Networks

Learning objectives
By the end of this topic, students will be able to
 Describe common network devices Including: network interface cards (NIC), hubs,
bridges, switches.
 Describe the operation and purpose of a router
 Explain Bluetooth and Wi-Fi and state how to connect to a network using both.
A network is the interconnection of two or more computing devices via a
telecommunication media for the purpose of sharing resources. These resources can be
files, or hardware resources like storage space, RAM or CPU.
Common network devices and terms
This section defines four important terms you will often come across these are:
 network interface card (NIC)
 media access control (MAC) address
 internet protocol (IP) address
 data packet.

Network interface card (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) allows a device to connect to a network. An NIC turns
binary data into an electrical signal that allows access to a network. The NIC is usually
integrated into the motherboard on most modern computers. Each NIC is given a unique
hard-coded media access control (MAC) address at the manufacturing stage. When
installed in a device, this uniquely identifies that device.
There are mainly two common types of NICs
 WNIC- Wireless NIC
 NIC (Wired)
Wireless network interface cards (WNICs) are the same as NICs in that they are used to
connect devices to the internet or other networks using radio waves. They use wireless
connectivity, utilizing an antenna to communicate with networks via microwaves.

Media Access Control (MAC) address

The media access control (MAC) address is a number which uniquely identifies a
device when it is connected to a network. The MAC address is made up of 48 bits which
are shown as six groups of hexadecimal digits with the general format:
The MAC address is sometimes referred to as the physical address because it uniquely
identifies a device. MAC addresses are useful when trying to identify network faults
because they never change, which makes it a more reliable method of identifying data
senders and data receivers on a network.

Internet protocol (IP) addresses

When a device connects to the internet, it is assigned an Internet Protocol Address by the
ISP via a router.
Internet protocols define the rules that must be agreed by senders and receivers of data
communicating through the internet. An IP address essentially identifies the location of a
device on a network.
Unlike the MAC address which remains constant, the IP address changes each time you
log in at different locations. There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is based on
32 bits and the address is written as four groups of eight bits (octets, as shown in
denary format); for example:

Because IPv4 is being exhausted coupled with the fact that there are so many devices
connecting to the internet in recent days, there arouse a need to have a new IP address
scheme that can address these challenges. Therefore, a newer version called IPv6 is now
being used.
This uses a 128-bit address, which take the form of eight groups of hex digits; for
example:

IPv6 has been designed to allow the internet to grow in terms of the number of hosts and
potential increase in the amount of data traffic.
Data packets
Data is moved around networks in the form of data packets. Whenever a user sends
some data, it is split up into a number of packets and each packet is transmitted
separately. Packets of data will usually have a header which contains:
 the sender’s IP address
 the receiver’s IP address
 the sequence/identity number of the packet (this is to ensure that all the
 packets can be reassembled into the correct order once they reach the
destination)
 the packet size (this is to ensure the receiving station can check if all of the
packets have arrived intact)
 how many data packets make up the whole message.
When a router (see later) receives a packet of data, it checks the destination IP address
against the stored routing table, which allows the router to determine the packet’s next
step in the path.
HUBs
These are hardware devices that can have a number of other devices connected to them.
Their purpose is to connect devices together to form a local Area Network (LAN) usually
within a single building. A hub takes a data packet received on one of its ports and
broadcast it to every device connected to it.

