FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

1st Semester 2024/2025 Academic Session
Course Code: GST 211
Course Tittle: Logic, Philosophy and Human Existence
Course Status: Compulsory (2unit)
Course Duration: 2 hours per week
Lecturer and Author: Oguchukwu Temple O.
Week One
Topic: Meaning and Branches of Philosophy; Epistemology and Ontology
Philosophical Periods

Lecture Note
Meaning of Philosophy
Etymologically, Philosophy comes from the Greek words "philos" (love) and
"sophia" (wisdom). It's the systematic study of fundamental questions about
existence, knowledge, values, reason, and reality.
There are various definitions of philosophy given by various philosophers. All
these definitions may seems true but none of them is universally or generally
acceptable. Professor Joseph Omoregbe, for instance, defines philosophy as a
conscious reflection on cosmic issues and matters. Also, professor Sophie Oluwole
see philosophy as a critical appraisal of received ideas. Below are various
definitions given by Momoh;
• Philosophy is the search for a comprehensive view of nature, an attempt at a
universal explanation of things.
• The business of philosophy is to analyse the concept of science.
• The task of philosophy is to change the world.
• Philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom and the formulation in words.
• Philosophy interprets the knowledge of life.
• Philosophy is the search for the reality.
• Philosophy is the search for the truth.
• Philosophy is the search for the goal of human existence.
• Philosophy is the critical discussion of critical discussion.
• Philosophy is the direct personal intuition of general conclusions.
• Philosophy is the art of life.
 • Philosophy is the scientific knowledge of man.
• Philosophy is the theory of culture.
• Philosophy is the theory of being.
WE ASK QUESTIONS IN PHILOSOPHY
Every day we wake up from sleep, we look at our surroundings, we look at the
Wonders of nature and we ponder. We ponder over the wonders usually displayed
by nature and we start to think and ask questions; multitude of questions such as:
why does the sun rise from the east and set in the west? Why am I living on earth?
Who created me and for what purpose? Why is our educational system bad? What
can we do to improve the quality of man? Is there life after death? Some of these
questions have answers while some are begging for answers and perhaps many can
never be answered during our short stay here on earth. But man will continue to
ponder; continue to ask questions and continue to search for answers and solutions
to the questions of wonders that surround man.
Thus, every discipline has a philosophy. Consequently, there is philosophy of
science, philosophy of law, philosophy of medicine, philosophy of religion, and
philosophy of language and of course philosophy of education. You have
philosophy of life, philosophy of football, philosophy of music and indeed
philosophy of anything one can think of. The question that readily comes to mind
is: why is it that we have philosophy of virtually everything? The attempt to
answer this question leads us to the examination of the subject of philosophy itself.
We resort to philosophy when things are wrong. A glance at life generally reveals
that things do necessarily not go on smoothly as planned or anticipated. We are
perplexed, worried, disappointed or fascinated. When we find ourselves in any of
the states above, we resort to philosophizing in searching for stability of the mind,
because none of the situations can be said to point to a state of equilibrium.
Etymologically, philosophy derives its meaning from two Greek words “philo”-
meaning Love and “Sophia”- meaning wisdom. Philosophy is then described as the
love of wisdom. A philosopher is therefore, a lover of wisdom. The nature of
philosophy thus, consists on the contemplation of nature and love of wisdom.
Wisdom itself means, “the ability to make sensible decisions and give good
judgement because of the experience and knowledge that somebody has”. To have
wisdom therefore means, the individual must make deliberate effort at acquiring
knowledge. Knowledge acquisition through critical thinking and analysis of issues
before making concrete judgment; the individual must cultivate a very high degree
of questioning ability, a propensity for a high level of speculation and fantasies.
The literal meaning of philosophy therefore is “the love for a high degree of
knowledge”. From the point of view of the early Greek philosophers, philosophy,
wisdom or excellence meant the totality of knowledge, that is, knowledge in all the
sciences as well as all the social sciences as we know them today i.e. physics,
chemistry, biology, geography, sociology, economics, religion, etc. all disciplines
were seen and understood from philosophical perspective and hence philosophy
was referred to as the mother of all disciplines. Essentially, philosophy is pure
reasoning. No trail answers and no found truths. Unlike other subjects like history,
geography, chemistry etc., philosophy has no clear contents. It is a skill on critical
reasoning.
Philosophy has been defined by different authorities in different ways starting from
ancient Greece. Some of the definitions are worth stating as below:
(i) A way of simplifying complex ideas and statements about our experiences in
life in order to make sense out of (make us understand) them.
(ii) A rational attempt in finding solutions to fundamental problems of man.
(iii) A constant and endless quest by man in trying to find out many riddles of the
universe so that he can find out a meaningful framework for the expression of all
thoughts, actions and observable phenomena.
(iv) What an individual accepts as his guiding principles, which prompt him to act,
in different ways at different times, places and circumstances.
(v) A rational investigation, which examines nature and the reasons behind events
happening in the world.
It is therefore, our submission that philosophy as the love of wisdom is essential to
man and society. Wisdom is needed in all sphere of life. Wisdom is needed in
politics for instance, as Plato, reiterated. Thus, to acquire wisdom is to have a
background knowledge in philosophy. A philosopher is one who seek knowledge
further and further. He will continue to seek knowledge because there is no
limitation to human knowledge. He loves to learn because he is a wise man. He is a
lover of wisdom.
Philosophy therefore, has had a most profound history beginning with ancient
Pythagoras who first called himself a philosopher. Pythagoras used the analogy
of festal games and life. At the Olympic which is just like, there were three
categories of people: three because of their motive
• The competitors who go after glory, fame, laurel, and recognition
• The vendors of commodities who go to ply their wares and make pecuniary
gains and
• The spectators, who spurn both fame, laurel, and monetary profit for the
competition of nature.
The last group are the lovers of wisdom. They are the philosophers. To the early
Greek philosophers, philosophy is the greatest science contemplating the nature of
reality in its entirety. They made no distinction between various areas of
intellectual enterprise. The science, the social science and the humanities wer all
under the broad mbit of philosophy. Branches of Philosophy

