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 Psychology
Modules for Active Learning 14e

Dennis Coon
John O. Mitterer
Brock University

Tanya Martini
Brock University

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Psychology: Modules for Active Learning, © 2018, 2015, Cengage Learning
Fourteenth Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
Dennis Coon, John O. Mitterer, & Tanya Martini may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, except as
Product Director: Marta Lee-Perriard permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written permission of the
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 For Saskia
—Tanya

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 About the Authors
Dennis Coon is the author of Psychology: A Journey and Introduction to Psychology: Gate-
ways to Mind and Behavior, as well as Psychology: Modules for Active Learning. Together, these
textbooks have been used by more than 2 million students. Dr. Coon frequently serves as a
reviewer and consultant to publishers, and he edited the best-selling trade book Choices. He
also helped design interactive digital modules for PsychNow!
In his leisure hours, Dr. Coon enjoys hiking, photography, painting, woodworking, and
music. He also designs, builds, and plays classical and steel string acoustic guitars. He has
published articles on guitar design and occasionally offers lectures on this topic, in addition
to his more frequent presentations on psychology.
Dennis Coon

Dennis Coon

John Mitterer was awarded his PhD in cognitive psychology from McMaster University.
He has taught psychology at Brock University to more than 30,000 introductory psychology
students. He is the recipient of many teaching awards, including a National 3M Teaching
Fellowship, the Canadian Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Contributions
to Education and Training in Psychology, and the Brock University Don Ursino Award for
Excellence in the Teaching of Large Classes.
He has created textbooks and support materials for both students and instructors, and
published and lectured on undergraduate instruction throughout Canada and the United
States.
In his spare time, Dr. Mitterer bird-watches in “hot spots” like Papua New Guinea,
John Mitterer

Uganda, the Galapagos, Brazil, and Australia.

John Mitterer

Tanya Martini obtained her PhD in developmental psychology from the University of To-
ronto and is a professor in the psychology department at Brock University in St. Catharines,
Ontario, Canada. In addition to introductory psychology, she also teaches research methods
and a capstone course designed to facilitate graduating students’ understanding of career-
related skills. She has been awarded the Brock University Distinguished Teaching Award, and
she currently holds the Chancellor’s Chair for Teaching Excellence.
Dr. Martini’s research explores skill-based learning outcomes in postsecondary educa-
tion, and her most recent work has investigated students’ views concerning skill-based learn-
ing across their degree program. She has a particular interest in students’ ability to articulate
the competencies that underlie skills such as critical thinking and collaboration, and their
Tanya Martini

ability to recognize how university assignments foster transferable skills that are of interest
to employers.
Tanya Martini

iv

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Brief Contents
1 The Psychology of Reflective Studying 1 42 Motivation and Emotion: Overview of Motives and Emotions 355
2 Introducing Psychology: Psychology, Critical Thinking, and 43 Motivation and Emotion: Motivation in Detail 364
Science 14 44 Motivation and Emotion: Emotion in Detail 378
3 Introducing Psychology: Psychology Then and Now 24 45 Motivation and Emotion Skills in Action: Positivity
4 Introducing Psychology: The Psychology Experiment 39 and Optimism 390
5 Introducing Psychology: Nonexperimental Research Methods 46 46 Human Sexuality: Sex and Gender 394
6 Introducing Psychology Skills in Action: Information Literacy 54 47 Human Sexuality: The Human Sex Drive, Response, and
7 Brain and Behavior: The Nervous System 58 Attitudes 406

8 Brain and Behavior: Brain Research 70 48 Human Sexuality: Sexual Problems 418

9 Brain and Behavior: Hemispheres and Lobes of the Cerebral 49 Human Sexuality Skills in Action: Diversity and Inclusion 430
Cortex 75 50 Personality: Overview of Personality 434
10 Brain and Behavior: The Subcortex and Endocrine System 85 51 Personality: Trait Theories 445
11 Brain and Behavior Skills in Action: Self-Regulation 93 52 Personality: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories 452
12 Human Development: Heredity and Environment 97 53 Personality: Behavioral and Social Learning Theories 464
13 Human Development: Emotional and Social Development in 54 Personality Skills in Action: Leadership 472
Childhood 107 55 Health Psychology: Overview of Health Psychology 476
14 Human Development: Language and Cognitive Development 56 Health Psychology: Stressors 484
in Childhood 116
57 Health Psychology: Coping with Stress 496
15 Human Development: Adolescence and Adulthood 126
58 Health Psychology: Stress and Health 505
16 Human Development Skills in Action: Behaving Ethically 137
59 Health Psychology Skills in Action: Stress Management 510
17 Sensation and Perception: Sensory Processes 141
60 Psychological Disorders: Defining Psychopathology 515
18 Sensation and Perception: Vision 148
61 Psychological Disorders: Psychotic Disorders 527
19 Sensation and Perception: The Nonvisual Senses 156
62 Psychological Disorders: Mood Disorders 536
20 Sensation and Perception: Perceptual Processes 168
63 Psychological Disorders: Anxiety, Anxiety-Related, and
21 Sensation and Perception: Perception and Objectivity 181 Personality Disorders 542
22 Sensation and Perception Skills in Action: Communication 189 64 Psychological Disorders Skills in Action:
23 Consciousness: States of Consciousness 193 Emotional Intelligence 554
24 Consciousness: Sleep and Dreams 202 65 Therapies: Treating Psychological Distress 558
25 Consciousness: Psychoactive Drugs 215 66 Therapies: Psychodynamic, Humanistic, and Cognitive
26 Consciousness Skills in Action: Metacognition 230 Therapies 568

27 Conditioning and Learning: Associative and Cognitive 67 Therapies: Behavior Therapies 577
Learning 234 68 Therapies: Medical Therapies 585
28 Conditioning and Learning: Classical Conditioning 244 69 Therapy Skills in Action: Managing Mental Health Problems 592
29 Conditioning and Learning: Operant Conditioning 251 70 Social Psychology: Social Behavior and Cognition 599
30 Conditioning and Learning: Reinforcement and Punishment in 71 Social Psychology: Social Influence 610
Detail 259 72 Social Psychology: Prosocial Behavior 620
31 Conditioning and Learning Skills in Action: Behavioral Self- 73 Social Psychology: Antisocial Behavior 630
Management 269
74 Social Psychology Skills in Action: Teamwork 642
32 Memory: Memory Systems 273
75 Applied Psychology: Industrial/Organizational Psychology 645
33 Memory: Measuring Memory 285
76 Applied Psychology: Environmental Psychology 655
34 Memory: Forgetting 290
77 Applied Psychology: The Psychology of Law, Education, and
35 Memory: Exceptional Memory 301 Sports 667
36 Memory Skills in Action: Giving Memorable Presentations 308 78 Applied Psychology Skills in Action: Career Preparation 676
37 Cognition and Intelligence: Modes of Thought 312 79 Appendix: Behavioral Statistics 680
38 Cognition and Intelligence: Problem Solving 323
39 Cognition and Intelligence: Creative Thinking and Intuition 329
40 Cognition and Intelligence: Intelligence 336 References R-1
41 Cognition and Intelligence Skills in Action: Creativity and Name Index N-1
Innovation 350 Subject Index/Glossary S-1

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 P R E FACE vii

Contents
Preface xxvii

Module 1
The Psychology of Reflective Studying 1
What’s in It for You?—More Than You Might Reflective Note Taking—LISAN Up! 8
Think 1 Using and Reviewing Your Notes 8
A Psychologist’s Skill Set 2
Reflective Study Strategies—Making
How This Book Will Help You
a Habit of Success 9
with Skill Development 3
Strategies for Studying 9
Reflective Learning: The Most
Strategies for Taking Tests 9
Important Ingredient 4
Procrastination: Don’t Be Late! 11
Reflective Reading—How to Tame a Text- The Whole Human: Psychology and You 12
book 5 Summary 12
How to Use Psychology: Modules Knowledge Builder 13
for Active Learning 5
Going Digital 7

Module 2
Introducing Psychology: Psychology, Critical Thinking, and Science 14
Psychology—Behave! 14 Scientific Research—How to Think Like
Answering Questions in Psychology 14 a Psychologist 20
The Six Steps of the Scientific Method 20
Critical Thinking—Take It with a Grain
Research Ethics 22
of Salt 17
Critical Thinking Principles 18 Summary 22
Knowledge Builder 23

Module 3
Introducing Psychology: Psychology Then and Now 24
A Brief History of Psychology—Psychology’s The Psychological Perspective 32
Family Album 24 The Sociocultural Perspective 32
Structuralism 25 A Broader View of Diversity 33
Functionalism 25 Psychologists—Guaranteed Not to Shrink 33
Behaviorism 26 Helping People 36
Gestalt Psychology 27 Other Mental Health Professionals 36
Psychoanalytic Psychology 27
Humanistic Psychology 28 Summary 37
The Importance of Diversity in Psychology 29 Knowledge Builder 38

Psychology Today—Three Complementary

Perspectives on Behavior 31
The Biological Perspective 32
vii
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viii P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 4
Introducing Psychology: The Psychology Experiment 39
The Experimental Method—Where Cause Researcher Bias 43
Meets Effect 39 Summary 44
Variables and Groups 40 Knowledge Builder 45
Double-Blind—On Placebos and Self-Fulfilling
Prophecies 42
Research Participant Bias 42

Module 5
Introducing Psychology: Nonexperimental Research Methods 46
Naturalistic Observation 46 Case Studies 49
Limitations 47
Survey Method 50
Correlational Method 47 Summary 52
Correlation Coefficients 48 Knowledge Builder 53

Module 6
Introducing Psychology Skills in Action: Information Literacy 54
Psychology in the Media—Who Can You Summary 57
Trust? 54 Knowledge Builder 57
Summary 56

Module 7
Brain and Behavior: The Nervous System 58
The Nervous System—Wired for Action 58 Neural Networks 65
The Peripheral Nervous System 60 Neuroplasticity and Neurogenesis—The
Neurons—Biocomputer Building Blocks 60 Dynamic Nervous System 67
Parts of a Neuron 60 Neurogenesis 67
Neural Function 61 Summary 68
Synaptic Transmission and Neural Networks— Knowledge Builder 69
Wiring the Biocomputer 63
Neurotransmitters 64