Compute
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Data packet Data sent out
Compute to all devices
sent to one
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of the hub HU
ports Compute the hub in the
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Because data packets are delivered to every device on the network:
 Hubs are not very secure because every device will receive every data packet
 There will be unnecessary traffic on the network, which results in reduced
bandwidth.
Switches
These are intelligent versions of hubs. They connect
a number of devices together to form a LAN.
However, unlike a hub, a switch stores the MAC
addresses of all devices on the network. These MAC
addresses are stored against the port number to
which it is attached in a table called the “Look-Up”
table. It is also called the MAC address table.
Consequently, switches are more secure than hubs
(because only the intended device is sent the data)
and do not waste bandwidth (because network
traffic is reduced).
In conclusion, hubs and switches are used to exchange data within their own local area
networks. They are unable to exchange data with outside networks (such as the
internet). To exchange data outside their own LAN, a device needs to be able to read an
IP address. Therefore, we need another device to allow communication with external
networks.
In summary:
 both a hub and a switch are used to connect devices in a LAN
 both hubs and switches use data packets
 hubs send data packets to every device on the network; whereas switches send
data packets to a specific device only
  security is lower with hubs than with switches
 a switch uses a look-up table to determine the destination device
 switches use MAC addresses to locate the destination device.
Bridges
Bridges are devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that uses the same protocol
(communication rules). They are often used to connect together different parts of a LAN
so that they can function as a single LAN.
Unlike routers, bridges cannot communicate with other external networks, such as the
internet.
Routers
Routers are used to route packets from one network to another based on addresses. They
are used to join Local Area Network to the internet.
When a router receives a data packet at one of its ports, it inspects the IP header to find
out if the packet is for its own network or another external network. If the data packet is
meant for its own network, then the data packet is sent to the local switch or hub.
Routers know where to send data packets by consulting a routing table (stored on the
router’s RAM). The routing table will contain information about the router’s immediate
network (such as computer addresses) and information about other routers in its
immediate vicinity.
Routers however, do not store the MAC addresses of devices (only IP addresses of all
computers and devices are stored). The router does not need the MAC address because
the data packet will be sent by the router to the switch on the recipient local network.
The switch can then use its look-up table to send the data packet to the correct device.
Suppose, in Figure 4.9, computer C1 wishes to send data to computer C10:
 Data packets are sent from C1 to R1.
 R1 checks the IP addresses and notes the data packets are not intended for any
devices on Network 1.
 The data packets are then forwarded onto the internet (R0).
 The IP address (in the header of the data packet) matches that of R4; this ensures
that each data packet is eventually forwarded to R4.
 R4 recognizes that the IP address of each data packet refers to Network 4, and
forwards them to S4 which then directs each data packet to C10.

Router Switch
Connect networks using IP address Connects devices together to form a
 LAN using MAC address.
Sends data packet to switches on the Sends data packet to individual
network devices
Uses routing table to locate local and Uses MAC address table to track
remote networks location of devices connected to its
ports.

Wi-Fi and Bluetooth

Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth offer wireless communication between devices. They both
use electromagnetic radiation as the carrier of data transmission.
Bluetooth sends and receives radio waves in a band of 79 different frequencies (known
as channels). These are all centred on a frequency of 2.45 GHz. Devices using Bluetooth
automatically detect and connect to each other, but they do not interfere with other
devices because each communicating pair uses a different channel (from the 79 options).
When a device wants to communicate, it picks one of the 79 channels at random to pair
with another device. If the channel is already being used, it randomly picks another
channel.
Once paired, to minimize the risks of interference with other devices, the devices
constantly change the channels they are using (several times a second). This is known as
spread-spectrum frequency hopping. Bluetooth uses key encryption to create a
secure wireless personal area network (WPAN). Bluetooth is useful:
 when transferring data between two or more devices which are very close together
(less than 30 metres distance)
 when the speed of data transmission is not critical
 for low-bandwidth applications (for example, when sending music files from a
mobile phone to a headset).
Wi-Fi sends and receives radio waves in several different frequency bands – 2.4 GHz and
5 GHz are the most common at the moment. Like Bluetooth, each band is also further
split into channels. The 5GHz band has a faster data transfer rate but a shorter signal
range.
Wi-Fi is best suited to operating full-scale networks because it offers much faster data
transfer rates, better range and better security than Bluetooth. A Wi-Fi enabled device
(such as a computer or smartphone) can access, for example, the internet wirelessly at
any access point (AP) or ‘hot spot’ up to 100 metres away.
Comparison of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity
Cloud computing (storage)
Cloud computing is a method of data storage where data is stored on remote servers –
there may be thousands of servers in many different locations. The same data is stored
on more than one server in case of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data
at any time. This is known as data redundancy.
There are three common cloud storage systems:
 Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud
storage provider are different companies.
 Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a
company firewall; customer/client and cloud storage provider are integrated and
operate as a single entity.
 Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two previous environments; some data
resides in the private cloud and less-sensitive/less-commercial data can be
accessed from a public cloud storage provider.
Advantages of cloud computing (storage)
- Customer/client files stored in the cloud can be accessed at any time, from any
device, anywhere in the world, as long as internet access is available.
- There is no need for a customer/client to carry an external storage device with
them, or even use the same computer, to store and retrieve information.
- The cloud provides the user with remote backup of data, with obvious advantages
in the event of data loss/disaster recovery on their own computer.
- If a customer/client has a failure of their hard disk or backup device, cloud storage
will allow recovery of their data.
- The cloud system offers almost unlimited storage capacity (at a price!).
- The ability to synchronize (sync) files ensures they are automatically updated
across all devices; this means that the latest version of a file saved on a desktop
computer, for example, is also available on other devices, such as a smartphone.
- Cloud storage is also ideal for collaboration purposes; it allows several users to
edit and collaborate on a single file or document – there is no need to worry about
tracking the latest version or which user made the changes
Disadvantages of cloud computing (storage)
- Security aspects of storing data in the cloud (see comments later on).
- If the customer/client has a slow or unstable internet connection, they could have
many problems accessing or downloading their data/files.
- Costs can be high if a large storage capacity or high download/upload data
transfer is required.
- The potential failure of the cloud storage company is always possible – this poses a
risk of loss of all backup data.
WORLD WIDE WEB
The World Wide Web (WWW) is only a part of the internet which users can access
using web browser software. The World Wide Web consists of a massive collection of web
pages, and has been based on the hypertext transfer protocol (http) since 1989. The
World Wide Web is a way of accessing information using the internet; so, the internet
and the World Wide Web are actually quite different.

