Force and Motion

Definitions, Equations and Laws

 Displacement
• Definition: Distance moved in a specific direction
• Symbol: s or x
• SI unit: metre (m)
• Vector quantity
 Positive direction

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 Speed Velocity
• Distance moved per unit time • Distance moved per unit time in a
specific direction
• Symbol: u, v
• Symbol: u, v
• SI unit: m s -1

• SI unit: m s-1
• Scalar quantity
• Vector quantity
 Acceleration
• Definition: Rate of change of velocity with time
• Symbol: a
• SI unit: m s-2
• Vector or scalar? Vector quantity
• Equation: a= v–u
t
 Average Speed
Average speed = Total distance moved
Total time taken

• This equation may be used when speed is not constant and also when
acceleration is not constant. The average speed indicates the constant speed
that the body would need to move at in order to travel the given distance in
the given time.
 Average Speed
• If acceleration is constant, average speed (or average velocity) may be
calculated using:
• Average Speed = u + v
2
where u = initial speed (or initial velocity)
v = final speed (or final velocity)
 Displacement-Time Graph
• - shows how displacement varies over a period of time.
• Gradient of displacement–time graph is equal to velocity.
 Velocity-Time Graphs
• - shows how velocity varies over a period of time.
• The gradient of velocity–time graph is equal to acceleration.
• The area under a velocity–time graph is equal to displacement.
 Other Equations of Motion
•
 Vertical Motion Under Gravity

• Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2 (approx. 10 m/s2)

• If an object is moving vertically under the influence of gravity only,

its acceleration is +g while it is moving downwards and
–g when it is moving upwards, against the pull of gravity.

• For an object that is thrown upwards, the velocity is zero when the object is at its maximum
height.
 Aristotle’s Theory
• The Arguments:
• Forces are needed to keep things moving because they stop when the force is taken
away.
• The speed of an object depends on the size of the force.

• Aristotle’s “Law of Motion”: The speed of an object is directly

proportional to the force applied to it..
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• Aristotle’s Law of Motion is no longer accepted as valid. It could not
adequately explain certain observations, such as the motion of planets and
falling bodies.
• (Aristotle preceded Galileo and Newton, so the concept of gravity had not
yet been established).
 Newton’s First Law of motion
• A body remains at rest, or continues to move with uniform velocity,
unless acted on by an external resultant force.

• This law is also called the Law of Inertia

• Inertia is the tendency of a body to resist a change in its velocity.
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
• The acceleration of a body is proportional to, and in the same direction
as, the resultant force acting on it.
• F = ma where F = resultant force (in N)
m = mass (in kg)
a = acceleration (in m/s2)
• Force may be defined as that which causes or tends to cause a body to accelerate.
• The unit of force, the newton, is defined as follows:
One newton is the amount of force which causes a body of mass 1 kg to
accelerate at 1 m/s2.
 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

• If a body A exerts a force on a body B, B exerts an equal but

opposite force on A.
• (For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction)
 Momentum

• Product of a body’s mass and its velocity

• Equation: p = mv
• SI unit: kg m s-1
• Momentum is a vector quantity.
 Law of Conservation of Momentum

• When two or more objects interact (as in a collision or separation),

their total momentum remains constant, providing no external force
acts on them.
 … Conservation of Momentum…

• i.e. Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

• Note: To find the total momentum before or after a collision, calculate the
momentum of each individual object involved and then add them up.
 … Conservation of Momentum…
• So, for two objects (1 and 2) involved in a collision,
m1 u1 + m 2 u2 = m 1 v1 + m 2 v2

where m = mass
u = initial velocity
v = final velocity
 Force and Momentum
• Since F = ma and a = (v-u)/t,
we may write the equation for force as F = m (v-u)/t
which gives us F = (mv – mu)/t
But mu = initial momentum and mv = final momentum,
so Force = change in momentum per unit time.
 Work
• Work is defined as the product of a force and the distance moved (by the
point of application of the force) in the direction of the force.
W=Fs
where W = work
F = force
s = displacement
The S.I. unit of work is joule (J). 1J = 1Nm
 Energy
• Energy is the ability to do work.
• The S.I. unit of energy is joule (J).

• Forms of energy include: Potential, kinetic, heat, light, sound, electrical,

nuclear.
• Sources of energy may be renewable (e.g. sun/solar, water/hydro, wind)
or they may be non-renewable (e.g. fossil fuels)
 Law of Conservation of Energy
• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be converted
from one form to another.

• Note that when we say energy is ‘wasted’ it means that the energy has been converted to a
form that is not useful. For example the heat that you get from a lamp which is designed
to convert electrical energy to light.
 Potential Energy
• Potential Energy is the energy that a body has due to its position or
state.
• There are different types of potential energy, such as gravitational potential
energy, elastic potential energy, electrical potential energy, and chemical
energy.
 Gravitational Potential Energy
• Gravitational potential energy is the energy that a body has due to its
position (height) in a gravitational field.
EP = m g h
where EP = gravitational potential energy
m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height
 Kinetic Energy
• Kinetic energy is the energy that a body has by virtue of its motion.
EK = ½ m v 2
where EK = kinetic energy
m = mass
v = velocity (or speed)
 Power
• Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is converted.
P = E/t or P = W/t

• The S.I. unit of power is watt (W).

• One watt is the rate of doing work or converting energy at 1 J s-1.
 Efficiency
- Ratio of output to input (work, energy or power)
i.e. Efficiency = Work or Energy Output or Efficiency = Power Output
Work or Energy Input Power Input

Efficiency may be expressed as a decimal fraction or a percentage. Maximum

efficiency is 1 or 100%.