CORE0202 NATURE, SCIENCE, HUMAN II

Spring 2022

Quantum Computing
• Classical Computers • Quantum Computers
 Bits, Binary system  Qubits, Measurements,
 Logic Gates  Represntation of Qubits: Bloch Sphere
 Moore’s law  Quantum Logic Gates
 Multiple qubits and entanglement
 A Quantum Computing Application:
Quantum Database Search – Grover’s
Algorithm
Computers
Computers have been changing the world.

We use this revolutionary technology daily (in our offices, in our homes and pockets).

When you look inside a computer, you would see

• Wires,
• Plugs,
• Electric circuits,
• Chips,
• Speaker, and all sorts of other stuff.

 This is the hardware of a computer!

 What you don’t see is the software (all of the computer programs or codes running on the machine).

 The sofware could be anything (applications, games, web pages, data science sofware used for the analysis of sytems).

But,
• how do the computers work?
• how do the hardware and sofware interact with one another?
Computers
Any computer must be able to perform four different tasks:
1. Input,
2. Storage,
3. Processing,
4. Output.

• Any input is stored in the memory of the computer.

• The computers processor takes the information in the memory, manipulates it using algorithms (a series of
commands), and send the processed information back to the memory again.
• This continues until the the processed information is ready to be output.
• The output can be in the form of
 Text,
 Photos,
 Videos,
 Games,
 The solution of a differential equation.
• If connected, the output of one computer can be the input of another computer.
Computers
In a computer, the information is carried by electric wires and circuits.

• But, how can you use electricity to represent/store information?

If you consider a single wire with electric current flowing through it, the signal could be

ON or OFF
YES or NO
TRUE or FALSE
1 or 0

• This ON and OFF (1 and 0) state of a single wire is called a BIT (the smallest possible information that a
computer can store).

• More wires means more BITs to store more complicated information!

• To understand this you need to learn the Binary Number System.

Decimal Number System:

Binary Number System:

What is this number quoted in the binary system?

Any number can be represented by zeros and ones!

Any number can be represented by ZEROs and ONEs

Decimal numerals represented by binary digits

decimal binary conversion

0 0 0 ( 20 )
1 1 1 ( 20 )
Computers use the binary system of counting.
2 10 1 ( 21 ) + 0 ( 2 0 )
3 11 1 ( 21 ) + 1 ( 2 0 )
4 100 1 ( 22 ) + 0 ( 2 1 ) + 0 ( 20 )
5 101 1 ( 22 ) + 0 ( 2 1 ) + 1 ( 20 )
6 110 1 ( 22 ) + 1 ( 2 1 ) + 0 ( 20 )
7 111 1 ( 22 ) + 1 ( 2 1 ) + 1 ( 20 )
8 1000 1 ( 23 ) + 0 ( 2 2 ) + 0 ( 21 ) + 0 ( 2 0 )
9 1001 1 ( 23 ) + 0 ( 2 2 ) + 0 ( 21 ) + 1 ( 2 0 )
10 1010 1 ( 23 ) + 0 ( 2 2 ) + 1 ( 21 ) + 0 ( 2 0 )
Any letter (text) can be represented by ZEROs and ONEs
Letter ASCII Code Binary Letter ASCII Code Binary
a 097 01100001 A 065 01000001
b 098 01100010 B 066 01000010
Binary Codes for Letters c 099 01100011 C 067 01000011
d 100 01100100 D 068 01000100
e 101 01100101 E 069 01000101
• Each symbol is assigned its ASCII code number in binary f 102 01100110 F 070 01000110
g 103 01100111 G 071 01000111
form, and appended a parity check bit (for error detection h 104 01101000 H 072 01001000
purposes). i 105 01101001 I 073 01001001
j 106 01101010 J 074 01001010
k 107 01101011 K 075 01001011
• For example, team can be coded as l 108 01101100 L 076 01001100
m 109 01101101 M 077 01001101
n 110 01101110 N 078 01001110
01110100 01100101 01100001 01101101. o 111 01101111 O 079 01001111
p 112 01110000 P 080 01010000
q 113 01110001 Q 081 01010001
r 114 01110010 R 082 01010010
s 115 01110011 S 083 01010011
t 116 01110100 T 084 01010100
• Similar assignments can be done for colors and sound to u 117 01110101 U 085 01010101
v 118 01110110 V 086 01010110
represent images and sound in binary number system. w 119 01110111 W 087 01010111
x 120 01111000 X 088 01011000
y 121 01111001 Y 089 01011001
z 122 01111010 Z 090 01011010
Computers – Logic gates
The manipulation of data (data processing) is done by the application of logic gates.
• Gates have distinct graphic symbols, and their operation can be described by means of algebraic expressions.

• The seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.

NOT Gate

Input Output
A NOT A
0 1
1 0
Reversibility
• In classical computing, when a gate is applied to some information, the original information is often lost.

• Consider the AND Gate:

• If the output is 0, there is no way to determine if the input

was 00, 01, or 10.

• Thus, some information is lost by applying the AND gate

to two bits.

• We say the AND gate is irreversible.

• Most classical logic Gates are irreversible (The NOT Gate is reversible).

• Irreversible Gates increase the entropy, heat is generated and the observer loses the ability to extract useful work from the
system.

• Reversible Gates preserve the entropy and the energy dissipation would not occur if computation is made reversible.
Transistors
- Tiny switches used to turn current ON and OFF.

Since the invention of the computer transistor in 1947 [Bell Laboratories

in New Jersey - John Bardeen (1908–1991), Walter Brattain (1902–1987),
and William Shockley (1910–1989)], the number of transistors per silicon A scanning electron microscope image of individual
chip (density of transistors) has nearly doubled over the last 70 years, as transistors on IBM's new chip, each measuring 2
predicted by Moore’s law. nanometers wide – narrower than a strand of human
DNA. Source: IBM
Moore’s law: a prediction made by American engineer Gordon Moore in
1965 that the number of transistors per silicon chip doubles every year.

REMARKS:
• The current industry standard is chips with 7-nm transistors, with some high-end consumer devices,
such as Apple’s M1 processors, beginning to make the move to 5 nm.
• Experimental chips have shrunk as small as 2.5 nm.

How small is 5 nm?

100 nm 5 nm 2.5 nm
Diameter of a human hair Diameter of the newest transistors Diameter of a human chromosome
Plot of MOS transistor counts
for microprocessors against
dates of introduction.

The curve shows counts

doubling every two years, per
Moore's law.
QC

2011 2014 2016

Quantum Computers
A quantum computer performs calculations based on the laws of quantum mechanics, which is the description
of particles at the sub-atomic level.

Why do we need quantum computers?

• To solve difficult problems, we have used supercomputers which are basically very large classical computers,
often with thousands of classical central processing unit (CPU) and graphics processing unit (GPU) cores.

• However, even supercomputers aren’t very good at solving certain types of problems, which seem easy at first
glance. This is why we need quantum computers.
Quantum Computers – Grover’s search algorithm
One promising quantum algorithm that uses these techniques is called Grover's Search. This search involves
finding one item from a list of N items.

To find the answer,

• On a classical computer you'd have to check N/2 items on average, and in the worst case you would need to
check all N.

• Using Grover's search algorithm on a quantum computer you would find the item after checking roughly 𝑁 of
them.

• This represents a remarkable increase in processing efficiency and time saved.

• For example, if you wanted to find one item in a list of 1 trillion, and each item took 1 microsecond to check:

 Time on a classical computer: About 1 week

 Time on a quantum computer: About 1 second

How big are quantum computers?
Quantum computers are currently about the size of a domestic fridge, with an accompanying wardrobe-sized
box of control electronics.

Similar to the way bits are used in classical computers, quantum bits (qubits) are used in quantum computers
to store/process information.

IBM’s 127-qubit chip Eagle

The world's 10 fastest quantum chips by qubits (November 2021)

Name/Designation Manufacturer Architecture Release date Qubits

IBM Eagle IBM Superconducting Late 2023 127
Jiuzhang USTC Photonics 2020 76
Bristlecone Google Superconducting 5 March, 2018 72
IBM Manhattan IBM Superconducting 65
Nonlinear
Sycamore Google superconducting 2019 53
resonator
IBM Q 53 IBM Superconducting 1 October, 2019 53
IBM Q 50 prototype IBM Superconducting 50
N/A Google Superconducting Q4 2017 (planned) 49
Tangle Lake Intel Superconducting 9 January, 2018 49
IBM Dublin IBM Superconducting 27

Source: IBM, Verdict, Wikipedia (sources cited: Nature, Live Science, IBM, Futurism, MIT Technology Review, IEEE Spectrum, SPIE)
Quantum representation of data - Qubits
• Recall that classical computers use bits which can be either 0 or 1.

• A quantum computer uses two stationary states of a quantum

system (e.g., an atom) denoted by |0 and |1 as counterparts of
the classical bits 0 and 1.

• A quantum bit (qubit) can be either one of the states |0 and |1 .

• But, in general, it can be in a linear combination (superposition) of

these two states. In a notation introduced by Dirac, we write

  a 0 b 1 , a  b  1, a, b  .
2 2

• We say the state vector | is a vector in the 2-dimensional

Hilbert space of the quantum system, and tells us everything we
could possibly know about the qubit.
Quantum representation of data – Qubit Notation
• Any state vector can be represented with a linear combination of the states |0 and |1 since they form an orthonormal basis.

• Orthonormal means both orthogonal and normalized.

 Orthogonal means the vectors are at right angles.

 Normalized means their magnitudes (lengths) are equal to 1.

• In Dirac notation, a vector | is called a ket vector, which is represented by a column vector.

• Every ket | has a corresponding bra | which is represented by a row vector.

• A bra is the complex conjugate and transpose of its corresponding ket.

EXAMPLES: Bras and kets.

  , 0  0 , 11
* * *
Quantum measurements - Rules
 When measurements are carried out on classical systems, the disturbance of the measurement on the system can be
neglected.

 However in quantum mechanics, the act of a measurement interferes with the system, and the system collapses into one of
its possible states (an eigenstate).

• Consider the general state of a qubit represented by   a 0 b 1 .

• When a measurement is made, the general state will collapse to one of its possible states |0 and |1 ,
i.e., it will be found in either |0 or |1 .