Branches of Philosophy

1. Metaphysics: Studies reality, existence, and being.

2. Epistemology: Examines knowledge, its nature, sources, and limits.
3. Ethics: Investigates moral values, principles, and obligations.
 4. Logic: Develops methods for evaluating arguments and reasoning.
5. Aesthetics: Explores beauty, taste, and artistic experience.
6. Political Philosophy: Analyzes governance, justice, and social structures.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY.
The traditional branches of Philosophy include:-
• Metaphysics: This branch of Philosophy is concerned with the inquiries into
the nature of existence, ultimate reality, word, and human soul. metaphysics
is define as the theory of being or reality. It is the study of reality. This
branch of knowledge is concerned with seeking to understand the nature of
things that is whether and what universal characteristics exist, and the kinds
of things that exist. For instance a metaphysician may be interested in
knowing if self exist or change actually exist. Metaphysic is a central
element in western philosophy from the Greeks onwards. It has meant many
different things. It can be an attempt to characterized existence or reality as a
whole. Metaphysics studies precisely in its aspect as being. It studies the
essence of being. It ask such fundamental questions such as: what is the
ground of being? Why is there something instead of nothing? Why does
anything exist? What are the essence of things? What is the sources of being
of all beings?
Ontology
Ontology examines the nature of existence and reality. Key questions:
1. What exists?
2. What is the nature of reality?
3. How do entities relate?
Sub-branches:
1. Materialism (physical reality)
2. Idealism (mind or spirit)
3. Dualism (mind and matter)
4. Monism (single substance)
2. Epistemology: This area of Philosophy focuses on the means of acquiring
knowledge. It is concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge, belief and
opinion, the meaning of truth and falsity. Epistemology as branch of philosophy
which deals with the theory of knowledge Epistemology pays particular attention
to the origin, structure, methods and integrity of knowledge. The Epistemologist is
interested in what can be known and how certain is anything that is known .This
school of thought have two variants Rationalism and Empiricism. This school of
thought holds that all knowledge, truths, opinions are founded on reason. That is,
reason is the only source of knowledge and without reason; we cannot have
adequate knowledge about the universe .Empiricism holds that knowledge can be
acquire through experience and not reason. The central issues in epistemology are
nature and derivation and derivation of knowledge, and the reliability of claims to
knowledge. Epistemology asks questions as how valid and reliable is human
knowledge? What can we know and what are the limits of human knowledge? Is
knowledge entirely relative or can it really be objective? Is it possible to have
absolute true and certain knowledge? Can man know anything for certain?
Epistemology
Epistemology explores the nature, scope, and validity of knowledge. Key
questions:
1. What is knowledge?
2. How is knowledge acquired?
3. What are the limits of knowledge?
Sub-branches:
1. Empiricism (sense experience)
2. Rationalism (reason)
3. Constructivism (social construct)
4. Skepticism (doubt)
Sources of Knowing/knowledge
(a) Reason, (b) Sense experience (c) Authority (d) Intuition (e) Revelation/faith
and (f) Mystical experience.
Reason
Rationalism in the theory which believes that human beings can acquire knowledge
of reality by the use of our minds alone, by thinking or pure reason. To any
rationalist, reason is a necessary ingredient for all our knowledge claims. This is
one of the reasons why Aristotle defines man as “a rational animal”. Thus, the
ability to think is what is called reason. Any serious rationalist agrees that we
cannot acquire knowledge through sense experience without the powers of reason.
For them, it is true that our perceptual experience provides the raw material for
judgments, but without reason, we cannot make judgments at all. For instance, to
reason that the object in front of you is a blackboard you must first of all recognize
it as a blackboard based on certain perceptual characteristics such as colour, smell,
taste, size, shape as they recur in your experience. Then, by way of abstraction, you
are able to recognize a blackboard when there is a combination of these
characteristics. To the rationalist therefore “… reason is the prima-matrix of human
knowledge and with it alone the certainty of human knowledge is guaranteed”
(Ayer, 1956:54).

Sense Experience
Sense experience is another source of knowledge. Empiricists are the proponents
of sense experience theory. To any empiricist, as far as knowledge is concerned,
only sense experience matters. In other words, empiricism is the philosophical
theory which denies reason while insisting that experience is always the necessary
ingredient in our knowledge claims of the natural world.
Authority
Authority is also considered as one of the sources of knowledge. Authority as
source of knowledge occurs when we make certain claims to knowledge based on
the authority of someone who is a specialist in the particular field of knowledge.
“Magister dixit” i.e. the ‘Master said”. For instance, I know it is true because Dr.
Ngamen Kouassi said so. Here, Dr. Ngamen Kouassi becomes an authority on the
subject. But you should always remember that even as a source of knowledge, 40
authority is a relative term. A man may be an authority in a certain field of
knowledge like Dr. Ngamen Kouassi, in philosophy but not in psychology even if
he claims some knowledge of it. It is fallacious reasoning to ascribe authority to
someone who is not a specialist in a particular field of knowledge.
Intuition
Another source of knowledge is intuition; Balm defines intuition as the
“immediacy of apprehension” (1995:5). According to him:… Intuition is the name
we give to the way awareness apprehends when awareness apprehends appearance
directly. No intuiting exists apart from awareness, no awareness exists without
intuiting (1995:5). That is why you sometimes hear people say: “I have a sense of
intuition”. “I know by intuition that Dr. Ngamen Kouassi will be here soon.
Revelation and Faith
These are also considered as sources of knowledge. It is common to hear people:
“it was revealed to me in a dream” or “it was revealed to me by God and I have
faith in it”. “My faith guides me in this matter and I know that it is certainly true

