Currie Community

High School

Physics Department

Our Dynamic Universe

Section 1: Equations of Motion

Notes adapted from Prestwick Academy

Success Criteria

Vectors

I can:

• distinguish between distance and displacement.

• distinguish between speed and velocity.
• define and classify vector and scalar quantities.
• use scale diagrams, or otherwise, to find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant of a number of displacements or velocities.
• carry out calculations to find the rectangular components of a vector.

Equations of Motion

I can:

• state that acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time.

• describe the principles of a method for measuring acceleration.
• state that the gradient of a displacement-time graph gives velocity.
• state that for a velocity-time graph, the gradient gives the acceleration and the
area under the graph gives the displacement.
• draw an acceleration-time graph using information obtained from a velocity-time
graph for motion with a constant acceleration.
• use the terms “constant velocity” and “constant acceleration” to describe motion
represented in graphical or tabular form.
• carry out calculations using the following kinematic relationships:

v = u + at s = ut + ½ at2 v2 = u2 + 2as

2
 Introduction

Footballers, golfers, tennis players, runners, skiers – they all have something in
common. They have the ability to make split-second decisions about how their
actions will affect their performance: how the curve of a ball will affect whether
they score that crucial penalty, whether a change of angle of the club will give them
a hole-in-one. Whether or not they know it, they are making use of the physics of
motion.

In the first section of this unit we will learn more about the motion of objects. We
will be able to use the language of physics to describe and explain the motion of
bouncing balls and sky divers. We will understand the principles of the physics of
motion, and describe and explain it using words, diagrams, graphs and equations.

3
 Lesson 1: Vectors

It is possible to split up quantities in physics into two distinct groups; those that
need a direction, and those that don’t.

Some are obvious, it makes sense that force has direction; you can push or pull but
only in one direction. It would be nonsense to give a direction to time; it took 5
Seconds East just isn’t right.

It is important that you are familiar with which quantity falls into which grouping.

A scalar is a quantity that can be described by just a size and a unit.

e.g. time - 30 s
mass - 20 kg

A vector is a quantity that is fully described with a size, unit and direction.
e.g. force - 50 N downwards
velocity - 20 m/s East

Adding Vectors

This is more difficult than adding scalars as the direction of the vectors must be
taken into account. The addition of two vectors is called the resultant vector.
When you add vectors they have to be added tip-to-tail.

What does this mean?

• Each vector must be represented by a straight line of suitable scale.

• The straight line must have an arrow head to show its direction.
i.e.
tail tip
• The vectors must be joined one at a time so that the tip of the previous vector
touches the tail of the next vector.
i.e.

• A straight line is drawn from the starting point to the finishing point and the
starting angle is marked.

q
4
• It should have 2 arrow heads to make it easy to recognise.
• If using a scale diagram the length and direction of this straight line gives the
resultant vector.
• Alternatively you can use trigonometry and SOHCAHTOA or the sine or
cosine rule to calculate the resultant.

Distance and Displacement

The distance travelled by an object is the sum of the distances of the each stage
of the journey. Since each stage has a different direction, the total distance has
no single direction and therefore distance is a scalar.

The displacement of an object is the shortest route between the start and finish
point measured in a straight line. Displacement has a direction and is a vector.

Consider the journey below. A person walks along a path (solid line) from start to
end.
3 km
start end
2.7 km
They will have walked further following the path than if they had been able to
walk directly from start to end in a straight line (dashed line).

The solid line denotes the distance = 3km

The dashed line denotes the displacement = 2.7 km East

Activity 3
Apparatus: Trundle wheel or metre stick and a protractor.

Instructions
Walk a measured distance with your car in a straight line.
Turn so you are now facing 90o to the original direction. Walk another measured
distance.

Measure the resultant displacement, R, and the corresponding angle, q.

If you have time repeat the experiment with an angle greater than 90o between
your walked distances.

5
Example
A woman walks her dog 3 km due North (000) and then 4 km due East (090).
Find her a) distance travelled;
b) displacement.