INTRANET AND EXTRANET

An intranet is defined as ‘a computer network based on internet technology but designed
to meet the internal needs for sharing information within a single organization or
company’.
Access to an intranet is usually confined to a company or organization and, unlike the
internet, is not available to the general public.
Intranets reside behind a firewall and are only accessible:
 internally to members of the company, or
 to people given various levels of access who are external to the company.
There are a number of reasons for adopting intranets rather than using the internet:
 Intranets are safer because there is less chance of external hacking or viruses.
 It is easier to prevent external links to, for example, certain websites.
 Companies can ensure that the information available is specific to their internal
audience’s needs.
  It is easier to send out sensitive messages in the knowledge that they will remain
within the company.
 Intranets offer better bandwidth than
the internet, therefore there are fewer
connection limits than with the
internet (that is, the number of bits
per second that can be transmitted
are usually higher within an intranet).
EXTRANET
There exist situations where a need for third
parties or partners have access to
organizations network. A network that shares
a common characteristic with intranet and in
addition allows external parties to have
controlled access to organization’s network
resources is referred to as extranet. Extranet
can be said to be an extension of intranet to
parties outside of the organization. As such
extranet offers the same advantage as
intranet.
What are the differences between the internet and an intranet?
 An intranet often requires a password and user ID, and can only be accessed from
agreed points/computers; whereas the internet can be accessed by anyone from
anywhere in the world, provided the user has an ISP account.
 An intranet is behind a firewall, which gives some protection against hackers,
viruses, and so on; there is much less protection against hackers and malware
when accessing the internet.
 Information used in intranets is usually stored on local servers, which makes it
more secure from outside users for the same reasons as above.
 As discussed, the term internet comes from the phrase: INTERconnected NETwork.
 The term intranet comes from the phrase: INTernal Restricted Access NETwork.
 An intranet is used to give local information relevant to the company or
organization; whereas the internet covers everything.
 It is possible to block out certain websites using the intranet; while this is also
possible with the internet, it is more difficult.