3. Logic: Logic is the theory of valid (correct) or invalid (incorrect) arguments or

reasoning. This is concerned with to the study of the principles of correct
reasoning. It is the study of reasoning and argumentation. According to Copi and
Cohen (1998) logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish
correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning. It is concerned with the study of
reasoning as the tool of knowledge. A study of logic can help in spotting fallacies,
inconsistencies or incoherencies in ordinary natural languages. Logic is not just a
branch of philosophy but a tool of philosophy.
4. Ethics: This is the study of moral value, right and wrong. It is the branch of
knowledge that is concerned with inquiries into the nature of oughtness or
obligation, duty, rights and wrongs, justice and grace, punishment and reward,
origin and future of values. Some ethnical issues which are of interest to this
branch of philosophy include abortion, sexual morality, homosexuality, lesbianism,
LGBTQ+, suicide, HIV/AIDS, Addictions, death personality, pornography and
Euthanasia (Mercy killing). Ethics is the theory of morality. It is the branch of
philosophy which deals with the morality of human conduct. Another name for
ethics is moral philosophy. Ethics as questions such as, why must I live a moral
life? Why must I live peacefully with other members of the society?
Back to EUTHANASIA
Definition: Euthanasia, often referred to as "mercy killing," is the intentional act of
ending a person's life to relieve them of suffering, pain, or distress, typically in
cases of terminal illness or irreversible coma.
Types:
1. Voluntary Euthanasia: With the patient's consent.
2. Non-Voluntary Euthanasia: Without the patient's consent, often due to inability
to communicate.
3. Involuntary Euthanasia: Against the patient's will.
4. Passive Euthanasia: Withholding treatment or care, allowing natural death.
5. Active Euthanasia: Directly causing death, often through lethal medication.
Arguments For:
1. Autonomy: Respecting patients' right to choose their own death.
2. Compassion: Relieving unbearable suffering.
3. Dignity: Preserving patients' dignity in the face of terminal illness.
Arguments Against:
1. Sanctity of Life: Valuing human life, regardless of circumstances.
2. Potential Abuse: Vulnerable individuals may be coerced or pressured.
3. Palliative Care: Effective pain management and care can alleviate suffering.
Laws and Regulations:
1. Netherlands: Legalized voluntary euthanasia since 2002.
2. Belgium: Allows euthanasia for minors and those with mental health conditions.
3. Switzerland: Permits assisted suicide.
4. Oregon (USA): Death with Dignity Act allows physician-assisted suicide.
5. Many countries prohibit euthanasia, considering it murder or manslaughter.
Ethical Considerations:
1. Doctor-Patient Relationship: Balancing compassion with professional
obligations.
2. Informed Consent: Ensuring patients understand implications.
3. Slippery Slope: Concerns about expanding euthanasia criteria.
Notable Cases:
1. Terri Schiavo (USA): Controversial case highlighting end-of-life debates.
2. Tony Nicklinson (UK): Campaigner for assisted dying.
3. Brittany Maynard (USA): Advocate for death with dignity.
Resources:
1. World Health Organization (WHO) - Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide
2. National Institute of Health (NIH) - End-of-Life Care
3. The Hastings Center - Bioethics and Euthanasia
The central theme of ethics is morality. It deals with moral and non-moral issues.
As a working definition, Ethics can be defined as a branch of philosophy that
critically studies the phenomenon of morality.
Types of morality
• Critical and non-critical morality
• Conventional and non-conventional morality
• Reflective and non-reflective morality
Questions associated with moral philosophy
What is the :
• Origin of morality?
• Nature of morality?
• Justification/condemnation for/of morality?
• Moral skepticism? (argument for or against morality)
You should also know that ethics is divided into descriptive, prescriptive or
normative, and meta-ethics. Descriptive Ethics
• Prescriptive or Normative – in this method, there is moral evaluation
and judgement of actions. Actions are graded as morally good, bad,
praise worthy, blame worthy or punishable. In this approach, moral
principles are used in justifying a moral stand such that when moral
principles are evaluated, it could be declared morally praise worthy or
blame worthy.
• Analytical or meta ethics - in this approach, primary focus is not on
moral evaluation but rather on moral sentences. Judgements and speeches
are critically analyzed for the purpose of seeing whether they are
meaningful or meaningless. In this regard, the foundation of morality is
critically examined.
Theories of Morality
• Teleological (Consequentialist) ethical theory
• Deontological (Non-consequentialist) ethical theory
Teleological (Consequentialist) ethical theory – states that the result of an action
determines whether it is morally right or bad. A consequentialist judges an action
based on its consequence, and not just the action itself.
Teleological (Consequentialist) Ethical Theory
Focus: Outcome or consequences of actions
Principle: An action is right if it leads to the best possible outcome
Key Features:
1. Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill): Maximize overall happiness
or well-being
2. Egoism: Maximize individual happiness or self-interest
3. Altruism: Prioritize others' happiness or well-being
Theorists:
1. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
2. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
3. Peter Singer (1946-present)
Deontological (Non-consequentialist) ethical theory
Deontological (Non-consequentialist) Ethical Theory
Focus: Moral rules, duties, and obligations
Principle: An action is right if it aligns with moral rules, regardless of
consequences
Key Features:
1. Kantianism (Immanuel Kant): Follow moral laws and respect human dignity
2. Contractarianism: Social contracts and moral rules
3. Virtue Ethics: Emphasize character traits and moral virtues
Theorists:
1. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
2. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
3. John Rawls (1921-2002)
Comparison:
| | Teleological | Deontological |
| Focus | Outcome | Moral Rules |
| Principle | Maximize happiness | Follow moral laws |
| Key Feature | Utilitarianism | Kantianism |
| Emphasis | Consequences | Duties and Obligations |
Strengths and Weaknesses:
Teleological:
Strengths:
- Encourages maximizing overall well-being
- Flexible and adaptable
Weaknesses:
- Difficult to predict consequences
- May lead to moral compromises
Deontological:
Strengths:
- Provides clear moral guidelines
- Respects human dignity and rights
Weaknesses:
- May lead to rigid moral absolutism
- Ignores consequences and context
Applications:
Teleological:
- Economics: Cost-benefit analysis
- Politics: Utilitarian policies
- Medicine: Prioritizing patient outcomes
Deontological:
- Law: Respecting human rights and dignity
- Business: Ethical codes and compliance
- Personal relationships: Respecting moral obligations
Criticisms and Debates:
- Is-ought problem (David Hume)
- Moral absolutism vs. relativism
- Conflict between individual rights and collective well-being