• The probability of finding the qubit in state |𝑛 (n = 0, 1) is given by the scalar (inner) product
2
n

where n  represents the scalar (inner) product of |𝑛 and | .

The Inner Product - Rules

Consider a qubit with the state vector   a 0 b 1 .

• First, the inner product of |0 and | : 0   0  a 0  b 1   a 0 0  b 0 1  a.

1 0

• And, the inner product of |1 and | : 1   1  a 0  b 1   a 1 0  b 1 1  b.

0 1

 The constants a and b represent the probability amplitudes of finding the qubit in states |0 and |1 .
Measurements - Rules
Consider a qubit with the state vector   a 0 b 1 , 0   a, 1   b.

P 0   0 
2
a .
2
• The probability of finding the qubit in state |0 :

P 1   1
2
b .
2
• The probability of finding the qubit in state |1 :

REMARK: If we want the probabilities to add up to 1, the state vector must be normalized, i.e., we must have

    a * 0  b* 1   a 0  b 1   a 0 0  b 1 1  a  b  1.
2 2 2 2

1 1

EXAMPLE: Consider a qubit with the state vector

1 1
  0  1.  The probability of finding the qubit in state |0 is 1/2.
2 2
 The probability of finding the qubit in state |1 is 1/2.
Measurements – Global and relative phases
Recall that an arbitrary state vector of a qubit is written as   a 0 b 1 , a, b  .

However, any complex number z can be written as 𝑐𝑒 −𝑖𝜑 . Hence, writing 𝑎 = 𝑐0 𝑒 𝑖𝜑0 and 𝑏 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑖𝜑1 , we obtain

0 1 0

  c0 ei 0  c1ei 1  ei c0 0  c1ei   1 1 0

The term 𝑒 𝑖𝜑0 is called "global phase", and the term 𝑒 𝑖(𝜑1 −𝜑0 ) is termed "relative phase".

The states   a 0  b 1 , and   e i0

a 0 b 1  are indistinguishable since a  ae
2 i0 2
, and b  be
2 i0 2
.
 The global phase is irrelevant!

REMARK: Imposing | to be normalized, we can write the state vector as

 
  c0 0  c1ei 1  cos 0  sin ei 1 ,   0,   ,   0, 2 .
2 2
c0 c1
Representing qubits - Bloch sphere
Bloch sphere is a geometrical representation of the state space of a 2-level quantum system (a qubit).
 
  c0 0  c1ei 1  cos 0  sin ei 1 ,    0,   ,   0, 2 .
2 2

• Bloch sphrere consists of points (x, y, z) on the unit sphere.

• Any linear combination of the states |0 and |1 corresponds

to a point on the Bloch sphere.

• Two state vectors with different relative phases  correspond

to different point on the Bloch sphere. Hence, the relative
phase matters!
Quantum representation of data - Qubits
An n qubit system has 2n possible states.

EXAMPLES:

• The posssible states for a two qubit system: 00 , 01 , 10 , 11 .

• The posssible states for a three qubit system: 000 , 001 , 010 , 100 , 101 , 110 , 011 , 111 .

• A two qubit system with an equally weighted superposition of possible states:

1 1 1 1
  00  01  10  11 .
4 4 4 4
Quantum representation of data - Qubits

• It is possible to extend two-level qubits to qudits or d-dimensional systems (d ≥ 2).

• This leads to an extension of the binary quantum logic.

• Using d computational levels we can reduce the number n2 of qubits needed for a
computation by a factor of
log 2 d
since the Hilbert space of nd qudits contains the space of qubits provided that

d nd  2n2 .
Quantum Circuit Model

Classical Circuit Quantum Circuit

Smallest information unit: Bit Smallest information unit: Qubit

Step 1: Prepare n bit input Step 1: Prepare n qubit input

Step 2: Process data using 1- and 2-bit Step 2: Process data using 1- and 2-
logic gates. qubit Unitary quantum logic gates.

Step 3: Readout the value of bits. Step 3: Readout partial information

about qubits.
Operations on Qubits - Reversible Logic
• Recall that, in classical computing, when a gate is applied to some information, the original information is
often lost.

Example: The AND Gate:

Input Output

• The destruction of information in a gate will cause heat to be evolved which can destroy the superposition
of qubits.

• Hence, this type of gate (irreversible gate) cannot be used. We must use (reversible) Quantum Gates.
Quantum Gates – single-qubit gates
- operations that change a qubit between possible states. Notation: 0 1  outer product of 0 and 1

The Pauli Gates

1. The X-Gate – represented by Pauli X-matrix X 0 11 0.

X 0  0 1  1 0  0  0 1 0  1 0 0  1 .
0 1

The Pauli Gates

2. The Y & Z-Gates – represented by Pauli Y & Z matrices Y  i 0 1  i 1 0 ,
Z  0 0  1 1.
Quantum Gates – single-qubit gates
X Z
The Hadamard Gate (a fundamental quantum gate): H
2
• The H gate puts a qubit in states |0 and |1 into a superposition state.

 X Z 
H 0  0 
1
 0 1  1 0  0 0  1 1  0   0  1 .
1
 2  2 2

 X Z 
H 1  1 
1
 0 1  1 0  0 0  1 1  1   0  1 .
1
 2  2 2
Quantum Gates – single-qubit gates
The Phase Gate (P-Gate)

• performs a rotation of  around the z-axis direction. P    1 0  ei 0 1

For  = /2, the P Gate is called the S Gate:

P  / 2   S  1 0  ei /2 0 1  1 0  i 0 1

S 0   1 0 i 0 1  0  1 ,

S 1   1 0 i 0 1  1  i 0 .
Quantum Gates – single-qubit gates

The Identity Gate (I-Gate): I  XX  0 0  1 1 ,

X 0 11 0.

• The identity gate is useful when the computer is required

to perform a ‘do nothing’ or ‘none’ operation.
Multiple Qubits and Entanglement – the true power of quantum computers
The interactions between qubits reveals the true power of quantum computing.

Representing Multi-Qubit States

• (Four) Possible states for a two-qubit system: 00, 01, 10, 11

c00 
c 
•   c00 00  c01 01  c10 10  c11 11    ,
The general state of a two qubit 01

system is defined by a 4D vector as c10 

 
c11 
P  00   00 
2
 c00 ,
2

c00  c01  c10  c11  1.

2 2 2 2

REMARK: For an n-qubit system, there are 2n combinations of zeros and ones.
Multi-Qubit States
For two (or more) separated qubits, the general state is described by a (tensor) product:

EXAMPLES:

 
1
 0  1   0  1 
1
 001  101 
2 2
 
1
 0  1  1
0  1  
1
0  1  
1
 000  001  010  100  101  110  011  111 
2 2 2 8

• Multiple qubit states that are tensor products of single qubit states are called separable states.

• States that cannot be written as the product of single-qubit states are called entangled states.
Entangled States
Examples (Bell States):  
1
 00  11  ,  
1
 00  11  ,
2 2
 
1
 01  10  ,  
1
 01  10  .
2 2

• When the two qubits are entangled, we cannot determine the state of each qubit separately.

• There is a particular correlation between the measurement outcomes on the two qubits.

• For the entangled state above, if a measurement is made on the second qubit, and it is found to be in
state |1 , the first qubit would be found in state |1 with 100% probability.

REMARK: An entangled state could be used to steer a distant particle into one of a set of states, with a
certain probability.
 How to produce an entangled state?
- Apply a CNOT (controlled NOT) gate (let them interact).
c c

• The CNOT Gate flips the 2nd qubit if the 1st qubit is |1 , t ct
and returns the 2nd qubit as-is if the 1st qubit is |0 .

• The 1st qubit is simply not changed.

CNOT  0 0  I  1 1  X

EXAMPLE:
1
0 1  0   00  10    00  11
1 1

2 target
2 2
control
Quantum Entanglement
Consider two-qubits:

• Assume we let them interact so that the combined state of the system is an entangled state given by

 
1
 00  11  .
2
 This state has 50% probability of being measured in the state |00 , and 50% chance of being measured in the state |11 .

 Now, suppose we separate the qubits, without letting them interact with the environment, by 8000 km (e.g., one in
Istanbul and the other in New York).

 If we measured the qubit in Istanbul and got the state |1 , the collective state of our qubits changes like so:

1
 00  11 
measure
   11 .
2

 Measuring one qubit collapses the superposition and appears to have an immediate effect on the other. This is the
‘spooky action at a distance’ that upset so many physicists in the early 20th century.
Quantum parallellism
Now think of a logic gate with a single input bit x and a single output bit f (x). Input 0 returns f (0) and input 1 returns f (1). Now
imagine we prepare a qubit in a superposition state of 0 and 1, written |0 +|1 (up to a normalization factor) and let the
corresponding quantum logic gate operate on this input state. We then obtain
0  1  f  0   f 1 .

So even though we ran the gate only once, we obtain a superposition of the two possible output values.

Let's extend this idea to a logic gate with two input bits. Whereas the state of two classical bits can be only one of the four
combinations 00, 01, 10 or 11 at any time, two qubits can be in a superposition state of these four possibilities. A quantum logic
gate acting on such an input would give

00  01  10  11  f  00   f  01  f 10   f 11 ,

thus computing f (x) for all four possible input values simultaneously. Similarly, a computer with three qubits, will be able to
do eight computations in parallel.

• In general, an n-qubit computer can perform 2n computations at the same time.

• As David Deutsch noted already in 1985, this suggests that the computational capability of a quantum computer goes up
exponentially with its size (compared to only linearly for a classical computer)!
A Quantum Computing Application: Quantum Database Search
– Grover’s Algorithm
The Problem: Find a particular item in a very large unsorted database containing N >> 1 items.

• Mathematically, the database is represented by a table, of a function f (x), with x  {0, 1, 2, …, N-1}.

• We are assured that an entry a occures in the table exactly once, i.e., f (x) = a for only one value of x.

If the database is sorted, we can find x by looking up only log2 N entries in the table!

EXAMPLE: Suppose N = 2n is a power of 2.

• We first look up f (x) for x = 2n-1 – 1, etc.

• With each look up, we reduce the number of candidate values of x by a factor of 2, so that n lookups suffice to sift
through all 2n sorted items.

• You can use this algorithm to look up a number in a phone book.

Quantum Database Search – Grover’s Algorithm
Now, suppose, you have someone’s phone number and you want to look up his name.

