Radioactivity

Some properties of nuclei

• In the structural model of the nucleus, all nuclei are composed of two types of particles:
protons and neutrons. Only the ordinary hydrogen nucleus is different, since it is a single
proton with no neutrons
▪ The atomic number, Z, equals the number of protons in the nucleus
▪ The neutron number, N, equals the number of neutrons in the nucleus
▪ The mass number, A, equals the number of nucleons (neutrons plus protons) in the
nucleus
This means 𝐴 + 𝑁 = 𝑍
• Nuclei can be represented using symbols as shown below:

where X represents the chemical symbol for the element, Z represents atomic number and A
represents mass number.
Isotopes

• Isotopes are atoms of the element, which have the same atomic number but different mass
number.
• Many elements like carbon, chlorine, hydrogen, etc., have isotopes. Some isotopes do not
exist naturally but are produced in laboratories through nuclear reaction.
• Naturally, the abundances of isotopes differ substantially. For example, the abundance of
isotopes of carbon are shown in the table below.

Element Isotopes Abundance

(Carbon-11) Trace amount (Less than 0.1%)
Carbon (Carbon-12) 98.9%
(Carbon-13) 1.1%
(carbon-14) Trace amount (Less than 0.1%)

Charge and Mass

• The proton carries a single positive charge +e and the electron carries a single negative
charge -e, where e = 1.60×10-19 C.
• The neutron is electrically neutral (has zero charge).
• Mass on a nuclear scale more convenient measured in a unit called atomic mass unit, u. This
unit is defined in such a way that the atomic mass of the isotope is exactly 12 u, where 1 u =
1.660 539 × 10-27 kg.
• The mass of a proton is approximately 1 u. The mass of a neutron is also approximately 1 u.
The mass of an electron is approximately 0 u.

▪ Mass of electron = 0.000 5486

▪ Mass of neutron = 1.008 665
▪ Mass of proton = 1.007 276 u

Nuclear stability

• The nucleus experiences two types of forces: electrostatic forces (coulomb forces) and
nuclear forces.
Electrostatic forces (Coulomb forces)
• Exist between protons only (charged particles only).
• Are repulsive in nature so they tend to split the nucleus apart (a proton repels other protons)
Nuclear forces
• Are short-rage forces (are effective only when the particles are very close to each other)
• Are attractive in nature, so they ten to hold the nucleus together
• Act on all particles in the nucleus (both protons and neutrons). The nuclear force is
independent of charge. (The forces associated with the proton–proton, proton–neutron, and
neutron–neutron interactions are the same)

• The attractive nuclear forces between particles in the nucleus is more dominant than the
Coulomb repulsive force within the nucleus (at short ranges). This makes nuclei stable.
• In general, light nuclei are stable if they contain equal numbers of protons and neutrons
(if N = Z) while heavy nuclei are stable if N > Z (have more neutrons that protons). This
happens because as the number of protons increases, the strength of the Coulomb force
increases, which tends to break the nucleus apart. As a result, more neutrons are needed to
keep the nucleus stable because neutrons experience only the attractive nuclear force but do
not increase coulomb force. Thus additional neutrons add more nuclear force which
compensates the repulsive coulomb force.
• As the size of the nucleus increases, Z increases too. Eventually, when Z = 83, the repulsive
forces between protons cannot be compensated by the addition of more neutrons. Therefore,
elements that contain more than 83 protons do not have stable nuclei.
Neutron number N versus atomic number Z for the stable nuclei (blue dots). These nuclei lie in a
narrow band called the line of stability. The dashed line corresponds to the condition N = Z.
(From Serway and Jewett, Priciples of Physics, 5th Edition, pg 1021.

Radioactivity
• Is the random spontaneous disintegration of certain atomic nuclei with the emission of
different types of radiation such as alpha, beta and gamma rays
• When the mass of an atom is so large, the nucleus is unstable and the nucleus breaks up
Radioactive substance
• Is a substance that produces radiation
• Radioactive substances have unstable nuclei and emit vast amounts of energy in form of
radiation
Rate of radioactive decay
• The rate at which a decay process occurs in a radioactive sample is proportional to the
number of radioactive nuclei present in the sample
• The number of radioactive nuclei (undecayed nuclei) can be found using the following
formula

𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

where N is the number of radioactive nuclei present at any time t,

𝜆 a constant called decay constant or disintegration constant. Its value is different for
different nuclei.
𝑁0 is the number of undecayed radioactive nuclei at 𝑡 = 0.
𝑡 is taken for number of radioactive nuclei in the sample to reduce from 𝑁0 to 𝑁.
• 𝑁 decreases exponentially.
 Half-life
• It is sometimes convenient to express radioactive decay is terms of half-life, 𝑇1⁄2 .
• The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time interval required for half of a given
number of radioactive nuclei to decay.
• Thus after one half-life, 𝑡 = 𝑇1⁄2 , and the number of radioactive nuclei, 𝑁, becomes half
𝑁0
of 𝑁0 . That means 𝑁 = 2

𝑁0
Setting 𝑁 = and 𝑡 = 𝑇1⁄2 in the equation 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 we get the following
2
expression:
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0
= 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1⁄2
2