Module 8
Brain and Behavior: Brain Research 70
Mapping Brain Structure—Pieces of PET Scan 73
the Puzzle 70 fMRI 73
CT Scans 70 Summary 74
MRI 71 Knowledge Builder 74
Exploring Brain Function—What Do
the Parts Do? 71
EEG 72

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g ix

Module 9
Brain and Behavior: Hemispheres and Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex 75
The Cerebral Cortex—Bigger Is Not Better 75 The Parietal Lobes 82
The Cerebral Hemispheres 76 The Temporal Lobes 82
The Occipital Lobes 83
Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex—Hey, You,
Four Lobes! 80 Summary 83
The Frontal Lobes 80 Knowledge Builder 84

Module 10
Brain and Behavior: The Subcortex and Endocrine System 85
The Subcortex—At the Core of the The Endocrine System—My Hormones
(Brain) Matter 85 Made Me Do It 89
The Hindbrain 86 Glands of the Endocrine System 90
The Cerebellum 86 Summary 91
Locked-In Syndrome 87 Knowledge Builder 92
The Forebrain 87
The Whole Human 88

Module 11
Brain and Behavior Skills in Action: Self-Regulation 93
Mind Control: Control Yourself! 93 Summary 96
Knowledge Builder 96
From Marshmallows to Retirement Funds 94

Module 12
Human Development: Heredity and Environment 97
Nature and Nurture—It Takes Two Summary 105
to Tango 97 Knowledge Builder 106
Heredity and Maturation 98
Environment and Maturation 99
Maturation in Infancy 101

Module 13
Human Development: Emotional and Social Development in Childhood 107
Emotional Development in Infancy—Curious, Parenting Styles 110
Baby? 107 Maternal and Paternal Influences 112
Ethnic Differences: Five Flavors
Social Development—Baby, I’m Stuck on of Parenting 113
You 108
Day Care 110 Summary 114
Knowledge Builder 115
Parental Influences—Life with Mom and
Dad 110
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x P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 14
Human Development: Language and Cognitive Development in Childhood 116
Language Development—Who Talks Baby Piaget Today 122
Talk? 116 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 123
Language and the Terrible Twos 117 Summary 124
The Roots of Language 117 Knowledge Builder 125
Cognitive Development—Think Like a Child 118
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 119

Module 15
Human Development: Adolescence and Adulthood 126
The Story of a Lifetime—Rocky Road or Garden Adulthood—You’re an Adult Now! 132
Path? 126 Challenges of Adulthood 132
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 127 Successful Aging 133
Adolescence—The Best of Times, the Worst of Death and Dying—The Final Challenge 134
Times 129 Reactions to Impending Death 134
Puberty 129 Summary 135
The Search for Identity 129 Knowledge Builder 136
Moral Development—Growing a Conscience 130
Moral Emotions 131
Moral Thinking 131

Module 16
Human Development Skills in Action: Behaving Ethically 137
Thinking About Ethics—Valuing Values 137 Summary 140
Knowledge Builder 140
Ethical Behavior–Truth or Consequences 138
Preparing to Behave Ethically 138

Module 17
Sensation and Perception: Sensory Processes 141
Sensory Systems—The First Step 141 Summary 146
Psychophysics 142 Knowledge Builder 147
Selective Attention—Tuning In and Tuning
Out 145

Module 18
Sensation and Perception: Vision 148
Vision—Catching Some Rays 148 Seeing in the Dark 153
Structure of the Eye 149 Summary 154
Rods and Cones 150 Knowledge Builder 155
Color Vision 151

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xi

Module 19
Sensation and Perception: The Nonvisual Senses 156
Hearing—Good Vibrations 156 The Somesthetic Senses—Flying by the Seat of
How We Hear Sounds 157 Your Pants 162
The Skin Senses 162
Smell and Taste—The Nose Knows When the
The Vestibular System 165
Tongue Can’t Tell 160
The Sense of Smell 160 Summary 166
Taste and Flavors 161 Knowledge Builder 167

Module 20
Sensation and Perception: Perceptual Processes 168
Perception—The Second Step 168 Depth Perception—What If the World
Illusions 169 Were Flat? 174
Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing 170 Binocular Depth Cues 176
Gestalt Organizing Principles 171 Monocular Depth Cues 176
Perceptual Constancies 173 Summary 179
Knowledge Builder 180

Module 21
Sensation and Perception: Perception and Objectivity 181
Perception and Experience—Believing The Whole Human: Perceptual Accuracy 186
Is Seeing 181 The Value of Paying Attention 187
Motives, Emotions, and Perception 181 How to Become a Better
Perceptual Expectancies 182 “Eyewitness” to Life 187
Perceptual Learning: Do They See What We See? 182 Summary 188
Becoming a Better Eyewitness to Life —Pay Knowledge Builder 188
Attention! 185
Implications 186

Module 22
Sensation and Perception Skills in Action: Communication 189
Tell Me! 189 What’s the Best Communication Style? 191
Say What You Mean 190 Summary 192
Receiving Information: Reading and Listening 190 Knowledge Builder 192
Providing Information: Writing and Speaking 190

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xii P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 23
Consciousness: States of Consciousness 193
States of Consciousness—The Many Faces of Meditation and Mindfulness—Chilling, the
Awareness 193 Healthy Way 198
Disorders of Consciousness 194 Meditation 198
Altered States of Consciousness 194 The Whole Human: Mindfulness and Well-Being 200
Hypnosis—Look into My Eyes 195 Summary 200
Theories of Hypnosis 196 Knowledge Builder 201
The Reality of Hypnosis 197

Module 24
Consciousness: Sleep and Dreams 202
Sleep Patterns and Stages—The Nightly Roller Sleep Troubles—The Sleepy Time Blues 209
Coaster 202 Insomnia Disorder 209
Sleep Patterns 202 Sleepwalking, Sleeptalking,
Sleep Stages 203 and Sleepsex 211
Nightmare Disorder and Night Terrors 211
Functions of Sleep—Catching a Few ZZZs 205
Sleep Apneas 211
The Need for Sleep 205
Narcolepsy 212
Sleep and Memory 206
Hypnopompic Hallucinations 212
Dreams—A Separate Reality? 207 Summary 213
Dream Theories 207
Knowledge Builder 214
Dream Worlds 208

Module 25
Consciousness: Psychoactive Drugs 215
Drug-Altered Consciousness—The High and Downers—Narcotics, Sedatives, Tranquilizers,
Low of It 215 and Alcohol 223
Patterns of Psychoactive Drug Use 216 Narcotics 223
Psychoactive Drugs and the Brain 217 Barbiturates 224
Drug Dependence 217 GHB 224
Tranquilizers 224
Uppers—Amphetamines, Cocaine, MDMA,
Alcohol 224
Caffeine, Nicotine 220
Amphetamines 220 Hallucinogens—Tripping the Light Fantastic 226
Cocaine 220 LSD and PCP 227
MDMA (“Ecstasy”) 221 Marijuana 227
Caffeine 221 Summary 228
Nicotine 222 Knowledge Builder 229

Module 26
Consciousness Skills in Action: Metacognition 230
Thinking About Thinking—The Examined The Examined Life—Worth Living? 232
Life 230 Summary 233
Do You Know What You Don’t Know? 231 Knowledge Builder 233

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xiii

Module 27
Conditioning and Learning: Associative and Cognitive Learning 234
Learning—One Way or Another 234 Discovery Learning 238
Associative Learning—About Dogs, Rats, and Observational Learning—Do as I Do, Not as
Humans 235 I Say 239
Types of Associative Learning 235 Modeling 239
Latent Learning 236 Modeling and the Media 240
Cognitive Learning—Beyond Conditioning 237 Summary 242
Feedback 237 Knowledge Builder 243

Module 28
Conditioning and Learning: Classical Conditioning 244
Classical Conditioning—Does the Name Pavlov Conditioned Emotional Responses 248
Ring a Bell? 244 Vicarious, or Secondhand, Conditioning 249
Pavlov’s Experiment 244 Summary 250
Principles of Classical Conditioning 246 Knowledge Builder 250
Classical Conditioning in Humans—An
Emotional Topic 248

Module 29
Conditioning and Learning: Operant Conditioning 251
Operant Conditioning—Ping-Pong Playing Punishment 255
Pigeons? 251 Stimulus Control—Red Light, Green
Positive Reinforcement 252 Light 256
Acquiring an Operant Response 252 Generalization 257
The Timing of Reinforcement 253 Discrimination 257
Shaping 254
Operant Extinction 255 Summary 258
Negative Reinforcement 255 Knowledge Builder 258

Module 30
Conditioning and Learning: Reinforcement and Punishment in Detail 259
Reinforcement—What’s Your Pleasure? 259 Consequences of Punishment—Putting the
Primary Reinforcers 259 Brakes on Behavior 264
Secondary Reinforcers 260 Variables Affecting Punishment 264
The Downside of Punishment 265
Partial Reinforcement—Las Vegas, a Human
Using Punishment Wisely 265
Skinner Box? 261
Schedules of Partial Reinforcement 262 Summary 267
Knowledge Builder 268

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xiv P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 31
Conditioning and Learning Skills in Action: Behavioral Self-Management 269
Just Say No! 269 Extra Techniques to Break Bad Habits 271
Behavioral Self-Management—A Rewarding Summary 272
Project 270 Knowledge Builder 272
Create a Management Plan 270

Module 32
Memory: Memory Systems 273
Stages of Memory—Do You Have a Mind Like Long-Term Memory—A Blast from the Past 277
a Steel Trap? Or a Sieve? 273 Encoding and Culture 278
Sensory Memory 274 Storage in Long-Term Memory 278
Short-Term Memory 274 False Memories 279
Long-Term Memory 274 Organizing Memories 280
The Relationship Between STM and LTM 274 Redintegration 281
Types of Long-Term Memory 282
Short-Term (Working) Memory—Do You Know
the Magic Number? 275 Summary 284
Storage and Rehearsal in Short-Term (Working) Knowledge Builder 284
Memory 276
The Capacity of Short-Term (Working) Memory 276

Module 33
Memory: Measuring Memory 285
Measuring Memory—The Answer Is on the Tip Relearning Information 287
of My Tongue 285 Explicit and Implicit Memories 287
Recalling Information 286 Summary 288
Recognizing Information 286 Knowledge Builder 289