Solution

Method 1: Scale diagram

Draw a scale diagram as shown, 1cm:1km

a) d = 3 + 4 = 7 km

b) Measuring AC = 5 cm => 5 km
Use a protractor to measure
angle q = 53o
q
So s = 5 km @ 53o

Method 2: Pythagoras and SOHCAH TOA

a) d = 3 + 4 = 7 km

b) Displacement = √ (32 + 42) = 5 km

tan q = opp / adj = 4/3 = 1.33…

q = tan-1 1.33
= 53o
So s = 5 km @ 53o

Example
Don runs 2 full laps of a 400 m running track starting
and finishing at the start line.

Calculate:
a) the distance Don travelled;
b) his displacement.

Solution

a) d = 2 x 400 = 800 m
b) 0 m ( Since he ends up back where he started.)

6
SAQ 7
Find the resultant displacement for each of the following.

a) b) 6 km
6 km 2 km 3.5 km

c) 4 km d) 5 km
2 km 2 km

3 km

e) 4 km

3 km

SAQ 8
Go back to the values you recorded in the activity and calculate the resultant for
each set of distances you used.

Do your calculated values agree with the measured values?

SAQ 9
Use scale drawing to find the resultant displacement from the diagram below.

7
Lesson 2: Speed and Velocity
Speed is defined as the distance travelled per second and is measured in metres
per second, m/s or ms-1. Since distance and time are both scalar quantities then
speed is also a scalar quantity.

From previous work in Maths and Physics we know that speed is calculated from
the equation:

average speed = distance

time

v=d/t

The velocity of an object is defined as the displacement travelled per second.

Since displacement is a vector quantity that means that velocity is also a vector.
The equation for velocity is

velocity = displacement
time

v =s/t

Example
A runner sprints 100 m East along a straight track in 12 s and then takes a further
13 s to jog 20 m back towards the starting point.

(a) What distance does she run during the 25 s?

(b) What is her displacement from her starting point after the 25 s?
(c) What is her speed?
(d) What is her velocity?

A 100 m B

20 m
Solution
(a) d = 100 + 20 (b) s = 100 + ( − 20 )
d = 120 m s = 80 m at 090°

(c) v = d/t (d) v = s/t

v = 120/25 v = 80/25
v = 4.8 m s-1 v = 3.2 m s-1 at 090°
8
SAQ 10
Find the average speed and average velocity of an orienteer who runs 5 km due
South, 4 km due West and then 2 km North in 1 hour.

SAQ 11
A ship is sailing East at 4 ms-1. A passenger walks due North at 2 ms-1.
What is the resultant velocity of the passenger relative to the sea?

Complete Homework 3.

9
Lesson 3: Resolving Vectors
We have seen that two vectors can be added to give the resultant using vector
addition.
Can we split a resultant vector into the two individual vectors that make it up?

Consider the following.

q
This shows a resultant vector at some angle, q, from the horizontal.
To travel to the end of the vector we could move in a straight line in the X
direction and then a straight line in the Y direction as shown below.

R
Y

q
X
But how do we find out the size of each line?

Since we have a right angled triangle with a known angle we can name the sides.

hyp
opp

q
adj

This means we can use Pythagoras to work out the unknown sides.

sin q = Opp / Hyp = y / R

So the vertical component, y = R sin q

cos q = Adj / Hyp = x / R

So the horizontal component, x = R cos q 10

Example
A projectile is fired at a velocity of 50 m s-1 at an angle of 60o to the horizontal as
shown below.
trajectory

50 m s-1

60o
range
Calculate:
(a) the horizontal component of the velocity of the projectile,
(b) the vertical component of the velocity of the projectile.

Solution

(a) vh = 50cos60
vh = 25 m s-1

(b) vv = 50sin60
vv = 43 m s-1

SAQ 12
A football is kicked at an angle of 700 at 15 ms-1.
Calculate:
a) the horizontal component of the velocity;
b) the vertical component of the velocity.

11
 Lesson 4: Measuring Acceleration

Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity per second and is calculated using
the relationship

acceleration = final speed – initial speed

time

a=v–u
t

Activity 4 Measuring acceleration

Acceleration is measured by determining the initial velocity, final velocity and time
taken. We can do this by two methods.

Method 1
A single card (mask) of known length, d, and
2 light gates connected to a computer or QED
which records times.

