a
higher category like ODR or MDR.
• India has 26,50,000 kms of ODR+VR out of the
total 33,15,231 kms of all type of roads.
• Speed-40-50kmph
 Urban Road Classification
• Arterial Roads
• Sub Arterial
• Collector Streets
• Local Street
• Pathway
• Driveway
 Road Patterns
1. Rectangular or Block Pattern
2. Hexagonal Pattern
3. Radial or Star and Block Pattern
4. Radial or Star and Circular Pattern
5. Radial or Star and Grid Pattern
1.Rectangular or Block Pattern
2.Hexagonal Pattern
3.Radial or Star and Block Pattern
4.Radial or Star and Circular Pattern
5.Radial or Star and Grid Pattern
Concept of Star and Grid Pattern
 First 20-years road plan(1943-63)
• The conference of chief engineer held at Nagpur in
1943 finalized the first 20-years road development
plan for India called Nagpur road plan.
• Road network was classified into five categories.
• The responsibility of construction maintenance of NH
was assign to central govt.
• The target road length was 5,32,700 km at the end
of 1961.
• Density of about 16 km of road length per 100 sq.
km area would be available in the country by the
year 1963.
 First 20-years road plan cont…
• The formulae were based on star and
grid pattern of road `network.
• An allowance of 15% is provided for
agricultural & industrial development during
the next 20-years
• The length of railway track in the area was
also consider in deciding the length of first
category road.
• The length or railway track is directly
subtracted from the estimated road length
of metalled roads.
 The total length of the first category or surfaced roads for NH & SH
& MDR in km is given by

A B 
Length of (NH + SH + MDR),km     1.6 N  8T   D  R
 8 32 
 Where
 A = Agricultural area,𝑘𝑚2
 B = Non-agricultural area,𝑘𝑚2
 N = Number of towns and villages with population range
2001-5000
 T = Number of towns and villages with population over
5000
 D = Development allowance of 15% of road length
calculated for agricultural and Industrial development
during the next 20 years
 R=Existing length of railway track
 The total length of the second category roads for
ODR & VR in km is given by
Lenth of (ODR + VR), km  0.32V  0.8Q  1.6 P  3.2S   D

 Where
 V = Number of villages with population 500 or less
 Q = Number of villages with population range 501-1000
 P = Number of villages with population range 1001-2000
 S = Number of villages with population range 2001-
5000
 D = Development allowance of 15% for next 20 years
 Second 20-years road plan(1961-81)
• It was initiated by the IRC and was finalised in
1959 at the meeting of chief engineers.
• It is known as the Bombay road plan.
• The target road length was almost double that of
Nagpur road plan i.e. 10,57,330 km.
• Density about 32 km per 100 sq. km.
• Every town with population above 2000 in
plans and above 1000 in semi hill area and
above 500 in hilly area should be connected by
metal road.
 Second 20-years road plan cont…

• the maximum distance from any place in a semi

develop area would be 12.8 km from metalled
road and 4.8 from any road
• Expressways have also been considered in this
plan and 1600km of length has been included in
the proposed target NH
• Length of railway track is considered
independent of road system
 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻, 𝑘𝑚 = + + + 32𝐾 + 8𝑀 +
64 80 96
𝐷

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻 + 𝑆𝐻 , 𝑘𝑚 = + + +
20 24 32
48𝐾 + 24𝑀 + 11.2𝑁 + 1.6𝑃 + 𝐷

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻 + 𝑆𝐻 + 𝑀𝐷𝑅 , 𝑘𝑚 = + + +
8 16 24
48𝐾 + 24𝑀 + 11.2𝑁 + 9.6𝑃 + 6.4𝑄 + 2.4𝑅 + 𝐷
 3𝐴 3𝐵 𝐶
 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻 + 𝑆𝐻 + 𝑀𝐷𝑅 + 𝑂𝐷𝑅 , 𝑘𝑚 = + + +
16 32 16
48𝐾 + 24𝑀 + 11.2𝑁 + 9.6𝑃 + 12.8𝑄 + 4𝑅 + 0.8𝑆 + 0.32𝑇 + 𝐷