5. Aesthetics: Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of

beauty, taste, and art. It examines the ways in which we experience and appreciate
beauty, and the relationship between the beautiful, the good, and the true.
This is the branch of knowledge that is concerned with inquiry into feeling,
judgments or standards of beautify and related concepts. It is the study of art and
beauty. Aesthetics attempt to address issues such as what is art? Relationship
between beauty and art.
Key Questions in Aesthetics:
1. What is beauty?
2. How do we experience beauty?
3. What is the relationship between beauty and truth?
4. What is the nature of artistic expression?
5. How do cultural and historical contexts influence aesthetic judgments?
Subfields of Aesthetics:
1. Philosophy of Art: Examines the nature of art, its relationship to reality, and its
role in human experience.
2. Philosophy of Beauty: Investigates the concept of beauty, its forms, and its
significance.
3. Taste and Criticism: Explores the nature of aesthetic judgment and the criteria
for evaluating art.
4. Aesthetic Experience: Analyzes the subjective experience of beauty and its
relationship to emotions, cognition, and perception.
Major Theories and Movements:
1. Platonic Aesthetics: Emphasizes the eternal and unchanging nature of beauty.
2. Kantian Aesthetics: Focuses on the subjective experience of beauty and the role
of imagination.
3. Romanticism: Emphasizes the importance of emotion, imagination, and
individual expression.
4. Modernism: Challenges traditional notions of beauty and art.
5. Postmodernism: Questions the idea of objective beauty and emphasizes diversity
and pluralism.
Key Thinkers:
1. Plato (c. 428-348 BCE)
2. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
3. Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805)
;4. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
5. John Dewey (1859-1952)
6. Theodor Adorno (1903-1969)
7. Roland Barthes (1915-1980)
Influential Works:
1. Plato's "Symposium"
2. Kant's "Critique of Judgment"
3. Schiller's "On the Aesthetic Education of Man"
4. Nietzsche's "The Birth of Tragedy"
5. Dewey's "Art as Experience"
Contemporary Debates:
1. The nature of aesthetic experience
2. The role of emotion in aesthetic judgment
3. The relationship between art and morality
4. The impact of technology on aesthetic experience
5. The diversity of aesthetic tastes and cultural perspectives
6. Social and Political Philosophy: This aspect of Philosophy attempt to deal with
the conceptual problems involved in the explanation of social institutions such as
law, states, political obligation as well as issues like socio- moral values, justice,
equity, freedom. It ask such questions as, does the state exist for its own sake or to
protect the interest of the citizens (Alabi, 2011).

PHILOSOSOPHY OF INFRASTRUCTURE OF DISCIPLINE

• This deals with the fundamental question that arises in other fields of human
endeavors. It investigates and make enquiries into the basic assumptions of any
disciplines. Originally all the discipline were taught as sub-topics under
philosophy. But due to the necessity for division of factor, all the disciplines broke
away. Philosophy is regarded as the mother of all disciplines. It is the apex, the
base and the foundation of any disciplines. It is important for any discipline to
understand its philosophy for clarity of purpose. This is why in philosophy there is
the philosophy of all disciplines
• Accordingly, there is philosophy of law, philosophy of education, philosophy
of mass communication, philosophy of history, philosophy of religion
philosophy of social science and so on.
Philosophical Periods
• Pre-Socratic Philosophers
• Ancient Philosophy (6th century BCE - 6th century CE) - Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle
• Medieval Philosophy (6th - 15th century) - Augustine, Aquinas
• Modern Philosophy (16th - 19th century) - Descartes, Kant, Hegel
• Contemporary Philosophy (20th century onwards)-Analytic Philosophy,
Continental Philosophy
Some notable philosophers and their contributions:
1. Socrates - Ethics
2. Plato - Metaphysics, Epistemology
3. Aristotle - Logic, Ethics, Politics
4. René Descartes - Rationalism
5. Immanuel Kant - Ethics, Metaphysics
 6. Friedrich Nietzsche - Existentialism
7. Martin Heidegger - Existential Phenomenology

