Data Communication & Networks: Notes (Week 3)

Networks:

1. Bluetooth

 Bluetooth is used for short-range wireless voice and data communication.

 It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for data communications
over smaller distances.

 Bluetooth is a wireless technology that lets devices like phones, tablets, and headphones connect to
each other and share information without needing cables. Bluetooth simply follows the principle
of transmitting and receiving data using radio waves.

 It can be paired with the other device which has also Bluetooth but it should be within the
estimated communication range to connect. When two devices start to share data, they form a
network called piconet which can further accommodate more than five devices.

Key Features of Bluetooth

 The transmission capacity of Bluetooth is 720 kbps.
 Bluetooth is a wireless technology.
 Bluetooth is a Low-cost and short-distance radio communications standard.
 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
 The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.

Piconet

A Piconet is a small Bluetooth network that connects devices within a range of about 10 meters. It
consists of one primary device, called the master, and up to seven secondary devices, called slaves,
making a total of eight active devices in the network. The master controls the communication in the
network, deciding when and where data is sent. Communication occurs only between the master and the
slaves, and slaves cannot communicate directly with each other. The connection can be one-to-one
(master to a single slave) or one-to-many (master to multiple slaves). This master-slave model is the
foundation of Bluetooth networks, commonly known as piconets, and is widely used in devices like
wireless headphones, speakers, and other smart gadgets.

Examples of Bluetooth master/slave piconet topologies.

The master coordinates communication within the piconet. It can send data to any of its slaves and also
request data from them. Slaves are only permitted to transmit data to and receive data from the master;
they cannot communicate directly with other slaves in the piconet.

Disadvantages
 It can be hacked and hence, less secure.
 It has a slow data transfer rate of 3 Mbps.

2. Wifi (wireless fidelity) :

 WiFi is a wireless technology that allows electronic devices to connect to the internet and
communicate with each other without a physical cable.

 This uses radio waves to transmit the data between a WiFi router and compatible devices like
smartphones, computers, and smart home gadgets.

 These WiFi networks are common in homes, offices, and public spaces providing convenient
internet access and local connectivity.

 This technology has become an essential part of modern digital life enabling wireless internet
browsing, file sharing, and device communication in various settings.

A wireless network uses radio waves, similar to how cell phones, televisions, and radios work.
Communication within a wireless network is quite similar to two-way radio communication. Here's how it
works: A computer's wireless adapter converts data into a radio signal and transmits it through an
antenna. A wireless router receives this signal, decodes it, and then sends the information to the internet
using a wired Ethernet connection.

3. 4G and 5G

1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G are the five generations of mobile networks. The "G" stands for generation, and
each generation is faster, more secure, and more reliable than the previous one.

1G
The first generation of mobile networks, which used analog technologies
Allowed users to make phone calls, but not send or receive text messages
First introduced in Japan in 1979

2G
The second generation of mobile networks, which used digital technologies
Allowed users to make voice calls, send text messages, and access limited mobile internet

3G
The third generation of mobile networks, which allowed users to make voice calls, send text messages, and
access broadband internet

4G
The fourth generation of mobile networks, which used LTE technology to provide data-only networks
The first generation to offer speeds over 1 Mbps for mobile internet

5G
The fifth generation of mobile networks, which is expected to offer speeds over 1 Gbps
Can enable new services, such as remote control of critical infrastructure, vehicles, and medical procedures

4. Protocol and its types

A network protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between different devices in the
network. It determines what is being communicated, how it is being communicated, and when it is
being communicated. It permits connected devices to communicate with each other, irrespective of
internal and structural differences.

How do Network Protocols Work?

It is essential to understand how devices communicate over a network by recognizing network protocols.
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), the most widely used model, illustrates how computer
systems interact with one another over a network. The communication mechanism between two
network devices is shown by seven different layers in the OSI model. Every layer in the OSI model
works based on different network protocols. At every layer, one or more protocols are there for
network communication. To enable network-to-network connections, the Internet Protocol (IP), for
instance, routes data by controlling information like the source and destination addresses of data
packets. It is known as a network layer protocol.

Types of Network Protocols

In most cases, communication across a network like the Internet uses the OSI model. The OSI model has
a total of seven layers. Secured connections, network management, and network communication are the
three main tasks that the network protocol performs. The purpose of protocols is to link different devices.

Types of Protocols:

1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):

o Used to access websites.
o Helps your browser communicate with web servers.
o Example: When you type a web address, HTTP makes sure the website loads properly.
o What it does: Allows your browser to communicate with web servers to load websites.
o Example: When you type "www.google.com" into your browser, HTTP ensures you
receive the website's text, images, and videos.
o Use: Browsing the internet, reading articles, and streaming non-secure content.