• If N numbers are listed in a random order, you will need to look up N/2 numbers before the probability is 𝑃 = 12 that you
have found his number (and hence his name).

• What Grover discovered in 1992 is that, if you have a quantum phone book, you can learn her name with high probability
by consulting the phone book only about 𝑁 times.

The problem can be formulated as an oracle or ‘black box’ problem:

• In this case the oracle is the phone book (or look up table).

• We can input a name, and the oracle outputs either 0, if 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎, or 1, if 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎.

• The task is to find, as quickly as possible, the value of x with 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 .

Grover’s Algorithm – The Black Box

• We will assume there are 𝑁 = 2𝑛 items in the oracle.

• The 2𝑛 integer states will be encoded by the states ∣0 and ∣1 of n qubits.

• The oracle knows that of 2𝑛 possible strings of length n, one (the ‘marked’ string or ‘solution’ ) is special.

• We submit a querry x to the oracle, and it tells us whether 𝑥 = 𝑥 ∗ .

Grover’s Algorithm – The Black Box

• The Oracle takes as input an index value in a qubit register ∣x (an n-qubit state)

• To form a reversible gate, it also takes a single “ancillary qubit”, ∣q (a single-qubit state)

• The state given to the Oracle is ∣ = ∣x ∣q

• The Oracle is represented by a unitary operator, Of

• If x indexes a solution to the search problem, Of sets f (x) = 1, and f (x) = 0 if it doesn’t index a solution

• If f (x) = 1, the Oracle flips the state of |x

f  x
• This is written as Of x q  x X q

• X is just a quantum NOT operator.

f  x  x if f  x   0
• Given an input |x , 𝑂𝑓± will output  1 x 
 x if f  x   1
Grover’s Algorithm
n
• The algorithm begins with all qubits (the computer) in the state 0  0 0  0 .

• The Hadamard transform is used to put the computer in the equal superposition state,

N 1
 
1
N

x 0
x 
1
N
 00 00  00 01   x*   01 11  11 11 . 
The quantum search algorithm then consists of repeated application of the oracle and Grover diffusion operator (gate D)
as shown in the figure.
Grover’s Algorithm – Geometric Visualization
 After the Hadamard gate is applied to all qubits, the computer will be in a uniform superposition :
N 1
 
1
N

x 0
x 
1
N
 00 00  00 01   x*   01 11  11 11 . 

1 1
m
N
 cx 
x N

 The oracle 𝑂𝑓± operating on the uniform superposition state will output

1 2n  1 1 2n  2 1
m
N
x cx  N  N  N N
, N  2n
Grover’s Algorithm – Geometric Visualization
 The Grover’s diffusion operator flips the amplitudes around the average amplitude m. The effect of the gate is

N 1 N 1

c
x 0
x x    2m  c  x
x 0
x

 The amplitude of x* is amplified to 3/ 𝑁 after one operation of the oracle and Grover’s diffusion gates!
Grover’s Algorithm – Second application of oracle + diffusion gates

 The second application of the oracle 𝑂𝑓± and Grover’s diffusion Gates operating on the state will output
Grover’s Algorithm – Simple Example
Consider a list of N = 4 items with solution x* = ∣10 :

• Start with  
1
 00  01  10  11 
4

 A single operation of the oracle 𝑂𝑓± and Grover’s

diffusion gates on the state will output
One million qubits are needed for useful quantum computing!

The world's 10 fastest quantum chips by qubits (November 2021)

Name/Designation Manufacturer Architecture Release date Qubits

IBM Eagle IBM Superconducting Late 2023 127
Jiuzhang USTC Photonics 2020 76
Bristlecone Google Superconducting 5 March, 2018 72
IBM Manhattan IBM Superconducting 65
Nonlinear
Sycamore Google superconducting 2019 53
resonator
IBM Q 53 IBM Superconducting 1 October, 2019 53
IBM Q 50 prototype IBM Superconducting 50
N/A Google Superconducting Q4 2017 (planned) 49
Tangle Lake Intel Superconducting 9 January, 2018 49
IBM Dublin IBM Superconducting 27

Source: IBM, Verdict, Wikipedia (sources cited: Nature, Live Science, IBM, Futurism, MIT Technology Review, IEEE Spectrum, SPIE)
 Genetics
– What is genetics
– History of the genetics
– Mendel, the father of genetics
– Different modes of inheritance
– Example of certain genetic diseases

Assoc. Prof. Sibel YILMAZ

 What is genetics
• Ancient Greek word Genesis: origin, formation,
creation…
• Genetics is a discipline that study about genes,
variations and heredity.
• Heredity is the passing of traits from parents to
offsprings.
• For example; eye colors, hair colors, blood groups
etc.
• Genetics is a multidisciplinary science.
• Genetics works together with biology, chemistry,
physics, computer technology ect.
History of Genetics
 History of Genetics
• Genetics is considered as a new science division.
Actually, many philosopher (Pythagoras,
Hippocrates, Aristotle, Epicurus etc) contributed
genetics science in medieval times.
• Because origin of life and inheritance were always
a subject of interest.
• Many theories (abiogenesis, preformation,
epigenesis etc.) were proposed by theorists
before scientific revolution.
• Modern genetics began with
the works of Gregor Mendel on
pea plants.
• Between 1856 and 1863 he
perfomed many hybridization
experiments with pea plant and
published results in 1866
Gregor Mendel
(Experiments in Plant Hybrids) 1822-1884
• However this milestone work of
genetics was not understood by
science society at that time.
• About 30 years later Mendel’s
studies were rediscovered by
scientists.
Original paper of Mendel
 After Mendel

• Friedrich Miescher isolated

nucleic acids from white
blood cells in 1869.
• And identified the chemical
structure of nucleic acids in
1871.
• Walter Flemming (1843-1905)
• Identified cell division process (1882)
• Theodor Boveri (1862-1914)
• He pointed out relation between
chromosomes and inheritance.
• Chromosome: Double-stranded DNA and
associated histone proteins. Condensed form
of DNA by histone proteins.
• William Bateson (1861-1926)
• Term of Genetics (1909)

• Wilhelm Johannsen (1857-1927)

• Genes are the fundamental unit of
heritable phenotypic traits (1909)

• Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945)

• Genes are on the chromosomes
(1910)
• Later, scientists made studies to understand
which material in our cell serves as genetic
material.
• Frederick Griffith (1928)
• Avery, MacLeod and McCarty (1944)
• Hershey and Chase (1952)
 Identification of DNA as The Genetic
Material; Experiments of Frederick Griffith
• Frederick Griffith formed a basis to prove the DNA as
genetic material (1928).
• He choosed 2 strains of Diplococcus pneumoniae.
• IIIS strain (virulent) has a polysaccharide capsule and
produce smooth colonies.
• IIR strain (avirulent) do not have capsule and produce
rough colonies.
• Using these bacterial strains he performed an
experiment.
 Griffith’s Conclusions

Something from the dead type IIIS

bacteria, transformed type IIR into type
IIIS bacteria.

Called this process transformation

Identification of DNA as The Genetic Material;
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty Experiments
• There are 4 categories of biomolecules in the cells.
1. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
2. Proteins
3. Carbohydrates
4. Lipids
• Each of these biomolecules were candidate to be
genetic material.
• In 1944 Avery, MacLeod and McCarty used enzymes
to hydrolyse this molecules.
Identification of DNA as The Genetic Material;
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty Experiments
• They homogenized and filtered virulent IIIS type
bacteria to obtain a mixture of proteins, lipids, DNA,
RNA and carbohydrates.
• Then they divided his mixture into 5 tubes.
• They added one of the enzymes that hydrolyze the a
biomolecule, on each tube.
• Then the mixtures were mixed avirulent IIR type
bacteria.
• After cultivation, IIR type bacteria were injected to the
mice.
• And they observed only the mouse that injected with
DNaz enzyme containing mixture, was alive.
• They concluded that DNA is genetic material.
Identification of DNA as The Genetic Material;
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty Experiments
Identification of DNA as The Genetic Material;
Hershey and Chase Experiments

• Hershey and Chase confirmed the DNA as

genetic material by using T2 phage (a virus)
and radioisotopes of phosphorus and
sulphur.
• Phosphorus exist in DNA while sulphur in
proteins.
• They marked DNA and proteins with
radioisotopes of phosphorus and sulphur.
• Phage T2
Life cycle of phage T2
• They used radioisotopes of phosphorus
and sulphur to distinguish DNA from
proteins.
– 32P labels DNA specifically
– 35S labels protein specifically

• Infect non-radioactive E. coli with

radioactively-labeled phages.
• Remove phage coats from cells.
• Is the 32P or 35S inside bacteria?
 Discovery of the DNA structure
• After it was understood that the
genetic material is DNA, scientists
made studies to identify the
structure of DNA.
• Erwin Chargaff (1952)
• Rasalind Elsie Franklind (1952)
• Watson and Crick(1953)
• He had worked on base
concentrations in DNA
(1949-1951).
• He found that Erwin Chargaff
1. Amount of purine and 1905-2002

pyrimidine is equal
(A+G=C+T).
2. Adenine amount is equal
with thymine while
guanine with cytosine
(A=T and G=C).
3. Amount of A+T do not
have to be equal with
G+C.
• They worked X-ray diffraction.
• With this method they could take
X-ray photographs of DNA (1951-
1953).
• These photos helped to
understand DNA double helix Rasalind Elsie Franklin
1920-1958
structure.

Maurice H. Wilkins
1916-2004
• In 1953, Structure of DNA was discovered.
• While using Franklind, Wilkins and Chargaff
datas Watson and Crick suggested the double
helix model of DNA.
• They were awarded with Nobel Prize in 1962.

James D. Watson Francis H. Crick

1928-… 1916-2004
• Watson and Crick
described DNA as
a double helix that
contained two
long, helical
strands wound
together. In their
model, each DNA
strand contained
individual units
called bases, and
the bases along
one DNA strand
matched the bases
along the other
DNA strand.
• Another type of nucleic acid, mRNA, was
discovered (1961)

Francois Jacob Matthew Meselson Sydney Brenner

1920-2013 1930… 1927…
 Modification of DNA

• Together with Kent W.

