UNIT II

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING
MECHANICS​

2.1 Introduction
Mechanics is a science that describes and predicts the
conditions of rest or motion of bodies under the action of forces.
Mechanics can be broadly classified as mechanics of solids and
mechanics of fluids. Further divisions of mechanics are shown in
Fig. 2.1

Fig. 2.1 Branches of Mechanics

Engineering mechanics deals with mechanics of rigid
bodies which is further classified as statics and dynamics. Statics
treats the equilibrium of stationary bodies under the influence of

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various kinds of forces. Dynamics, on the other hand, includes

the motion of bodies and forces that causes it. Study of motion of
bodies without considering force causing the motion is called
Kinematics. On the other hand study of motion of bodies
considering the force causing the motion is called Kinetics.

If the internal stresses developed in a body are to be

studied, the deformation of the body should be considered. This
field of mechanics is called Mechanics of Deformable
Bodies/Strength of Materials/Solid Mechanics. This field may
be further divided into Theory of Elasticity and Theory of
Plasticity.
Liquids and gases deform continuously with application of very
small shear forces. Such materials are called Fluids. The
mechanics dealing with behaviour of fluids is called Fluid
Mechanics.

Mechanics of ideal fluids, mechanics of viscous fluid and

mechanics of incompressible fluids are further classification in
this area.

2.2 Idealization in Mechanics

A number of ideal conditions are assumed to exist while applying
the principles of mechanics to practical problems. In fact without

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such assumptions it is not possible to arrive at practical solutions.

The following idealizations are usually made in engineering
mechanics.
a) The body is rigid.
b) The body can be treated as continuum.
c) If the size of the body is small compared to other distances
involved in the problem, it may be treated as a particle.
d) If the area over which force is acting on a body is small
compared to the size of the body, it may be treated as a point
force.

Continuum
A body consists of several matters. It is a well known fact that
each particle can be subdivided into molecules, atoms and
electrons. It is not possible to solve any engineering problem by
treating a body as a conglomeration of such discrete particles.
The body is assumed to consist of a continuous distribution of
matter. In other words, the body is treated as continuum.

Rigid Body
A body is said to be rigid, if the relative positions of any two
particles in it do not change under the action of the forces.

Particle
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A particle may be defined as an object which has only mass and

no size. Such a body cannot exist theoretically. However in
dealing with problems involving distances considerably larger
compared to the size of the body, the body may be treated as
particle, without sacrificing accuracy.

2.3 Basic Principles of Mechanics

The following are the fundamental laws of mechanics:
i.​ Newton’s first law
ii.​ Newton’s second law
iii.​ Newton’s third law
iv.​ Newton’s law of gravitation
v.​ Law of transmissibility of forces, and
vi.​ Parallelogram law of forces

2.3.1 Newton’s First Law

It states that everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by external agency
acting on it. This leads to the definition of force as the external
agency which changes or tends to change the state of rest or
uniform linear motion of the body.

2.3.2 Newton’s Second Law

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It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly

proportional to the impressed force and it takes place in the
direction of the force acting on it. Thus Second law gives the
magnitude of force. ie., F= m . a where, F= resultant force, m=
mass of the particle, a = acceleration of the particle.

2.3.3 Newton’s Third Law

It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction. Consider the two bodies in contact with each other. Let
one body applies a force F on another. According to this law, the
second body develops a reactive force R which is equal in
magnitude to force F and acts in the line same as F but in the
opposite direction.

2.3.4 Newton’s Law of Gravitation

The force of attraction between any two bodies is directly
proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

Where ‘G’ is the constant of proportionality and is known as

constant of gravitation.
2.3.5 Law of Transmissibility of Force

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According to this law the state of rest or motion of the rigid body
is unaltered if a force acting on the body is replaced by another
force of the same magnitude and direction but acting anywhere
on the body along the line of action of the replaced force ​
(Fig. 2.2) where, P= Force

Fig.2.2 Transmissibility of Forces

Principle of Physical Independence of Forces

It states that the action of forces on bodies are independent, in
other words the action of forces on a body is not influenced by
the action of any other force on the body.
Principle of Superposition of Forces
It states that net effect of a system of forces on a body is same as
the combined effect of individual forces acting on the body ​
(Fig. 2.3).
Where, P1 and P2 = Forces; a1 and a2 = Acceleration due to force

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Fig.2.3 Principle of Superposition

2.3.5 Parallelogram Law of Forces

This law states that "if two forces acting simultaneously on a
body at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their resultant is
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram which passes through the point of intersection of
the two sides representing the forces".

2.4 Concepts of force

Force: Force is the action exerted by one body upon another.
Force tends to change the state of rest or motion of a body to
which it is applied. Gravitational force, Push or Pull are the
examples of force.
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A force is characterized by its points of application, magnitude

and direction. A force is represented by vector. Mass is the
property of the body which measures the resistance of the body to
a change of motion.

2.5 Characteristics of a force

From Newton’s first law, we defined the force as the agency
which tries to change state of rest or uniform motion of the body.
From Newton’s second law, we arrived at practical definition of
force. Thus 1 Newton is the force required to produce an
acceleration of 1 m/sec2 in a body of 1 kg mass. It may be noted
that a force is completely defined only when the following four
characteristics are specified
i.​ Magnitude
ii.​ Point of application
iii.​ Line of action, and
iv.​ Direction

Fig. 2.4 Characteristics of a force

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In Fig. 2.4, AB is a ladder leaning against a wall. At point ‘C’, a

person weighing 600 N is standing. The force applied by the
person on the ladder has the following characters:
i.​ Magnitude is 600 N
ii.​ The point of application is at C which is 2 m from ‘A’
iii.​ The line of action is vertical, and
iv.​ The direction is downward.