2. HTTPS (HTTP Secure):

o A secure version of HTTP.
o Ensures the data you share with a website (like passwords) is protected.
o Example: Websites with a padlock in the browser bar use HTTPS.
o
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
o Used to transfer files between computers.\
o FTP is a Client/server protocol that is used for moving files to or from a host computer, it
allows users to download files, programs, web pages, and other things that are available
on other services.
o Example: Uploading or downloading files from a server.
o the systems involved in connection are heterogeneous, i.e. they differ in operating
systems, directories, structures, character sets, etc the FTP shields the user from these
differences and transfers data efficiently and reliably

4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

o Used for sending emails.
o Example: When you send an email using Gmail or Outlook, SMTP delivers it.
5. POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3):
o Another way to access emails.
o Downloads emails to your device and removes them from the server.
o Example: If you use POP3, emails won’t stay on the server after downloading.
6. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol):
o The foundation of the internet.
o Breaks data into smaller packets for transmission and ensures they are delivered
correctly.
7. DNS (Domain Name System):
o Translates website names (like www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers
understand.
o Example: It's like a phone book for the internet.
8. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol):
o Assigns IP addresses to devices on a network automatically.
o Example: When you connect to Wi-Fi, DHCP gives your device an address to join the
network.
9. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):
o Helps find the physical address (MAC address) of a device on a network.
o Example: Like finding a house by its street address.
10. HTTPS (Secure):
o Encrypts HTTP data to make it secure.
o Example: Online shopping or banking uses HTTPS to protect sensitive information.
11. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol):
o Enables voice calls over the internet.
o Example: Apps like Skype, Zoom, and WhatsApp.
5. OSI MODEL

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how different computer
systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer has specific functions
and responsibilities. This layered approach makes it easier for different devices and technologies to
work together. OSI Model provides a clear structure for data transmission and managing network
issues. The OSI Model is widely used as a reference to understand how network systems function. Each
layer is a package of protocols.

1.Application layer
he Application Layer is the topmost layer of the OSI model, providing services for network applications
with the help of various protocols. It enables applications like Chrome, Firefox, or Skype, which rely on
the internet, to communicate effectively over a network. This layer includes protocols designed for
specifictasks, such as:

 HTTP/HTTPS: Used for browsing websites.

 FTP: Facilitates file transfers between computers.
 POP3 and SMTP: Handle email retrieval and sending.

The Application Layer ensures smooth interaction between the user and the network by enabling these
applications to use the appropriate protocols for their specific functions.

2.Presentation Layer
- The Presentation Layer receives data from the Application Layer and performs three main functions:

a) Translation
b) Data Compression
c) Encryption/Decryption

a) Translation

 The data at this layer is in the form of numbers and characters.

 It converts this data into a format that machines can understand, called binary format.
 For example, it can convert text (like ASCII) into binary (like EBCDIC):
 Example: DHSKDFDHF → 11101010101

b) Data Compression

 Data compression reduces the number of bits used to represent the original data.
 This helps to reduce the file size (e.g., a 5 MB file is compressed to 2 MB).
 Smaller file sizes mean faster data transmission over the network.
 Data compression is crucial for real-time audio and video streaming, where speed is important.
 There are two types of compression:

Lossless: No data is lost during compression.

Lossy: Some data is lost to achieve higher compression.

c) Encryption/Decryption

 To ensure the security of sensitive data, it is encrypted before transmission. Encryption converts
data into a coded format to prevent unauthorized access.
 At the receiving end, the data is decrypted back into its original form.
 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is a common protocol used for encrypting and decrypting data,
ensuring secure communication.

These processes ensure that data is accurate, secure, and transmitted efficiently

3.Session Layer
The Session Layer is responsible for the establishment, management, and termination of sessions between
two devices. It also provides authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session Layer include
NetBIOS, which helps different applications communicate with one another.

The Session Layer performs several critical tasks:

Establishing and managing connections: It sets up and manages the connections that enable the sending
and receiving of data.
Terminating connections: Once the data exchange is complete, it ensures the connection or session is
properly terminated.

Key Functions of the Session Layer

a. Authentication

Before a session or connection is established with the server, the server performs a process called
authentication. This involves verifying your identity through a username and password. When the
credentials match, a connection is established between your computer and the server.

b. Authorization

After authentication, authorization is checked. The server determines whether you have
permission to access a specific file or resource. If you are not authorized, an error message such
as "Not authorized to access this page" is displayed.

c. Session Management

The Session Layer also handles session management, which includes tracking the files being
downloaded (e.g., text, images) and managing data packets sent from the server.

Note: The web browser performs the functions of the Application, Presentation, and Session
Layers in the OSI Model.