Wilcox, Smith discovered
restriction enzymes (1970).
• Isolation and
characterization of these
Hamilton O. Smith
enzymes allowed to make 1931….
recombinant DNA
molecules.
 First Transgenic Mouse

• Transgenic organisms
have a gene from an
other organism.
• Naturally don't exist.
• They are produce in
laboratuvar conditions.
 What is Genetics?
• Genetics is a
multidisciplinary science
that study about genes,
variations and heredity in
organisms.
• Related with cell,
organism and their
offspring, population etc.
 Genetic Material
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
acid) is genetic material
of all organisms.
• DNA is a nucleic acid.
• Nucleic acids are
polymeric
macromolecules.
• Units of these
macromolecules are
nucleotides.
 Function of Genetic Material

1. Information; the genetic material must contains the

information that necessary to construct of an entire
organism.
2. Transmission; the genetic material can be passed from
parent to offspring.
3. Replication; the genetic material must be accurately
copied
4. Variation; the genetic material must have diversity as is
found in the innumerable forms of life.
 What is Gene?
• Gene is a molecular unit of living
organisms.
• Usually a DNA fragment. In viruses
sometimes RNA.
• Genes hold the information and encode
proteins that needed for biological
processes, to build and maintain an
organism's life.
 Where is Gene?
Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic cell
 Structure of Genes
A gene contains
1. Promoter (regulatory region), initiates
transcription of a particular gene and locates
near the transcription start sites.
2. Coding region, have codes for protein
synthesis.
3. Termination site (stop), has some marks to
terminate of a gene transcription.
 Gene expression
• DNA only have information. It can not make
processes that occur in our cell, directly.
• It transcribes RNA and RNA is translated to the
proteins.
Protein synthesis
 All of our cell have same genes
• All of our cells were produced from one single
cell (zygote).
• How they specialize to have different function.
• In the early stages of our embryonic
development, the certain genes in our cells begin
to be silenced.
• Each cell types have different active genes.
• Another word, every cell have their unique
protein content.
• For example, epithelial cells do not need insulin
hormone. Therefore, the genes that responsible
from production of insulin are inactivated.
• Inactivation process of the genes are so complex.
Simply, location of the gene that will be
inactivated, are packaged with histone proteins.
 Heterochromatin and Euchromatin
• These packaged parts of
DNA are called
heterochromatin.
• Genes in the
heterochromatin can not
expressed (inactive
genes).
• The less intense part is
named euchromatin.
• Genes in the
euchromatin are active.
 Mendel, The Father of Genetics
• Some other scientists also had worked about
heredity before mendel.
• What are the differences between Mendel’s
and others experiment?
• Why Mendel’s results are important.
• Because Mendel designed an excellent
methodology that necessary for experimental
biology.
 Mendel’s experimental approach
1. He chose a good model organism.
• Short life cycle.
• It matures in a season.
• Pea plant can easily be grown.
• Hybridization of pea is easy.
• Have many phenotypic differences.
• Many seeds can be obtained from one plant
(needed for reliability of statistical data).
2. He chose seven easily detectable phenotypic
traits passed down to successive generations. Each
of these traits are presented with opposite
characters.
• Flower color (Purple, White)
• Flower position (Axial, Terminal)
• Seed pod color (Green, Yellow)
• Seed pod shape (Inflated, Constricted)
• Seed color (Yellow, Green)
• Seed shape (Round, Wrinkled)
• Plant height (Tall, Dwarf)
3. He use just one or a few numbers of
characters in every hybridization.
• purple flower X white flower (monohybrid)
• tall plant with yellow seed X dwarf plant with
green seed (dihybrid)
4. He recorded of every quantitative results
obteined from hybridization experiments.
• Important for a good statistical analysis to
obtain a ratio.
5. Established many rules of heredity.
Mendel’s Pea
 An example of Mendel Experiment

Purple Flower Plant X White Flower Plant

Genotypes WW ww

W w
Gametes

F1 Genotype Ww
F1 Phenotype All plants have purple flowers
 F1 self crosses
F1 Phenotype Purple Flower Plant X Purple Flower Plant
F1 Genotype Ww Ww
Gametes W w W w

F2 Genotypes WW Ww Ww ww
F2 Genotype Ratios 1 : 2 : 1

F2 Phenotypes Purple Purple Purple White

F2 Phenotype Ratios 3 : 1
 Mendel’s Rules
Mendel propounded four principles of heredity.
1. Paired Factors
• Genetic characters are controlled by some factors
that exist as two copies (paired) in an organism.
2. Dominant and Recessive
• Paired factors, responsible from one character, can
result different phenotypes. In this case one of these
factors is more effective (dominant) while other
(recessive) do not appear in the following
generation.
 Dominant vs Recessive
• All diploid organisms have two sets of chromosomes
(Pea, 2n=14).
• One set is inherited maternally other paternaly.
• Every chromosome set have same genes with different
alleles.
• Different alleles of a certain gene can be expressed
unequally.
• In this case an allele that has more impact in
phenotype is dominant while other is recessive.
3. Independent Segregation
• During gamete formation paired factors of a
gene segregate randomly. And each gamete
have one of these factors in equal ratio.

4. Independent Assortment
• During gamete formation paired factor of
different genes are inherited independently of
another one.
 How can we study of a certain
phenotype’s inheritance in Human?
• Studying with model orgamisms is easy.
• Because they can produce many offspring in a
short time.
• Also you can perform controlled crosses.
• What about human?
• How can we study inheritance of certain traits
in human?
 Pedigree (Family Tree)
• Inheritance model of a certain phenotype can
be determined by pedigree.
• To draw a pedigree for a certain phenotype,
we have to search previous generations.
• When the pedigree is formed the persons
carying this certain phenotype are marked.
• And possible genotypes of other persons can
be guessed.
 Example for Pedigree
• Roman numbers are
generations.
• Arabic numbers are
persons.
• Circle shape is
woman.
• Square is man.
• Lozenge is unknown P
gender.
• Dark circle is ill
woman (proposita).
• Dark square is ill
man (propositus).
P
• Half colored is
carrier.
 Pedigree for autosomal
dominant characters
Aa or AA
Aa aa

Aa or AA
Aa aa aa aa aa Aa

Aa aa aa aa
Aa or AA Aa or AA
 Pedigree for autosomal
recessive character
Aa or AA Aa or AA
Aa Aa

Aa or AA
Aa Aa Aa aa
Aa or AA Aa or AA Aa or AA Aa or AA

aa Aa aa Aa
Aa or AA Aa or AA Aa or AA
Are the Mendelian Rules Always True?
• Today we know that inheritance of some
characters does not obey the Mendelian rules.
– Linkage genes
– Incomplete dominance
– Codominance
– Multiple alleles (that control one phenotype)
– Lethal alleles (dominant or recessive)
– Inheritance with sex chromosomes
– Epistasis
– Genetic complementation
– Pleiotropy
– Polygenic inheritance
– …
 Incomplete Dominance

• Opposite alleles of same genes might not be

dominant or recessive.

• In this case they can cause an intermediate

phenotype (no similarity with both parents).
P phenotypes

P genotypes R1R1 R2R2 R1R2 R1R2

P gametes R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2

F1 phenotypes

F1 genotypes R1R2
All plants have pink flower R1R1 R1R2 R1R2 R2R2
Genotype ratios 1:2:1
Phenotype ratios 1:2:1
 Codominance
• Both alleles of a gene can be expressed and
resulted with two proteins.
• In this case we can observe both phenotypes
at the same time.
• MN blood type is an example for codominance.
• This system was defined by K. Landsteiner and P.
Levin.
• They find out a glycoprotein at the red blood
cell’s surface.
• This protein is encoded by a gene located at the
fourth chromosome.
• In human this protein have two forms (MN).
 Genotype Phenotype
LMLM M
LMLN MN
LNLN N

LMLN LMLN

LM LN LM LN

LMLM LMLN LMLN LNLN

Phenotype Ratio 1 : 2 : 1
 Multiple Alleles
• A diploid organism can have two alleles of a
gene.
• But in the population there can be many
alternative of gene forms.
• Multiple alleles can only be studied in the
populations.
• The best example is ABO blood type
carbohydrate antigens.
• Gene of this protein is located at ninth
chromosome.
• And this gene have three alternative forms
(alleles).
• An individual can have one of six possible
genotypes (IAIA, IAIO, IBIB, IBIO, IAIB, IOIO).
• These genotypes cause four phenotypes (A, B,
AB, O).

A=B>O
• There is no standard ratio for ABO blood type.
• Different crosses give different phenotype
ratio.
Phenotypes Genotypes Possible blood types Phenotype Ratios
AXA I AI O X I AI O AA, AO, AO, OO 3:1
BXB IBIO X IBIO BB, BO, BO, OO 3:1
AXB IAIO X IBIO AO, BO, AB, OO 1:1:1:1
A X AB IAIO X IAIB AA, AO, AB, BO 2:1:1
AXO IAIO X IOIO AO, AO, OO, OO 1:1
B X AB IBIO X IAIB BB, BO, AB, AO 2:1:1
BXO IBIO X IOIO BO, OO 1:1
AB X O IAIB X IOIO AO, BO 1:1
AB X AB I AI B X IAI B AA, AB, AB, BB 1:2:1
 Inheritance with sex chromosomes
• In many animals and some plants, one gender
(male or female) has a different chromosome
pair that responsible for sex.
• In human (2n=46) these are X and Y
chromosomes.
• Both genders have 22 autosomal chromosome
pairs.
• Females have XX sex chromosomes while
males have XY.
• Genes that located at X chromosomes,
cannot be homozygote or heterozygote in
males.
• Because males just have one X
chromosome.
• These genes are hemizygote and there is
no alternative allele also no dominance.
• One type of daltonizm (color blindness),
Hemophilia A and B, Hunter syndrome etc.
are the some examples for X-linkage traits.
 Cy cc