2.6 System of Forces

When number of forces act simultaneously on a body, they are
called the system of forces.
Depending upon the orientation of the forces acting on a body,
the system of forces is classified as
i)​ Coplanar force system
ii)​ Non-coplanar force system.
Coplanar force system consists of a set of forces with their lines
of action lying in the same plane. Non-coplanar force system
consists of a set of forces whose lines of action do not lie in the
same plane. Further classifications are indicated in Fig. 2.5 and
Fig. 2.6 (a) and Fig. 2.6(b). The types of force system with their
characteristics and typical example is listed in Table 2.1(a) and
Table 2.1 (b).

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Table 2.1(a) Types of force systems

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Force Characteristics Examples Illustration

System
Collinear Line of action Forces on
forces of all the forces a rope in a
act along the tug of war
same line
Coplanar All forces are System of
Parallel parallel to each forces
forces other and lie in acting on
a single plane a beam
subjected
to vertical
loads
Coplanar All forces are Weight of
like parallel to each a
Parallel other and lie in stationary
forces a single plane train on a
and act in the rail when
same direction the track
is straight

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Coplanar Line of action Forces on

concurrent of all forces a rod
forces pass through a resting
single point and against a
forces lie in the wall at
same plane point of
contact

Table 2.1(b) Types of force systems

Coplanar All forces do Forces on
non not meet at a a ladder
concurrent point but lie resting
forces in a single against a
plane wall
when a
person
stands on
a rung
which is
not at its
centre of
gravity

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Non All the The

coplanar forces are weight of
parallel parallel to benches
forces each other in a class
but not in the room
same plane
Non All forces do A tripod
coplanar not lie in the carrying
concurrent same plane a camera
forces ,but their
lines of
action pass
through a
single point
Non All forces do Forces
coplanar not lie in the acting on
non same plane a moving
concurrent and their bus
forces lines of
action do not
pass through

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a single
point

2.7 Moment of a Force

A force applied on a body can create i) a tendency to translate
and /or ii) tendency to rotate about an axis or a point. The effect
of a force on a body to rotate it about a fixed point is called
Moment. Moment is measured as the product of force and
distance between point of rotation and line of action of force.
The point of rotation is called as Moment Centre and distance
between point of rotation and line of action measured
perpendicular to the force is called as Arm of force or Lever
Arm.
For example the force applied by a wrench to a nut can rotate the
nut (Fig. 2.7). Similarly the force applied at a door (to open or
close) allows it to rotate on its hinge. (Fig. 2.7).

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Fig 2.7 Moment of a Force

2.7.1 Moment about a point
The magnitude of moment or tendency of the force to rotate the
body about the axis O-O (Fig. 2.8) perpendicular to the plane of
the body is proportional to both the magnitude of the force and to
the moment arm d, therefore magnitude of the moment is defined
as the product of force and moment arm.
Moment = Force x moment arm
M = F×d

Fig. 2.8 Moment about a

point
The moments are
classified according to
the direction in which the
force tends to rotate the
body about a fixed point
i.​ Clockwise and
ii.​ Anticlockwise moment

Clockwise Moment

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When the force tends to rotate the body in the same direction in
which the hands of clock move is called clockwise moment.

Anticlockwise Moment
When the force tends to rotate the body in the opposite direction
in which the hands of clock move is called anti clockwise
moment.

Example 2.1
Find the moment of force F = 600N about A as shown in the ​
Fig. 2.9

Fig. 2.9
Solution:
Moment of the force can be obtained by resolving the given force
as shown in Fig. 2.10

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Fig. 2.10
MA = (600 Cos 30o) (0.2) – (600 Sin 30o) (0.3)
MA = 13.92 N-m (Anticlockwise Moment)

Example 2.2
A 200 N force acts on the bracket as shown in Fig. 2.11
Determine the moment of the force about point A.

Fig. 2.11

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Solution:
Moment about A = MA= Force x perpendicular distance
=200 x CB ( )
From triangle BCD CB= DB x cos 45° = 70.71 mm
MA= 200 x 70.71 = 14142 N-mm = 14.142 N-m
Alternatively:
The force at B is resolved into x and y components and the
moment about A is computed using Varignon’s theorem
+ve
MA=200 cos 45° x 100 – 200 sin 45° x 200
= -14.142 N-m ( )

2.8 Couple
Two parallel forces of same magnitude but opposite direction
separated by a distance‘d’ as shown in Fig 2.12 form couple.

Fig. 2.12 Couple of Force

As matter of fact a couple does not produce any straight-line
motion but produces rotation in the body on which it acts. So
couple can be defined as unlike parallel forces of same magnitude

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but opposite direction which produce rotation about a specific

direction and whose resultant is zero.

2.8.1 Moment of couple

The moment of the couple is the product of the force (one of the
force of the two equal and opposite parallel forces) and the arm
of the couple.
Magnitude of the couple is equal to the product of the force and
the distance between the parallel forces. M= F x d.
Moment of couple = force x arm of couple
Moment of couple = F x d

Moment of a couple about any point is same.

Let us find the moment of couple about a point ‘O’ on the couple
arm AB as shown in Fig. 2.13

Fig. 2.13 Moment of couple

Moment of Couple about ‘O’

= .

Moment of Couple about ‘A’= .

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Moment of Couple about ‘B’=.

