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04 Electromagnetic Waves

We have seen that a magnetic field changing with time gives rise to an electric field. Is the converse also
true? Does an electric field changing with time give rise to a magnetic field?
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), argued that this was indeed the case – not only an electric current but
also a time-varying electric field generates magnetic field. While applying the Ampere’s circuital law to find
magnetic field at a point outside a capacitor connected to a time-varying current, Maxwell noticed an
inconsistency in the Ampere’s circuital law. He suggested the existence of an additional current, called by
him, the displacement current to remove this inconsistency.
To see how a changing electric field gives rise to a magnetic field, let us consider the process of charging of
a capacitor.
Case-1
Question: Calculate Magnetic Field at P P
Solution: For this, we consider a plane circular loop of radius r whose + –
r + –
plane is perpendicular to the direction of the current-carrying I + –
wire, and which is centred symmetrically with respect to the + –
wire + –
Using Ampere’s Law + –

 B.dl = 0Ienc
BP (2r) = µ0I
I
BP = 0
2R P
Case-2 + –
r + –
Question: Calculate Magnetic Field at P I + –
Solution: Here we consider a different surface, which has the same + –
boundary. This is a pot like surface which nowhere touches + –
the current, but has its bottom between the capacitor plates. + –
Using Ampere’s Law
 B.dl = 0Ienc
BP (2r) = µ0(0) ( No current passes through the surface)
BP = 0
So, we have a contradiction; calculated one way, there is a magnetic field at a point P; calculated another
way, the magnetic field at P is zero. This shows the inconsistency in ampere circuital law.
But what is the reason for this inconsistency? We can easily solve this problem by considering the following
situation. +q ሬEԦ –q
Electric field between the plates + –
q + –
E=
A 0 + –
Electric flux through shaded area + –
q + –
E = EA = A + –
A 0
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q
E =
0
Since charge q is varying w.r.t. time,
dE 1 dq
=
dt 0 dt
dq d d
=0 E  id = E
dt dt dt
dE
Maxwell defined id =0 as Displacement Current.
dt
So, this is the solution of inconsistency that we observed. So, in Case2 P
Using Ampere’s Law + –
r + –
 B.dl = 0Ienc I + –
id –
+
BP (2r) = µ0(id) ( id passes through the surface) + –
 i + –
BP = 0 d
2R
The source of a magnetic field is not just the conduction electric current due to flowing charges, but also
the time rate of change of electric field.
ሬEԦ
+ –
+ –
Ic + Id – Ic
+ –
+ –
+ –
+ –
Conduction current (c) Displacement current (d)
 Due to flow of charge in the conducting  Due to variable electric field between
wire. plates of charging capacitor.
 Denoted by IC.  Denoted by Id.
dq d
Ic = id =0 E
dt dt
Hence, total current is defined as I = IC + Id
So, Ampere’s Circuital Law can be written as –

 B.dl = 0 (Ic + Id ) [Also known as Ampere Maxwell's Law]

Displacement current also solved the current continuity problem
+q –q

Ic Id

dq Ic = Id = I
I=
dt
𝐄𝐨
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Electromagnetic Waves
Illustration 1:
Figure shows a capacitor made of two circular plates +q –q
each of radius 12 cm and separated by 4.0 mm. The ሬEԦ
capacitor is being charged by an external source (not 12cm
I = 0.10A
shown in the figure). The charging current is constant
and is equal to 0.10 A. Find
(a) Capacitance
(b) Rate of change of potential difference between
the plates? 4mm
(c) Displacement current across the plates?
Solution:
(a) Area of one of the plates.
A = (12 × 10–2 m)2
Distance between the plates, d = 4.0 mm = 4 × 10–3 m
Capacitance of the capacitor, C = 0A/d
 C2  (12  10–2 m)2
C =  8.85  10−12 
 N − m2  4  10–3 m

C = 100 × 10–12 F = 100 pF
dQ d dV dV I
Charging current, I = = (CV) or I=C or =
dt dt dt dt C
dV I
(b) Rate of change of potential difference = =
dt C
dV 0.10A
= = 1 × 109 V/s
dt 100  10–12 F
 dE 
(c) Displacement current Id = 0 A  
 dt 
For a parallel-plate capacitor,
 Q/A Q
E= = =
0 0 0 A
Where  is surface density of charge.
 d  Q 
Id = 0 A   
 dt  A  
  0 
1 dQ dQ
Id = 0 A  = = Ic  So d = c = 0.10 A
0 A dt dt
Maxwell's Equations and Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
Maxwell’s Equations
1. Gauss’ Law in Electrostatics
Q en
 E  dA = 0

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2. Gauss’ Law in Magnetism

 B  dA = 0

N S

3. Maxwell-Faraday’s Law
dB
 Ed l = − dt

× × ×
× × × × ×
× × × × × ሬEԦind
× × × × ×
× × ×

changing with time

4. Ampere – Maxwell Law

 dE 
 B  dl = 0  Ic +0 dt 

Charge Generates
at rest E E = Electric Field
Uniform Motion E ,B B = Magnetic Field
Accelerated Motion E , B , EMW EMW = Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves consist of sinusoidally time varying Electric and Magnetic field. Electric and
magnetic fields oscillate sinusoidally in perpendicular planes as well as the direction the propagation of
wave so, EMW are transverse in nature.