Module 34
Memory: Forgetting 290
Forgetting—Why We, Uh, Let’s See. . . . Why We, Memory and the Brain—Some “Shocking”
Uh . . . Forget! 290 Findings 296
When Memory Encoding Fails 291 Consolidation 296
When Memory Storage Fails 292 Long-Term Memory and the Brain 298
When Memory Retrieval Fails 293 Summary 299
Interference 294 Knowledge Builder 300
Repression and Suppression of Memories 295

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xv

Module 35
Memory: Exceptional Memory 301
Exceptional Memory—Wizards of Recall 301 Create Acrostics 305
Create Mental Images 305
Improving Memory—Some Keys to (Memory) Create Stories or Chains 306
Success 302
Encoding Strategies 302 Summary 306
Retrieval Strategies 304 Knowledge Builder 307

Mnemonic Devices—Tricks of the (Memory)

Trade 305

Module 36
Memory Skills in Action: Giving Memorable Presentations 308
From Pictures to PowerPoint 308 Help the Audience Integrate Information 310
Practice 310
Start Talking! 309
Help the Audience Select Important Information 309 Summary 310
Help the Audience Organize Information 310 Knowledge Builder 311

Module 37
Cognition and Intelligence: Modes of Thought 312
What Is Thinking?—Brains over Brawn 312 Language—Say What? 316
Some Basic Units of Thought 313 Linguistic Relativity: What’s North
of My Fork? 317
Mental Imagery—Does a Frog Have Lips? 314
Semantics 317
The Nature of Mental Images 314
The Structure of Language 318
Concepts—I’m Positive, It’s a Gestural Languages 319
Whatchamacallit 316 Animal Language 320
Forming Concepts 316
Summary 321
Types of Concepts 316
Knowledge Builder 322

Module 38
Cognition and Intelligence: Problem Solving 323
Problem Solving—Go Figure 323 Insightful Solutions 324
Algorithmic Solutions 323 Common Barriers to Problem Solving 326
Solutions by Understanding 324 Summary 328
Heuristics 324 Knowledge Builder 328

Module 39
Cognition and Intelligence: Creative Thinking and Intuition 329
Creative Thinking—Down Roads Less Intuitive Thought—Mental Shortcut?
Traveled 329 or Dangerous Detour? 332
Tests of Creativity 330 Errors in Intuitive Thought 333
Stages of Creative Thought 331 Summary 335
The Whole Human: The Creative Personality 332 Knowledge Builder 335

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xvi P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 40
Cognition and Intelligence: Intelligence 336
Human Intelligence—The IQ and You 336 Questioning Intelligence—More Questions
Defining Intelligence 337 Than Answers? 343
The Stanford-Binet 337 Artificial Intelligence 343
The Wechsler Tests 338 Culture and Intelligence 344
Group Tests 338 Multiple Intelligences 345
Intelligence Quotients 338 IQ and Heredity 345
IQ and Environment 346
Variations in Intelligence—Curved Like
The Whole Human: Wisdom 348
a Bell 340
The Mentally Gifted 340 Summary 348
Intellectual Disability 341 Knowledge Builder 349

Module 41
Cognition and Intelligence Skills in Action: Creativity and Innovation 350
Making Creative Juices 350 Seek Varied Input Through Networking 352
Observe and Experiment 353
The DNA of Innovation 351
Make Associations 351 Summary 354
Ask Questions 351 Knowledge Builder 354

Module 42
Motivation and Emotion: Overview of Motives and Emotions 355
Motivation—Forces That Push and Pull 355 Inside an Emotion—Caught in That
A Model of Motivation 355 Feeling? 360
Biological Motives and Homeostasis 357 Basic Emotions 361
Circadian Rhythms 357 Summary 362
Motives in Perspective—A View from the Knowledge Builder 363
Pyramid 358
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 359
Turning Play into Work 359

Module 43
Motivation and Emotion: Motivation in Detail 364
Hunger—Pardon Me, My Hypothalamus Stimulus Motives—Monkey Business 372
Is Growling 364 Arousal Theory 373
Internal Factors in Hunger 364 Peak Performance 373
External Factors in Hunger and Obesity 367 Coping with Test Anxiety 374
Dieting 368
Learned Motives—The Pursuit
Eating Disorders 369
of Excellence 375
Biological Motives Revisited—Thirst, Pain, The Need for Achievement 375
and Sex 371 The Need for Power 376
Thirst 371 Summary 376
Pain 371 Knowledge Builder 377
The Sex Drive 372
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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xvii

Module 44
Motivation and Emotion: Emotion in Detail 378
Physiology and Emotion—Arousal Theories of Emotion—Several Ways
and Lying 378 to Fear a Bear 384
Fight or Flight 379 The James-Lange Theory 384
Lie Detectors 380 The Cannon-Bard Theory 384
Emotion and the Brain 381 Schachter’s Cognitive Theory of Emotion 384
Emotional Appraisal 385
Expressing Emotions—Making Faces
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis 386
and Talking Bodies 382
A Contemporary Model of Emotion 387
Facial Expressions 382
Cultural Differences Summary 388
in Expressing Emotion 382 Knowledge Builder 389
Gender Differences in Expressing Emotion 383
Body Language 383

Module 45
Motivation and Emotion Skills in Action: Positivity and Optimism 390
Don’t Give Up Hope! 390 Summary 393
Knowledge Builder 393
Facing Adversity 391
Becoming More Optimistic 391

Module 46
Human Sexuality: Sex and Gender 394
Sexual Development—Circle One: Acquiring Gender Identity 400
XX or XY? 394 Androgyny—A Bit of Both 402
Dimensions of Sex 395 Psychological Androgyny 402
Sexual Orientation—Who Do You Love? 396 When Sex and Gender Do Not
The Stability of Sexual Orientation 396 Match—The Binary Busters 403
Sexual Orientation Today 398
Summary 404
Gender Identity—It Begins Early 399 Knowledge Builder 405
Gender Roles 399

Module 47
Human Sexuality: The Human Sex Drive, Response, and Attitudes 406
The Human Sex Drive and Sexual Response— Satisfying Relationships—Keeping It Hot 414
Gotta Have It 406 Bridges to Sexual Satisfaction 415
Human Sexual Response 408 Intimacy and Communication 415
Contemporary Sexual Attitudes and Summary 416
Behavior—Anything Goes? 411 Knowledge Builder 417
Contemporary Sexual Behavior 411
Sex Among the Young 412
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xviii P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 48
Human Sexuality: Sexual Problems 418
The Crime of Rape—No Means No 418 Atypical Sexual Behavior—Fifty Shades
Forcible Rape 418 of Unusual 423
Acquaintance Rape 419 Paraphilic Disorders 423
Gender Role Stereotypes
STDs and Safer Sex—Choice, Risk, and
and Rape Myths 419
Responsibility 425
Sexual Dysfunctions—When Intimacy Fails 420 HIV/AIDS 427
Desire Disorders 420 Behavioral Risk Factors for STDs 427
Arousal Disorders 420 Safer Sex 428
Orgasm Disorders 422 Summary 428
Sexual Pain Disorders 423 Knowledge Builder 429

Module 49
Human Sexuality Skills in Action: Diversity and Inclusion 430
Living with Diversity 430 Summary 433
Knowledge Builder 433
Tolerance and Acceptance 431
Being Open to Openness 431

Module 50
Personality: Overview of Personality 434
The Psychology of Personality—Do You Have Interviews 438
Personality? 434 Direct Observation and Rating Scales 439
Traits 434 Personality Questionnaires 440
Types 435 Projective Tests of Personality 442
Self-Concept 436 Summary 443
The Whole Human: Personality Theories 437 Knowledge Builder 444
Personality Assessment—Psychological
Yardsticks 438

Module 51
Personality: Trait Theories 445
The Trait Approach—Describe Yourself The Big Five 449
in 18,000 Words or Less 445 Summary 451
Predicting Behavior 446 Knowledge Builder 451
Classifying Traits 447

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xix

Module 52
Personality: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories 452
Psychoanalytic Theory—Id Came to Maslow and Self-Actualization 458
Me in a Dream 452 The Whole Human: Thriving 459
The Structure of Personality 453 Carl Rogers’s Self Theory 459
The Dynamics of Personality 454 Humanistic View of Development 461
Personality Development 454 Summary 462
The Neo-Freudians 456 Knowledge Builder 463
Humanistic Theory—Peak Experiences
and Personal Growth 457

Module 53
Personality: Behavioral and Social Learning Theories 464
Learning Theories of Personality—Habit I Seen Traits and Situations—The Great Debate 468
You Before? 464 Do We Inherit Personality? 468
How Situations Affect Behavior 465 Personality and Environment 469
Personality 5 Habitual Behavior 466 Summary 471
Social Learning Theory 466 Knowledge Builder 471
Behaviorist View of Development 467

Module 54
Personality Skills in Action: Leadership 472
Follow the Leader—Made, Not Born 472 Be Innovative and Challenge the Process 474
Promote Strong Relationships and Individual Talent 474
Becoming a Good Leader—
Learning to Lead 473 Summary 475
Be Inspiring and Commit to a Shared Vision 473 Knowledge Builder 475

Module 55
Health Psychology: Overview of Health Psychology 476
Health Psychology—Here’s to Community Health 481
Your Good Health 476 Stress 481
Behaviors and Illness 477 The Whole Human: Subjective Well-Being 482
Health-Promoting Behaviors 478 Summary 483
Early Prevention 480 Knowledge Builder 483

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xx P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 56
Health Psychology: Stressors 484
Stress—Threat or Thrill? 484 Acculturative Stress—Stranger in a Strange Land 489
Appraising Stressors 485 Frustration 490
Poverty and Health 486 Conflict 492
Managing Conflicts 494
Types of Stressors—The Good, the Bad,
and the Ugly 487 Summary 494
Life Events and Stress 487 Knowledge Builder 495
The Hazards of Hassles 489

Module 57
Health Psychology: Coping with Stress 496
Coping Styles—Making the Best of It 496 Learned Helplessness 500
Coping With Traumatic Stress 497 Depression 501
The College Blues 502
Psychological Defense—Mental Karate? 498
Summary 503
Learned Helplessness and Depression—Is Knowledge Builder 504
There Hope? 500

Module 58
Health Psychology: Stress and Health 505
Stress and Health—Unmasking a Personality and Health 506
Hidden Killer 505 Summary 508
Psychosomatic Disorders 506 Knowledge Builder 509