The Pre-Socratic Period

The Presocratic philosophers were men who lived in and around Greece during the
fifth and sixth centuries B.C.E. They were the founders of Western philosophy, a
new way of thinking about the world that arose out of the backdrop of
mythological thought. In the mythological manner of understanding the world, the
behavior of everything in nature was understood as having the personal choice of
some god behind it, and was thus seen to be as unpredictable as the behavior of
human persons. There was no distinction between nature and persons, in fact,
because what we now call nature was then seen to be just different sorts of persons
or personal forces.
The Presocratics invented the idea of nature as a natural place, as a collection of
objects. These objects operated according to a predictable pattern that could be
discovered by human investigation. In this way they set the stage for an
understanding of the world that is one of the central defining features of Western
culture. We now call this way of understanding science; th en it was called
philosophy.
Thales
Perhaps the most important of the Presocratic philosophers, the man who was the
transitional figure between the mythological and the philosophical approaches to
nature, was Thales of Miletus (624-546 B.C.E). As the earliest Presocratic
philosopher, he is usually credited with being the first philosopher in the West.
Thales’ solution to the problem of the nature of reality will sound strange to your
ears, but a closer inspection leaves it actually quite revealing. He said that
everything is water.
Such an answer certainly seems strange to be sure, but so do many of the attempts
of philosophers to take us beyond the obvious. Thales was a brilliant man so his
answer should not be dismissed outright. With a closer look it is clear that there
was some sense to his claim. Physical things take the form of either a solid, or a
liquid, or a gas. Since water can assume all of these forms it is not impossible that
everything is a form of water. Water is also essential for life. In fact, it appears to
be the most abundant thing in existence, especially if you live on the shores of the
Mediterranean Sea, as Thales did, and believe that the Earth itself floated on a
giant body of water.
But this is not the important lesson to be learned from Thales. Of course he was
wrong, from the perspective of what we know about the world today, to say that
everything is water. What is important to learn from Thales’ statement has less to
do with what it claims, and more to do with the kinds of questions Thales must
have asked himself in order to come up with his claim that everything is water.
Unfortunately, very little of what the Presocratics wrote has survived the ravages of
wars and time, and what has survived has done so only as fragments of their
original writings. Some of these fragments were preserved in the writings of later
philosophers, who wrote commentaries on their work. So we must guess what was
on his mind, but I think that we can make some good guesses at this point in time.
If “everything is water” was his answer to a question, then the question must have
been something like this: What is the one, fundamental thing of which all other
things are composed? This tells us several things about what he must have
believed.
First, Thales must have been thinking of reality as composed of only one thing,
with all the many different sorts of things that we experience being nothing but
various forms of this one thing. The task of metaphysics is to identify this One and
to equate it with reality. Second, since what we perceive through the senses is not
one thing, but many different sorts of things, Thales must have thought about
another way of knowing the world besides observing it. He must have had in mind
some idea that reality could be known by reasoning about it, by approaching it
through intellectual knowledge, a way of knowing that was very different from
sense knowledge. Unfortunately, we do not know if Thales had a clear formulation
of this distinction or not, but it is implied by his saying “everything is water”, since
everything cannot be observed to be water.
Third, Thales must have had at least implicitly in mind the distinction between
appearances and reality. The common sense world, known through the senses,
appears to be very different from the real world, known through the mind. After all,
it cannot be observed that everything is water. Everything but water appears to be
something else besides water. Rocks do not appear to be a form of water. If they
are, as Thales claims that they are, then he must have assumed that what is real is
different from what appears to my senses to be real. In the simple statement,
“Everything is water”, we see that a new way of thinking about the world has
emerged, one whose basic concepts are those of the one and the many, sense
knowledge and intellectual knowledge, and appearances and reality. In a word, this
is metaphysical thinking.
This new way of thinking was guided by one main question: What is the one
fundamental reality that underlies the many different things we observe? This
question was not to be answered by gathering information, by observing the world
and how it worked. Rather, it was to be answered by reason, by thinking about how
the world must really be. Reason is the only way of knowing that takes us beyond
appearances to reality itself. After Thales introduced this philosophical way of
thinking about the world, a way that replaced mythological thinking, the search for
the true nature of reality in the West was underway in earnest.
Anaximander and Anaximenes
Two contemporaries of Thales, both from the town of Miletus, were
Anaximander and Anaximenes. Here is how Anaximander, a student of Thales,
describes his idea of the one basic reality:
“The Unlimited is the first principle of things that are. It is that from which the
coming-to-be [of things and qualities] takes place, and it is that into which they
return when they perish, by moral necessity, giving satisfaction to one another and
making reparation for their injustice, according to the order of time.”1 My first
reaction to a passage such as this is to mutter something like “What the heck does
that mean?” to myself. As with Thales and most of the other Presocratics, very
little of what Anaximander wrote survived, and so an understanding of his thought
has to depend on what other Ancient philosophers, such as Aristotle, wrote about
him.
There are two basic ideas of Anaximander that are especially important for us. One
is mentioned in the above citation, his identification of the basic stuff of reality
with the “Unlimited”. The Unlimited may mean something like we mean when we
call God “infinite”, and mean by this that God is outside of time and space. But it
is not clear that ‘unlimited’ means infinite for Anaximander, since he does say in
the above passage that things come from and return to the unlimited “according to
the order of time”. One thing seems clear, the Unlimited is not itself a particular
kind of thing, such as water. Any particular kind of thing is limited to being a thing
of that kind. The Unlimited, however, being of no particular kind, has no limits of
this sort. Because of this all things may come from (their origin) and return to
(their destruction) the Unlimited.
Anaximander explains the manner in which things of a certain kind originate from
and dissolve into the Unlimited, by using an analogy with the moral order that
holds among human persons. The fundamental notion is that every change involves
a conflict of opposites, a position that he describes in moral terms in the last two
lines of the above quote. There is also some reason to believe that he held a
primitive theory of evolution to account in more detail for how the many kinds of
things that now exist evolved from one undifferentiated sort of “stuff”.2 It is
interesting to think that Anaximander’s apparently incomprehensible concept of the
“Unlimited” actually rings true to our contemporary ear if we simply define it as
“energy”.
The second major idea of Anaximander that is of importance for us, is his belief
that the earth does not rest on a vast ocean of water, as Thales held, and as many
believed to be true at that time. Instead, he believed that it hangs suspended at the
center of the universe. Anaximander had no theory of gravity to explain what holds
the earth at the center, but he argued that the force of opposites held it there.3
A third Miletian philosopher, Anaximenes, dismissed the theory of Anaximander,
and identified the one underlying substance of the cosmos with air. He wrote:
As our souls, being air, hold us together, so breath and air embrace the entire
universe.
So Anaximenes, though disagreeing with Thales that water formed the basis of
reality, at least agreed with his mentor on one point. The source of all being should
not be identified with some vague, poetic entity such as the Unlimited, which
surpasses all understanding. Instead, reality should be identified with something
that may be understood, with something familiar. Air is all around us. It is
necessary for life to breathe it. It fills the sky, and upon it floats the earth.
If air was the candidate of Anaximenes to be the basic stuff of reality, then he was
still left with the problem of explaining how all things come from and return to air,
and how all things are forms of air. In fact, it was his attempt to provide such an
explanation, and not so much his selection of air, that was responsible for his place
in the history of philosophy. He seems to have been the first philosopher to show in
some detail how the three elements of Greek “science”—earth, fire and water—
arose from the fourth, air. The basic concepts he employed for such an explanation
were condensation and rarefaction. Pure air is the most rarefied substance, but it
can condense into heavier and heavier forms. These may be graded, according to
their degree of condensation—as fire, and then wind, and then clouds, and then
water, and then earth.
Some of the properties of these early attempts to explain reality are strikingly
similar to those of contemporary science. Contemporary science shares the general
scientific approach to nature introduced by Thales some 2600 years ago, the search
for the underlying principles of reality. It also shares the related idea that the many
different things of the universe are all different forms of the same substance. In
addition, with Anaximander we now have introduced another idea shared by
contemporary science, namely that nature follows a pattern of change, a pattern
that may be discovered by us, at least in its broad outlines. We can see from just a
preliminary discussion of the views of Anaximander and Anaximenes, that it is
important not to dismiss views that may seem silly at first glance, without further
examination. Sometimes, with a little twist here and there, we may find in their
blossoms the seeds of great wisdom.
Though the Milesians were the first Presocratic philosophers, they were not
considered the greatest. This honor fell to such men as Pythagoras, Heraclitus,
Parmenides and Democritus. We will merely hint at the views held by each of these
men and their followers here, and we will do so for two reasons. First, so that you
may have some idea and appreciation for the many and varied creative attempts to
solve the mystery of reality that flowered during this period, and second, so that
you may view the ideas of the great classical Greek philosophers, Plato and
Aristotle, within their historical contexts. Some of the central ideas of Plato and
Aristotle are presented below.

Ancient Philosophy (6th century BCE - 6th century CE)

Overview

Ancient Philosophy marks the beginning of Western philosophical thought. This

period saw the emergence of influential thinkers who explored fundamental
questions about reality, knowledge, ethics, and human nature.