CC cy Cc cy Cc Cy

Cy Cc Cy cy

CC or Cc
Cc

CC or Cc
CC or Cc
C: Normal
c: color blindness
y: Y chromosome
• All these inheritance mechanisms (multiple allele,
incomplete dominance…) is about the interaction
between alleles of same gene.
• However different genes can also affect each
other.
Ephistasis
• Epistasis is the term
that refers to the
action of
one gene upon
another.
• In other word a gene
can repress another
gene.
 Genetic complementation
• Genetic complementation is the
opposit stuation of Epistasis.
• In this case, both genes are
responsible from same character.
But none of them can show its
phenotype without other.
• For example; A and B genes are
responsible from purple flower
color.
• For purple flower, dominant allels
of both genes have to be
together. Otherwise flowers will
be white.
– AaBb (purple), Aabb(White),
aaBB(White)…
 Pleiotropy
• Pleiotropy occurs when one gene influences two
or more seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits.
• In other words one gene influences multiple
phenotypic traits.
 Polygenic inheritance
• A trait that is determined by several genes.
• Eye, hair, skin color are the example of polygenic traits.
• Polygenic traits can show continuous variation within a
population.
• Height is a good example of a polygenic trait, as well,
because within a given population, we could have a wide
range of continuous differences of that trait.
• And height is also a multi-factorial trait. Because height can
be determined by a person's genes, but it can also be
determined by a person's environment.
• So your genes can help determine how tall you will be, but
environmental factors, such as nutrition, can also play a role
in a person's height
 Penetrance
• Penetrance refers to the probability of a gene or
trait being expressed.
• In some cases, despite the presence of a dominant
allele, a phenotype may not be present.
• One example of this is polydactyly in humans
(extra fingers and/or toes).
• A dominant allele causes polydactyly in humans
but not all humans who have the allele display the
extra finger.
• If 80% of the people who inherit this dominant
allel have extra finger, we can say the penetrance
of this allele is 80%.
 Expressivity
• Expressivity on the other hand refers to variation in
phenotypic expression when an allele is penetrant.
• Back to the polydactyly example, an extra finger can be
full size or just a stub.
• Hence, this allele has reduced penetrance as well as
variable expressivity.
• Variable expressivity refers to the range of signs and
symptoms that can occur in different people with the
same genetic condition.
 Cytoplasmic Inheritance
• Genetic studies showed that Mendelian type of inheritance is not
always true.
• There are some other inheritance mechanisms that can not be
explain with Mendel rules.
• Codominance, incomplate dominance, multiple allels… these are
only some example of them.
• However these certain types of inheritance are still interested with
nuclear genes.
• As known genes are DNA fragments and most percentages of our
DNA is located in the nucleus.
• However cytoplasm of a cell also have DNA fragments. These DNA
fragments can be genetic material of an organelle (mitochondria
and chloroplast) or free cytoplasmic DNA that inserted into cell via
viruses.
• Another type of cytoplasmic inheritance is mediated by proteins
that reserved in egg cell.
• These three inheritance mechanisms are
maternal and not include nuclear genome.
• They are also called extra nuclear inheritance.
1. Inheritance with organelle (mitochondria and
chloroplast)
2. Inheritance with viruses.
3. Maternal effect.
• First and second are still mediated with DNA
but extra nuclear DNA, the last one is
mediated by proteins.
 1. Inheritance with organelle
• Mitochondria and chloroplast are two organelle
that have their own DNA.
• During fertilisation of egg cell with sperma, only
sperm nucleus enter inside of egg cell.
• This meaning is that all mitochondria (in animals
and plants) and chloroplast (in plants) are
inherited from mother to the offsprings.
• If egg donor have a mutation that cause a disease
at DNA of mitochondria or chloroplast this
mutation will be inherited to all offsprings.
1. Green color plant (female) X White color plant (male)
All plants green

2. White color plant (female) X Green color plant (male)

All plants white

3. Mixed color plant (female) X Green color plant (male)

White, green or mixed plants

4. Green color plant (female) X Mixed color plant (male)

All plants green
Example Pedigree for mitochondrial
inheritance
 2. Inheritance with viruses
• Some viruses (rarely bacteria) can live in an
eukaryotic cell as symbiotically.
• They can reproduce inside to cell and pass to
the new generations.
• So, if a viruse DNA causes a specific character
this will be inherited by only egg cell.
• For example; a viruse (sigma viruse) causes
CO2 sensitivity in fruit fly.
1. CO2 sensitive female X normal male
all fruit fly are sensitive

2. Normal female X CO2 sensitive male

all fruit fly are normal
 3. Maternal effect
• This last type of cytoplasmic inheritance is not
mediated by gene.
• During egg formation some proteins are produced and
reserved in cytoplasm.
• An example of this type of inheritance is Shell shape of
Limnaea peregra.
• Limnaea is a hermaphrodite snail.
• The gene that determines the Shell shape have two
alleles.
• D allele causes dextral (right side) type and d sinistral
(left side). And d is dominant to d.
• This gene is expressed proteins and these proteins are
reserved in egg cell.
Chemical compounds and Their important roles in History
the use and importance of salt
NaCl
Salt plays a crucial role in maintaining human health. It is the main source of sodium and chloride
ions in the human diet. Sodium is essential for nerve and muscle function and is involved in the
regulation of fluids in the body. Sodium also plays a role in the body’s control of blood pressure
and volume.

Table salt, sodium chloride (NaCl), is a naturally occurring mineral essential for animal life.

Salt is one of the most widely used and oldest forms of food seasoning

Salt can preserve food, (fish, meat,

it used as a good antiseptic,

The Egyptians were the first to realize the preservation possibilities of salt. Sodium draws the
bacteria-causing moisture out of foods, drying them and making it possible to store meat without
refrigeration for extended periods of time.
Throughout the history, salt has been subjected to governmental monopoly and special taxes.

The British monarchy supported itself with high salt taxes,

In 1785, 10,000 people were arrested for salt smuggling in England,

Protesting British rule in 1930, Mahatma Gandhi led a 200-mile march to the Arabian Ocean to
collect untaxed salt for India's poor. Mahatma Gandhi defied British salt laws as a means of
mobilizing popular support for self-rule in India

Salt motivated the American pioneers. The American Revolution had heroes who were salt
makers and part of the British strategy was to deny the American rebels access to salt.

It is recorded that thousands of Napoleon's troops died during his retreat from Moscow because
their wounds would not heal due to the lack of salt.
The word "salary" was derived from the word "salt." Salt was highly valued and its production was
legally restricted in ancient times, so it was historically used as a method of trade and currency.
Greek slave traders often bartered salt for slaves,
Roman legionnaires were paid in salt—salarium, the Latin origin of the word "salary."

Offering bread and salt to visitors, in many cultures, is traditional etiquette.

Tuzla is actually named for "tuz," the Turkish word for salt. The same is true for Salzburg, Austria, which
has made its four salt mines major tourist attractions.
Salt has long held an important place in religion and culture.
Greek worshippers consecrated salt in their rituals.
Jewish Temple offerings included salt; on the Sabbath, people of the Jewish faith still dip their bread in salt
as a remembrance of those sacrifices.
In Buddhist tradition, salt repels evil spirits, which is why it is customary to throw salt over your shoulder
before entering your house after a funeral: it scares off any evil spirits that may be clinging to your back.
Shinto religion also uses salt to purify an area. Before sumo wrestlers enter the ring for a a handful of salt
is thrown into the center to drive off malevolent spirits.
In 1933, the Dalai Lama was buried sitting up in a bed of salt.
Before sumo wrestlers enter the ring for a handful of salt
is thrown into the center to drive off malevolent spirits.
The Spice Trade & Great Geological Discoviries
Valuable spices used in food preparation across Europe included pepper, ginger, cloves,
nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, saffron, anise, zedoary, cumin, and cloves. Although most of these
were reserved for the tables of the rich, even the poorer classes used pepper whenever they
could get it. Spices, despite their cost, were used in great quantities.

One of the major motivating factors in the European Age of Exploration was the search for
direct access to the highly lucrative Eastern spice trade. In the 15th century, spices came to
Europe via the Middle East land and sea routes, and spices were in huge demand both for
food dishes and for use in medicines. The problem was how to access this market by sea.
Accordingly, explorers like Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) and Vasco da Gama (c. 1469-
1524) were sent to find a maritime route from Europe to Asia.
Copper the first element we used
Copper use dates back to around 9000 BC in the Middle East. Originally, it was
mined as native metal, but it was one of the earliest smelted metals, leading to the
Bronze Age. Copper beads dating about 6000 BC were found in Anatolia.

Copper was the first metal to be smelted from sulfide ores, circa 5000 BC; the first
metal to be cast into a shape in a mold, c. 4000 BC; and the first metal to be
purposely alloyed with another metal, tin, to create bronze, c. 3500 BC.[5]
In the Roman era, copper was mined principally on Cyprus, the origin of the name of
the metal, from aes сyprium (metal of Cyprus), later corrupted
to сuprum (Latin). Coper (Old English) and copper were derived from this, the later
spelling first used around 1530.[6]

Numerous copper alloys have been formulated, many with important uses. Brass is
an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze usually refers to copper-tin alloys, but can refer
to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze.
• 1817 yılında Danimarka Kopenhag ulusal Müzesi müdürü Thomsen hangi döneme
ait olduğu bilinmeyen buluntuları sergilerken hammadde ve teknolojinin bir
gösterge olabileceğini öngörmüş ve taş, tunç ve demir olarak geçmişi sınıflandırmış
ve müzede sergiyi buna göre oluşturmuştur.
Prehistory (to 600 B.C.)

The Prehistoric era in human history reflects the period between the appearance of humans on the planet
(roughly 2.5 million years ago) and 600 B.C. (Before Christ) or 1200 B.C., depending on the region. It
indicates the period on Earth in which there was human activity, but little to no records of human history.
This era is also known as the Foundational era, as many foundations of human civilization occurred during
this span of time.