Module 59
Health Psychology Skills in Action: Stress Management 510
Here’s to Your Good Health! 510 Counteracting Upsetting Thoughts 513
De-Stress! 511 Summary 514
Managing Bodily Effects 511 Knowledge Builder 514
Modifying Ineffective Behavior 512

Module 60
Psychological Disorders: Defining Psychopathology 515
Normality—What’s Normal? 515 Diagnosing Mental Illness—Attaching a Label to
Mental Disorders Are Maladaptive 517 the Person 523
Abnormal Behavior and the Law 518 Types of Symptoms 523
Classifying Mental Disorders—Problems by the Causes of Mental Illness—What Went
Book 518 Wrong? 523
Comorbidity 518 Biological Factors 523
Mental Illness in Other Cultures 519 Psychosocial Factors 525
The Fluidity of Psychiatric Categories 519 Summary 525
The Impact of Psychiatric Labels 519 Knowledge Builder 526
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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xxi

Module 61
Psychological Disorders: Psychotic Disorders 527
Psychotic Disorders—Loss of Contact 527 Causes of Schizophrenia 531
The Stress-Vulnerability Hypothesis 533
Delusional Disorders—An Enemy Behind Every
Tree 528 Summary 534
Paranoid Psychosis 529 Knowledge Builder 535

Schizophrenia—Shattered Reality 529

Symptoms of Schizophrenia 529

Module 62
Psychological Disorders: Mood Disorders 536
Mood Disorders—Peaks and Valleys 536 Suicide—Too Permanent a Solution? 539
Depressive Disorders 536 Summary 540
Bipolar and Related Disorders 537 Knowledge Builder 541
Causes of Mood Disorders 537

Module 63
Psychological Disorders: Anxiety, Anxiety-Related, and Personality Disorders 542
Anxiety Disorders—When Anxiety Rules 542 Personality Disorders—Blueprints for
Anxiety Disorders 543 Maladjustment 550
Anxiety Disorders—Four Pathways to Trouble 544 Maladaptive Personality Patterns 550
Antisocial Personality 550
Anxiety-Related Disorders—Also Anxious? 546
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders 546 Summary 552
Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders 547 Knowledge Builder 553
Dissociative Disorders 548
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders 548

Module 64
Psychological Disorders Skills in Action: Emotional Intelligence 554
Emotional Intelligence—The Fine Art Summary 556
of Self-Control 554 Knowledge Builder 557
Reading Emotions 555

Module 65
Therapies: Treating Psychological Distress 558
Origins of Therapy—Bored Out of Your Individual versus Group Therapy 561
Skull 558 Face-to-Face versus Distance Therapy 562
Psychotherapy Since Freud 559 Therapies—An Overview 564
Dimensions of Therapy—The Many Paths to Core Features of Psychotherapy 564
Health 560 Effectiveness of Psychotherapy 565
Insight versus Action Therapy 560 Summary 566
Directive versus Nondirective Therapy 561 Knowledge Builder 566
Open-Ended versus Time-Limited Therapy 561
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xxii P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 66
Therapies: Psychodynamic, Humanistic, and Cognitive Therapies 568
Psychodynamic Therapies—The Gestalt Therapy 571
Talking Cure 568 Cognitive Therapies—Think Positive! 572
Psychoanalysis 568 Cognitive Therapy for Depression 572
Psychoanalysis Today 569 Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy 572
Humanistic Therapies—Liberating Cognitive Behavior Therapy 574
Human Potential 569 Summary 575
Client-Centered Therapy 570 Knowledge Builder 576
Existential Therapy 570

Module 67
Therapies: Behavior Therapies 577
Therapies Based on Classical Conditioning— Nonreinforcement and Operant Extinction 582
Healing by Learning 577 Reinforcement and Token Economies 582
Aversion Therapy 578 Summary 583
Exposure Therapy 579 Knowledge Builder 584
Operant Therapies—All the World Is
a Skinner Box? 581

Module 68
Therapies: Medical Therapies 585
Medical Therapies—Psychiatric Care 585 Hospitalization 588
Drug Therapies 585 Community Mental Health Programs 589
Brain Stimulation Therapy 587 Summary 590
Psychosurgery 588 Knowledge Builder 591

Module 69
Therapy Skills in Action: Managing Mental Health Problems 592
Studying Therapies—Treatments Getting Counseling 594
that Work 592 Summary 597
Admitting Weakness—Can’t Complain 593 Knowledge Builder 598
Talking About Problems: Basic Counseling Skills 593

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xxiii

Module 70
Social Psychology: Social Behavior and Cognition 599
Humans in a Social Context—Mind Forming Attitudes 604
Your Manners 599 Attitudes and Behavior 605
Social Roles 600 Attitude Change—When the Seekers
Group Structure, Cohesion, and Norms 600 Went Public 605
Social Comparisons and Attributions—Behind Persuasion 606
Our Masks 602 Cognitive Dissonance Theory 606
Social Comparison 602 Summary 608
Attribution Theory 603 Knowledge Builder 609
Attitudes—Got Attitude? 604

Module 71
Social Psychology: Social Influence 610
Social Influence—Follow the Leader 610 Coercion—Brainwashing and Cults 616
Mere Presence—Just Because You Are There 611 Assertiveness—Stand Up for Your Rights 617
Conformity—Don’t Stand Out 611
Compliance—A Foot in the Door 612 Summary 618
Obedience—Would You Electrocute a Stranger? 614 Knowledge Builder 619

Module 72
Social Psychology: Prosocial Behavior 620
Affiliation and Attraction—Come Together 620 Helping Others—The Ultimate Kindness 625
Interpersonal Attraction 620 Bystander Intervention 626
Self-Disclosure 622 Who Will Help Whom? 627
Interpersonal Attraction and Love—The Love Summary 628
Triangle 622 Knowledge Builder 629
Interpersonal Attraction, Love, and Attachment 623
Evolution and Mate Selection 624

Module 73
Social Psychology: Antisocial Behavior 630
Aggression—The World’s Most The Prejudiced Personality 634
Dangerous Animal 630 Intergroup Conflict—The Roots
Biology 631 of Prejudice 635
Frustration 631 Experiments in Prejudice 637
Social Learning 632 Combatting Prejudice 638
Preventing Aggression 633
Summary 640
Prejudice—Attitudes That Injure 633 Knowledge Builder 641
Sources and Forms of Prejudice 633
Becoming Prejudiced 634

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xxiv P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 74
Social Psychology Skills in Action: Teamwork 642
Teamwork—The Dream Team 642 Summary 644
Knowledge Builder 644
Benefiting from Teamwork—Team Up! 643
Becoming a Team Player 643

Module 75
Applied Psychology: Industrial/Organizational Psychology 645
Industrial/Organizational Psychology— Job Satisfaction 648
Psychology at Work 645 Organizational Culture 650
Theory X Leadership 646 Personnel Psychology 651
Theory Y Leadership 646 Summary 653
Leadership Strategies 648 Knowledge Builder 654

Module 76
Applied Psychology: Environmental Psychology 655
Environmental Influences on Behavior— Conservation 662
No Talking! 655 Social Dilemmas 664
Personal Space 656 A Look Ahead 665
Environmental Influences on Behavior 657 Summary 665
Environmental Problem Solving 659 Knowledge Builder 666
Human Influences on the Natural
Environment—Sustaining Our Earth 661

Module 77
Applied Psychology: The Psychology of Law, Education, and Sports 667
Psychology and Law—Judging Juries 667 Sports Psychology—Psyched! 671
Jury Behavior 667 The Whole Human: Peak Performance 673
Jury Selection 668 A Look Ahead 674
Educational Psychology—An Summary 674
Instructive Topic 669 Knowledge Builder 675
Elements of a Teaching Strategy 670
Universal Design for Instruction 671

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xxv

Module 78
Applied Psychology Skills in Action: Career Preparation 676
Where Are You Going—More School Work to Develop Necessary Skills 678
or Work? 676 Document Key Learning Experiences 678
Investigate Potential Career Paths Now 676 Examine Your Digital Footprint 678
Find Out About Necessary Skills 677 Summary 679
Assess Your Current Skill Set Knowledge Builder 679
and Your Characteristics 678

Module 79
Appendix: Behavioral Statistics 680
Descriptive Statistics—Psychology by The Correlation Coefficient 686
the Numbers 680 Inferential Statistics—Significant
Graphical Statistics 681 Numbers 688
Measures of Central Tendency 682 Samples and Populations 689
Significant Differences 689
Measures of Variability 682
Standard Scores 683 Summary 689
The Normal Curve 684 Knowledge Builder 691

Correlation—Rating Relationships 686

Relationships 686

References R-1
Name Index N-1
Subject Index/Glossary S-1

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Preface
To You, the Student—An Invitation To You, the Instructor—An Invitation
to Learn Psychology to Teach Psychology
Greetings from your authors! We look forward to being your Thank you for choosing Psychology: Modules for Active
guides as you explore the exciting field of psychology and our Learning for your students and for your course. Marcel
ever-evolving understanding of human behavior. In a very Proust wrote, “The real voyage of discovery consists not in
real sense, we wrote this book about you, for you, and to you. seeing new landscapes, but in having new eyes.” It is in this
We sincerely hope that you will find, as we do, that what you spirit that we have written this book to promote not just an
learn is at once familiar, exotic, surprising, and challenging. interest in human behavior but an appreciation for the per-
spective of the psychologist as well.
Reading Psychology As we point out to your students in Module 1: The
Psychology of Reflective Studying, there is a big difference
In Psychology: Modules for Active Learning, we have done
between experiencing and reflecting on experience (Nor-
all we could imagine to make it enjoyable for you to read
man, 1994). For John Dewey (1910), reflective thinking
this book. We trust that you will find your first journey
is the “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any
through psychology to be quite interesting and useful to you
belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the
in your everyday life. Each module takes you into a different
grounds that support it, and the further conclusion to
realm of psychology, such as personality, abnormal behav-
which it tends.” The psychologist’s perspective, of course,
ior, memory, consciousness, and human development. Each
involves reflecting on human behavior in a variety of
realm is complex and fascinating in its own right, with many
ways. When it comes to studying psychology, reflective
pathways, landmarks, and interesting detours to discover.
cognition requires actively thinking about what you have
Like any journey of discovery, your exploration of psychol-
just read, which results in deeper understanding and
ogy will help you better understand yourself, others, and the
memory. Please consider looking at Module 1 because it
world around you. It’s definitely a trip worth taking.
explains to your students in some detail how to become
a more reflective student and outlines how they can get
Studying Psychology the most out of this book and your course. By the way, we
Psychology is about each of us. It asks us to adopt a reflec- encourage you to assign your students to read it as well,
tive attitude as we inquire, “How can we step outside our- if at all possible.
selves to look objectively at how we live, think, feel, and Throughout this book, we have tried to select only the
act?” Psychologists believe that the answer is through care- “best” material from the many topics that could be pre-
ful thought, observation, and inquiry. As simple as that may sented. Nevertheless, Psychology covers not only the heart
seem, thoughtful reflection takes practice to develop. It is of psychology, but also many topics at the cutting edge
the guiding light for all that follows. of current knowledge, including a focus on the practical
Psychology: Modules for Active Learning is your passport applications of psychology, the growing importance of
to an adventure in active learning, not just passive reading. To neuroscience, and the richness of human diversity. New in-
help you get off to a good start, the opening module of this book formation, anecdotes, perspectives, and narratives appear
is our short “manual,” Module 1: The Psychology of Reflective throughout the 14th edition. The result is a concise book
Studying. In it, we describe what you can learn by taking this that is readable, manageable, informative, and motivating.
course, including the skills you’ll develop that can be helpful At the same time, we have structured this book to help
in both your personal and professional life. In Module 1, you’ll students consolidate the skills to learn efficiently and to
also read about a variety of study skills, including the reflective become better critical thinkers. Without such skills, stu-
SQ4R method, which you can use to get the most out of this dents cannot easily go, as Jerome Bruner (1973) put it,
book, your psychology course, and your other courses as well. “beyond the information given.”

