Biology

The Central dogma of strand on each template strand of

the original DNA
Molecular Biology  As a result of this replication process
two duplicate molecules of DNA are
produced from the original DNA
molecule

DNA Replication
Unwinding of DNA strand by DNA
Helicase
Basic Principles of Transcription
and Translation
 The helicase unwinds and then
separates the two strands by  RNA is the bridge between genes
breaking the hydrogen bonds and the proteins for which they code
between nitrogenous bases each  Transcription is the synthesis of RNA
separate half of the DNA can now using information in DNA
serve as a template or pattern for the  Transcription produces messenger
creation of the new strand of DNA RNA (mRNA)
 Translation is the synthesis of a
polypeptide, using information in the
mRNA
 Ribosomes are the sites of
Creation of new identical strands by translation
DNA polymerase
 The DNA polymerase and other
enzymes add nucleotides to template
strands following the base pair rule
 It adds free nucleotides available in
the nucleus; cytosine always bonds
with guanine and thymine always
bonds with alanine
 The newly attached nucleotides form
a mirror image or complementary
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 DNA uses a messenger called
messenger RNA or mRNA to carry
the genetic code from the nucleus to
the ribosome.
 The process of building this
messenger RNA is called
transcription. How does transcription
 Each code referred to as a codon;
happen?
RNA polymerases cause the DNA
 Transcription begins when an
helix to unwind and separate into two
enzyme called RNA Polymerase
strands
attaches to a segment of DNA called
 One of the strands called the
a gene which codes for a specific
template strand is the side of the
protein which are made up of specific
DNA that is read or transcribed by
amino acids in a specific order
the messenger RNA

 The other strand called the non-

 In prokaryotes, translation of mRNA template strand does not transcribe.
can begin before transcription has Using the template strand the RNA
finished polymerase uses the base pairing
 In a eukaryotic cell, the nuclear rule to assemble free nucleotides in
envelope separates transcription the nucleus into a complementary
from translation strand of RNA
 Eukaryotic RNA transcripts are
modified through RNA processing to
yield the finished mRNA Translation
Within the gene the specific order of  The synthesis of proteins from an
nitrogenous bases dictates the order of mRNA template
amino acids that will make up the
protein
Types of RNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
o formed in the nucleus on the
coding strand of the DNA in
the process of transcription
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RNA called spliceosome – removes
the introns segments and joins the
adjacent exons to produce a mature
mRNA strand
o  mRNA exits the pore and enter the
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) cytoplasm to start translation
o produced in the nucleus,  The nitrogenous bases are grouped
before moving out into the into three letter codes called codon
cytoplasm to bind with  Translation begins with the mRNA
proteins and form a ribosome strand binds with the small sub units.
Each amino acid is brought to the
ribosome by a specific tRNA.
 The type of amino acid is determined
by the anti-codon sequence of tRNA
o
Elongation
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
o responsible for carrying amino  E, P, S site
acids from the cytoplasm to  Each anti codon RNA molecule
the ribosome surface, ready to corresponds to a particular amino
make a protein as instructed acid
by the mRNA
Termination
 The entire complex dissociates and
reassemble again upon initiation; the
purpose of translation is to produce
polypeptide that stands for a specific
o protein, can be modified depending
on its function

Stages of Translation
Initiation
 Includes regions such as exons that
code for proteins and non-coding
section such as introns.
 At the start of translation, the non-
coding section introns should be
removed. This process is called
intron splicing and is formed by a
complex made up of proteins and
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Cause:
 Error in DNA replication during cell
division
 Exposure to mutagens (radioactive
substance, x-ray, ultraviolet radiation,
and certain chemicals)
 Viral infection and other infectious
agents

Types of Mutations:
Point Mutation
 Small spelling mistake that affects
only one or a few letters in our DNA
code
 Single based pair may be added,
deleted or changed

3 Types of Substitution Mutation

 Nonsense mutation results in the
formation of a stop codon due to the
substitution of one nitrogenous base