As the trolley rolls past the first light gate the beam is cut and the initial speed
recorded (v1 = d / t1). When it cuts the second beam the final speed is recorded
(v2 = d / t2) and the timer shows the total time taken, t3, for the trolley to move
between both light gates. The equation a = (v-u)/t is then used to calculate the
acceleration.

SAQ 13
The information in the table was recorded by a student carrying out the above
activity. Calculate the acceleration of the trolley.

Length of card (cm) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s)

4.0 0.10 0.05 2.50

Method 2
A double mask which interrupts a light gate
can provide the data to a microcomputer
and give a direct reading of acceleration.

We will use this method to find the acceleration down a slope in the following
activity.

12
Activity 5
Aim: To find the relationship between angle of slope and acceleration.

Apparatus: 1 slope, 1 trolley and double mask, 1 light gate, an angle

measurer, a QED and a power supply.

QED

Copy the table.

Angle a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 Mean acceleration

(o) (ms-2) (ms-2) (ms-2) (ms-2) (ms-2) (ms-2)
10
20
30
40
50

Instructions
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram with the track set at 10 o.
2. Set the QED to measure acceleration and allow the trolley to run down the
track.
3. Note the value of the acceleration and repeat 4 times.
4. Adjust the angle of the slope to 20o and find the corresponding acceleration.
5. Repeat step 4 increasing the angle by 10o up to an angle of 50o.
6. Calculate the mean acceleration and random uncertainty at each angle.
7. Use an appropriate format to find the relationship between angle of slope
and acceleration.

SAQ 14 (OEQ)
A television commentator was heard to describe a free kick in a football match
in the following way.

“It was a magnificent free kick. The ball flew into the net. Once it left his foot it
positively accelerated into the goal.”

Using physics principles, comment on the way the television commentator has
described the motion of the ball.
13
 Lesson 5: Graphing Motion

In all areas of science, graphs are used to display information. Graphs are an
excellent way of giving information, especially to show relationships between
quantities. In this section we will be examining three types of motion-time graphs.

Displacement-time graphs
Velocity-time graphs
Acceleration-time graphs

If you have an example of one of these types of graph then it is possible to draw a
corresponding graph for the other two factors.

Activity 6
Use the app ‘SimPhysics’ on an iPad/iPhone. Work through the simulations
‘Position-Time Graph’, ‘Velocity-Time Graph 1’, Velocity-Time Graph 2’,
‘Acceleration-Time Graph’ and Velocity-Time Graph 3’,

14
Constant Velocity

Constant Acceleration

15
Each time you are presented with a graph, you should ask yourself two key
questions:

Is there any significance to the gradient of the graph?

Is there any significance to the area under the graph?

Interpreting displacement–time graphs

The gradient of a displacement–time graph gives the velocity of the object.

The area under the graph does not give us any meaningful information.

Interpreting velocity–time graphs

The gradient of a velocity–time graph gives the acceleration of the object: the
steeper the line the greater the rate of change of velocity (or acceleration) of the
object.

The area under the graph is the displacement.

Example

The graph on the next page represents an object moving with a positive velocity
of 5 m s–1, which is accelerating at a constant rate. After 300 s the object is
moving with velocity of 35 m s–1. A constant acceleration means the velocity is
increasing at a constant rate.

16
The acceleration of the object can be found from the gradient of the line.

Gradient = Y2 - Y1 = 35-5 = 0.1 m/s2

X2 - X1 300

The displacement of the object can be determined by calculating the area under
the graph. You may already be familiar with the idea of using the area under a
speed–time graph to determine the distance travelled by an object.

17
SAQ 15
The graph shows how the speed of the hovercraft varies with time for one
journey from Kirkcaldy to Leith.

Calculate
a) the acceleration of the hovercraft over the first 240 s.
b) the total distance travelled during the journey.

SAQ 16
A car travels along a road. The driver sees traffic lights ahead change from green
and starts to brake as soon as possible. A graph of the car's motion is shown.

Calculate
a) the overall stopping distance.
b) the acceleration of the car from the moment the driver applies the brakes.

18
It is possible to produce a velocity time graph to describe the motion of an
object. All velocity time graphs that you encounter in this course will be of
objects that have constant acceleration.