xxvii
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xxviii P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

The Teaching Challenge Psychology for this title is available at www.cengagebrain

.com. To learn more about MindTap, please see the section
Wouldn’t it be nice if all of our students came to our courses
of this preface entitled “A Complete Course—Teaching and
highly motivated to explore psychology and well prepared to
Learning Supplements.”
cope with the learning challenges we create for them? As the
authors of this textbook, we have together accumulated over
70 years of classroom experience teaching tens of thousands 2: Readability and Narrative Emphasis
of college and university students. Although we have found Many introductory psychology students are reluctant
most students to be generally well intentioned, our modern readers. Selecting a textbook is half the battle in teach-
world certainly does immerse them in their work, careers, ing a successful course. A good textbook does much of
families, intimate relationships, popular culture, and life the work of imparting information to your students. This
in general. As we compete for ever-more-limited student frees class time for your discussion, extra topics, or me-
attention, we must do more than just lecture in psychology. dia presentations. It also leaves students asking for more.
We also must motivate our students to read and learn as well When a book overwhelms students or cools their inter-
as educate them about how to learn effectively (Matthew & est, teaching and learning suffer. If students won’t read
Sternberg, 2009; Paternoster & Pogarsky, 2009). the textbook, they can’t very well be reflective about what
We have explicitly designed and written the 14th edition they have read.
of Psychology: Modules for Active Learning to foster deeper That’s why we’ve worked hard to make this a clear,
student engagement with the field of psychology, better readable, and engaging text. Psychology: Modules for Active
memory for what has been read and studied, and a deeper Learning is designed to give students a clear grasp of major
understanding of how to become more reflective learners concepts without burying them in details. At the same time,
and thinkers. To help you and your students reach these it offers a broad overview that reflects psychology’s rich
goals, we have organized our design philosophy around four heritage of ideas. We think that students will find this book
core principles: informative and intellectually stimulating.
Because we want students to read this book with gen-
1: Flexible Modular Organization uine interest and enthusiasm, not merely as an obligation,
we have made a special effort to weave narrative threads
Over the years, many instructors have asked us for a text-
through the book. Everyone loves a good story, and the
book that can be used more flexibly. In response, we created
story of psychology is compelling. Throughout Psychology,
Psychology: Modules for Active Learning. First and foremost,
we have used intriguing anecdotes and examples to propel
Psychology is a complete first course in psychology. Whether
reading and sustain interest.
you prefer shorter, more concise self-contained modules, or
are comfortable with a traditional chapter-by-chapter orga- Practical Applications To make psychology even
nization, Psychology can work for you. It is organized into more inviting to students, we have emphasized the many
16 major module clusters (think of them as chapters), to ways that psychology relates to practical problems in daily
allow you flexibility in assigning topics for your course. Be- life. For example, a major new feature of this book is the
cause each module is written to be more self-contained than Skills in Action modules, located periodically throughout
an equivalent chapter section, you will find it easier to omit the book. These high-interest discussions bridge the gap
modules and reorder the sequencing of modules (and hence between theory and practical applications by exploring
module clusters). Of course, if you intend to have your stu- how psychology has contributed to our understanding of
dents read all of a module cluster in order, the modules the skills that are valuable at work and in our relationships.
making up each cluster nevertheless flow just as well as a We believe that it is fair for students to ask, “Does this
more traditional chapter’s section-by-section format. mean anything to me? Can I use it? Why should I learn
Each module in Psychology concludes with a summary it if I can’t?” The Skills in Action modules allow them to
and a feature called a Knowledge Builder. These “mini- see the benefits of adopting new ideas, and they breathe
study guides” challenge students to quiz themselves, relate life into psychology’s concepts. The skills in question also
concepts to their own experiences, and to think critically happen to help you and your students meet the American
about the principles they are learning. If students would Psychological Association’s (2013) Guidelines for the
like more feedback and practice, an integrated MindTap® Undergraduate Major (see Table I.1).

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 P R E FACE M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xxix

Table I.1 APA guidelines 2.0 Met by Psychology: Modules for Active learning

Chapter Addresses Material

Modules Topic of Module Cluster Skills in Action Topic from APA Guidelines 2.0:

1 How to Study N/A 4.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.5

2–6 Research Methods Information Literacy 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 3.1
7–11 Brain Self-Regulation 1.1, 1.2, 5.2
12–16 Development Behaving Ethically 1.1, 1.2, 2.5, 3.2, 5.1
17–22 Sensation and Perception Communication 1.1, 1.2, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 5.4
23–26 Consciousness Metacognition 1.1, 1.2, 5.2, 5.3
27–31 Learning Behavioral Self-Management 1.1, 1.2, 5.2
32–36 Memory Giving Memorable Presentations 1.1, 1.2, 4.2, 5.3
37–41 Cognition and Intelligence Creativity and Innovation 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.3, 2.5
42–45 Emotion and Motivation Positivity and Optimism 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.5, 4.3, 5.4
46–49 Sexuality Diversity and Inclusion 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.5, 3.2, 3.3, 4.3, 5.1, 5.4
50–54 Personality Leadership 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 3.3, 5.1, 5.2, 5.4
55–59 Health Stress Management 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 3.3, 5.1
60–64 Psychopathology Emotional Intelligence 1.1, 1.2, 3.2, 3.3, 4.3, 5.1, 5.4
65–69 Therapies Managing Mental Health Problems 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 3.3
70–74 Social Teamwork 1.1, 1.2, 3.2, 3.3, 4.3, 5.1, 5.4
75–78 Applied Psychology Career Preparation 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.3, 5.1, 5.5

3: Integrated Support for Active Learning experience. As students explore concepts, they are encour-
aged to think critically about ideas and relate them to their
Studying, rather than reading, a textbook requires the ac-
own experiences. Notice how the steps of the reflective
tive cognitive engagement that psychologist Donald Nor-
SQ4R method—survey, question, read, recite, reflect, and
man (1994) calls reflective. In his book, Thinking, Fast and
review—are incorporated into the modular design:
Slow, Daniel Kahneman describes it as System 2 thinking
(Kahneman, 2011). Being reflective when you read a text- Survey Features at the beginning of each module help
book involves asking yourself if you understand what you are students build cognitive maps of upcoming topics, thus
reading, how it might relate to things you already know, what serving as advance organizers (Ausubel, 1978; Gurlitt
new questions your reading might trigger, and so on. The re- et al., 2012). A photograph and short preview arouse interest,
sulting elaboration of the just-read new information is, per- give an overview of the module, and focus attention on the
haps, the best way to foster understanding and form lasting task at hand. A list of Survey Questions also is given as a
memories (Gadzella, 1995; Goldstein, 2015; Sternberg, 2017). guide to active reading. These questions are now numbered,
It is in this spirit that we have again improved the de- making it easier for students and instructors to relate the
sign of this edition of Psychology to encourage students to Survey Questions to a matched set of learning objectives
become more reflective, active learners. To achieve this im- that appear throughout the materials that accompany this
portant pedagogical goal, the traditional SQ4R method has textbook.
again been updated to reflective SQ4R, an active-learning for- The answers to Survey Questions open intellectual path-
mat, to make studying psychology an even more rewarding ways and summarize psychology’s “big ideas.” Ultimately,

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xxx P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