Major Periods of the Prehistoric Era

The Prehistoric era can be divided into three shorter eras based on the advancements that occurred in those
time periods. They include:

•The Stone Age (2.5 million B.C. to 3000 B.C.) - documents the human migration from Africa and first use of
tools by Neanderthals, Denisovans and early humans
•The Bronze Age (3000 B.C. to 1300 B.C.) - humans settle in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and ancient
Egypt; invention of the wheel and metalworking
•The Iron Age (1300 B.C. to 600 B.C.) - formation of planned cities, introduction of ironworks, steel, and
writing systems
 Tarih öncesi Çağlar (Prehistorik)

Eski Taş Çağı

Yontma Taş Devri 2,5 milyon yıl - M.Ö. 12000
Paleolitik Çağ

Orta Taş Çağı

Taş Devri
Avrupa'da Mezolitik Çağ M.Ö. 12000 - M.Ö. 9000
Ön Asya'da Protoneolitik Çağ

Cilalı Taş Devri

M.Ö. 9000 - M.Ö. 5500
Neolitik Kültür Evresi

Erken Kalkolitik
Bakır Devri
Bakır Taş Çağı
Orta Kalkolitik M.Ö. 5000 - M.Ö. 3000
Kalkolitik Çağ
Maden Taş Çağı Geç Kalkolitik
 Tarih Çağları (Historical)
Erken Tunç Çağı I M.Ö. 3300–3000
Erken Tunç Çağı Erken Tunç Çağı II M.Ö. 3000–2700
(M.Ö. 3300–2000) Erken Tunç Çağı III M.Ö. 2700–2200
Erken Tunç Çağı IV M.Ö. 2200–2000
Orta Tunç Çağı I M.Ö. 2000–1750
Tunç Devri [2] Orta Tunç Çağı
Orta Tunç Çağı II M.Ö. 1750–1650
(M.Ö. 2000–1550)
Orta Tunç Çağı III M.Ö. 1650–1550
Geç Tunç Çağı I M.Ö. 1550–1400
İlk Çağ [1] Geç Tunç Çağı
Geç Tunç Çağı II A M.Ö. 1400–1300
(M.Ö. 1550–1200)
(Antik tarih) Geç Tunç Çağı II B M.Ö. 1300–1200

Demir Devri Geometrik Dönem M.Ö. 1100 - 900

(M.Ö. 1190 - M.Ö. 330) Oryantalizan Dönem M.Ö. 900 - 800
[3]
Arkaik Dönem M.Ö. 800 - 480
Klasik Dönem M.Ö. 480 - 334
Helenistik Dönem M.Ö. 334 - 30
Roma Dönemi M.Ö. 30 - M.S. 303
Roma'dan Bizans'a geçiş Dönemi M.S. 303 - 5. yüzyıl

M.S. 5. yüzyıl - 7. yüzyıl

Erken Bizans Dönemi
İkonaklazma Dönemi M.S. 726 - 842
Orta Çağ [4]
Orta Bizans Dönemi M.S. 842 - 1204
Latin istilası Dönemi M.S. 1204 - 1261
Geç Bizans Dönemi M.S. 1261 - 1492

Yeni Çağ Amerika'nın Keşfi Fransız İhtilali M.S. 1492 -1789

Yakın Çağ [5] 1789 - >
 C
o
f
f
e

One story about the origin of coffee is that of a goatherd, tending goats on a mountainside in
Ethiopia.
The goats, tired and hungry, stopped to chew on some cherries and began to grow very frisky.
The cherry seemed to drive away fatigue. People tried roasting the seeds inside and brewing
them to drink. Speculation rose about its healing properties.
From Ethiopia, the cherry traveled to Yemen.
By the seventeenth century coffee reached Europe, portrayed alternately as a health remedy
(“for Head-ach,” “Cough of the Lungs,” and “very good to prevent Mis-carryings”)
In 1820, caffe-ine was discovered from the seed of a coffee cherry.
Caffeine is the plant’s bitter alkaloid. When extracted from the seed, it crystallizes into powder. It
is the most popular stimulant on earth.
BARUT

How Gunpowder Changed the World

It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon (in the form of charcoal) and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). The
sulfur and carbon act as fuels while the saltpeter is an oxidizer.

Gunpowder made warfare all over the world very different, affecting the way battles were fought and
borders were drawn throughout the Middle Ages.

KNO3 (k) + C (k) + S + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + CO (g) + N2(g)+ K2CO3(k) + K2S(k)
İlk defa Çinliler tarafından bulunmuş, XII. yüzyılda bütün Asya kıtasına, bir süre sonra da Avrupa’ya
yayılmıştır. Bununla beraber ilk defa nasıl kullanıldığı, kimin tarafından geliştirildiği, hatta kıtalar arasında
nasıl yayıldığı hakkındaki bilgiler azdır.

Barutun insan toplulukları üzerindeki etkisi büyük oldu. Barut toplumların ve devletlerin yapısını
değiştirdiği gibi orduların güçleri de onu kullanan devlete göre arttı. Gemilerde kullanılması, top
atışlarının farklı şekiller almasına ve deniz kıyısındaki devletlerin siyasetlerini değiştirmelerine yol açtı.

Silahlarda patlayıcı özelliğinden değil, ittirme kuvvetinden yararlanılmaktadır.

 Pesticides:

Are any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing,

destroying, or controlling any pest, unwanted species of plants or animals,
causing harm during the production, processing, storage, transport, or
marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or
animal feedstuffs, or substances
In general, a pesticide is a chemical or biological agent that deters,
incapacitates, kills, or otherwise discourages pests.

Chemical compound of S, As, Hg and Pb were used for

controlling pests for a long time period in the past.

Today we need pesticides to supply more food to Word.

 Type Action
Algicides Control algae in lakes, canals, swimming pools, water tanks, and other sites
Antimicrobials Kill microorganisms (such as bacteria and viruses)
Attractants Attract pests (for example, to lure an insect or rodent to a trap).
Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and
Biopesticides
certain minerals
Biocides Kill microorganisms
Fungicides Kill fungi (including blights, mildews, molds, and rusts)
Fumigants Produce gas or vapor intended to destroy pests in buildings or soil
Herbicides Kill weeds and other plants that grow where they are not wanted
Insecticides Kill insects and other arthropods
Miticides Kill mites that feed on plants and animals
Microbial
Microorganisms that kill, inhibit, or out compete pests, including insects or other microorganisms
pesticides
Molluscicides Kill snails and slugs
Ovicides Kill eggs of insects and mites
Pheromones Biochemicals used to disrupt the mating behavior of insects
Repellents Repel pests, including insects (such as mosquitoes) and birds
Rodenticides Control mice and other rodents
İnsektisit: böcek öldürücü;
Fungusit: mantar öldürücü,
Herbisit: yabancı ot öldürücü,
Akarisit: örümcek öldürücü,
Bakterisit: bakteri öldürücü,
Afisit: yaprak biti öldürücü,
Rodentisit: kemirgen öldürücü,
Molluskisit: salyangoz öldürücü,
Algisit: algleri öldürücü,
Fungustatik: mantar faaliyetlerini durdurucu,
Avenisit: kuşları öldürücü veya kaçırıcı,
Repellent: böcek ve tavşan gibi zarar veren hayvanları kaçırıcı,
Aktraktan: zararlı hayvanları kendine çeken,
Ovisidis: kene ve böcek yumurtası öldürücü,
Feromonos: böceklerin üremelerini engelleyici,
Mikrobiyal pestisitler: mikroorganizmaları öldürücü.
 DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by the Austrian chemist
Othmar Zeidler. DDT's insecticidal action was discovered by the
Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller in 1939. DDT was used in
the second half of World War II to limit the spread of the
DDT, insect-borne diseases malaria and typhus among civilians and
(dikloro difenil trikloroethan) troops. Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine in 1948 "for his discovery of the high efficiency of
DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods"

In 1972, EPA issued a cancellation order for DDT based on its adverse environmental
effects, such as those to wildlife, as well as its potential human health risks. Since
then, studies have continued, and a relationship between DDT exposure and
reproductive effects in humans is suspected, based on studies in animals.
DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) is an insecticide, DDT was first synthesized in 1874
by the Austrian chemist Othmar Zeidler. DDT's insecticidal action was discovered by the Swiss
chemist Paul Hermann Müller in 1939. DDT was used in the second half of World War II to limit
the spread of the insect-borne diseases malaria and typhus among civilians and troops. Müller
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948 "for his discovery of the high
efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods"

The publication in 1962 of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring stimulated widespread public concern
over the dangers of improper pesticide use and the need for better pesticide controls.
In 1972, EPA issued a cancellation order for DDT based on its adverse environmental effects, such
as those to wildlife, as well as its potential human health risks. Since then, studies have
continued, and a relationship between DDT exposure and reproductive effects in humans is
suspected, based on studies in animals.

Exposure to DDT in people likely occurs from eating foods, including meat, fish, and dairy
products. DDT exposure can occur by eating, breathing, or touching products contaminated with
DDT. DDT can convert into DDE, and both persist in body and environment. In the body, DDT
converts into several breakdown products called metabolites, including the metabolite
dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene (DDE). The body’s fatty tissues store DDT and DDE. In pregnant
women, DDT and DDE exposure can occur in the fetus. Both chemicals can be in breast milk,
resulting in exposure to nursing infants.
 Biotechnolgy

– What is biotechnology
– History of the biotechnology
– Examples and applications
– Colors of biotechnology

Assoc. Prof. Sibel YILMAZ

 What is biotechnology
• Biotechnology is the manipulation of living organisms
and organic material to serve human needs.

Living organisms or Manipulation

Solving
Products of living with technological
problems
organisms way

• Focuses on a variety of research

areas including:
– Health/medicine
– Food science
– Environmental science
– Agriscience
– …….
• Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary science,
involving input from

• Engineering
• Computer Science
• Cell and Molecular Biology
• Microbiology
• Genetics
• Physiology
• Biochemistry
• Immunology
• Virology
• Recombinant DNA Technology → Genetic
manipulation of bacteria, viruses, fungi, plants
and animals, often for the development of specific
products
Colors of Biotechnology
 History of Biotechnology
• Biotechnology is not a new science division. It might be
acceptable one of the oldest science.
• Human had to follow biotechnological processes for their
requirements, even before sedentary lifestyle.
• History of the biotechnology can be divided into three eras;
―Ancient Biotechnology
―Classical Biotechnology
―Modern Biotechnology
• Ancient Biotechnology
- early history as related to cultivation of
plants, domestication of animals,
construction of shelter, usage of plants as
drug, fermented foods…

• Classical Biotechnology
―built on ancient biotechnology
―application of ancient
biotecnology in large scale,
Industry initiatives
―Development in medicine
• Modern Biotechnology
―manipulates genetic
information in organism
―genetic engineering
 Ancient Biotechnology
• Not known when biotechnology began exactly
• Ancient biotechnology focused on having food
and other human needs.
• Useful plants were collected from the wild and
planted near caves where people lived.
(Beginning of plant cultivation )
• As food was available, ability to store and
preserve emerged.
• Food preservation most likely came from
unplanned events such as a fire or freeze.
• Knife and spare that were maden from
bones of dead animals.