Network types
This section will cover the following types of network:
 local area network (LAN)
 wireless local area network (WLAN)
 wide area network (WAN).
LAN
Local area networks (LANs) are usually within one building or geographically near
each other. A typical LAN will consist of a number of computers and devices (for example,
printers) which will be connected to hubs or switches.
There are advantages of networking computers together using LANs:
 they allow the sharing of resources such as hardware (e.g. printers and scanners)
and software (e.g. word processors and photo editing software)
 they permit easy communication between users of the LAN (e.g. by using simple
text messaging between computers on the network)
 they use a network administrator that ensures security and use of the LAN is
constantly monitored (e.g. the administrator can maintain passwords and also
monitor data traffic within the network).
There are also disadvantages of networking computers using LANs:
 easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network
 queues for shared resources (such as a printer) which can be frustrating
 slower access to external networks
 increased security risk when compared to stand-alone computers
 if the main server breaks down, in many types of network structures, the network
will no longer function properly.
Wireless local area network (WLAN)
Wireless LANs (WLANs) are similar to LANs, but there are no wires or cables. In other
words, they provide wireless network communications over fairly short distances using
radio or infrared signals instead of using cables.
Devices, known as access points (APs), are connected into a wired network at fixed
locations. Because of the limited range, most commercial LANs (for example, a college
campus or an airport) need several APs to permit uninterrupted wireless
communications.
Wired versus wireless
Wide area networks (WANs)
Wide area networks (WANs) are used where computers or networks are situated a long
distance from each other geographically (for example, in a different city or country). As
mentioned earlier, if a number of
LANs are joined together using a
router, then they can form a
WAN. The network of ATMs
(automated teller machines) used
by banks is one of the most
common examples of the use of a
WAN.
A typical WAN will consist of end systems and intermediate systems (Figure 4.11). In
Figure 4.11, 1, 3, 7 and 10 are known as end systems and the remainder are known as
intermediate systems. The distance between each system can be considerable,
especially if the WAN is run by a multinational company.
The following is used as a guide for deciding the ‘size’ of a network:
 WAN: 100 km to over 1000 km
 MAN: 1 km to 100 km
 LAN: 10 m to 1000 m (1 km)
Network issues and communication
This section covers some of the more general aspects of internet security, together with
how we use networks to communicate.
Passwords
Passwords are used in many instances when accessing the internet. For example:
 when accessing your email account
 when carrying out online banking
 accessing social networking sites.
It is important that passwords are protected. Some ways of doing this are described
below:
 Run anti-spyware software to make sure that your passwords are not being relayed
back to whoever put the spyware on your computer
 Change passwords on a regular basis in case it has come into the possession of
another user illegally or accidentally.
 Passwords should not be easy to crack (e.g. your favourite colour, name of a pet or
favourite rock group); passwords are grouped as either strong (hard to crack or
guess) or weak (relatively easy to crack or guess).
 Strong passwords should contain:
 at least one capital letter
 at least one numerical value
 at least one other keyboard character (such as @, *, & etc.).
An example of a strong password is: Sy12@#TT90kj=0
An example of a weak password is: GREEN1

Other authentication methods

This section will look at a number of other types of authentications:
- zero login
- biometrics
- magnetic stripes
- smart cards
- physical tokens
- electronic tokens.
Zero login and biometrics
The Fast ID online (FIDO) Alliance and WWW Consortium (W3C) announced a new
technology standard that allows users to login to computer systems without the need to
type in a password. The mishandling of personal data over the years now means we can
no longer regard data, such as passwords, as being secret or protected.
Zero login essentially relies on devices being smart and secure enough to instantly
recognize a user by a number of features based on:
 - biometrics
- behavioural patterns.
Instead of using passwords, the zero-login system builds up a complex user profile based
on the above two features. Biometrics is already used on many smartphones as a way of
logging into the phone.
Behavioural patterns include:
- how you walk,
- your typing speed,
- your normal location,
- how you swipe the screen, and so on.
These behavioural patterns, coupled with biometric data, should be enough to uniquely
identify a user, and allow them into a system without actually supplying any passwords
or other security information.

Assignment
1. Explain why switches are said to be more secure than Hub.
2. Describe how the router gets data packet from one network to another.
3. Outline three differences between a router and a switch.
4. Explain the term spread-spectrum frequency hopping.
5. List five characteristics that describes Wi-Fi and Bluetooth transmission.
6. State five differences between Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.