2.9 Resolution of a Force
The process of splitting of a force into its rectangular components
(horizontal and vertical) is known as resolution of the force.

Fig. 2.14 Resolution of a Force

In the Fig. 2.14, F is the force which makes an angle θ with the
horizontal axis and has been resolved into two components,
namely Fx and Fy,
In ΔCAD,

2.10 Equivalent force couple system

A force P acting at a point A on a body can be resolved into a
force and a couple at any other point B as shown in Fig. 2.15

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Fig. 2.15 Equivalent force couple system

Equal and opposite force of magnitude P is applied at B and this
does not change the equilibrium of the body. The downward force
P at A and upward force P at B constitute a couple M = P x at B.
Therefore a force P at A is replaces by the same force P and a
couple M at B.

Example 2.3
Replace the given system of forces acting on the beam AB shown
in the Fig. 2.16 by
a) An equivalent force couple system at A
b) An equivalent force couple system at B.

Fig. 2.16
Solution: RX = ∑ FX = 0
​ Ry = ∑Fy = 300 -1200 +200 - 500
​ Ry =-1200N
​ R = 1200N
​ MA = (300) (2) – (1200) (5) + (200) (7) – (500) (11)
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​ MA = -9500 Nm
​ MA = 9500 Nm
The equivalent force couple system at A is as shown in Fig. 2.17

Fig. 2.17
​ MB = (500) (1) – (200) (5) + (1200) (7) – (300) (10)
​ MB = 4900Nm

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Example 2.4
Replace the 6 kN force and 10 kN-m moment acting on a beam
shown in Fig. 2.18 by a single force. Where does this force cross
the x-axis.

Fig. 2.18
Solution:
Finding the summation of all forces in horizontal and vertical
directions

The summation of moment of all forces about ‘A’

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X-Intercept of the Resultant= from ‘A’

2.11 Composition of Forces
It is the process of combining a number of forces into a single
force such that the net effect produced by the single force is equal
to the algebraic sum of the effects produced by the individual
forces.
The single force in this case is called the resultant force which
produces the same effect on the body as that produced by the
individual forces acting together.

Sign conventions:
Following sign conventions are used in determining the resultant
force
1.​ Horizontal forces:
i. Left to Right +ve i. Right to Left -ve
2.​ Vertical forces:
i. Upward +ve ii. Downward -ve

Example 2.5
Determine the rectangular components of the forces F1 and F2
shown in the Fig. 2.19

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Fig 2.19
Solution:
F1x = 0; F1y = -100N
F2x = - 200 cos 300
F2y = 200 sin 300

2.12 Resultant of coplanar concurrent force system

Fig. 2.20

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If two or more forces are acting in a single plane and passing

through same point such a force system is known as coplanar
concurrent force system.
In a coplanar concurrent force system, we can calculate the
magnitude and direction of the resultant.
Let, F1, F2, F3, F4 be the concurrent forces acting on a body and
making angles θ1, θ2, θ3, θ4 respectively with the horizontal as
shown in the Fig. 2.20.
Steps to find the resultant (Method of Resolution)
i)​ Resolve all the forces acting on the body into rectangular
components (Consider ‘+’ve convention for force
rightwards and upwards).
ii)​ Calculate the algebraic sum of all the forces acting in the ​
x-direction (horizontal forces).

iii)​Calculate the algebraic sum of all the forces acting in the

y-direction (vertical forces).

iv)​ Determine the magnitude of the resultant using the formula

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v)​ Determine the direction of the resultant using the formula

Example 2.6
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of
coplanar concurrent force system shown in the figure 2.21.

Fig. 2.21
Solution:
ΣFx = 2 cos 300 - 4+3 cos 600 = -0.77kN (Leftward force).
ΣFy = 2sin 300 -1 – 3 sin 600 = -2.59kN (Downward force).

= 2.70kN.
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Example 2.7
Three forces acting on a hook are as in Fig. 2.22 Determine the
direction of the fourth force of magnitude 100N such that the
hook is pulled in x direction only. Determine the resultant force
in x direction.

Fig. 2.22

Solution: let the force of 100N act at angle θ with x axis in the
first quadrant as shown in the Fig. 2.23

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Fig. 2.23
As the resultant is horizontal, its Y-component is zero.
​ ∑FY = 0
100sinθ + 80sin30 + 80sin60 - 200sin60 = 0
θ = 39.73°
RX = R = ∑FX
R = 100cos39.73 + 80cos30 + 80cos60+200cos60
R = 286.19kN
Example 2.8
The forces 20 N, 30 N, 40 N, 50 N and 60 N are acting at one of
the angular points of a regular hexagon, towards the other five
angular points, taken in order. Find the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force.
Solution:
The system of given forces is shown in Fig. 2.24

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Fig. 2.24
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving all the forces horizontally (i.e., along AB),
ΣH = 20 cos 0° + 30 cos 30° + 40 cos 60° + 50 cos 90° + 60 cos
120° N
= (20 × 1) + (30 × 0.866) + (40 × 0.5) + (50 × 0) + 60 (– 0.5) N
= 36.0 N
And now resolving the all forces vertically (i.e., at right angles to
AB),
ΣV = 20 sin 0° + 30 sin 30° + 40 sin 60° + 50 sin 90° + 60 sin
120° N
= (20 × 0) + (30 × 0.5) + (40 × 0.866) + (50 × 1) + (60 × 0.866) N
= 151.6 N
We know that magnitude of the resultant force,

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= 155.8 N
Direction of the resultant force
Let θ = Angle, which the resultant force makes with the
horizontal (i.e., AB).