• First clothes were maden from

fur, leather and leaves
• Shelters construction
with tree and animal’s
products.

• Boat was maden from

tree and used for
hunting or immigration.
 • Cultivation of plants and
domestication of animals.

• Treatments of
diseases with some
plants and animals.

• Fermented food like

cheese, yoğurt, wine
vinegar…
• 15,000 years ago, humans were hunting to
had meat and collecting plants from wild as
food.
• It was not easy and food supplies often
seasonal. Winter food supplies may get quite
low.
• 11,000 – 12,000 years ago in the middle east
they started domestication and cultivation
processes.
• They collected seeds from nature and planted
it near to their cave. With this way they
learned the growing conditions of plants such
as water, light, soil, maturation of seed.
• Without knowing genetic inheritance, they
collected different variety of plants and cross
them to obtain more valuable ones (artificial
selection).
• Rice, barley and wheat were among the first
cultivated plants.
• Domestication of animals began about the
same time in history.
• Humans learned how they feed the animals,
how they obtain more products from them.
• Cattle, goats and sheep were the first
domesticated food animals.
• About 10,000 years ago, people had learned
enough about plants and animals to grow
their own food
• Domestication and cultivation resulted in food
supplies being greater in certain times of the
year.
• This brought a problem. Spoilage !!!

• Spoilage occurs when the

food get contaminated
with microorganisms like
bacteria and mildew.
• People need a methods for preservation and
storage.
• They realised;
‒ Foods stored in a cool cave did not spoil quickly
‒ Foods heated by fire also did not spoil quickly
• Used this processes that prevent or slow
spoilage.
• Every organisms survive only an optimum
environmental conditions.
• Heating of foods kills all microorganisms.
Sterilization!!!
• Freezing, slows down or even prevents the
reproduction of microorganisms.
• Heating, cooling, keeps microorganisms from
growing.
➢ Fermentation!!! An important discovery in the history
of biotechnology.
• Fermentation is the process that many microorganisms
(yeasts, moulds and bacteria) use to convert sugars
into energy.
• Our early ancestors used microorganisms to make
cheese, yoghurt and bread. They also made alcoholic
drinks like beer and wine.
• Fermentation was probably discovered by accident,
and our early ancestors didn’t know how it worked.
• Louis Pasteur first described the scientific basis for
fermentation in the late 1800s. Pasteur’s hypothesis,
called the germ theory, showed the existence of
microorganisms and their effect on fermentation.
Pasteur’s work gave birth to many branches of science.
➢Examples of fermented foods.
• Cheese was discovered more than 7
thousand years ago by nomadic tribes in Asia.
• They were using leak-proof stomachs and
bladder organs of animals to store and
transport milk and other liquids.
• Stomachs of
ruminants animals
naturally have an
enzyme called rennet.
• Rennet, the enzyme
used to make cheese,
 • Yogurt is an ancient food,
Neolithic period, around 5,000–
10,000 years ago, probably as a
result of milk naturally souring
in warm temperatures.
• Neolithic people were using the pots to store milk.
• When fresh milk is left in a container with some
bacteria (today we know the strains of them;
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermophilus), the milk thickens and turn into yoğurt
because of fermentation.
• In this process lactic acid is produced. This acid
prevents the growing of harmful bacteria.
• Bread ; the earliest bread
was made around 8000 BC
in the Middle East.
• The yeast (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae) known as
baker’s yeast. • The yeast uses sugar
and produce carbon
dioxide.
• This cause rise of
dought.
• Beer is the fermentation of cereals (like
barley).
• Yeasts are the main microorganisms in beer
production (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
Saccharomyces pastorianus).
• Beer was produced as far back as about 7,000
years ago.
• Wine generally is made with fermentation of
grapes by yeasts.
• Different variety of grapes and yeast can be
used in wine production.
• Yeasts use the sugar in the grapes and
converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
• Vinegar is used in many
cultures as a condiment and
preservative liquid because of
its main ingredient called acetic
acid.
• Vinegar is produced from the
fermentation of diluted alcohol
products as well can be made
from a variety of liquids,
including malted barley, rice,
and cider… However, as its
name suggests, it was probably
first made from wine. The word
vinegar derives from the Old
French vinaigre, meaning "sour
wine."
• In a summary, fermented
foods that we consume in
our daily diet, are the
products of biotechnological
process.
• However, production and
conservation of food are not
the only application of • Usage of natural
ancient biotechnology.
and bioprocess
compounds for
treatment of
disease is another
important issue.
• In traditional medicines
organisms or parts of
organisms are used.
• For example,
• Bark of the willow tree-
painkiller and fever
reducer. Acetylsalicylic
acid main component. It
is the active ingredient
of aspirin.
• Opium (Papaver somniferum) – active
ingredient is morphine.
• Honey for respiratory infections and wounds.
Because honey is a natural antibiotic, killing
the germs in wounds.
• Chinese were using mouldy soybean to treat
boils.
• Mouldy cheese were used to treat infected
wounds.
• The moulds released natural antibiotics that
killed bacteria and prevented the spread
of infection.
• These are the some examples of ancient
biotechnological products.
• In the early civilization, humans used the force
of biotechnology to produce what they need.
• With the increasing of human population, new
products were needed in large scale.
• This opened a new era in the history of
biotechnology i.e classical biotechnology.
 Classical Biotechnology
• In the classical era people not only produce the
biotechnological products in large scale, also
found ways to control bioprocess like
fermentation.
• Mechanisms of biological processes were
identified by scientists. New products such as
glycerol, acetone, and citric acid were produced.
• Although moldy foods were used for therapeutic
purposes in ancient times, the first antibiotic,
penicillin, was extracted and identified by
Alexander Fleming in 1929.
• In the classical biotechnology era, plant breeding
studies continued in order to obtain more
productive varieties.
• However, new varieties were needed for breeding
studies.
• In 1940’s, it was discovered that some mutagenic
agents like UV an EMS could be used to obtain
new varieties.
• 40's, 50's and 60's known as green revolution
time.
• Although mutation breeding was a solution at
that time to feed the human population,
thousands of hybridization studies were required
to find more productive varieties.
• This was taking a long time.
 Modern Biotechnology
• Industrialization allowed to production of foods
and drugs in large scale.
• However today humanity need more rapid
solution for their requirements.
• With the development of genetic science and
technology, today we can manipulate the genome
of various organisms to produce more valuable
plants and animals to feed the human population
also new treatment methods for disease…
• These are the benefits of modern biotechnology.
➢Application of modern biotechnology

• Genetically Modified Organism

• Genome projects
• Cloning
• Stem cell
• Genome editing
 Genetically Modified Organism
• Genetically Modified Organism or Transgenic
organisms are organisms whose genetic
material has been changed by the addition of
foreign genes.
• In other word Transgenics are genetically
modified organisms with DNA from another
source inserted into their genome
• Transgenic indicates gene transfer using
recombinant DNA technology.
• In the late 20th century, advances in
technology have enabled us to expand the
genetic diversity of crops.
• For years, university, government and
company scientists intensively researched and
refined this process.
• A major result has been genetically modified
seeds that maintain or increase the yield of
crops while requiring less land and fewer
inputs, both of which lessen the impact of
agriculture on the environment and reduce
costs for farmers.
• While selective breeding and mutagenesis
methods usually involve crossing or altering
thousands of genes, genetic engineering
enables breeders to select a trait or
characteristic that exists in nature and insert
the associated gene(s) into the target plant.
• Genetic engineering also allows a breeder to
make changes in a plant’s makeup without any
insertions whatsoever, for example, by
silencing (“turning off”) existing genes.
 Some examples of GMOs
• Transgenic organisms can be used to produce
proteins for people or animals that cannot produce
such proteins on their own.
• For example, insulin is a protein produced by humans
to break down sugars in the bloodstream.
• However, some people are born without the ability
to produce their own insulin thus making it hard for
them to live.
• Since the advent of transgenic organisms, scientists
have been able to modify animals so that they
produce insulin in large quantities.
• This insulin can then be harvested, processed, and
made available to diabetics who need it.
• Transgenic organism production for
bioremediation.
• Bioremediation is a waste management
technique that involves the use of organisms
to remove or neutralize pollutants from a
contaminated site.
• For this purpose some plant species were
produced by genetic engineering to remove
chemicals like pesticides from soil.
• Soil salinity has become a major problem in all
agricultural areas.
• This has made crops less able to grow and in
some cases unable to grow at all.
• Thus we need to salt tolerant plants that are able
to growth salty land.
• This can be achieved by transgenic plant
production.
• Drought is another problem for agriculture.
• Using recombinant DNA technique it is possible
to produce transgenic plants that have drought
tolerant.
• Cold tolerance Unexpected frost can destroy
sensitive seedlings.
• An antifreeze gene from cold water fish has been
introduced into plants such as tobacco and
potato.
• With this antifreeze gene, these plants are able to
tolerate cold temperatures that normally would
kill unmodified seedlings.
• Disease resistance There are many viruses, fungi
and bacteria that cause plant diseases. Plant
biologists are working to create plants with
genetically-engineered resistance to these
diseases.
• Pesticide resistance Crop losses from insect pests can be
staggering, resulting in devastating financial loss for
farmers and starvation in developing countries.
• Farmers typically use many tons of chemical pesticides
annually.
• Consumers do not wish to eat food that has been treated
with pesticides because of potential health hazards, and
run-off of agricultural wastes from excessive use of
pesticides and fertilizers can poison the water supply and
cause harm to the environment.
• Growing GM foods can help eliminate the application of
chemical pesticides and reduce the cost of bringing a crop
to market.
• Nutrition Malnutrition is common in third world countries. Peoples
rely on a single crop such as rice for the main staple of their diet.
• However, rice does not contain adequate amounts of all necessary
nutrients to prevent malnutrition.
• If rice could be genetically engineered to contain additional
vitamins and minerals, nutrient deficiencies could be alleviated.
• For example, blindness due to vitamin A deficiency is a common
problem in third world countries.
• "golden" rice containing an unusually high content of beta-carotene
(vitamin A) were produced.
• Pharmaceuticals Medicines and vaccines often
are costly to produce and sometimes require
special storage conditions not readily available in
third world countries.
• Researchers are working to develop edible
vaccines in tomatoes and potatoes.
• These vaccines will be much easier to ship, store
and administer than traditional injectable
vaccines.
World map GMO production
Rate of GMO production
1997, Tracy the sheep, the first transgenic
animal to produce a recombinant protein drug
in her milk
• Silk gene from Orb spiders to goats
• The resulting male goats were used to sire silk-producing
female goats Webster and Peter