Mutation
Genetic Mutation
 A change that occurs in our DNA
code (sequence of nucleotides)
 Spontaneous change in genes or
chromosomes
 Sometime, mistake happen during
the DNA copying process, leading to
1. Missense Mutation
changes mutations  When one nitrogenous base of the
DNA is replaced and the result is an
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altered codon but does not form  Entire section of chromosomes can
codon be rearranged or lost
o Conservative – the new  One or more gene may be swapped
amino acid formed has the or deleted
same properties of the one o Deletion – an end of a
that was supposed to be chromosome breaks off or
produced when two simultaneous
o Non-Conservative – the breaks lead to the loss of a
new amino acid formed has segment
different properties of the one
that was supposed to be
produced

o Inversion – segment of a
chromosome breaks off, flip
around, and reattaches in the
reverse orientation. The order
of genes on the chromosome
2. Silent Mutation but typically not lose any
 When a nitrogenous base is altered genetic material
but the same amino acid is produced

o Translocation – movement
of chromosomal segment from
3. Frameshift Mutation one chromosome to another
 Normal sequence of codons is nonhomologous chromosome
disorganized by the insertion or
deletion of one or more nitrogenous
base, given that the number of
nitrogenous bases added or deleted
is not multiple of three

o Duplication – a segment of
Chromosomal Mutation
chromosome is repeated
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Endocrine System

Mutated Gene:

Endocrine System
 Composed of different glands which
secrete hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and
1. Albinism (deletion mutation) development, mood, and
 Formation of melanin reduced or reproduction
absent in skin, hair, and eyes  Control many cells activities to
 Ack of activity of tyrosinase maintain the delicate balance that
2. Cystic Fibrosis (deletion ensures homeostasis
mutation)
 Deletion of the amino acid
phenylalanine that leads to the Endocrine Glands and its
incorrect protein Function:
3. Dwon Syndrome or Trisomy 21 1. Pituitary Gland
(Translocation)  Regulates other endocrine glands
 Slight retardation of cognitive ability and secrete growth hormone
 Impairment of physical growth, body  Posterior Lobe – store hormones
and facial feature from the hypothalamus
 3 copies of chromosome #21 instead
 Anterior Lobe – secrete pituitary
of two
glands
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2. Thyroid Gland o pituitary gland release follicle
 Increase the rate of metabolism in stimulating hormone (FSH)
cells throughout the body and control and luteinizing hormone (LH)
how quickly cells use energy and o As the FSH enter the testes, it
make proteins stimulates Sertoli cells to
3. Parathyroid Glands facilitate the process of sperm
 Helps keep the level of calcium in the reproduction
blood normal o LH enters the testes to
4. Thymus stimulate the interstitial cells
 Produce hormones that enable the called Leydig cell to make and
body to produce T cells before release testosterone
puberty (front of the heart)  Female:
5. Adrenal o The follicle produce estrogen
 Produce hormones that affects that controls the growth and
metabolism, immune system and release of eggs
blood pressure, stress reaction o Progesterone prepares uterus
6. Pancreas so that the fertilized egg can
 Hormones include insulin and grow
glucagon that work together to
control the level of glucose in the
blood Disorder:
7. Testis 1. Osteoporosis
 Produce hormones testosterone that  The mineral density of the bone is
control maturation of sperm and reduced making it brittle and porous
secondary male sexual characteristic  Parathyroid hormone secretion is
8. Ovary one of the possible causes
 Control the development of 2. Goiter
secondary sex characteristic and  Abnormal enlargement of the thyroid
functioning of sex organs. Secretes gland. Results from overproduction
the female hormone estrogen of thyroid hormones
3. Gigantism
 Abnormal increase in height
Role of Hormones in Female and associated with too much secretion
Male Reproductive System of growth hormones
 Reproduction is a normal process 4. Dwarfism
 The pituitary gland controls the  Production of growth hormone in the
function of both testis and ovary pituitary gland is insufficient
 Male:
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MENSTRUAL CYCLE  the brain sends the follicle
stimulating hormone to the ovaries to
Menstruation signal follicles to grow and mature
 normal vaginal bleeding that occurs  it produces estrogen
as part of a woman's monthly cycle  estrogen acts on the uterus to
 If fertilization occurs, the developing stimulate the thickening of the
embryo will implant in the endometrium
endometrium and release hormones  FSH stimulates growth of ovarian
to sustain the corpus luteum follicles the dominant follicle
 If fertilization doesn't occur, the produces estrogen, which inhibits
corpus luteum eventually FSH secretion (negative feedback) to
degenerates (forming a corpus prevent other follicles growing
albicans after ~ 2 weeks)  Estrogen acts on the uterus to
 When the corpus luteum stimulate the thickening of the
degenerates, estrogen and endometrial layer
progesterone levels drop and the
endometrium can no longer be
maintained Ovulation
 The endometrial layer is eliminated  occurs two weeks before
from the body as menstrual blood menstruation starts
 As estrogen and progesterone levels  mature egg from the follicle travels
are now low to inhibit the anterior from the ovary down to the fallopian
pituitary, the cycle can now begin tube and into the uterus
again  estrogen stimulates the anterior
pituitary to secrete LH hormone
(positive feedback)
Menstrual Cycle  it results in a large surge of LH and a
 series of changes during which an lesser surge of FSH
egg matures and the uterus is  Midway through the cycle (~ day 12),
prepared for possible pregnancy estrogen stimulates the anterior
 influenced by endocrine system thru pituitary to secrete LH hormones
the complex interaction of the (positive feedback)
hypothalamus, pituitary and gonads  This positive feedback results in a
(ovaries or testes) large surge of LH and a lesser surge
of FSH
 LH causes the dominant follicle
rupture and release an egg
Follicular phase
 day 1 of menstruation and ends with
ovulation day 14 Luteal Phase
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 day after ovulation to the day before
your next period
 decrease in the levels of LH and
FSH
 when egg is release, the empty
follicles develop into corpus luteum
 if the egg isn't fertilized, the corpus
luteum degenerates and estrogen Hypothalamus
level decreases
 The ruptured follicle develops into  maintain homeostasis and tell the
corpus luteum right gland and how to help correct
 corpus luteum produces changes in a body in order to
progesterone as well as lower levels maintain homeostasis.
of estrogen to maintain uterine lining  found in the middle of the brain
 progesterone and estrogen inhibit
the secretion of FSH and LH
 Estrogen and progesterone act on 2 Types of Feedback Mechanism
the uterus to thicken the endometrial
1. Negative feedback describes a
lining (in preparation for pregnancy)
negative increase as the hormone
 The endocrine system uses
reaches its desired level, the body
feedback mechanisms which are
stops or reduces the rate of its
responses that trigger other activities
production. ex. control of glucose by
to ensure that conditions in the body
insulin
are just right.
2. Positive Feedback mechanisms
result in positive increase or output.
ex. child birth with the secretion of
oxytocin.