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻 + 𝑆𝐻 + 𝑀𝐷𝑅 + 𝑂𝐷𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅 , 𝑘𝑚 = + + +
48 12
48𝐾 + 24𝑀 + 11.2𝑁 + 9.6𝑃 + 12.8𝑄 + 5.9𝑅 + 1.6𝑆 + 0.64𝑇 + 0.2𝑉 +
𝐷
 Where
 A = Developed Agricultural area,𝑘𝑚2
 B = Semi-developed area,𝑘𝑚2
 C = Undeveloped area,𝑘𝑚2
 K = Number of towns with population over 1,00,000
 M = Number of towns with population range 50,000 – 1,00,000
 N = Number of towns with population range 20,000 – 50,000
 P = Number of towns with population range 10,000 – 20,000
 Q = Number of towns with population range 5,000 – 10,000
 R = Number of towns with population range 2,000 – 5,000
 S = Number of towns with population range 1,000 – 2,000
 T = Number of towns with population range 500 – 1,000
 V = Number of towns with population range below 500
 D = Development allowance of 5% of road length calculated for
further development
 Third twenty years road plan (1981-2001)
• The future road development should be based on
the revised classification of roads system i.e.
primary, secondary and tertiary
• Develop the rural economy and small towns with
all essential features.
• Population over 500 should be connected by all
weather roads.
• Density increases to 82 km per 100 sq. km.
• The NH network should be expanded to form a
square grids of 100 km sides so that no part of the
country is more than 50 km away from the NH
 Third twenty years road plan
• Expressway should be constructed along major
traffic corridors
• All towns and villages with population over 1500
should be connected by MDR and villages with
population 1000-1500 by ODR.
• Road should be built in less industrialized areas to
attract the growth of industries.
• The existing roads should be improved by rectifying
the defects in the road geometry, widening and
strengthening the existing pavement to save
vehicle operation cost and thus to conserve energy.
 Road length by third 20 year road development plan,
(1981-2001)
I. Primary Road system
1. Expressway of total length 2000 km to be developed for fast travel based on
traffic requirement.
2. National Highways are to be based on the concept of 100sq.km grid,
 by providing 100 + 100 = 200 km of road length per
100x100=10000 sq.km area
 i.e 1 km per 50 sq.km area.
 Therefore the total length of NH in the country or in a state could be
obtained by dividing the total area of the country by 50.
 Length of NH in the country,km = 32,87,782/50=65,756 km.
 The target length of NH to be achieved by the year 2001 was fixed as
66,000 km.
II. Secondary Road system
1. State Highways (SH)
 The road consists of NH &SH should pass through every town or urban
area; there are 3364 such towns in the country as defined by 1981 census.
 Therefore the area of each of the square grid would be equal to total
area divided by the number of towns
 = 32,87,782 / 3,364 = 977.3 sq.km, with sides 𝟗𝟕𝟕. 𝟑 =
𝟑𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 𝐤𝐦.
 Therefore the length of NH + SH will be 𝟐 × 𝟑𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟓𝒌𝒎 for
each such a square grid.
 Thus the total length of NH+SH for 3364 town in the country
= 𝟔𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟒 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑘𝑚.
 The total length of NH for the country as determined earlier is 66,000
km.
 Thus the total length of SH in the country = 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟎 − 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 =
𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒂𝒚 𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒎.
The total length of SH required for any State may be
determined for the following two relations

a) By total area - SH km = Area of the state sq.km/25

b) By total number of town and area in the state SH, km
 = 62.5 X number of towns in the State - area of the state sq.km/50.
 The target length of SH to be achieved by the year 2001 was fixed was
1,45,000 km.
2. Major district road (MDR)
 The total length of MDR in the country has been worked out as
3,00,000 km.
 The total length of MDR required in the state is determined from one
of the following formula :
a) By total area, MDR, km = Area of the state sq.km/12.5
b) By number of towns in the State, MDR, km = 90 X number of towns in the
State
 The target length of MDR to be achieved by the year 2001 was fixed as
3,00,000 kilometre.
III.Tertiary Road system or rural roads
 The tertiary road system consist of other district road (ODR) and village road
(VR) or Rural roads.
 The target length of rural roads consisting of ODR and VR are to be achieved
by the year 2001 was fixed as 21,89,000 km.
Example