Socrates (469/470 BCE - 399 BCE)

Life and Method

- Born in Athens, Greece

- Soldier in the Peloponnesian War
- Developed the Socratic Method: questioning and dialogue to seek truth
Philosophical Contributions
1. Ethics: Focus on moral character and virtues
2. Knowledge: Emphasized the limitations of human knowledge
3. Critical Thinking: Encouraged critical examination of assumptions
Key Concepts
1. "Know thyself" (inscribed on the Temple of Apollo)
2. The Unexamined Life: "The unexamined life is not worth living"
3. Socratic Paradox: "I know that I know nothing"
Plato (427/428 BCE - 347 BCE)
Life and Works
- Student of Socrates
- Founded the Academy in Athens (first institution of higher learning)
- Wrote dialogues, mostly featuring Socrates
Philosophical Contributions
1. Metaphysics: Theory of Forms (abstract, eternal, perfect entities)
2. Epistemology: Emphasized reason and recollection
3. Politics: The Republic (ideal society)
Key Concepts
1. Theory of Forms: Abstract entities (e.g., Justice, Beauty)
2. Allegory of the Cave: Illusion of reality
3. Immortality of the Soul

Aristotle (384 BCE - 322 BCE)

Life and Works
- Student of Plato's Academy
- Tutor to Alexander the Great
- Founded the Lyceum in Athens

Philosophical Contributions
1. Logic: Developed syllogisms and deductive reasoning
2. Metaphysics: Concept of substance and potentiality
3. Ethics: Nicomachean Ethics (virtue ethics)

Key Concepts
1. Four Causes: Material, Formal, Efficient, Final
2. Hylomorphism: Matter and form
3. Eudaimonia: Human flourishing

Comparison and Legacy

| Philosopher | Focus | Method | Key Concepts |
| Socrates | Ethics, Knowledge | Socratic Method | Know thyself, Unexamined
Life |
| Plato | Metaphysics, Epistemology | Dialogue | Theory of Forms, Allegory of
the Cave |
| Aristotle | Logic, Metaphysics, Ethics | Observation, Reasoning | Four Causes,
Hylomorphism, Eudaimonia |

Influence on Western Philosophy

- Socratic Method: Critical thinking and self-examination

- Platonic Idealism: Influence on Western metaphysics and epistemology
- Aristotelian Logic: Foundation for Western logic and reasoning

Lecture Questions
1. What are the key similarities and differences between Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle?
2. How did the Socratic Method influence Western philosophical thought?
3. What are the implications of Plato's Theory of Forms for our understanding
of reality?

Additional Resources
- Plato's Republic
- Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics
 - The Apology (Socrates' defense)

Medieval Philosophy (6th - 15th century)

Overview

Medieval Philosophy, also known as Scholasticism, emerged in Europe during

the Middle Ages. This period saw the integration of faith and reason, with
philosophers seeking to understand Christian theology through rational inquiry.

Key Figures

1. St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE)

2. St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 CE)

St. Augustine of Hippo

Life and Works

- Born in Tagaste, Numidia (modern-day Algeria)

- Converted to Christianity in 386 CE
- Bishop of Hippo Regius (396-430 CE)
- Wrote extensively on theology, philosophy, and ethics

Philosophical Contributions

1. Christianization of Plato: Integrated Platonic ideas with Christian theology

2. Theory of Knowledge: Emphasized faith and reason
3. Concept of Original Sin: Developed the doctrine of original sin
4. Philosophy of History: Wrote "The City of God" (De Civitate Dei)

Key Concepts
 1. Augustinianism: Emphasizes faith, grace, and predestination
2. Inner Illumination: God's light illuminates human understanding
3. Theological Virtues: Faith, hope, and charity

St. Thomas Aquinas

Life and Works

- Born in Roccasecca, Italy

- Joined the Dominican Order in 1244 CE
- Studied under Albertus Magnus
- Wrote extensively on theology, philosophy, and ethics

Philosophical Contributions

1. Synthesis of Faith and Reason: Integrated Aristotelian philosophy with

Christian theology
2. Five Ways: Demonstrated God's existence through reason
3. Concept of Essence and Existence: Distinguished between essence (what
something is) and existence (that something exists)
4. Virtue Ethics: Developed a comprehensive ethics system

Key Concepts

1. Thomism: Emphasizes reason, natural law, and the harmony of faith and
reason
2. Analogia Entis: Analogy between God and creation
3. Principle of Causality: Every effect has a cause

Comparison and Legacy

 | Philosopher | Focus | Method | Key Concepts |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Augustine | Faith, Reason, Original Sin | Platonic, Christian | Inner
Illumination, Theological Virtues |
| Aquinas | Faith, Reason, Essence/Existence | Aristotelian, Christian | Five
Ways, Analogia Entis, Principle of Causality |

Influence on Western Philosophy

- Scholastic Method: Integration of faith and reason

- Development of Christian Theology: Shaped Western Christian thought
- Influence on Renaissance and Enlightenment Thinkers

Additional Resources

- Augustine's "Confessions" and "The City of God"

- Aquinas' "Summa Theologica" and "Summa Contra Gentiles"
- Etienne Gilson's "The Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas"

Discussion Questions

1. How did Augustine's Platonic influences shape his Christian theology?

2. What are the implications of Aquinas' Five Ways for modern philosophy?
3. How did Scholasticism contribute to the development of Western
philosophy?

Modern Philosophy (16th - 19th century)

Overview

Modern Philosophy emerged during the Enlightenment, emphasizing reason,

individualism, and scientific inquiry.
Key Figures

1. René Descartes (1596-1650)

2. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
3. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)

René Descartes

Life and Works

- Born in La Haye, France

- Studied mathematics and philosophy
- Wrote "Meditations on First Philosophy" (1641)

Philosophical Contributions

1. Rationalism: Emphasized reason as the primary source of knowledge

2. Methodological Skepticism: Questioned everything, including own existence
3. Cogito, Ergo Sum: "I think, therefore I am" (established own existence)
4. Mind-Body Dualism: Separated mind (res cogitans) from body (res extensa)

Key Concepts

1. Cartesian Doubt: Systematic doubt to establish certainty

2. Clear and Distinct Ideas: Criteria for knowledge
3. Mechanistic Universe: View of the universe as a machine

Immanuel Kant

Life and Works

- Born in Königsberg, Prussia
- Studied philosophy, mathematics, and physics
- Wrote "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781)

Philosophical Contributions

1. Critique of Metaphysics: Limited knowledge to experience

2. Synthetic a priori: Combined empiricism and rationalism
3. Categorical Imperative: Moral principle ("act only according to maxims")
4. Transcendental Idealism: Space and time as mental frameworks

Key Concepts

1. Kantian Ethics: Deontological ethics (duty-based)

2. noumena vs. phenomena: Distinction between reality and appearance
3. Schematism: Connection between concepts and experience

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Life and Works

- Born in Stuttgart, Germany

- Studied philosophy, theology, and classics
- Wrote "Phenomenology of Spirit" (1807)

Philosophical Contributions

1. Absolute Idealism: Reality as absolute spirit

2. Dialectical Method: Thesis, antithesis, synthesis (historical progression)
3. Historical Progress: Reason unfolds through history
 4. Unity of Opposites: Reconciliation of contradictions