• Each goat produces several grams of silk protein in her milk

• The silk is extracted, dried to a white powder, and spun into
fibers
• The fibers are stronger and more flexible than steel
ANDi, the first transgenic primate born in January, 2000
224 unfertilized rhesus eggs were infected with a GFP virus
ANDi was the only live monkey carrying the GFP gene
• Other animals having GFP
Transgene -> Gene coding for a growth hormone
• GDF8 (Myostatin) knockout mouse

Naturally Occurring
GDF8 Mutant

normal knockout
 Reasons for gene transfer to plants
• Pesticide resistance
• Parasitic insects and plants resistance
• Pathogenic viruses, fungi, bacteria resistance
• Resistance for environmental conditions (salt, drought
tolerance etc.)
• Late maturation for long shelf life.
• Drug and vaccine production
• Increases nutrients and yields
• Enhances taste and quality
• Allows for new products and growing techniques
• Biofuel production
 Reasons for gene transfer to animal
• Production for human therapeutic proteins.
• Organ and tissue transplantations
• Models for disease
• Cell therapy
• High nutritional value
• Increases resistance, productivity
• Allows for better yields of meat, eggs, and milk
• Improves animal health and diagnostic methods
• Bioreactor
 What are the advantages of GMO
• Crops are more productive and have a larger yield.
• Could potentially offer more nutrition and flavor.
• A possibility that they could eliminate allergy-causing properties in
some foods.
• Inbuilt resistance to pesticides, weeds, insects and disease.
• More capable of thriving in regions with poor soil or adverse
climates.
• More environment friendly as they require less herbicides and
pesticides.
• Foods are more resistant and stay ripe for longer so they can be
shipped long distances or kept on shop shelves for longer periods.
• As more GMO crops can be grown on relatively small parcels of
land, they are an answer to feeding growing world populations.
 What are the disadvantages of GMO
• Harm to other organisms.
• GMO that have insects tolerant gene for some
parasitic insects, also affect other insects like
bees and butterfly.
• The transgene protein may cause an allergic
effects.
• Unintended transfer of modified genes through
cross-pollination, unknown effects on other
organisms in the environment, and loss of flora
and fauna biodiversity
• Economic problems.
 What is cloning?
• It is a process that production of genetically
identical individuals.
• In nature some organisms such as bacteria,
some plants and animals that reproduce by
asexual way can produce their nearly identical
copies.
• However sexual organisms like higher plants
and animals, can produce an offspring that
have different genome.
• Using genetic engineering techniques it is
possible to produce whole organism from
one somatic cell.
• Somatic cells are the differentiated cells.
• When a differentiated cell divide by
mitosis, it gives same cell type.
• However stem cells can produce different
type of cells.
• Animal cells, even stem cells, cannot produce
whole organism.
• However plant all of plant cell are capable of
to produce a new individual.
• Because of the different nature of plant and
animal cells, plants can be easily cloned.
Plant tissue culture a way to
produce cloned plant

1. Cut a small part of plant

(explant)
2. Transfer it to a medium.
3. Induce callus formation.
4. İnduce shoot and root
formation.
5. Transfer to the soil.
 What about animals?
• Can we produce an individual from a
differentiated somatic cell example,
skin cell.
• With right methodology it is possible.
• What Has Been Cloned So Far?
• Sheep, Goat, Mouse, Rabbit, Cattle,
Pig, Horse, Mule, Dog, Cat, Deer,
Primate (Rhesus).
Simple demonstration of cloning
• An egg cell is obtained.
• Then its nucleus is
removed.
• A somatic cell from an
other individual is isolated.
• These two cells are fused.
• This cell implanted to the
egg donor.
• New born individual have
totaly same genome with
somatic cell donor.
Dolly is the most famous cloned sheep
Dolly the sheep was the first
mammal to be cloned from the
DNA of an adult (1996-2003).
 Genome Projects
• One of the most • Saccharomycetes (1996)
important topics in • Nematode (1998)
modern biotechnology is • Fruit Fly (2000)
genome project.
• Arabidopsis (2000)
• Until today many
prokaryotic and • Microsporidium (2001)
eukaryotic organisms’ • Mosquito (2002)
genome have been • Rice (2002)
totally sequenced. • Human (2003)
 Human Genome Project
• The first comprehensive human genetic map was
published only in 1987.
• Within 7 years very high resolution maps were
achieved.
• In 1992 then in 1996 genetics maps having high
resolution were performed.
• First draft of human genome sequences was
released in 2001.
• Then the project was completed in 2003 and
whole sequences was announced.
• Together with human genome projects many
other model organisms’ genomes were
sequenced.
• All of these projects’ results showed that
different organisms have almost same genes.
• Ortholog genes.
 What is stem cell?
• A cell that has the ability to continuously divide and
differentiate into other kinds of cells (such as skin,
blood etc).
• In other word, stem cells are blank cells (unspecialized)
that have the potential to give rise to specialized cell
types.
• Stem cells have the remarkable potential to develop
into many different cell types in the body during early
life and growth.
• In addition, in many tissues they serve as a sort of
internal repair system.
• Stem cells are distinguished from other cell types
by two important characteristics.
• First, they are unspecialized cells capable of
renewing themselves through cell division,
sometimes after long periods of inactivity.
• Second, under certain physiologic or
experimental conditions, they can be induced to
become tissue- or organ-specific cells with special
functions.
• In some organs, such as the bone marrow, stem
cells regularly divide to repair and replace worn
out or damaged tissues.
• In other organs, however, such as the pancreas
and the heart, stem cells only divide under
special conditions.
• Totipotent- Each cell can develop into a new
individual Cells from early ( 1-3days) embryo.
• Pluripotent- Cells can form any (over 200)cell
types Some cells of blastocyst (5-14days)
• Multipotent- Cells differentiate, but can form a
number of other tissues. Fetal tissue, Cord blood,
Adult stem cells.
• Oligopotent- Cells differentiate into a few cell
types Lymphoid or myeloid stem cells
• Unipotent- Cell differentiate into only one cell
type Hepatocytes
• There is a negative
correlation
between embryo
development and
stem cell capacity.
 How can a stem cell give rise to a
certain cell?
• When unspecialized stem cells give rise to specialized cells, the
process is called differentiation.
• While differentiating, the cell usually goes through several stages,
becoming more specialized at each step.
• The differentiation process is not clearly understand yet.
• However it is known that some signals which from inside and
outside of cells trigger to differentiation.
• The internal signals are controlled by the genes of the stem cell
while the external signals include chemicals secreted by other
cells, physical contact with neighboring cells, and certain
molecules in the microenvironment.
• The interaction of signals during differentiation causes the cell's
DNA to acquire epigenetic marks that restrict DNA expression in
the cell and can be passed on through cell division.
Can a differentiated somatic cell be a
stem cell?
• is it possible to reprogram a somatic cell as a
stem cell?
• It was proved that an adult stem cell can be
reprogrammed into other cell types using a
well-controlled process of genetic
modification.
• This strategy may offer a way to reprogram
available cells into other cell types that have
been lost or damaged due to disease.
 Induced pluripotent stem cells
• In 2006, researchers made another
breakthrough by identifying conditions that
would allow some specialized adult cells to be
"reprogrammed" genetically to assume a stem
cell-like state.
• This new type of stem cell is called induced
pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).
Induced pluripotent stem cells
• Although additional research is needed, iPSCs
are already useful tools for drug development
and modeling of diseases, and scientists hope
to use them in transplantation medicine.
• Neurodegenerative disease
• Brain and spinal cord injury
• Heart disease
• Esthetic treatments (baldness, stem cell face lift)
• Blindness and vision impairment
• Deafness
• Cancer
• Diabetes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hbgeQzmU9U
 Genome Editing
• Genome editing (also called gene editing) is a
group of technologies that give scientists the
ability to change an organism's DNA.
• These technologies allow genetic material to
be added, removed, or altered at particular
locations in the genome.
• Several approaches to genome editing have
been developed.
‒ Zincfinger Nuclease
‒ TALENs
‒ CRISPR-Cas9
• Genome editing technologies enable scientists
to make changes to DNA, leading to changes
in physical traits, like eye color, and disease
risk.
• Scientists use different technologies to do this.
These technologies act like scissors, cutting
the DNA at a specific spot. Then scientists can
remove, add, or replace the DNA where it was
cut.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XPDb8tqgfjY
 Dark side of biotechnology
• Bioterrorism is the deliberate release of viruses,
bacteria, toxins or other harmful agents to cause
illness or death in people, animals or plants.
• Bioterrorism had already started 14 centuries BC,
when the Hittites sent infected rams to their
enemies.
• In the fourth century BC, the
Greek historian Herodotus
relates that Scythian archers
used to infect their arrows
by dipping them in a
mixture of decomposing
cadavers of adders and
human blood.
Year Event
14th century BC The Hittites send rams infected with tularaemia
to their enemies
4th century BC According to Herodotus, Scythian archers infect
their arrows by dipping them into decomposing
cadavers
1155 Barba rossa poisons water wells with human
bodies, Tortona (Italy)
1346 Mongols hurl bodies of plague victims over the
walls of the besieged city of Caffa (Crimea)
1422 Lithuanian army hurls manure made of infected
victims into the town of Carolstein (Bohemia)
1495 Spanish mix wine with blood of leprosy patients
to sell to their French foes, Naples (Italy)
Year Event
1650 Polish army fires saliva from rabid dogs
towards their enemies
1710 Russian army catapult plague cadavers
over the Swedish troops in Reval (Estonia)
1763 British officers distribute blankets from
smallpox hospital to Native Americans
1797 The Napoleonic armies flood the plains
around Mantua (Italy), to enhance the
spread of malaria among the enemy
1863 Confederates sell clothing from yellow
fever and smallpox patients to Union
troops during the American Civil War