 The area of a certain district in India is 13,700 square km

and there are 13 towns as per 1981 census. Determine the length
of a different categories of roads to be provided in the this district
by the year 2001.
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
(PMGSY)
 An accelerated village road development program called Pradhan Mantri
Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) was launched by the central government in
December 2000 to provide village connectivity with all weather roads.
 The Ministry of Rural Development was vested with the responsibility to
prepare the master plan in consultation with the state government.
 The objective of PMGSY is to provide connectivity to all unconnected
habitations having populations of 500 and above with all weather roads.
 The above population limit is relaxed in the case of Hills and Desert
area of the country.
National Highways Development Project
(NHDP)
• The total length of various categories of road in the country as per the
target of third 20 year road development plan 1981 - 2001 was
27,00,000 km.
• A higher road length of 31,76,000 km was achieved by the year 2000
itself.
• However the length of NH achieved was only 57,700 km against
the target of 66,000 km and the length of SH achieved was only
1,24,300 km as against the target of 1,45,000 km.
• Realizing the deficiencies in the NH System in the country.
• The National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) took up the
National Highways Development Project (NHDP) by the Year 2000,in
different phase.
• Phase - I of NHDP is called the Golden Quadrilateral of total
length 5846 km connecting 4 major metropolitan cities.
• The four sides of the quadrilaterals are
I. Delhi - Mumbai
II. Mumbai - Chennai via Bangalore
III. Chennai - Kolkata
IV.Kolkata – Delhi
• This project was started in December 2000 and was planned to
be completed in 6 year.
• Phase – II of NHDP consists of a (a) North - South Corridor
connecting Srinagar to Kanyakumari and (b) East - West
corridor connecting Silchar to Porbandar of total length 7,300
km.
• Further development of selected stretches of NH was plant in
phase III, IV and V.
• Development of expressways was planned as phase VI and
improvement of urban road network as phase VII.
Road Development Plan - Vision Document
• The fourth 20 year road development plan of the country for the
period 2001 - 2021 has not yet been got approved as an
official plan document for development of roads.
• Instead Road Development Plan Vision 2021 has been
formulated for the period 2001 to 2021.
• This document covers (i) primary road system consisting of
expressways and NH (ii) secondary road system consisting of
SH and MDR.
• In addition of separate document Rural Road Development
Plan Vision 2025 has been got prepared at the initiative of
Ministry of Rural Development Government of India for the
20 years period 2005 to 2025.
• This document provide the tertiary road system consisting of
ODR and VR or low volume rural road of the country.
Road Development Plan : Vision 2021
• At the end of year 2000 was compared with the plan targets.
• It was observed that actual length of NH and SH achieved
fell short of plan target.
• The total length of NH achieved was 57,700 km as against the
target of 66,000 km and that of SH achieved was 1,24,300 km
as against the target of 1,45,000 km.
• The total target length of MDR + ODR + VR was 24,89,000 km
where as the actual achieved was 29,94,000 km.
• Thus against the overall total target road length all
categories of roads of 27,00,000 km the total length achieved
was 31,76,000 km.
• This vision document has considered the need of overall
development of road system in the country.
The total target length of primary and secondary road system
to be achieved in the country by the year 2020 are given below
a) Primary highway system consisting of 15,766 km of
expressway and 80,000 km of national highways.
b) Secondary road system consisting of 1,60,000 km of
state highway and 3,20,000 km of major district roads.

• Tertiary system of rural road consisting of other district

roads and village roads are to be developed in order to
provide all weather road connectivity to all villages of the
country in a phase manner.
Rural Road Development Plan : Vision
2025
• Rural road development plan vision 2025 for the 20 year
period of 2005 to 2025 to provide basic access to village in
phases

1. Phase – I, villages with population above 1000

2. Phase – II, villages with population above 500
3. Phase – III, villages with population below 500

• Lower population limits were fixed for under developed

region including hills and desert and tribal area
Highway Alignment and Surveys
 Highway Alignment
• The position or lay out of centre line of the highway
on the ground is called the alignment.
• Alignment is an arrangement in a straight line or in
correct relative positions.
• Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved
paths.
• Vertical alignment includes level and gradients.
• Alignment decision is important because,
 Increase in construction
 Increase in maintenance cost
 Increase in vehicle operation cost
 Increase in accident cost
• Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is
not easy to change the alignment due to
increase in cost of adjoining land and
construction of costly structure.
 Types of Alignment

Horizontal Alignment : Horizontal alignment in road design

consists of straight sections of road, known as tangents,
connected by circular horizontal curves.

It is the design of the road in the horizontal plane.

Consists of a series of tangents (straight lines), circular curves

and transition curves.

Should provide safe travel at a uniform design speed.

Vertical Alignment :

• Vertical alignment is the longitudinal section (shown on the y-

axis of a road), it consists of straight grades joined by vertical
curves.

• Vertical alignment specifies the elevations of points along the

roadway.
 Requrements of Highway Alignment
 Short
 Easy
 Safe
 Economical
• Short- desirable to have a short alignment between two
terminal stations.
• Easy- easy to construct and maintain the road with minimum
problem also easy for operation of vehicle.
• Safe- safe enough for construction and maintenance from
the view point of stability of natural hill slope, embankment
and cut slope also safe for traffic operation.
• Economical- total cost including initial cost, maintenance
cost and vehicle operation cost should be minimum.
 Factors Controlling Alignment
 Obligatory points
Traffic
 Geometric design
 Economics
 Other considerations