Key Concepts

1. Hegelian Dialectic: Historical and logical progression

2. Absolute Spirit: Ultimate reality and knowledge
3. World Spirit: Historical and cultural development

Comparison and Legacy

| Philosopher | Focus | Method | Key Concepts |

| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Descartes | Rationalism, Skepticism | Methodological doubt | Cogito, Mind-
Body Dualism |
| Kant | Critique of Metaphysics | Synthetic a priori | Categorical Imperative,
Transcendental Idealism |
| Hegel | Absolute Idealism, Dialectics | Historical progression | Absolute Spirit,
Unity of Opposites |

Influence on Western Philosophy

- Enlightenment values: Reason, individualism, progress

- Development of modern science and philosophy
- Influence on German Idealism, Existentialism, and Continental Philosophy

Additional Resources

- Descartes' "Meditations on First Philosophy"

- Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"
- Hegel's "Phenomenology of Spirit"
- Frederick Copleston's "A History of Philosophy"
 Discussion Questions

1. How did Descartes' rationalism influence modern philosophy?

2. What are the implications of Kant's Critique of Metaphysics for knowledge?
3. How did Hegel's dialectical method shape historical and philosophical
thought?

Contemporary Philosophy (20th century onwards)

Overview

Contemporary Philosophy encompasses diverse traditions and movements,

primarily divided into Analytic and Continental Philosophy.

Analytic Philosophy

Characteristics

1. Emphasis on logic, language, and empirical evidence

2. Focus on clarity, precision, and argumentation
3. Influenced by science, mathematics, and positivism

Key Figures

1. Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)

2. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)
3. Karl Popper (1902-1994)
4. John Rawls (1921-2002)
5. Noam Chomsky (1928-present)

Key Concepts
1. Logical Positivism
2. Ordinary Language Philosophy
3. Philosophy of Language
4. Philosophy of Mind
5. Social Contract Theory

Continental Philosophy

Characteristics

1. Emphasis on history, culture, and subjective experience

2. Focus on interpretation, critique, and phenomenology
3. Influenced by Marxism, existentialism, and postmodernism

Key Figures

1. Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)

2. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)
3. Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986)
4. Michel Foucault (1926-1984)
5. Jacques Derrida (1930-2004)

Key Concepts

1. Existentialism
2. Phenomenology
3. Hermeneutics
4. Poststructuralism
5. Deconstruction

Other Contemporary Movements

1. Pragmatism: Emphasizes practicality and usefulness (e.g., Richard Rorty)
2. Feminist Philosophy: Examines gender, equality, and social justice (e.g., bell
hooks)
3. Multicultural Philosophy: Explores diverse cultural perspectives (e.g., Kwame
Anthony Appiah)
4. Environmental Philosophy: Focuses on ecological ethics and sustainability (e.g.,
Arne Naess)

Comparison and Legacy

| Tradition | Focus | Method | Key Concepts |

| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Analytic | Logic, Language, Empiricism | Clarity, Precision | Logical Positivism,
Philosophy of Language |
| Continental | History, Culture, Subjectivity | Interpretation, Critique |
Existentialism, Phenomenology, Poststructuralism |

Influence on Contemporary Thought

- Science, technology, and ethics

- Social justice, diversity, and inclusivity
- Environmentalism and sustainability
- Globalization and cultural exchange

Additional Resources

- Russell's "Principles of Mathematics"

- Wittgenstein's "Philosophical Investigations"
- Heidegger's "Being and Time"
- Foucault's "The Order of Things"
- Rorty's "Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature"
Discussion Questions
1. How did Analytic Philosophy influence contemporary science and ethics?2.
What are the implications of Continental Philosophy for social justice and
diversity?
3. How do Pragmatism and Feminist Philosophy contribute to contemporary
debates?

1. Renaissance Humanism (14th - 17th century)

Characteristics:

1. Revival of classical Greek and Roman texts

2. Emphasis on human dignity, potential, and individualism
3. Focus on arts, literature, and intellectual curiosity

Key Figures:

1. Petrarch (1304-1374)
2. Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444)
3. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)
4. Erasmus (1466-1536)

Key Concepts:

1. Humanism
2. Classical Revival
3. Intellectual Curiosity
4. Skepticism

2. Enlightenment (17th - 18th century)

Characteristics:
1. Emphasis on reason, science, and progress
2. Critique of traditional authority and superstition
3. Focus on individual rights, liberty, and democracy

Key Figures:

1. René Descartes (1596-1650)

2. John Locke (1632-1704)
3. David Hume (1711-1776)
4. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
5. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Key Concepts:

1. Reason
2. Science
3. Progress
4. Social Contract
5. Natural Rights

3. Existentialism (20th century)

Characteristics:

1. Emphasis on individual freedom and choice

2. Focus on subjective experience and existence
3. Rejection of traditional authority and values

Key Figures:
1. Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)
2. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
3. Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)
4. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)
5. Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986)

Key Concepts:

1. Existence precedes Essence

2. Freedom and Responsibility
3. Authenticity
4. Absurdism
5. Being-for-Itself

4. Postmodernism (20th century)

Characteristics:

1. Critique of modernity, reason, and universal truth

2. Emphasis on diversity, pluralism, and contextuality
3. Focus on language, culture, and power relations

Key Figures:

1. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)

2. Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)
3. Jacques Derrida (1930-2004)
4. Michel Foucault (1926-1984)
5. Jean-François Lyotard (1924-1998)

Key Concepts:
1. Poststructuralism
2. Deconstruction
3. Hyperreality
4. Difference and Diversity
5. Power and Knowledge

5. Eastern Philosophy (ancient to modern)

Characteristics:

1. Emphasis on spiritual growth, balance, and harmony

2. Focus on interconnectedness and non-duality
3. Critique of materialism and egoism

Key Figures:

1. Lao Tzu (6th century BCE)

2. Confucius (551-479 BCE)
3. Buddha (563-483 BCE)
4. Adi Shankara (8th century CE)
5. Zen Masters (e.g., Dogen, Hakuin)

Key Concepts:

1. Tao
2. Dharma
3. Karma
4. Reincarnation
5. Mindfulness and Meditation
References
Meaning and Branches of Philosophy
Books:
1. "The Meaning of Meaning" by C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards
2. "The Philosophy of Language" by Noam Chomsky
3. "Semantic Theory" by Jerrold J. Katz
4. "Theories of Meaning" by G. Frege

Journal Articles:

1. "The Meaning of 'Meaning'" by Hilary Putnam (Journal of Philosophy, 1975)