4.Transport Layer
The Transport Layer is the fourth layer in the OSI model and plays a key role in ensuring reliable
communication between devices. It is responsible for providing end-to-end communication, reliability,
and flow control. The Transport Layer breaks data into smaller segments, manages the flow of data, and
ensures that data is correctly delivered to the destination.

a. Segmentation
In segmentation, the data received from the Session Layer is divided into smaller units called segments.
Each segment contains the port numbers of the source and destination, along with a sequence number.
The port number helps direct each segment to the correct application, while the sequence number ensures
that the segments can be reassembled in the correct order at the receiver's end.

b.Flow Control :transport layer controls the amount of data being transmitted. It is a mechanism used to
manage the rate at which data is sent between two devices to ensure that the receiver can handle the
incoming data. It prevents the sender from overwhelming the receiver with too much data too quickly,
which could lead to data loss or congestion.
c. Error Control: if any data unit doesn’t arrive at the destination, transport layer uses the automatic
repeat request to retransmit the corrupted data. A group of bits called check sum are also added with the
data units to find the received corrupted segment.

The Transport Layer uses two main protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP). These protocols provide connection-oriented and connectionless
communication services.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP is a standard, reliable protocol that allows systems to communicate over the internet. It establishes
and maintains a connection between the sender and receiver before data transmission begins.

 When data is sent over TCP, it is divided into smaller units called segments.
 These segments travel over the internet, potentially taking different routes and arriving in
different orders at the destination.
 TCP ensures that the data arrives in the correct order by reordering the segments at the receiving
end. It also provides error checking and acknowledgments to ensure reliable delivery, making it
suitable for applications where the complete and correct delivery of data is essential, such as web
browsing (HTTP), email (SMTP), and file transfers (FTP).

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP is a connectionless and unreliable transport protocol. Unlike TCP, it does not establish a connection
before data transmission, and it does not provide any feedback or acknowledgments from the receiver.
This means that UDP does not guarantee the delivery or order of data, making it faster but less reliable.

 UDP is suitable for applications where speed is more important than reliability, such as online
streaming (movies, music), real-time gaming, and VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol). In
these cases, it’s acceptable if some data packets are lost or out of order, as the application can
often continue without significant disruption.

Comparison between TCP and UDP

 Speed: UDP is faster than TCP because it doesn't wait for acknowledgments or perform error
checking, allowing data to flow more quickly.
 Reliability: TCP is more reliable because it ensures that all data is delivered in the correct order,
with error checking and retransmission of lost packets.
 Use cases:
o TCP is used in situations where complete data delivery is critical, like web browsing,
emails, and file transfers.
o UDP is preferred for applications where speed is prioritized over reliability, such as
online video streaming, gaming, and voice calls.

In summary, TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that guarantees reliable data transmission, while UDP
is a connectionless protocol that prioritizes speed and is suitable for real-time applications.

5.Network Layer
The Transport Layer is responsible for breaking data into smaller units called segments and sending them
to the Network Layer. The segments, which contain the data and necessary control information, are
passed from the Transport Layer to the Network Layer for further processing. The Network Layer then
handles the routing and forwarding of these segments to the destination device.

Key Functions:

a) Logical Addressing: The Network Layer adds the source and destination IP addresses
to each segment, creating data packets. This ensures that data reaches the correct device
on the network.
 b) Routing: The Network Layer determines the best path for data to travel between the
source and destination using routing algorithms. path determination: it determines the
best path for data delivery. It uses protocols ( Open Shortest Path First) ,(Border Gateway
Protocol)
c) Fragmentation: If the packet size exceeds the maximum transmission size of the next
network, it divides the packet into smaller fragments.

Output: The Network Layer passes packets to the Data Link Layer.

6.Data Link Layer

Input from Network Layer: The Network Layer provides packets to the Data Link Layer.

Key Functions:

a.Framing: The Data Link Layer encapsulates the packets into frames by adding a header (with source
and destination MAC addresses) and a trailer (used for error detection).

MAC address is embedded into the network interface card.

b. Error Detection: The trailer contains a checksum value to detect transmission errors.

c.Flow Control: It manages data flow to prevent congestion between sender and receiver.

Output: The Data Link Layer passes frames to the Physical Layer.

7.Physical Layer

Input from Data Link Layer: The Data Link Layer sends frames to the Physical Layer.

Key Functions:

 Bit-Level Transmission: The Physical Layer converts the frames into a series of binary
bits (0s and 1s).
 Signal Transmission: These bits are then transmitted as electrical signals, light pulses, or
radio waves over the physical medium (e.g., Ethernet cables, fiber optics, or wireless
signals).

Output: The Physical Layer sends the data as raw signals through the physical medium to the destination
device.
How Data Flows in the OSI Model?
When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI model. First
data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s
end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly, and these steps
are reversed upon arrival.