those answers provide a good summary of what students be asked about various topics. Students who miss any items
have learned. With these module-opening features, we in- are encouraged to backtrack and clarify their understanding
vite students to read with a purpose and actively process in- before reading more. In other words, completing Recite
formation. questions serves as a form of recitation to enhance learning.
Question How can questioning be built into a textbook? Reflect Simple recitation is usually not enough to foster
Italicized Dialogue Questions, such as the previous sentence, deeper understanding, so in each module, we invite students
are the sorts of questions that students might find themselves to engage in two distinct types of reflection: self-reflection
thinking as they begin reading a section of text. As such, they and critical thinking:
model a dialogue in which the questions and the reactions
◗ Self-Reflection Self-reflection (or self-reference)
of students are anticipated—that is, Dialogue Questions
makes new information more meaningful by
prompt students to look for important ideas as they read,
relating it to what is already known (Klein and
thus promoting active learning while serving as advance
Kihlstrom, 1986). We provide many opportunities
organizers. They also clarify difficult points in a lively give-
for self-reflection throughout Psychology. The text is
and-take between questions and responses.
written with many contemporary references, exam-
Further, as noted earlier, each major module section be-
ples, and stories to make it easier for students to
gins with one or more Survey Questions. As students read a
relate what they are reading to their own life experi-
module, they can try to discover the answers to these ques-
ence. Similarly, to help students further elaborate
tions. They can then compare their answers with the ones
their new understanding, each Knowledge Builder
listed in the module summary.
includes a series of Self-Reflect questions that
Read We’ve made every effort to make this a clear, readable encourage students to connect new concepts with
text. To further aid comprehension, we’ve used a full array personal experiences and prior knowledge. Finally,
of traditional learning aids. These include boldface terms, as we mentioned previously, Skills in Action mod-
bulleted and numbered summaries, robust illustrations, ules invite students to relate psychology to the devel-
summary tables, a name index, and an integrated subject opment of many skills helpful in their daily lives.
index and glossary. As an additional aid, figure and table
◗ Critical Thinking Being reflective about psychology
references in the text are set apart by different colored text
involves more than self-reflectively asking “What
and small geometric shapes. These “placeholders” make it
does this have to with me and what I already know?”
easier for students to return to the section that they were
It also involves reflecting more deeply about the
reading after they have paused to view a table or figure.
field. Our book also invites students to think criti-
We have made the glossary function in this edition as
cally about psychology.
powerful as possible. The Main Glossary, at the end of the
The active, questioning nature of the reflective
book, is integrated with the Subject Index, making it easy to
SQ4R method is, in itself, an inducement to criti-
link important definitions to where they are discussed in the
cal thinking. In addition, every Knowledge Builder
text. As in earlier editions, all glossary items are bold and
includes Think Critically questions. These stimulat-
defined in-text when the term is first encountered. This aids
ing questions challenge students to think critically
reading comprehension because students get clear defini-
and analytically about psychology. Each is followed
tions when and where they need them—in the general text
by a brief answer with which students can compare
itself. In addition, the parallel Running Glossary defines key
their own thoughts. Many of these answers are based
terms in the margins of the relevant pages, making it easy
on research and are informative in their own right.
for students to find, study, and review important terms.
Many of the Survey Questions that introduce topics
Recite A Knowledge Builder at the end of each module gives in the text also act as models of critical thinking.
students a chance to test their recall and further develop their Further, Module 2 explicitly discusses critical
understanding of preceding topics. Each Knowledge Builder thinking skills and offers a rational appraisal of
includes a Recite section, a short, noncomprehensive quiz, to pseudopsychologies. In addition, the discussion of
help students actively process information and assess their research methods in Modules 4 and 5 is actually a
progress. Recite questions, which are not as difficult as in- short course on how to think clearly about behavior.
class tests, are meant to offer a sample of what students could These methodology modules are augmented by

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 P R E FACE M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xxxi

Module 6, a Skills in Action module, which offers the Brain and Behavior modules (Modules 7–11) deal with
suggestions about how to critically evaluate claims the usual topics such as methods of studying the brain,
in the popular media. Modules 37–41, which cover neural functioning, synaptic transmission, the structure of
cognition, language, creativity, and intelligence, the nervous system and brain, and the endocrine system,
include many topics related to critical thinking. we deliberately include a discussion of the biological
Taken together, these features will help students perspective in many of the other modules comprising this
think more reflectively about your course and the book.
field of psychology while they also gain thinking
skills of lasting value. The Psychological Perspective: The Centrality of
Self-Knowledge We have threaded the psychological
Review As we noted previously, all important terms perspective throughout this book in many ways. It is, of
appear in a Running Glossary throughout the book, which course, central to psychology. In this edition of Psychology,
aids review. In addition, the Main Glossary is integrated with we continue to place special thematic emphasis on the self.
the Subject Index. When reviewing, students can easily link In doing so, we respond to Timothy Wilson’s (2009) criticism
definitions of concepts with the appropriate section of the that introductory psychology courses do not spend enough
book where those concepts are introduced and discussed. time exploring the issue of self-knowledge, despite the fact
As also noted, periodic Skills in Action modules show that students are terribly interested in learning more about
students how psychological concepts relate to their daily themselves. Many of the new Skills in Action modules
lives. The information found in Skills in Action modules encourage the development of self-knowledge, including
helps reinforce learning by enlisting self-reference while il- modules on self-regulation (Module 11), metacognition
lustrating psychology’s practicality. (Module 26), and emotional intelligence (Module 64). Besides,
To help students further consolidate their learning, as you may have already noted, our focus on active, reflective
each module ends with a Summary restating all of the major learning also is designed to improve our students’ self-
ideas presented earlier in the module and organized around awareness. Throughout the book, we follow the development
the same Survey Questions found at the beginning of, and of the self from the beginnings of self-recognition in infancy
throughout, the module. In this way, we bring the reflective to the development of wisdom in old age.
SQ4R process full circle and reinforce the learning objec-
tives for the module. The Sociocultural Perspective: Human Diversity,
Culture, and Gender Of course, no introductory
4: Integrative Themes: The Whole Person psychology textbook would be complete without a discussion
of human diversity and the multicultural, multifaceted
No one linear module organization can fully capture the in-
nature of contemporary society. In Psychology, students will
terconnectedness of our field. We have, of course, included
find numerous discussions of human diversity, including
the usual in-text cross-references. But to better convey this
differences in race, ethnicity, culture, gender, abilities, sexual
richness, we also explore the natural complexity of psychol-
orientation, and age. Too often, such differences needlessly
ogy by weaving several more-detailed themes throughout
divide people into opposing groups. Our aim throughout this
the modules of Psychology.
book is to discourage stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination,
Starting in Module 3, we expand on the notion that hu-
and intolerance. We’ve tried to make the book gender neutral
man behavior is better understood when examined from
and sensitive to diversity issues. All pronouns and examples
three complementary perspectives: the biological, the psy-
involving females and males are equally divided by gender.
chological, and the sociocultural, again often in The Whole
In artwork, photographs, and examples, we have tried to
Person summaries. You may choose to explicitly present
portray the rich diversity of humanity. In addition, a new
these perspectives to your students. Alternatively, you
Skills in Action module (Module 49) tackles the importance
might leave these for your students to explore and uncon-
of diversity and provides suggestions about how students
sciously absorb.
can work toward building effective relationships with a wide
The Biological Perspective: The Growing Importance variety of people. In short, many topics and examples in this
of Neuroscience Our students, partly because of the book encourage students to appreciate social, physical, and
popular media, are increasingly aware that the brain and the cultural differences and to accept them as a natural part of
nervous system play a role in shaping human behavior. While being human.

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xxxii P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Psychology: Modules for Active Learning— On the content side, the 14th edition of Psychology:
What’s New in the 14th Edition? Modules for Active Learning has been extensively updated
and features some of the most recent and interesting infor-
Thanks to psychology’s ongoing vitality and suggestions
mation in psychology, plus fully updated statistics and ex-
from thoughtful professors, we have again been able to
tensively expanded and updated references. The following
improve this book in many ways.
text gives some highlights of the new topics and features that
Perhaps most important, we have a new author join-
appear in this edition.
ing the writing team. Dr. Tanya Martini has contributed
our new Skills in Action modules, which introduce stu-
dents to the idea that learning psychology is about more Module 1: The Psychology of Reflective
than learning content. They also help your students meet Studying
the American Psychological Association’s (2013) Guide- ◗ Module 1 has been reorganized and now also incor-
lines for the Undergraduate Major (see Table 1.1 earlier in porates material previously included in Module 80:
this preface). Life After School.
The other major change in this edition has been the ◗ It now provides readers with a clear statement about
absorption of the special features, such as the Brainwaves the twin goals of most psychology courses—fur-
boxes. While boxed features dangle high-interest content in thering students’ knowledge of the discipline while
front of students, they do so at a cost to the overall organi- developing relevant skills.
zation of the text that surrounds them. By absorbing this ◗ This module also offers updated information on
material, we are better able to contextualize it, improving how to read effectively, use digital media, study
the overall readability of the book. more efficiently, take good notes, prepare for tests,
On the organizational side, we have responded to re- perform well on various types of tests, create study
viewer comments about both the degree of modularity of schedules, and avoid procrastination.
Psychology: Modules for Active Learning and its suitability for
use in the more traditional chapter format. On the one hand,
we have extensively reorganized this edition to enhance the Modules 2–6: Introducing Psychology
modularity of individual modules and make it even easier to ◗ Module 2, Psychology, Critical Thinking, and Science,
assign individual modules without compromising student now includes a description of research by Wilson
understanding. Reflecting this major update, the table of and Nisbett (1978) that famously illustrates the
contents is now organized into 78 modules (rather than 16 importance of objective methodologies while high-
chapters). Professors can now more easily assign reading for lighting the failure of subjective introspection as a
a complete, albeit brief, introductory course with as few as trustworthy method in psychology.
20 modules. On the other hand, for professors who prefer ◗ We now expand on the contrast between the fal-
traditional chapter organizations, the 78 modules compris- sifiability of scientific theories as opposed to the
ing this edition are grouped by title into 16 easily identi- confirmation bias and uncritical acceptance of
fiable module clusters, preserving the chapter-by-chapter pseudopsychologies such as astrology.
sequence of previous editions. ◗ Module 3, Psychology Then and Now, continues the
On the pedagogy side, we have again enhanced our critique of introspectionism through a discussion of
focus on active processing, reflection, and critical think- the “imageless thought” controversy.
ing. The learning system embedded in this book, reflective ◗ The rise of cognitive psychology is now included in
SQ4R, cues students more than ever to the role of thought- the coverage of the history of psychology.
fulness while reading and studying. From a revised expla- ◗ The section on diversity in early psychology has been
nation of the power of elaborative encoding in the modules expanded into an explanation of why it is important
on memory and an expanded discussion of the distinc- to avoid overly narrow approaches—namely, because
tion between experiential and reflective cognition in the they tend to produce biased research.
modules on cognition, to repeated invitations (in context ◗ Module 4, The Psychology Experiment, clarifies the
throughout the book) to process more deeply, we have done concept of statistical significance and adds a section
everything possible to invite your students to become even explaining meta-analysis.
more mindful.