1
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1⁄2
2

2 = 𝑒 𝜆𝑇1⁄2

ln 2 = ln 𝑒 𝜆𝑇1⁄2

ln 2 0.693
∴ 𝑇1⁄2 = =
𝜆 𝜆

Types of Radiation
• Radioactive substances emit three types of radiation, alpha (𝜶), beta (𝜷) and gamma (𝜸) rays
• A radioactive element does not necessarily emit all the three types of radiations
Alpha particles (𝛼)
• An alpha particle is the nucleus of a helium atom with atomic number, 𝑍 = 2 and mass
number, 𝐴 = 4. (i.e., 42He)
• The alpha decay process can be written as

where X represents the parent nucleus and Y represents the daughter nucleus.
Uranium-238 and Radium-226, for example, decay as follows:

Note that the sum of the mass numbers are the same on both sides of the symbolic
representation and the sum of the atomic numbers are the same on both sides.
 Properties of alpha particles
• An alpha particle is heavy, with atomic number 2 and mass number 4. It is about 8000
times heavier than an electron. As these particles are moving they posses a lot of kinetic
energy.
• An alpha particle travels in straight lines in free space
• Alpha particles are deflected by both magnetic and electric fields. An alpha particle has a
net positive charge, so it is deflected towards the negative side in an electric field. In a
magnetic field it deflects according to Fleming’s left-hand rule.

Deflected of alpha particles in an electric field

• Alpha particles are relatively slow and heavy compared with other forms of nuclear
radiation. They travel at about 20,000,000 m/s and have atomic mass 4.
• Alpha particles are highly ionising because of their double positive charge, low speed and
relatively large mass. They can cause multiple ionisations within a very small distance.
• Alpha particles are unable to penetrate very far through matter because of they are highly
ionising. They are easily blocked by a few centimetres of air or less than a tenth of a
millimetre of biological tissue.

Beta radiation (𝛽)

• Beta particles are fast moving electrons (𝛽 − ) or pistrons (𝛽 + ) that are ejected from some
nuclei during a form of radioactive decay called beta-decay.
• Beta-decay normally occurs in nuclei that have too many neutrons to achieve stability.
• The beta decay process can be written as

• Both the nucleon number and total charge are conserved during beta decay
Properties of beta particles
• Beta particles are very light so they are ejected with high speeds, usually close to the speed of
light.
• Due to their light mass, beta particles lose energy quickly through interaction with matter and
they do not have a well-defined path as they move through air or other materials.
• Beta particles are much less ionising than alpha particles and generally do less damage for a
given amount of energy deposition.
• Beta particles have more penetrative power than alpha particles. They typically have ranges
of a few metres in air and a few millimetres in materials.
• Beta-minus (𝛽 − ) decay occurs when the ratio of neutrons to protons in the nucleus is too
high. An excess neutron transforms into a proton and an electron. The proton stays in the
nucleus and the electron is ejected energetically.

• For beta-plus (𝛽 + ) decay, a proton transforms into a neutron and a positron.

• Beta particles are deflected by both magnetic and electric fields. A beta particle has a
negative charge, so it is deflected towards the positive side in an electric field. In a magnetic
field it deflects according to Fleming’s left-hand rule.
NOTE: The expressions for beta decay given above are incomplete because they do not include a
third particle called the neutrino.

Deflection of 𝛽 − particles (electrons) in an electric field

Gamma rays (𝜸)

• Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves. They are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They
have high frequencies and short wavelengths
• They have no mass
• They do not carry any charge
• They move at the speed of light in a vacuum
Properties of Gamma rays
• They have low ionization power
• They have the highest penetrating power. They are able to pass through many kinds of
materials, including human tissue. Gamma rays can be slowed or stopped by very dense
materials, such as lead. Such dense materials are commonly used as shielding to slow or stop
gamma rays.
• They have a range of about a few hundred metres in air
• They are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.

Deflection of 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 particles in a magnetic field

Penetrative power of 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 and neutron rays

Uses of radiation
• Used in preservation of foodstuffs by exposing the to radiation kills bacteria and viruses, or
prevents them from reproducing
• The beta decay of carbon-14 is commonly used to date organic samples (carbon dating)
In Medicine
• Used in medicine in the treatment of cancer and tumors.
NOTE: The use of radiation to kill cancerous cells is called radiotherapy
• To locate internal breeding
• To detect blocked kidneys
• To investigate the functioning of the thyroid glad
• Used to sterilize medical equipment like syringes

In biology and agriculture

• To study uptake of fertiliser by plants
• To sterilize insects and eliminate pest in order to reduce insect population
• Irradiating grains (wheat and maize) helps to keep for a long time in storage without damage
In industry
• Is used to measure thickness of materials. (i.e. radiation is sent through the material and if
fails to pass through this will give some thickness)
• Used to measure fluid flow in pipes
• Examining wear in machinery
• For food preservation. (Ionisation effect of radiation is used to kill bacteria in food, thereby
preserving it)
In archaeology
• Used for radioactive dating (e.g. carbon-14 dating in which the half-life of carbon-14 is used
to determine the age of dead organisms)
Tracers
• A tracer is a radioactive isotope that is used to follow the path taken by a compound through
a system. For example, a tracer can be introduced in a water pipe to trace the path of the
water
Uses of tracers
• To detect leakages in pipes
• To allocate internal bleeding
• To study uptake of fertilizer by plants
• To detect blocked kidneys

Hazards of Radiation
Radiation is hazardous because it ionizes the medium it passes through. It causes the following
hazards when absorbed by the body
• Destroys body cells and produces cancerous cells
• Causes blood defects
• Causes skin burns

References
1. Serway and Jewett, Principles of Physics, 4th Edition, 2006
2. Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA), July 2022,
https://www.arpansa.gov.au/understanding-radiation