θ= 76.6°
Example 2.9
A boat is moved uniformly along a canal by two horses pulling
with forces P=890N and Q=1068N acting under an angle α=60֯ as
shown in Fig. 2.25. Determine the magnitude of the resultant pull
on the boat and the angles ‘β’ and ‘γ’

Fig. 2.25

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Solution:
Given P=890N and Q=1068N

Fig 2.26
Since the Resultant is along the x-Direction, Referring to Fig 2.26

and
Finding the summation of all the forces along y-Direction and

equating to zero, we get

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Example 2.10
A system of forces acting on a body resting on an inclined plane
is as shown in Fig. 2.27. Determine the resultant force if θ = 60°
and if W = 1000 N; N = 500 N; F = 100 N; and T = 1200 N.

Fig. 2.27
Solution:
In this problem, note that selecting X and Y axes parallel to the
plane and perpendicular to the plane is convenient.
Rx = ΣFx = T – F – W sin θ
= 1200 – 100 – 1000 sin 60° = 233.97 N
Ry = ΣFy = N – W cos 60° = 500 – 1000 cos 60° = 0.
∴ Resultant is force of 233.97 N directed up the plane
2.13 Varignon’s Theorem

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Varignon’s Theorem states that the moment of a force about any

point is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of its
components about that point.
Principal of moments states that the moment of the resultant of a
number of forces about any point is equal to the algebraic sum of
the moments of all the forces of the system about the same point.
Proof:

Fig. 2.28(a) Fig 2.28(b)

Fig.2.28 (a) shows two forces F1 and F2 acting at point O. These
forces are represented in magnitude and direction
by OA and OB. Their resultant R is represented in magnitude and
direction by OC which is the diagonal of parallelogram OACB.
Let ‘O’ is the point in the plane about which moments of F1,

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F2 and ‘R’ are to be determined. From point O’, draw

perpendiculars on OA, OC and OB.
Let r1= Perpendicular distance between F1 and O’.
d= Perpendicular distance between R and O’.
r2= Perpendicular distance between F2 and O’.
Then according to Varignon’s principle,
Moment of R about O’ must be equal to algebraic sum of
moments of F1 and F2 about ‘O’.
R × d = F1 × r1 + F2 × r2
Now refer to Fig 2.28(b). Join OO’ and produce it to D. From
points C, A and B draw perpendiculars on OD to meet
at D,E and F respectively. From A and B also draw
perpendiculars on CD meeting the line CD at G
and H respectively.
Let θ1 = Angle made by F1with OD,
θ = Angle made by R with OD
θ2 = Angle made by F2 with OD.
In Fig 2.28.(b), OA = BC and also OA parallel to BC, hence the
projection of OA and BC on the same vertical line CD will be
equal i.e., GD = CH as GD is the projection of OA on
CD and CH is the projection of BC on CD.
Then, from Fig. 2.28(b), we have
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​ ​ ​ ​ P1 sin θ1 = AE = GD = CH​
​ ​ ​ ​ F1 cos θ1 = OE
​ ​ ​ ​ F2 sin θ1 = BF = HD​
​ ​ ​ ​ F2 cos θ2 = OF = ED
(OB = AC and also OB || AC. Hence projections of OB and AC on
the same horizontal line OD will be equal i.e., OF = ED)
​ ​ ​ ​ R sinθ =CD​
​ ​ ​ ​ R cos θ =OD
Let the length OO’ = x.
​ ​ Then x sin θ1 = r1, x sin θ = d and x sin θ2 = r2
Now moment of R about O’
​ ​ ​ = R × (distance between O’ and R)
=R×d
​ ​ ​ = R × x sin θ (d= x sin θ)
​ ​ ​ = (R sin θ) × x
​ ​ = CD × x (R sin θ = CD)
​ ​ ​ = (CH +HD) × x
​ ​ ​ = (F1 sin θ1 + F2 sin θ2) × x
​ ​ ​ = F1 × x sin θ1 + F2 × x sin θ2
​ ​ ​ = F1 × r1 + F2 × r2
( x sin θ1 = r1 and x sin θ2 = r2)
​ = Moment of F1 about ‘O’ + Moment of F2 about ‘O’.
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Hence moment of R about any point in the algebraic sum of

moments of its components F1 and F2 about the same point.
Hence Varignon’s principle is proved.
The principle of moments (or Varignon’s principle) is not
restricted to only two concurrent forces but is also applicable to
any coplanar force system, i.e., concurrent or non-concurrent or
parallel force system.

Alternatively, the Varignon’s theorem may also be proved by

force-triangle method

Fig. 2.28(c)

Fig. 2.28(c) shows two concurrent forces P and Q having

Resultant R. From the principle of force triangle,

moment of the force Q about O: = 2. Area of ΔAOC

moment of the force P about O: = 2. Area of ΔAOB

Area of ΔAOD = Area of ΔAOC + Area of ΔACD

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But the Area of ΔACD = Area of ΔABD = Area of ΔAOB

Now Area of triangle AOD = Area of triangle AOC + Area of

triangle AOB

Moment of force R about O = Moment of force P about O +

Moment of force Q about O

2.14 Resultant of coplanar non-concurrent force

system
If two or more forces are acting in single plane, but not passing
through the single point, such a force system is known as
coplanar non-concurrent force system.
Consider a system of forces P1, P2, P3, … etc., acting on a rigid
body at the points A1, A2, A3, etc., located at a distance d1, d2, d3
…. etc., as shown in Fig. 2.29 (a)
Each force is replaced by a force of same magnitude, direction
and a couple perpendicular to the force at ‘O’. Forces P1, P2,
P3…etc acting at A1, A2, A3 ….etc., respectively are replaced by
respective force and corresponding couple as shown in Fig. 2.29
(b) At ‘O’ the forces are replaced by the resultant R and net
couple ΣMo. Further this couple ΣMo and resultant R at O can be
reduced to a single force R at the point B such that ΣMo=R x d.