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Electromagnetic Waves
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
• EMW are non-mechanical in nature, and they don’t 𝐘
require medium to transfer energy and momentum.
• The electric and magnetic fields variations are in phase. ሬԦ
𝐄
• The direction of propagation of wave is along E  B
For Example, 𝟗𝟎°
𝟎 𝐜Ԧ
If, E = Ej and B = Bk ሬԦ
𝐁
𝐗
then, wave moves along → j k = i 𝐙
Direction of propagation = Direction of
• The electric and magnetic fields of a sinusoidal
ሬԦ × 𝐁
𝐄 ሬԦ with help of right hand rule
electromagnetic wave propagating in the positive
x-direction can be written as
EY = E0 sin(kx − t)
BZ = B0 sin(kx − t)
here,
Angular frequency,  = 2f
2
Wave number, k =


Speed of wave v =
k
E
• The magnitude of the electric and the magnetic fields in an electromagnetic wave are related as =c
B
µ0 10−7 1 1 1
• µ 0 0 = (40 ) = = = = 2
4 9  10 9  10
9 16
(3  10 ) c
8 2

1
So, in vacuum, speed of EMW is c = = 3  108 m / s
 0 0
1 1 1 1 c
In medium : v = = = =
µ (0r )(0r ) (00 ) (r r ) r r
c
Refractive index, n == (r r )
v
Note: Like any other wave, c = f  is applicable for EMW as well.
Illustration 2:
In a plane electromagnetic wave, the electric field oscillates sinusoidally at a frequency of 2.0 × 1010 Hz and
amplitude 48 V/m.
(a) What is the wavelength of the wave? (b) What is the amplitude of the oscillating magnetic field?
Solution:
We are given that;
E0 = 48 V/m, f = 2.0 × 1010 Hz and c = 3 × 108 V/m
(a) Wavelengths of the wave,
c 3  108 m / s
= = = 1.5 × 10–2 m
f 2.0  1010 s–1
(b) Amplitude of the oscillating magnetic field,
E 48V / m
B0 = 0 = 8
= 1.6 × 10–7 T
c 3 
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Illustration 3:
Electromagnetic waves travel in a medium which has relative permeability 1.3 and relative permittivity
2.14. Then the speed of the electromagnetic wave in the medium will be
Solution:
c 3 108
= = = 1.8  108 m / s
r  r 1.3 2.14
Illustration 4: Y
Figure shows the direction of electric field of an EMW at a certain point and at certain
instant. The wave is transporting energy in the negative Z direction. What is the
direction of the magnetic field of the wave at that point and instant?
X
Solution:
Z
The direction of EM waves is given by the direction of E  B = (j n) = −k
That is n̂ → î (direction of B )
Illustration 5:
Radio receiver receive a message at 300m band, If the available inductance is 1 mH, then calculate required
capacitance.
Solution:
Radio receive EM waves (velocity of EM waves c = 3 x 108 m/s)
3  108
 c=f  f= = 106 Hz
300
1 1
Now f= = 1 × 106  C= = 25 pF
2 LC 42  10−3  1012
Energy Density
Total Energy Density = Energy Density in Electric Field + Energy Density in Magnetic Field
1 1 B2
UT = 0E2 +
2 2 0
Where, E = E0 sin(kx − t)
B = B0 sin(kx − t)
we know that,
E 1 E2 1
c= & c=  2
=
B  0 0 B 00