Additional care in hill roads

 Stability
 Drainage
 Geometric standards of hill roads
 Factors Controlling Alignment
Obligatory Points
 Obligatory points through which alignment is to pass
Examples:-bridge site, intermediate town , Mountain pass etc…
 Obligatory points through which alignment should not
pass. Examples:-religious places, costly structure, unsuitable land
etc…
Traffic
• The road alignment should be decided on the
requirement of road traffic.
• Origin and destination survey should be carried out in
the area and the desire lines be drawn showing the
trend of traffic flow.
• New road to be aligned should keep in view the desired
lines, traffic flow patterns and future trends.
Geometric Design
• Design factors such as gradient ,radius of curve and sight
distance also govern the final alignment of the highway.
• Gradient should be flat and less than the ruling gradient or
design gradient.
• Avoid sudden changes in sight distance, especially near
crossings
• Avoid sharp horizontal curves
• Avoid road intersections near bend
Economy
• Alignment finalised based on total cost including initial cost,
maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost.
Other Consideration
• Drainage consideration, political consideration
• Surface water level, high flood level
• Environmental consideration
 Topographical Control Points
• The alignment, where possible should avoid passing
through
 Marshy and low lying land with poor drainage
 Flood prone areas
 Unstable hilly features

Materials and Constructional Features

 Deep cutting should be avoided
 Earth work is to be balanced; quantities for filling and
excavation
 Alignment should preferably be through better soil area
to minimize pavement thickness
 Location may be near sources of embankment and
pavement materials
Drainage
• Avoid the cross drainage structure
• The number of cross drainage structure should be minimum.
Geometric standard of Hilly Road
• Gradient, curve and speed
• Sight distance, radius of curve
Engineering Surveys for Highway locations
 Before a highway alignment is finalised in
highway project, the engineering survey are to be
carried out. The various stages of engineering
surveys are

 Map study (Provisional alignment Identification)

 Reconnaissance survey

 Preliminary survey

 Final location and detailed surveys

 MAP STUDY
• If the topographical map of the area is available, it is
possible to suggest the likely route of the road
• In India, topographic maps are available from the Survey
of India with 15 or 30 meter contour intervals
• From the map alternative routes can be suggested in the
office, if the topographic map of that area is available.
• The probable alignment can be located on the map from
the following details available on the map.
 Avoiding valleys, ponds or lake
 Avoiding bend of river
• Map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to be
further surveyed in the field
 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
• The second stage of Engineering surveys for Highway
alignment is the reconnaissance survey.
• During the reconnaissance survey, the engineer visits
the site and examines the general characteristics of
the area before deciding the most feasible route for
detailed study.
• To confirm features indicated on map.
• A survey party may inspect along the proposed
alternative routes of the map in the field.
• To collect additional details.
 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY cont..
• Details to be collected from alternative routes during this
survey are,
 Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, hill, permanent
structure and other obstruction along the route which are not
available in the map .
 Approximate Value of gradient, length of gradient and radius of
curve.
 Number and type of cross drainage structures,
 Maximum Flood Level
 Soil Characteristics, Geological features.
 Source of construction materials- stone quarries, water sources.
• Prepare a report on merits and demerits of different
alternative routs.
• As a result a few alternate alignments may be chosen for
further study based on practical considerations observed at
the site.
 Preliminary Survey
• The preliminary survey is carried out to collect all the
physical information which are necessary in connection with
the proposed highway alignment
Objective of preliminary survey are:
• To survey the various alternative alignments proposed after
the reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical
information and detail of topography, drainage and soil.
• To compare the different proposals in view of the
requirements of the good alignment.
• To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other
construction aspect and to workout the cost of the alternate
proposals.
• To finalise the best alignment from all considerations.
 Final Location and Detailed Survey
• The alignment finalised at the design office after the
preliminary survey is to be first located on the field by
establishing the centre line.
Location survey:
• Transferring the alignment on to ground.
• This is done by transit theodolite.
• Major and minor control points are established on the
ground and centre pegs are driven, checking the
geometric design requirements.
• Centre line stacks are driven at suitable intervals, say 50m
interval in plane and rolling terrains and 20m in hilly
terrain.
 Final Location and Detailed Survey
Detailed Survey:
• Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250m
and at all drainage and under pass structure.
• Earthwork calculations and drainage details are to be workout
from the level books.
• Cross sectional levels are taken at intervals of 50-100m in
Plane terrain, 50-75m in Rolling terrain, 50m in built-up area,
20m in Hill terrain.
• Detail soil survey is to be carried out.
• CBR value of the soils along the alignment may be determined
for design of pavement.
• The data during detailed survey should be elaborate and
complete for preparing detailed plans, design and estimates of
project.
 Drawing
 Key map
 Index map
 Preliminary survey plans
 Detailed plan and longitudinal section
 Detailed cross section (1 cm= 2.0 to 2.5m)
 Land acquisition plans (1 cm= 40m or less)
 Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining
structures (1 cm = 1m to 10m)
 Drawings of road intersections
 Land plans showing quarries etc
THANK YOU………