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(a)​ (b)
Fig. 2.29

Therefore, , where, , Rx=ΣFx

and Ry=ΣFy. The x and y intercept of the resultant on x and y axes

is computed using theorem of moments as and

.
In coplanar non-concurrent force system, we can calculate the
magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force as
follows:
i)​ Magnitude of resultant using the formula

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ii)​ Direction of the resultant using the formula

iii)​Position of resultant
Position of the resultant means the calculation of d, or x and y
intercepts as shown in the figure
R x d = algebraic sum of moments of number of forces about that
point.
R x d = ΣMo

X- intercept:

Y- intercept:

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Example 2.11
Four parallel forces 2 kN, F1, F2 and 10 kN have a downward
resultant of 5 kN that acts at a distance of 1.8m to the right of
2kN force as shown in Fig. 2.30. Determine F1 and F2.

Fig. 2.30
Solution

From Fig kN

---(1)
Summation of Moment of all forces about ’A’ is

------(2)
Moment of the Resultant about ‘A’ is ----(3)
According to varignon’s theorem, Moment of the Resultant is
equal to the sum of the moments of component forces.
Equating (2) and (3)

-------(4)
Solving (3) and (4)
F2=18kN F1=5kN
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Example 2.12
Determine the magnitude, direction and position of the resultant
force with respect to C as shown in Fig. 2.31.

Fig.
2.31
ΣFx
= -135 cos 45+ 90 cos 63.43-105+120 cos 63.43-75 cos 45
ΣFx =-159.56 N
ΣFy = 135sin45+90sin 63.43- 120 cos 63.43+180-75sin45
ΣFy =249.25 N

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ΣMC = (105x200) - (75 sin 45x200)-(135cos 45x200) + ​

(135 sin 45x200) + (90cos 63.43x 200)+(90sin63.43x100) ​
ΣMC = 26494.13 N-mm.

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Example 2.13
Determine the resultant of the three forces acting on the dam
shown in Fig. 2.32 and locate its intersection with the base AB.
For a good design, this intersection should occur within the
middle third of the base. Comment whether it is a good design or
not.

Fig. 2.32
Solution:
+ve ΣFx 103.5 -62 cos 30=49.8 N
+veΣFy =​ -246- 62 sin 30 = -277N

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=281.44N,

MA=103.5x1.8+246x2.1-62xcos30x2.2sin60+62sin60x(5.7-2.2co
s60)=847.5 kN-m

. For safe design the resultant should act

within the middle third. For this the position should be in the
range of 1.9m and 3.8 m. Hence the given design is safe.

Example 2.14
Determine the magnitude and Y-intercept of the force system
acting on the lamina as shown in Fig. 2.33

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Fig. 2.33
Solution: The angle for the 600N force with horizontal is

tan-1 = 26.565°
​ RX = ∑FX = 400 + 600cos26.565
RX = 936.66N
​ Ry = ∑Fy = 200 – 600sin26.565
​ Ry= -68.33N

R = =

R = 939.15N

θ = tan-1 ( / ) = tan-1 (68.33/936.66)

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θ = 4.17°
Plot the resultant on Y-axis at distance Y from O as
shown in Fig. 2.34 using Varignon’s theorem at ‘O’

Fig. 2.34
- (400) (400) – (600sin26.565) (400) = - (936.66) (Y)
Y = 285.41mm
Example 2.15
For the non-concurrent coplanar system shown in Fig. 2.35
determine the magnitude, direction and position of resultant force
with reference to ‘A’.

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Fig. 2.35

Solution: RX = ∑FX =100 – 100 + 100 cos45 = 100N

Ry = ∑Fy = 200 - 100 sin45 = 100N

​ R=
​ R = 141.42N
​ θ = tan-1(100/100)
​ θ = 45°
The perpendicular distance of the resultant from A can be
obtained using Varignon’s theorem at A

(200)(2) – (100)(4) – (100 sin45) (4) = (141.42)(d)

d = -2.828m

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As the perpendicular distance is negative, the resultant produces

clockwise moment about A. The position of resultant with respect
to A is shown in Fig. 2.36

Fig. 2.36

Note the X-intercept will be = 4m to the left of A and ​

Y-intercept is also 4m above A.
Example 2.16
A rigid plate is subjected to the forces as shown in Fig. 2.37,
compute resultant of forces and position of resultant force with
respect to centroid point O of the plate.

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Fig. 2.37
Solution: For the 50kN force at A, the angle with horizontal is
tan-1(1.2/1.6) = 36.87°
RX = ∑FX = 40 – 50cos36.87 = 0
​ Ry = ∑Fy = 50– 20 - 50sin36.87 = 0
​ R=0
​ As the resultant force is zero, the resultant can be a
moment.
​ MO = - (40) (0.6) – (20) (0.8) +100
​ MO = 60kN-m
The resultant is a couple moment of 60kN-m . This
moment can act anywhere in the plane.