Childbirth
 with the secretion of oxytocin –
pressure exerted on the cervix
continues to stimulate oxytocin
release, which continues to stimulate
uterine muscle contraction.
 The increase in contractions causes
more oxytocin to be released and the
cycle goes on until the baby is born.
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Nervous System 2. Cerebrum – responsible for
thinking, learning, memory and
emotions
3. Cerebellum – part under
cerebrum that control posture,
balance, and coordination
4. Brain Stem – connects the
brain to the spinal chord and
control automatic functions such
as breathing, digestion, heart
rate, and blood pressure
5. Spinal Cord – serves as a
channel for signal between the
brain and the majority of the body
parts

Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 Complex network of nerves and cells
that carry messages to various parts  Connect the CNS to the organ and
of the body limbs
 Body’s storage center of information  Somatic:
and also the body’s control system 1. Spinal Nerves
 Responsible for controlling and  Carry motor and sensory
coordinating all the organ system by signals between the spinal
sending messages from the brain cord and the body
through the nerve signals
2. Cranial Nerves
 Nerve fibers that carry info
into and out of the brain stem
Major Division and Parts:  Autonomic:
Central Nervous System (CNS) 1. Sympathetic NS
- activated when the body is in a
 Main processing center of the dynamic role or stress
NS 2. Parasympathetic NS
1. Brain – located within the skull, - maintains the body functions
organizer and distributor of info and restores the body to normal
for the body or released mode
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Neuron:
1. Dendrites – root like structure;
carry impulses toward the cell body
2. Axon – carry impulses away from
the cell body