Example
A ball is fired vertically into the air from the ground. The ball reaches its
maximum height, falls, bounces and then rises to a new, lower, maximum height.

What will the velocity time graph for this motion look like?

First decision: will I choose up or down as my positive direction?

We will choose up as positive.
Now we need to think, what is happening to the velocity?
The ball will be slowing down whilst it is moving upwards, having a velocity of
zero when it reaches maximum height.
The acceleration of the ball will be constant if we ignore air resistance.

Part 1 of graph

velocity
ball moving upwards [+ve values for v] but slowing
down as acceleration is downwards [-ve gradient]
u

time

Once the ball reaches its maximum height it will begin to fall downwards. It will
accelerate at the same rate as when it was going up. The velocity of the ball just
before it hits the ground will be the same magnitude as its initial velocity
upwards.

19
Part 2 of graph
velocity
ball moving downwards [-ve values for v] and
u accelerating downwards [-ve gradient]

time
velocity of ball just before landing same
magnitude as initial velocity of ball.
-u

The ball has now hit the ground. At this point it will rebound and begin its
movement upwards. In reality there will be a finite time of contact with the
ground when the ball compresses and regains its shape. In this interpretation we
will regard this time of contact as zero. This will result in a disjointed graph.

The acceleration of the ball after rebounding will be the same as the initial
acceleration. The two lines will be parallel.

Part 3 of graph
velocity velocity of ball after rebounding
less than initial velocity of ball.
u

time

-u

This is the velocity time graph of the motion described in the original description.

20
Converting velocity time to acceleration time graphs

What is important in this conversion is to consider the gradient of the velocity

time graph line. In our example the gradient of the line is constant and has a
negative value. This means for the entire time sampled the acceleration will
have a single value.

velocity

time

acceleration

time

All acceleration time graphs you are asked to draw will consist of horizontal
lines, either above, below or on the time axis.

21
SAQ 17
The graph below shows how the acceleration of an object varies with time.
The object started from rest.

Draw a velocity time graph for the first 10 s of the motion.

SAQ 18
The velocity-time graph for an object is shown below.

Draw the corresponding acceleration-time graph.

22
 Lesson 6: The Equations of Motion

The equations of motion can be applied to any object moving with constant
acceleration in a straight line.

You must be able to:

• select the correct formula

• identify the symbols and units used
• carry out calculations to solve problems of real life motion
• carry out experiments to verify the equations of motion.

You should develop an understanding of how the graphs of motion can be used to
derive the equations. This is an important part of demonstrating that you
understand the principles of describing motion, and the link between describing it
graphically and mathematically.

Equation of Motion 1 : v = u + at

X2, Y2 The gradient of the line gives

the acceleration:

a = Y2 – Y1
X2 – X1
a=v–u
t–0
X1, Y1 at = v – u
u + at = v

OR v = u + at

Example
A racing car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly in a straight
line at 12 ms-2 for 5.0 s. Calculate the final velocity of the car.

Solution

u = 0 ms-1 (rest) v = u + at
a = 12 ms-2 v = 0 + (12 x5.0)
t = 5.0 s v = 0 + 60
v=? v = 60 ms-1 (in direction of acceleration)
Equation of Motion 2: s = ut + ½ at2
The displacement, s, is the
area under the graph:

Area 1 = ut
Area 2 = ½ (v-u) t

But from equation 1 we get

that (v-u) = at
Area2 So Area 2 = ½ (at)t

Area1 Therefore,

s = ut + ½ (at)t

OR s = ut + ½ at2
Example
A speedboat travels 400 m in a straight line when it accelerates uniformly
from 2.5 ms-1 in 10 s. Calculate the acceleration of the speedboat.

Solution

s = 400 m s = ut+ ½ at2

u = 2.5 ms-1 400 = (2.5 x 10) + (0.5 x a x102)
t = 10 s 400 = 25 + 50a
a=? 50a = 400 - 25 = 375
a = 375/50
a = 7.5 ms-2 (in direction of original velocity)
Equation of Motion 3: v2 = u2 + 2as

We have already found that

v = u + at

v2 = (u + at)2

v2 = u2 + 2uat + a2t2

v2 = u2 + 2a(ut + ½ at2)

And since s = ut + ½ at2

v2 = u2 + 2as

24
Example
A rocket is travelling through outer space with uniform velocity. It then
accelerates at 2.5 ms-2 in a straight line in the original direction, reaching
100 ms-1 after travelling 1 875 m. Calculate the rocket's initial velocity?