1 1  B2  1 B2
UE = 0E2 = 0  = = UB
2 2  00  2 0
hence,
UE = UB
Total energy density of EMW is distributed equally in Electric and Magnetic Fields.
So, total energy density of an EMW can be written as-
UT = 2UE = 2UB
B2
UT = 0E2 =
0
where, E = E0 sin(kx − t)
B = B0 sin(kx − t)
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Electromagnetic Waves
Average Energy Density
Average Energy Density of Electric Field
1
UE = 0E2
2
1
 UE  = 0  E 2
2
Here
E = E0 sin(kx − t)
 E2  = E20  sin2(kx − t) 
E20 1
 E2  = <sin2(kx – t)> =
2 2
E0
E =
2
So average energy density of electric field
1  E2  1
 UE  = 0  0  = 0E02
2  2  4
and average energy density of magnetic field
1 1  B20  1 B20
 UB  =  =
2 0  2  4 0
and average energy density of electromagnetic wave
1 1 B20
 UT  = 0E20 =
2 2 0
Unit: J/m3
Here, Eo & B0 are peak values.
Illustration 6:
In a plane electromagnetic wave, the electric field oscillates sinusoidally at a frequency of 2.0 × 1010 Hz and
amplitude 48 V/m.
Find the total average energy density of the electromagnetic field of the wave.
Solution:
Total average energy density,
1
uav = 0E02
2
1
uav = (8.85 × 10–12) (48)2 J/m3
2
uav = 1.0 × 10–8 J/m3
Illustration 7:
In an electromagnetic wave, the amplitude of electric field is 1 V/m. The frequency of wave is 5 × 1014 Hz.
The wave is propagating along z-axis. The average energy density of electric field, in Joule/m3, will be –
Solution:
Average energy density is given by
2
1 1 E  1 1
uE = oE2 = o  o  = oE2o  uE = × 8.85 × 10–12 × (1)2  uE = 2.2 × 10–12 J/m3
2 2  2 4 4
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Illustration 8:
A plane light wave in the visible region is moving along the Z-direction. The frequency of the wave is
0.5 × 1015 Hz and the electric field at any point is varying sinusoidally with time with an amplitude of
1 V/m. Calculate the energy densities of the electric and magnetic fields.
Solution:
Total average energy density (due to both electric and magnetic fields)
1 1
 UT  = 0E20 = (8.85 × 10–12) (1)2 = 4.42 × 10–12 J/m3
2 2
Since the energy is shared equally by the electric and magnetic fields,
average energy density of the electric field
1
 UE  = (4.42 × 10–12 J/m3) = 2.21 × 10–12 J/m3
2
average energy density of the magnetic field
1
 UB  = (4.42 × 10–12 J/m3) = 2.21 × 10–12 J/m3
2
Poynting Vector and Intensity of EMW
Poynting Vector: It represents the time rate at which energy flows through a unit surface area
perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of the wave.
It also represents power transferred per unit area.
Direction : along direction of wave propagation
SI unit : J/s-m2 or W/m2
Mathematically, it is given by-
1
S = (E  B)
0
Since E ⊥ B
EB E2 B2c
S= = =
0 c 0 0
E2  E
S=  B= c 
c 0  
B2c
S= ( E = cB)
0
Intensity
It represents the average time rate at which energy flows through a unit surface area perpendicular to the
direction of the propagation of the wave. In other words, it is the average value of poynting vector over one
cycle.
It also represents average power transferred per unit area.
Direction : Along direction of wave propagation
SI unit : J/s-m2 or W/m2
 E0  B0 
Eavg Bavg  2  
 2  = E0B0
I= S  = =
0 0 20
E0B0 E2 B2c Pavg
I= = 0 = 0 =
20 2c 0 20 Area
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Electromagnetic Waves
Momentum of Electromagnetic Waves and Radiation Pressure
Momentum of Electromagnetic Waves
EM wave during its propagation has linear momentum associated with it. The linear momentum carried
U
by the portion of wave having energy U is given by p =
C
Radiation Pressure
The mechanical pressure exerted upon any surface due to the exchange of momentum between the surface
and the electromagnetic wave.
F
PR =
A
Transfer of Momentum and Radiation Pressure
Case-1:
If section of an EMW having energy U strikes a surface of surface area A, then if the surface is perfect
absorber and incidence is normal then momentum transferred to the surface,
U
p =
c
Force exerted on the surface by EMW
p U
F= =
t ct
F U
Radiation pressure, PR = = A
A ctA
Perfectly Absorbing
U Surface
Intensity, I =
A t
I
So, Radiation Pressure, PR =
c
Case-2:
If section of an EMW having energy U strikes a surface of surface area A, then if the surface is perfect
reflector and incidence is normal then momentum transferred to the surface,
2U
p =
c
Force exerted on the surface by EMW
p 2U
F= =
t ct
F 2U A
Radiation pressure, PR = =
A ctA Perfectly Reflecting
U Surface
Intensity, I =
A t
2I
So, radiation pressure PR =
c
Case-3:
For oblique incidence
Perfectly Absorbing Perfectly Reflecting
I 2I
Radiation Pressure, PR = cos2  Radiation Pressure, PR = cos2 
c c
where  is angle of incidence where  is angle of incidence
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Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum in simple terms is defined as the range of all types of electromagnetic radiation.
We shall learn about the concept in detail and understand all its underlying aspects in this lesson.
The electromagnetic spectrum is a range of frequencies, wavelengths and photon energies covering
frequencies from above 1 Hz to below 1025 Hz corresponding to wavelengths which are a few kilometres
to a fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus in the spectrum of electromagnetic waves. Generally, in a
vacuum electromagnetic wave tend to travel at speeds which is similar to that of light. However, they do
so at a wide range of wavelengths, frequencies, and photon energies.
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of a span of all electromagnetic radiation which further contains
many subranges which are commonly referred to as portions. These can be further classified as infra-red
radiation, visible light or ultraviolet radiation.
Electromagnetic Waves in Electromagnetic Spectrum
The entire range (electromagnetic spectrum) is given by radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light,
ultra-violet radiation, X-rays, gamma rays and cosmic rays in the increasing order of frequency and decreasing
order of wavelength. The type of radiation and their frequency and wavelength ranges are as follows:
Type of Radiation Frequency Range (Hz) Wavelength Range
gamma-rays 1020 – 1024 < 10–12 m
x-rays 1017 – 1020 1 nm – 1 pm
ultraviolet 10 – 10
15 17 400 nm – 1 nm
visible 4 x 10 – 7.5 x 10
14 14 750 nm – 400 nm
near-infrared 1 x 10 – 4 x10
14 14 2.5 μm – 750 nm
infrared 10 – 10
13 14 25 μm – 2.5 μm
microwaves 3 x 10 – 10
11 13 1 mm – 25 μm
radio waves < 3 x 10 11 > 1 mm