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 P R E FACE M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xxxiii

◗ Module 6, Information Literacy, is an updated Skills ◗ The discussion of adulthood has reorganized around
in Action module that provides a discussion of the concept of subjective well-being.
information literacy, including how to be a wiser ◗ The section on middle adulthood has been
consumer of web-based information. expanded to include coverage of health, family, and
career issues.
◗ Module 16, Behaving Ethically, is a new Skills in
Modules 7–11: Brain and Behavior Action module that extends ideas about moral devel-
◗ Module 7, The Nervous System, now opens with a opment to examine how personal ethics can vary
clearer and more integrated exposition of the overall according to context. The implications of behaving
functioning of the nervous system. in ways that are not consistent with one’s core beliefs
◗ The incremental nature of postsynaptic potentials is are discussed, as are ways to create conditions that
now more clearly described, better foreshadowing a will allow people to align their actions with their
subsequent discussion of neural networks. values.
◗ Module 9, Hemispheres and Lobes of the Cerebral
Cortex, now integrates a discussion of hemispheric
specialization with a discussion of hemispheric Modules 17–22: Sensation
dominance and handedness and Perception
◗ Prefrontal cortex is now explicitly linked with the ◗ Module 17, Sensory Processes, has been reorganized
concept of executive functions such as self-regula- and simplified.
tion and metacognition. ◗ The unconscious side of sensory processing is better
◗ Module 10, The Subcortex and Endocrine System, highlighted, as is psychophysics.
now clarifies the relationship between the brainstem ◗ Module 19, The Nonvisual Senses, now treats umami
and the hindbrain and simplifies the discussion of as one of the five basic taste sensations.
the reticular formation. ◗ Module 21, Perception and Objectivity, has been
◗ Module 11, Self-Regulation, is a new Skills in Action reorganized and streamlined to better distinguish
module that introduces students to the concept of between perceptual sets and perceptual learning.
self-regulation, pointing out its connection to the ◗ Module 22, Communication, is a new Skills in Action
frontal lobes and its relevance to managing behavior module that underscores the link between percep-
in a variety of contexts. tion and both oral and written communication.

Modules 12–16: Human Development Modules 23–26: Consciousness

◗ Module 12, Heredity and Environment, now draws ◗ Module 23, States of Consciousness, now distin-
clear distinctions between genome and phenome guishes between disorders of consciousness and
and introduces the concept of epigenetic processes. altered states of consciousness.
◗ Material on infant and early childhood sensory ◗ Module 24, Sleep and Dreams, has been rewritten
and motor development has been reorganized and and streamlined to integrate all material on sleep
streamlined. and dreaming into a single module.
◗ Module 13, Emotional and Social Development ◗ Module 25, Psychoactive Drugs, now includes a more
in Childhood, now more clearly foreshadows the comprehensive discussion of patterns of drug use.
distinction drawn between basic and nonbasic emo- ◗ The endocannabinoid system is discussed in the sec-
tions in a later module on emotions, Module 42, tion on marijuana.
Overview of Motives and Emotions. ◗ A new section on medical marijuana has been
◗ A new section on American Indian parents has added.
been added to the material on ethnic differences in ◗ Module 26, Metacognition, is a new Skills in Action
parenting. module aimed at raising students’ awareness about
◗ Module 15, Adolescence and Adulthood, offers an some of the issues that they should consider as they
updated discussion of moral development. evaluate their own understanding and abilities in a
variety of contexts, including school.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
xxxiv P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Modules 27–31: Conditioning Modules 37–41: Cognition

and Learning and Intelligence
◗ Module 27, Associative and Cognitive Learning, ◗ Module 37, Modes of Thought, opens with the dis-
has been streamlined and now more clearly links tinction between experiential (Type 1) and reflective
associative learning to experiential processing (Type 2) processing and includes a discussion about
and cognitive forms of learning to reflective automaticity and the Stroop effect.
cognition. ◗ The distinction between connotation and denota-
◗ The section on modeling in the media has again tion is now presented in the section on language,
been revised, reflecting a growing awareness that which has been reorganized for greater clarity.
viewing violent media may not be as harmful as ◗ Module 37, Problem Solving, has been streamlined
previously thought. for greater clarity. Definitions of inductive and
◗ Module 29, Operant Conditioning, has been stream- deductive thought are now included in this module.
lined and rewritten for greater clarity. ◗ Module 38, Creative Thinking and Intuition, has also
◗ Module 30, Reinforcement and Punishment in Detail, been streamlined and reorganized for greater clarity.
has also been streamlined and rewritten for greater ◗ Module 40, Intelligence, includes a reworked section
clarity. on the Flynn effect.
◗ Module 31, Behavioral Self-Management, is an ◗ Module 41, Creativity and Innovation, is a new Skills
updated Skills in Action module that streamlines in Action module that includes new material related
and brings together in one module behavioral self- to creativity and its relation to innovation.
management techniques previously presented in two
different modules.
Modules 42–45: Motivation and Emotion
◗ Module 42, Overview of Motives and Emotions, has
Modules 32–36: Memory been streamlined for greater clarity.
◗ Module 32, Memory Systems, now treats the terms ◗ The role of melatonin in regulating sleep is explored
short-term memory and working memory as equiva- in greater detail.
lent and offers an extended discussion. ◗ Module 43, Motivation in Detail, more directly dif-
◗ The finding that processing images does not inter- ferentiates biological factors in short-term hunger
fere so much with processing verbal information is control and long-term weight control.
discussed as the multimedia principle. ◗ The section on behavioral dieting has been
◗ The role of culture in directing memory encoding is reorganized.
now explored. ◗ Module 45, Positivity and Optimism, is a new Skills
◗ Module 34, Forgetting, has been streamlined for in Action module that explores the distinction
greater clarity. between dispositional optimism and an optimistic
◗ Module 35, Exceptional Memory, now integrates explanatory style.
material on “natural” memory strategies along with
artificial (mnemonic) strategies into a single module
on how to improve your memory. Modules 46–49: Human Sexuality
◗ Superior episodic memory is now distinguished ◗ The modules covering human sexuality have been
from superior semantic memory. extensively reworked and reorganized for greater
◗ Module 36, Giving Memorable Presentations, is a clarity.
new Skills in Action module that uses memory con- ◗ Module 46, Sex and Gender, now integrates material
cepts to demonstrate how to use visual media such on biological sex and psychosocial gender.
as Microsoft PowerPoint or Keynote in such a way ◗ The concept of sexually antagonistic selection is
that the central message of the presentation is more used to explain how homosexuality might be geneti-
likely to be remembered. cally transmitted.

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 P R E FACE M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xxxv

◗ Module 47, The Human Sex Drive, Response, and Modules 60–64: Psychological Disorders
Attitudes, is a reorganization/integration of material
◗ Module 60, Defining Psychopathology, has been
previously organized differently.
extensively rewritten and reorganized and now fea-
◗ Module 48, Sexual Problems, is a reorganization/
tures new sections on diagnosis and types of symp-
integration of material previously organized dif-
toms of these illnesses, as well as causes.
ferently: rape, sexual dysfunctions, and paraphilic
◗ Material on psychology and the law has been
disorders.
expanded and now includes a discussion of the
◗ Module 49, Diversity and Inclusion, is an updated
diminished responsibility defense.
Skills in Action module that discusses diversity and
◗ Module 61, Psychotic Disorders, has been reorganized
inclusion and offers students tips about how they
and streamlined for greater conceptual cohesion.
can foster positive relationships with a wide range of
◗ Module 62, Mood Disorders, now includes material
people.
on suicide.
◗ Module 63, Anxiety, Anxiety-Related, and Personality
Modules 50–54: Personality
Disorders, has been streamlined and now includes
◗ Module 50, Overview of Personality, integrates an discussion of a new theory of obsessive-compulsive
overview of personality theories with material on disorder (OCD).
assessing personality, yielding an introduction to the ◗ Module 64, Emotional Intelligence, is an updated
concept of personality. Skills in Action module that offers a revised set
◗ Module 51, Trait Theories, now discusses the dark of suggestions for becoming more emotionally
triad, a subclinical personality type combining intelligent.
Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism.
◗ Module 52, Psychodynamic and Humanistic
Modules 65–69: Therapies
Theories, now includes coverage of the neo-
Freudians Alfred Adler and Carl Jung. ◗ Module 67, Behavior Therapies, has been
◗ Module 53, Behavioral and Social Learning Theories, streamlined.
has been streamlined. ◗ Module 68, Medical Therapies, now includes an
◗ The discussion of the evolution of trait theory has extended discussion of pharmacotherapies.
been simplified. ◗ Module 69, Managing Mental Health Problems, is an
◗ Humanism is now clearly identified as a “third updated Skills in Action module that now includes
force” in psychology. material on empirically supported therapies, basic
◗ Module 54, Leadership, is a new Skills in Action counseling skills and considering therapy.
module that connects personality to leadership and
provides students with several important skills that Modules 70–74: Social Psychology
they can work on if they are interested in fostering ◗ Module 70, Social Behavior and Cognition, no longer
their ability to lead others. includes a discussion of Zimbardo’s infamous prison
experiment, in light of recent critiques that it is seri-
Modules 55–59: Health Psychology ously compromised by demand characteristics.
◗ Module 55, Overview of Health Psychology, has been ◗ Social status and social power are now
streamlined. distinguished.
◗ Module 56, Stressors, has also been streamlined. ◗ Buyer’s regret is now discussed in the context of
◗ Module 58, Stress and Health, still covers the Type A cognitive dissonance theory.
personality but now expresses skepticism about the ◗ Module 71, Social Influence, now offers a stream-
concept, in line with the recent research literature. lined discussion of cults.
◗ Module 59, Stress Management, is an updated Skills ◗ Module 72, Prosocial Behavior, now includes a criti-
in Action module that offers a revised set of sugges- cal discussion of the Kitty Genovese murder and its
tions for managing stress. role in inspiring research on the bystander effect.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
xxxvi P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