Solution

a = 2.5 ms-2 v2 =u2 + 2as

v = 100 ms-1 1002= u2+ (2 x 2.5 x 1 875)
s = 1 875 m 10 000 = u2 + 9 375
u=? u2 = 10 000 - 9 375 = 625
u = √625
u = 25 ms-1 (in direction of acceleration)

Decelerating objects and the equations of motion

When an object decelerates, its velocity decreases. If the vector quantities in the
equations of motion are positive, we represent the decreasing velocity by use of
a negative sign in front of the acceleration value.

Example 1
A car, travelling in a straight line, decelerates uniformly at 2.0 ms-2 from 25 ms-1
for 3.0 s. Calculate the car's velocity after the 3.0 s.

Solution

a = -2.0 ms-2 v = u + at
u = 25 ms-1 (rest) v = 25 + (-2.0 x 3.0)
t = 3.0 s v = 25 + (-6.0)
v=? v = 19 ms-1 (in direction of original velocity)

Example 2
A greyhound is running at 6.0 ms-1. It decelerates uniformly in
a straight line at 0.5 ms-2 for 4.0 s. Calculate the displacement
of the greyhound while it was decelerating.

Solution

u = 6.0 ms-1 s = ut + ½ at2

a = -0.5 ms-2 s = (6.0 x 4.0) + (0.5 x -0.5 x 4.02)
t = 4.0 s s = 24 + (-4.0)
s=? s = 20 m (in direction of original velocity)

25
Example 3
A curling stone leaves a player's hand at 5.0 ms-1 and decelerates
uniformly at 0.75 ms-2 in a straight line for 16.5 m until it strikes another
stationary stone. Calculate the velocity of the decelerating curling stone at
the instant it strikes the stationary one.

Solution

u = 5.0 ms-1 v2 =u2 + 2as

a = -0.75 ms-2 v2= 5.02+ (2 x -0.75 x 16.5)
s = 16.5 m v2 = 25 + (-24.75)
v=? v2 = 0.25
u = √0.25
u = 0.5 ms-1 (in direction of original velocity)

SAQ 19
A car accelerates uniformly at 6 m s-2, its initial speed is 15 m s-1 and it covers a
distance of 200 m. Calculate its final velocity.

SAQ 20
A car travelling at 30 ms-1 slows down at 1.8 ms-2 over a distance of 250 m. How
long does it take to stop?

SAQ 21
A tennis ball launcher is 0.6 m long and the velocity of a tennis ball leaving the
launcher is 30 ms-1.
Calculate: a) the average acceleration of a tennis ball
b) the time of transit in the launcher.

SAQ 22
A trolley accelerates down a slope. Two photo-cells spaced 0.5 m apart measure
the velocities to be 20 cms-1 and 50 cms-1.
Calculate a) the acceleration of the trolley
b) the time taken to cover the 0.5 m.

Complete Homework 4.

26
Lesson 7: Gravity and the Equations of Motion
Any object moving freely through the air is accelerated towards the ground
under the influence of gravity.

It does not matter if the object is falling or moving upwards.

Activity 7A
Aim: To find the acceleration due to gravity using the second equation of motion.

Apparatus: A g-ball

Copy the table.

Height of drop t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 Mean time g

(m) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (ms-2)
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.0
1.25
1.50

Instructions
1. Drop the g-ball from 0.25m five times and note the time to fall.
2. Calculate the mean time.
3. Repeat step 1 for each of the other heights.
4. Use the relationship s = ut + ½ at2, where s is the height of drop and t is the
mean time, to calculate the value of g at each height.
5. Show that in this situation this relationship can be written as h = ½ gt2.

Questions
1. How reliable are your results?
2. How would you calculate the error in your value for g?
If you have time you can carry out this calculation.
3. What would the velocity-time and acceleration-time graph look like for this
Motion.