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Example 2.17
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant for the
system of coplanar forces shown in Fig. 2.38. Also determine the
position of resultant with respect to ‘O’

Fig. 2.38
Solution: Referring to the Fig 2.38

Example 2.18 Three forces of 2P, 3P and 4P act along the three
sides of an equilateral triangle of side 100 mm taken in order.
Find the magnitude and position of the resultant force.

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Solution:
The system of given forces is shown in Fig. 2.39

Fig. 2.39
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving all the forces horizontally,
ΣH = 2P + 3P cos 120° + 4P cos 240°
= 2P + 3P (– 0.5) + 4P (– 0.5)
= – 1.5 P
And now resolving all the forces vertically.
ΣV = 3P sin 60° – 4P sin 60°
= (3P × 0.866) – (4P × 0.866)
= – 0.866 P
We know that magnitude of the resultant force

Position of the resultant force

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Let x = Perpendicular distance between B and the line of action

of the resultant force.
Now taking moments of the resultant force about B and equating
the same,
1.732 P × x = 3P × 100 sin 60° = 3P × (100 × 0.866) = 259.8 P

2.15 Equilibrium of Forces

A body is said to be under equilibrium, under external forces,
when it continues to be at rest or under motion.
2.15.1 Equilibrium of Concurrent force systems:
For a body to be under equilibrium, the resultant of force system
should be zero. If a resultant exists, then the resultant of force
system should be zero. If a resultant exists, then the body can be
under equilibrium by applying a force of equal magnitude and
opposite. This force is called as equilibrant. For equilibrium

. To satisfy this condition sum of the

components along both directions taken separately should be
zero, ie., ΣFx=0 and ΣFy=0

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Equations of equilibrium for coplanar Concurrent force

systems:
ΣFx=0 and ΣFy=0 and,
Additionally, for the case of coplanar Non concurrent force
systems we have: ΣMz=0
2.16 Lami’s Theorem:

Fig 2.40
Statement: If a body is in equilibrium under action of three
forces, each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between
the other two forces. Referring to Fig 2.40

P ∝ sin β; Q ∝ sin γ; R ∝ sin α; or

Note: In the above equation all the three forces are considered to
be of similar nature, ie., either all are acting away (Tensile) or

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acting towards the point (Compressive). If any of the force is

unlike, then that force is considered as negative.
Proof: Applying sine rule to the triangle ABC in Fig. 2.40 the
following expression is evaluated

Because sin (180-θ) = sinθ

2.17 Free Body Diagram (FBD)

In practice the problem is derived from actual physical situation.
A sketch showing the physical condition of the problem is known
as space diagram. In order to obtain solution for this problem,
the body under consideration and all the forces acting on the
body is considered. Free body diagram is a sketch of isolated
body which shows the external forces on the body and the
reactions exerted on it by the removed elements. Some examples
of writing free body diagram is shown in Fig. 2.41

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Fig. 2.41
Example 2.19
A sphere of weight 100 N is tied to a smooth wall by a string as
shown in Fig. 2.42 Find the tension T in the string and reaction of
the wall.

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Fig. 2.42
Solution: Free body diagram of the sphere is shown in Fig. 2.42
along with force diagram. Solution is obtained by applying
Lami’s theorem

Considering two terms at a time the

unknowns are computed

and

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Example 2.20
A spherical ball of weight 75 N is attached to a string and is
suspended from the ceiling as shown in Fig. 2.43(a) Find the
tension in the string, if a horizontal F is applied to the ball as
shown in Fig. 2.43(b) Determine the angle the string makes with
the vertical and also the tension in the string if F=150 N

Fig. 2.43(a) Fig. 2.43 (b)

Solution:
i)​ When the ball is hanging from the ceiling, the tension
in the string is equal to the weight of the ball i.e.,
T=W=75 N.
ii)​ Free body diagram of ball is shown in Fig. 2.4(b)
when a horizontal force F is applied. Magnitude of
tensile force and inclination θ of string with vertical
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can be computed using the method of components and

equilibrium condition.
+ve ΣFx =0; -T sinθ + 150 =0​ ​ --(1)

+ve ΣFy =0; T cosθ - 75 =0​​ --(2)

Equations (1) and (2) can be simplified as T sinθ = 150; ​

T cos θ = 75
Dividing first equation by the second equation;

Substituting value of θ in (1) the value of T is computed as

T=167.7N
Alternatively, using Lami’s theorem, the solution can also be
obtained as

T sin (90+θ) =75 or T cos θ = 75 and T sin(180-θ) = 150 or ​

T sin θ = 150
These two equations are similar to equations (2) and (1) and
hence the solution leads to the same result ie θ = 63.43° and ​
T = 167.7 N

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Example 2.21
Determine the reactions at contact points for the system shown in
Fig. 2.44

Fig. 2.44
Solution:
The free body diagram of ball 1 and 2 is shown in Fig. 2.44.
From triangle ABC the inclination of AB with AC (θ), is

computed as , where AC= 90-20-30 = 40mm. and ​

AB = 50 mm. ∴θ = 36.87°
Equations of equilibrium is applied to Free Body Diagram of
Ball1 as
+ve ΣFx =0; RR –RQ cosθ =0​ ​ -- (1)
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+veΣFy =0; RS-100- RQ sinθ =0​ ​ --(2)

Equations of equilibrium is also applied to Free Body Diagram of
Ball 2 as
+ve ΣFx =0; RQ cosθ - RP =0​ ​ --(3)
+veΣFy =0; RQ sinθ-300=0​ ​ --(4)

From equation (4) substituting this in

equation (3), the value of RD is computed as RP = 500 cos 36.87 =
400 N
Substituting the value of RQ in (1) and (2);