2. "The Nature of Meaning" by John Searle (Journal of Philosophy, 1983)
3. "Meaning and Reference" by Saul Kripke (Journal of Philosophy, 1972)

Online Resources:

1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Meaning

2. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Meaning
3. Philosophy Talk - Meaning

Branches of Philosophy

Metaphysics

Books:

1. "Metaphysics" by Aristotle
2. "The Critique of Pure Reason" by Immanuel Kant
3. "Being and Time" by Martin Heidegger

Journal Articles:

1. "The Nature of Reality" by John Locke (Journal of Philosophy, 1689)

2. "The Metaphysics of Substance" by Baruch Spinoza (Journal of Philosophy,
1677)
3. "The Concept of Time" by Henri Bergson (Journal of Philosophy, 1911)

Online Resources:

1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Metaphysics

2. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Metaphysics
3. Philosophy Talk - Metaphysics

Epistemology

Books:

1. "The Republic" by Plato

2. "Meditations on First Philosophy" by René Descartes
3. "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" by John Locke

Journal Articles:

1. "The Nature of Knowledge" by Bertrand Russell (Journal of Philosophy, 1910)

2. "The Problem of Skepticism" by David Hume (Journal of Philosophy, 1739)
3. "Epistemology and the Social Sciences" by Karl Popper (Journal of Philosophy,
1945)

Online Resources:
1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Epistemology
2. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Epistemology
3. Philosophy Talk - Epistemology

Ethics

Books:

1. "Nicomachean Ethics" by Aristotle

2. "Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals" by Immanuel Kant
3. "Utilitarianism" by John Stuart Mill

Journal Articles:

1. "The Nature of Moral Judgment" by John Rawls (Journal of Philosophy, 1971)

2. "Moral Internalism and Externalism" by Bernard Williams (Journal of
Philosophy, 1981)
3. "The Contractarian Theory of Morality" by David Gauthier (Journal of
Philosophy, 1984)

Online Resources:

1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Ethics

2. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Ethics
3. Philosophy Talk - Ethics

Logic

Books:

1. "Prior Analytics" by Aristotle

2. "The Laws of Thought" by George Boole
3. "Principia Mathematica" by Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead

Journal Articles:

1. "The Nature of Logical Truth" by Rudolf Carnap (Journal of Philosophy, 1934)

2. "The Concept of Entailment" by Alan Ross Anderson and Nuel Belnap (Journal
of Philosophy, 1962)
3. "Modal Logic" by Saul Kripke (Journal of Philosophy, 1963)

Online Resources:

1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Logic

2. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Logic
3. Philosophy Talk - Logic

Aesthetics

Books:

1. "The Republic" by Plato

2. "Critique of Judgment" by Immanuel Kant
3. "The Birth of Tragedy" by Friedrich Nietzsche

Journal Articles:

1. "The Concept of Taste" by David Hume (Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism,
1957)
2. "Aesthetic Experience" by John Dewey (Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism,
1934)
3. "The Role of Emotion in Aesthetic Experience" by Suzanne Langer (Journal of
Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 1953)
Books:
1. Petrarch's "The Ode to Dionysius"
2. Descartes' "Meditations on First Philosophy"
3. Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"
4. Nietzsche's "Thus Spoke Zarathustra"
5. Heidegger's "Being and Time"
6. Foucault's "The Order of Things"
7. Derrida's "Of Grammatology"
8. Confucius' "Analects"
9. Lao Tzu's "Tao Te Ching"
10. Buddha's "Dhammapada"

Journal Articles:
1. "Renaissance Humanism" by Paul Oskar Kristeller (Journal of the History of
Ideas, 1961)
2. "The Enlightenment" by Peter Gay (Journal of Modern History, 1967)
3. "Existentialism and Phenomenology" by Maurice Merleau-Ponty (Journal of
Philosophy, 1959)
4. "Postmodernism and Consumer Society" by Jean Baudrillard (Theory, Culture &
Society, 1988)
5. "Eastern Philosophy and Western Thought" by F.S.C. Northrop (Philosophy East
and West, 1952)

Online Resources:

1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ((link unavailable))

2. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ((link unavailable))
3. The History of Philosophy ((link unavailable))
4. Philosophy Talk ((link unavailable))
5. The Partially Examined Life ((link unavailable))

Euthanasia
Books:

1. "The Hemlock Cup: Socrates, Athens and the Search for the Good Life" by
Bettany Hughes
2. "Euthanasia and the Right to Die" by Tom Beauchamp
3. "The Ethics of Killing: Problems at the Margins of Life" by Jeff McMahan

Journal Articles:

1. "Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide" by Ezekiel Emanuel (New England

Journal of Medicine, 2018)
2. "The Moral Justification of Euthanasia" by John Stuart Mill (Utilitas, 2015)
3. "Euthanasia, Death with Dignity, and the Right to Die" by Timothy Quill
(Journal of Palliative Medicine, 2012)

Online Resources:

1. National Institute of Health (NIH) - Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide

2. American Medical Association (AMA) - Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted
Suicide
3. The Hastings Center - Bioethics and Euthanasia
4. Death with Dignity National Center

Theories of Morality

Books:

1. "The Theory of Moral Sentiments" by Adam Smith

2. "Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals" by Immanuel Kant
3. "Utilitarianism" by John Stuart Mill
4. "The Social Contract" by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Journal Articles:

1. "The Nature of Moral Judgment" by John Rawls (Journal of Philosophy, 1971)

2. "Moral Internalism and Externalism" by Bernard Williams (Journal of
Philosophy, 1981)
3. "The Contractarian Theory of Morality" by David Gauthier (Journal of
Philosophy, 1984)

Online Resources:

1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Moral Philosophy

2. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Ethics
3. The Ethics Update ((link unavailable))
4. Philosophy Talk - Morality

Aesthetics

Books:

1. "The Republic" by Plato

2. "Critique of Judgment" by Immanuel Kant
3. "The Birth of Tragedy" by Friedrich Nietzsche
4. "Art as Experience" by John Dewey

Journal Articles:

1. "The Concept of Taste" by Hume (Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 1957)
2. "Aesthetic Experience" by Dewey (Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism,
1934)
3. "The Role of Emotion in Aesthetic Experience" by Suzanne Langer (Journal of
Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 1953)
Online Resources:
1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Aesthetics
2. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Aesthetics
3. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism
4. Aesthetics for Birds ((link unavailable))

Let me know if you'd like more references or specific

recommendations!;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;ww