Activity 7B (Extra): Trap Door experiment 27

Falling Objects

At the instant an object is dropped, it is stationary so the initial downward

velocity is 0 ms-1. The object will accelerate towards the ground under the
influence of gravity so will have an acceleration of -9.8 ms-2.

Example
A helicopter is hovering at a constant height. A wheel falls
off and hits the ground below 4.0 s later. Calculate:

a) the downward vertical velocity of the wheel at the instant it hits the ground
b) the height of the hovering helicopter.

Solution

s=? u = 0 ms-1 v=? a = -9.8 ms-2 t = 4.0 s

a) v = u + at
v = 0 + (-9.8 x 4.0)
v = 0 - 39.2
v = -39 ms-1 i.e. 39 ms-1 downwards

b. s = ut + ½ at2
s = (0 x 4.0) + (0.5 x -9.8 x 4.02)
s = 0 + (-78.4)
s = -78 m i.e. wheel falls 78 m downwards, so height = 78 m

OR

v2 = u2 + 2as
-39.22 = 02 + (2 x -9.8 x s)
1536.6 = 0 + (-19.6 s)
1536.6 = -19.6 s
s = 1536.6/-19.6
s = -78 m i.e. wheel falls 78 m downwards, so height = 78 m

Activity 8
Your teacher will use a motion sensor/simulation to produce the speed-time,
velocity-time, acceleration-time and displacement-time graphs for a bouncing
tennis ball.
Before each graph is produced draw what you think it will look like on a mini
whiteboard.
Were you correct?

28
Objects Launched Upwards

At the instant an object is launched upwards, it is travelling at maximum velocity.

As soon as the object starts to travel upwards, gravity will accelerate it towards
the ground at -9.8 ms-2.
As a result, the upward velocity of the object will eventually become 0 ms -1.
This happens at its maximum height.

Example
A spring-powered toy frog is launched vertically upwards
from the ground at 4.9 ms-1.

(a) What will be the velocity of the toy frog at its maximum height?
(b) Calculate:
(i) the time taken for the toy frog to reach its maximum height;
(ii) the maximum height.

Solution

s=? u = 4.9 ms-1 v=? a = -9.8 ms-2 t=?

a) At maximum height v = 0 ms-1.

b) (i) v = u + at
0 = 4.9 + (-9.8t)
0 = 4.9 - 9.8t
9.8t = 4.9
t = 4.9/9.8
t = 0.5 s

(ii) s = ut + 1/2at2
s = (4.9 x 0.5) + (0.5 x -9.8 x 0.52)
s = 2.45 + (-1.225)
s = 1.2 m i.e. 1.2 m upwards, so height = 1.2 m

OR

v2 = u2 + 2as
02 = 4.92 +(2 x -9.8 x s)
0 = 24.01 + (-19.6 s)
19.6 s = 24.01
s = 24.01/19.6
s = 1.2 m i.e. 1.2 m upwards, so height = 1.2 m

29
Activity 9
Your teacher will now demonstrate a tennis ball being thrown in the air.

Draw what you think the speed-time, velocity-time, acceleration-time and

displacement-time graphs will look like on a mini whiteboard. Where you
correct?

SAQ 23
In an experiment to find “g” a steel ball falls from rest through a distance of
0.40 m. The time taken to fall this distance is 0.29s.
What is the value of “g” calculated from the data of this experiment?

SAQ 24
A tennis ball is dropped from a height of 1.2m and rebounds to a height of
0.98m. Calculate:

a) the speed of the ball just before impact

b) the speed of the ball just after impact.

SAQ 25
A ball is thrown vertically upwards from the edge of a cliff as shown in the
diagram.

The effects of friction can be ignored.

a) i) What is the height of the ball above sea level 2.0 s after being thrown?
ii) What is the velocity of the ball 2.0 s after being thrown?
b) What is the total distance travelled by the ball from launch to landing in the
Sea?

SAQ 26
A ball is thrown to a height of 40 m above its starting point, with what velocity
was it thrown?

SAQ 27
If a stone is thrown vertically down a well at 5 ms-1. Calculate the time taken
For the stone to reach the water surface 60 m below.

30