RR = 500 cos36.87 = 400 N;

RS = 100+ 500 sin 36.87 =400 N

Example 2.22
Two identical cylinders each weighing 2kN are supported by
vertical and inclined plane ash shown in Fig. 2.45. Assuming
smooth surfaces determine the reactions at A, B and C

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Fig. 2.45
Free body diagram of cylinder 1 and ball 2 is shown in Fig 2.45
(b) and 2.45(c). The solution is obtained by considering first the
free body diagram of cylinder 2. Lami’s theorem is applied on
this as there are three forces in equilibrium

; RA=1.73 kN; RD=1 kN

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Lami’s theorem cannot be applied on the free body diagram of

cylinder 1, as there are four forces acting on this cylinder. Hence
the solution is obtained using the method of components and
equilibrium condition.
+ve ΣFx =0; RC-RBcos60-RDcos30 =0​ ​ --(1)
+veΣFy =0; -2+RBsin60-RDsin30 =0​ ​ --(2)
Substituting value of RD in (2) , the magnitude of RB is
computed as
RB = (2 + 1 sin30)/sin60 = 2.88 kN
Magnitude of RC is computed by substituting RD and RB in(1)
RC= 2.88 cos60+ 1 cos30 =2.31 kN

Example 2.23
A 3 kN is to be supported by the rope and pulley arrangement
shown in Fig. 2.46 Determine the magnitude and direction of the
force’ F’, which should be exerted at the free end of the rope.

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Fig. 2.46
Solution:
In this problem, the size of pulley is ignored. The force F and its
inclination α is computed by applying Lami’s theorem to the free
body diagram shown in Fig 2.46

Here
Considering the first two terms, the value of α is computed as
2F sin163.74 = F cos α ∴α = 55.94°
Substituting this value in the second and third term:

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Example 2.24
Five guy wires tied at a point and are pulled in radial directions,
equally spaced from one another. If the magnitude of pulls on
three consecutive wires is 50 kN, 70 kN and 60 kN determine the
magnitude of pulls on two other wires.
Solution:
The forces in guy wires taken in the order is shown in Fig 2.47

Fig 2.47
The given force system is in equilibrium. The equation of
equilibrium is applied to find T1 and T2.
+ve ΣFx = 0;
50+70cos72-60cos36-T1cos36+T2cos72 =0 -- (1)

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+veΣFy =0;
70sin72+60sin36-T1sin36-T2sin72 =0 --(2)
They are simplified as
0.81T1-0.31T2 = 23.09-----(1a)
0.59T1+0.95T2 = 101.84---(2a)
Solving (1a) and (2a); T1 = 56.18 kN and T2 = 72.31 kN

Example 2.25
A string AB, BC and CD are attached to two fixed point A and D.
They have equal weights of 1kN knotted to it at B and C as
shown in Fig. 2.48. Find the tension in the portion AB, BC and
CD of the strings; also find the inclination of BC with vertical.

Fig. 2.48
Solution: Let TAB, TBC and TCD be the tensile forces in the string
AB, BC and CD respectively.
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The forces acting at B and C is shown in Fig. 2.49

Fig. 2.49
Lami’s theorem is applied on the free body diagram at B and C.

​ ---(1)

​ ---(2)
Following expressions are obtained after simplifying equation (1)

​ ​ ​ ---(3)

​ ​ ​ ---(4)

​ ​ ​ ---(5)
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​ ​ ​ ---(6)
Value of θ is obtained by equating (4) and (5)
∴ θ = 59.95° The force is strings are obtained by substituting
this value in (3), (4) and (6)
TAB=1.73 kN; TBC= 1 kN and TCD = 1 kN

Example 2.26
A uniform wheel of 600 mm diameter, weighing 5 kN rests
against a rigid rectangular block of 150 mm height as shown in
Fig.2.50. Find the least pull, through the centre of the wheel,
required just to turn the wheel over the corner A of the block.
Also find the reaction on the block. Take all the surfaces to be
smooth.

Fig. 2.50

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Solution:
Given: Diameter of wheel = 600 mm; Weight of wheel = 5 kN
and height of the block = 150 mm.
Least pull required just to turn the wheel over the corner.
Let P = Least pull required just to turn the wheel in kN.
A little consideration will show that for the least pull, it must be
applied normal to AO. The system of forces is shown in ​
Fig. 2.51. From the geometry of the figure, we find that

Fig. 2.51

Now taking moments about A and equating the same,

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Reaction on the block

Let R = Reaction on the block in kN.
Resolving the forces horizontally and equating the same,
R cos 30° = P sin 30°

Example 2.27
A light string ABCDE whose extremity A is fixed, has weights
W1 and W2 attached to it at B and C. It passes round a small
smooth peg at D carrying a weight of 300 N at the free end E as
shown in Fig.2.52. If in the equilibrium position, BC is horizontal
and AB and CD make 150° and 120° with BC, find (i) Tensions
in the portion AB, BC and CD of the string and (ii) Magnitudes
of W1 and W2.

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Fig. 2.52
Solution:
Given: Weight at E = 300 N
For the sake of convenience, let us split up the string ABCD into
two parts. The system of forces at joints B and C is shown in ​
Fig. 2.53

Fig. 2.53
(i) Tensions is the portion AB, BC and CD of the string
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Let TAB = Tension in the portion AB, and

TBC = Tension in the portion BC,
We know that tension in the portion CD of the string.
TCD = TDE = 300 N
Applying Lami’s equation at C,

TBC = 300 sin 30° = 300 × 0.5 = 150 N

and W2 = 300 sin 60° = 300 × 0.866 = 259.8 N
Again applying Lami’s equation at B,

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Example 2.28
Three cylinders weighting 100 N each and of 80 mm diameter are
placed in a channel of 180 mm width as shown in Fig.2.54.
Determine the reactions at all the points of contact.