The electromagnetic spectrum can be depicted as follows :

VISIBLE LIGHT

RADIO WAVES
GAMMA RAYS X-RAYS UV INFRARED RADAR TV FM AM

0.0001 nm 0.01 nm 10 nm 1000 nm 0.01 cm 1 cm 1m 100 m

400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm

We see the uses of the electromagnetic waves in our daily life as :
Radio
A radio basically captures radio waves that are transmitted by radio stations. Radio waves can also be
emitted by gases and stars in space. Radio waves are mainly used for TV/mobile communication.
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Electromagnetic Waves
Microwave
This type of radiation is found in microwaves and helps in cooking at home/office. It is also used by
astronomers to determine and understand the structure of nearby galaxies and stars.
Infrared
It is used widely in night vision goggles. These devices can read and capture the infrared light emitted by
our skin and objects with heat. In space, infrared light helps to map the interstellar dust.
X-ray
X-rays can be used in many instances. For example, a doctor can use an x-ray machine to take an image of
our bone or teeth. Airport security personnel use it to see through and check bags. X-rays are also given
out by hot gases in the universe.
Gamma-ray
It has a wide application in the medical field. Gamma-ray imaging is used to see inside our bodies.
Interestingly, the universe is the biggest gamma-ray generator of all.
Ultraviolet
Sun is the main source of ultraviolet radiation. It causes skin tanning and burns. Hot materials that are in
space also emit UV radiations.
Visible
Visible light can be detected by our eyes. Light bulbs, stars, etc. emits visible light.
Illustration 9:
A point source of electromagnetic radiation has an average power output of 800W. The maximum value of
electric field at a distance 3.5 m from the source will be –
Solution:
Pav E2m
Intensity of electromagnetic wave given is by I = =
4r2 2oc

o cPav (4 10−7 )  (3  108 )  800

Em = = = 62.6 V / m
2r2 2 (3.5)2
Illustration 10:
The sun delivers 104 W/m2 of electromagnetic flux to the earth's surface. The total power that is incident
on a roof of dimensions (10 × 10) m2 will be
Solution:
Total power = electromagnetic flux × area = 104 × (10 × 10) = 106 W
Illustration 11:
A flood light is covered with a filter that transmits red light. The electric field of the emerging beam is
represented by a sinusoidal plane wave
Ex = 36 sin(1.20 × 107 z – 3.6 × 1015 t) V/m
The average intensity of beam in watt/metre2 will be
Solution:
1 1
Iavg = 0E02  c =  8.85  10−12  (36)2  3 108 = 1.719 W / m2
2 2
Illustration 12:
The decreasing order of wavelength of infrared, microwave, ultraviolet and gamma rays is
Solution:
Decreasing order of wavelength of various rays:
Microwaves > Infrared > Ultraviolet > Gamma rays
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Illustration 13:
The energy of the electromagnetic waves is of the order of 15 keV. To which part of the spectrum does it
belong?
Solution:
E = 15 keV
hc 6.6  10−19  3 108
= =
E 15 106  1.6  10−19
 = 0.8 Å  1Å
This wavelength belongs to X-rays
Illustration 14:
A plane electromagnetic wave of intensity of 10 W/m2 strikes a small mirror of area 20 cm2, held
perpendicular to the approaching wave. Find the radiation force on the mirror.
Solution:
Radiation force = (Radiation pressure) (Area)
 2I 
=  (A)
c
2 10  20  10−4
=
3 108
= 1.33 × 10–10 N

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