Fig. 2.54
Solution:
Consider the equilibrium of the cylinder A. It is in equilibrium
under the action of
The following forces, which must pass through the centre of the
cylinder as shown in Fig.2.55.
1. Weight of the cylinder 100 N acting downwards.
2. Reaction R1 of the cylinder B on the cylinder A.
3. Reaction R2 of the cylinder C on the cylinder A.

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Now join the centres O, P and Q of the three cylinders. Bisect PQ

at S and join OS as shown in Fig. 2.55.

Fig. 2.55
From the geometry of the triangle OPS, we find that
OP = 40 + 40 = 80 mm and PS = 90 – 40 = 50 mm

Since the triangle OSQ is similar to the triangle OPS, therefore

is also equal to 38.7°. Thus the angle between R1 and R2

is 2 × 38.7° = 77.4°. And angle between R1 and OS (also between
R2 and OS) = 180° – 38.7° = 141.3°
The system of forces at O is shown in Fig. 2.56(a). Applying
Lami’s equation at O

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R2=R1
R3 = Reaction from the wall on the cylinder B
R4 =Reaction from the floor on the cylinder B

Fig. 2.56 (a)

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Fig 2.56 (b)

Now consider the equilibrium of the cylinder B. It is in

equilibrium under the action of the following forces, which must
pass through the centre of the cylinder as shown in Fig. 2.56 (a).
1. Weight of the cylinder 100 N acting downwards.
2. Reaction R2 equal to 64.0 N of the cylinder A on the ​
cylinder B.
3. Reaction R3 of the cylinder B on the vertical side of the
channel.
4. Reaction R4 of the cylinder B on the base of the channel.
The system of forces is shown in Fig. 2.56 (b). Applying Lami’s
equation at P,

R3 = 64 sin 38.7° = 64 × 0.6252 = 40 N

Example 2.29

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The 12 m boom AB weighs 1 kN, the distance of the centre of

gravity G being 6 m from A. For the position shown in Fig. 2.57.
Determine the tension T in the cable and the reaction at B.

Fig. 2.57
Solution:
The free body diagram of the boom is shown in Fig. 2.58.

Fig. 2.58
ΣMA = 0, gives T sin 15° × 12 – 2.5 × 12 cos 30° – 1 × 6 cos 30°
=0

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T = 10.0382 kN.
∑ H = 0, gives HA – T cos 15° = 0
HA = 9.6962 kN.
∑V = 0, gives
VA = 1 + 2.5 + T sin 15° = 6.0981 kN

RA = 11.4544 kN

Example 2.30
A beam 3 m long weighing 400 N is suspended in a horizontal
position by two vertical strings, each of which can withstand a
maximum tension of 350 N only. How far a body of 200 N
weight be placed on the beam, so that one of the strings may just
break?
Solution:
The system of given forces is shown in Fig. 2.59

Fig. 2.59
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We know that one of the string (say A) will just break, when the
tension will be 350 N. (i.e., *RA= 350 N). Now taking clockwise
and anticlockwise moments about B and equating the same,
350 × 3 = 200 (3 – x) + 400 × 1.5
1050 = 600 – 200 x + 600 = 1200 – 200 x
200 x = 1200 – 1050 = 150

Example 2.31
A block of weight 120N is kept on a smooth inclined plane as
shown in Fig.2.60. The plane makes an angle of 32° with
horizontal and a force F allied parallel to inclined plane. Compute
F and also normal reaction.

Fig. 2.60
Solution:
Draw FBD

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Applying Lami’s theorem to the system of forces

Example 2.32
Determine the horizontal force P to be applied to a block of
weight 1500 N to hold, it in position on a smooth inclined plane
AB which makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal Fig. 2.61.

Fig. 2.61
Solution:
Draw FBD

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Applying Lami’s theorem to the system of forces

The above problem may be solved using equations of

equilibrium also

Example 2.33

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A system of connected flexible cables shown in Fig. 2.62 is

supporting two vertical forces 200 N and 250 N at points B and
D. Determine the forces in various segments of the cable.

Fig. 2.62

Solution:
Draw FBD

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Example 2.34
Two cylinders, A of weight 4000 N and B of weight 2000 N rest
on smooth inclines as shown in Fig. 2.63 They are connected by a
bar of negligible weight hinged to each cylinder at its geometric
centre by smooth pins. Find the force P to be applied as shown in
the figure such that it will hold the system in the given position.

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Fig. 2.63
Solution:
Draw FBD

Applying Lami’s theorem to the system of forces on cylinder A,

we get

Consider cylinder B.

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Summation of the forces parallel to the inclined plane (45° to

horizontal) = 0, gives:

Example 2.35
A cable car used for carrying materials in a hydroelectric project
is at rest on a track formed at an angle of 30° with the vertical.
The gross weight of the car and its load is 60 kN and its centroid
is at a point 800 mm from the track half way between the axles.
The car is held by a cable as shown in Fig. 2.64 The axles of the
car are at a distance 1.2 m. Find the tension in the cables and
reaction at each of the axles neglecting friction of the track.

Fig. 2.64
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Solution:
Let T be the tension in the cable and the reaction at the pair of
wheels be R1 and R2 as shown in Fig. 2.64

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