◗ Material on adult attachment styles, previously Student Support Materials

included in Module 13, now appears in Module 72.
Introductory students must learn a multitude of abstract
◗ Module 73, Antisocial Behavior, has been rewritten
concepts, which can make a first course in psychology
and reorganized and now offers a streamlined discus-
difficult. The materials listed here will greatly improve
sion of cults and a rewritten discussion of prejudice.
students’ chances for success.
◗ Module 74, Teamwork, is a new Skills in Action
MindTap® Psychology: Modules for Active Learning is a
module that discusses research related to teamwork,
personalized, fully online digital learning platform of au-
including the distinction between groups and teams.
thoritative content, assignments, and services that engages
It provides students with evidence-based suggestions
your students in a singular interactive learning path. By in-
about the skills that can be developed to improve
corporating the SQ4R method in a uniquely modular for-
their ability to work effectively with others.
mat, MindTap students improve their reading and study
skills while they are learning psychology. MindApps such as
Modules 75–78: Applied Psychology Kaltura (which allows you to insert inline media into your
◗ Module 75, Industrial/Organizational Psychology, curriculum) and View Progress (which allows you to track
has been reorganized and rewritten. student engagement and class progress) offer you choice in
◗ Module 76, Environmental Psychology, has been the configuration of coursework and enhancement of the
reorganized and rewritten. curriculum. Students will love Mastery Training, a tool
◗ The persuasive potential of social norms that uses distributed practice to help students retain key
based approaches is explored in the context of terms and concepts. MindTap is well beyond an eBook, a
environmentalism. homework solution or digital supplement, a resource center
◗ Module 78, Career Preparation, is a new Skills in website, a course delivery platform, or a Learning Manage-
Action module that outlines suggestions for students ment System. It is the first in a new category—the Personal
who are interested in ensuring that they develop Learning Experience. MindTap for Psychology: Modules for
an appropriate skill set for their career of choice. It Active Learning allows complete flexibility in how a course
includes information about learning experiences is built, making it easier to take advantage of the modular
that can help promote career-related skills, as well as and SQ4R format.
methods for documenting their abilities.
Instructor Resources
Appendix: Behavioral Statistics
Teaching an introductory psychology course is a tremen-
◗ A new module-opening vignette and photo invite
dous amount of work, and the supplements listed here
students to read more about statistics.
should help make it possible for you to concentrate on the
more creative and rewarding facets of teaching. All of these
A Complete Course—Teaching and Learn- supplements are available online for download. Go to login
ing Supplements .cengage.com to create an account and log in.
A rich array of supplements accompanies Psychology: Mod- The Instructor Companion Site for this title will include
ules for Active Learning, including several that use the lat- an Instructor’s Resource Manual, which provides a wealth of
est technologies. These supplements are designed to make teaching tips and classroom resources; Cengage Learning
teaching and learning more effective. Many are available Testing Powered by Cognero, multiple-choice questions cor-
free to professors or students. Others can be packaged with related to learning objectives, Bloom’s taxonomy level, and
this book at a discount. Contact your local sales representa- difficulty; and PowerPoint slides providing concept cover-
tive for more information on any of the listed resources. age with dynamic animations, photographs, and video.

Summary
We sincerely hope that teachers and students will consider from the ordinary. Creating it has been quite an adventure.
this book and its supporting materials a refreshing change In the pages that follow, we think students will find an at-

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 P R E FACE M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xxxvii

tractive blend of the theoretical and the practical, plus many The following professors offered invaluable com-
of the most exciting ideas in psychology. Most of all, we ments on the 13th edition of Psychology: Modules for Active
hope that students using this book will discover that read- Learning:
ing a college textbook can be informative while also being
entertaining and enjoyable. Charlie Aaron, Northwest Mississippi Community
College
Acknowledgments Jarrod Calloway, Northwest Mississippi Community
College
Psychology is a cooperative effort requiring the talents and
Amanda Dunn, Lincoln Memorial University
energies of a large community of scholars, teachers, re-
Paul Helton, Freed Hardeman University
searchers, and students. Like most endeavors in psychology,
Scott Keiller, Kent State University at Tuscarawas
this book reflects the efforts of many people. We deeply ap-
Katherine McNellis, Lakeshore Technical College
preciate the contributions of the following professors, whose
Sam Olive, Henry Ford Community College
sage advice helped improve the 14th edition of Psychology:
Robert Strausser, Northwest Mississippi Community
Modules for Active Learning:
College
We wish to thank Dr. Carol Baldwin, Psychology De-
Victoria Wiese, Lakeshore Technical College
partment Head at the Salish Kootenai College, for suggest-
ing a way to modify a section of one of our memory modules Producing Psychology: Modules for Active Learning and
to become more respectful of our Native American readers. its supplements was a formidable task. We are especially in-
We also wish to thank Dr. Robin Akawi, of Sierra Com- debted to Marta Lee-Perriard for supporting this book. We
munity College, for her always thoughtful questions, which also wish to thank the individuals at Cengage who so gener-
have lead to a number of improvements in this edition, ously shared their knowledge and talents over the past year.
most notably in the discussion of the hindbrain/brain stem These are the people who made it happen: Charles Behensky,
distinction. Charlene M. Carpentier, Kimiya Hojjat, Karen Hunt,
Dr. Christopher Ferguson, of the Psychology Depart- Adrienne McCrory, Don Schlotman, Juliet Stamperdahl,
ment at Stetson University, prompted revisions in our treat- Jasmin Tokatlian, and Jennifer Wahi.
ment of the Zimbardo prison study, the Kitty Genovese It has been a pleasure to work with such a gifted group
murder, and especially the topic of violence and the media. of professionals and many others at Cengage. We especially
Thank you, Chris. want to thank Tim Matray and Andrew Ginsberg for their
We offer a special thank-you to the students at the Ne- patient advocacy, and Liz Fraser for riding herd on us all.
braska Indian Community College taking Introduction Thanks also go to Jill Traut and Susan McClung, of MPS
to Psychology in 2015, for triggering a deep conversation Limited, for shepherding us through the copyediting and
about the portrayal of American Indians in introductory text layout processes.
psychology textbooks. In further discussions with NICC Up in St. Catharines, Riley Roth, Kendall Nicoll, Bar-
faculty Darla Korol, MSW, Human Services Division Head, bara Kushmier, Kayleigh Hagerman, and Heather Mitterer
and Wynema Morris, Native American Studies Division pitched in to lend a hand.
Head, several sections of this new edition, and in particular, Last of all, we would like to thank our spouses, Sevren,
a new section on Native American parenting, reflect their Heather, and David, for making the journey worthwhile.
profound insights and wisdom.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 MODULE
The Psychology
of Reflective Studying 1
Well, Hello There!
As your authors, we are delighted to welcome you to the “manual”
for this textbook. No! Don’t skip this, please. Read on.
Few of us prefer to start a new adventure by reading a manual.
We just want to step off the airplane and begin our vacation, get
right into that new computer game, or start using our new camera
or smartphone. Please be patient. Successfully learning psychology
depends on how reflective you are as you read your textbook, listen
during your classes, study for exams, and then write them.
Students who get good grades tend to work more reflectively,
not just longer or harder. They also tend to understand and re-

© Tyler Olson/Shutterstock.com
member more of what they’ve learned long after their exams are
over. Psychology is for their lives, not just for their exams. In this
module, we explore a variety of ways to become more reflective
learners.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
1.1 How can studying psychology help me in my personal 1.3 How can I get the most out of class time?
and professional life? 1.4 How can I best prepare for tests?
1.2 How can I get the most out of this textbook?

What’s in It for You?—More Than You Might Think

Survey Question 1.1 How can studying psychology help
psychopathology (to name just few topics). But taking a psy-
me in my personal and professional life?
chology course will also promote your learning in a second
As you begin exploring the field of psychology, you may well way—specifically, it will teach you about the skills that you’ll
be asking yourself what you’ll get out of it. In general, most need to be successful in your personal and professional life.
of your courses will offer you opportunities to learn in two What do you mean by “skills”? When we talk about skills,
important ways. The first has to do with course content— we’re often talking about things that you can do, such as
in this introductory psychology course, the content is what communicate clearly or work well with others. But in some
you’ll learn about the field of psychology. This includes what cases, the term skills can also refer to personal characteris-
psychological research tells us about memory, social rela- tics; for example, independence, tolerance, and adaptability
tionships, brain functioning, children’s development, and are often considered to be important skills.

1
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2 P Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 1.1 APA guidelines for the

undergraduate Psychology Major

Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology

Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking
Goal 3: Ethical and Social Responsibility in a Diverse World

© Creativa Images/Shutterstock.com
Goal 4: Communication
Goal 5: Professional Development

(Adapted from American Psychological Association, 2013. For complete

details, go to: www.apa.org/ed/precollege/about/learning-goals.pdf.)

Work on developing your skills may seem like a waste of your time
These two broad categories of learning—content and compared with putting that time into learning course content. But don’t
skills—are outlined in the American Psychological Asso- sell it short; your skill set will be just as important as your content
ciation’s (APA) Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology expertise whether you go on to post-graduate education or a career.
Major (version 2.0) (American Psychological Association,
2013). It is well worth having a look at the full document
(which is available online), but you can start by having a time for you to hit the job market, you’ll be happy that
look at ■ Table 1.1. you did.
Some students assume that their only goal is to learn “the
facts” about psychology, or the course content. In other words,
A Psychologist’s Skill Set
they think their degree is all about Goal 1. A student with this To understand why your skill set is important, have a look
mindset will usually complain when given an assignment that at ■ Table 1.2, which lists a few of the career opportunities
involves working with a small group of students to evaluate open to psychology majors.
some research articles in the PsycINFO database. “Why do
I have to do this with these other people?” he or she might
grouse. “And why don’t you just explain to me what the ex- Table 1.2 A skills-Based list of s ome
perts say about these articles so that I can get on with learning Potential careers for Psychology Majors
it for the exam?” Students who understand that their educa-
Addictions counselor Manager
tion is also about acquiring skills—like being able to commu-
nicate clearly (Goal 4), work as part of a team (Goal 5), and Administration Market research analyst
think critically (Goal 2)—will appreciate that professors set Advertising Marketing
up assignments to build skills, as well as furthering what you
Career/employment Mental health worker
know about psychology.
counselor
One of the things that you might notice as you look
through Table 1.1 is that many of the skills listed aren’t Case worker Motivational researcher
really specific to psychology—they’re likely to be just as Child care worker Personnel
relevant to someone majoring in history or business or
biology. After all, people in all disciplines need to under- Child welfare worker Population studies researcher
stand how to communicate well, work well with others, Community worker Probation or parole officer
and behave ethically.
Correctional officer Professional consultant
Some of the most important advice we can give you,
then, is to remember to focus on the skills that you are Counselor Program coordinator
learning throughout your studies at university, whether Cultural diversity consultant Psychiatric assistant or aide
in psychology or other subjects. They may not always
Customs or immigration Public health statistician
seem obvious when you’re reading a textbook or when
agent
you’re completing your assignments, but when it comes

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 MoDU lE 1 th e Psyc h o lo gy o f r e f lective stu dyi n g 3

Table 1.2 (continued) and give you practical ideas you can use to improve
your skill set.
Day care worker, supervisor Public opinion interviewer ◗ Study skills: In this module, we discuss a full set of
Educational counselor Public relations study skills, from how to read and listen for understand-
ing to how to take tests and overcome procrastination.
Entrepreneur Recreation specialist
We also introduce the importance of reflective process-
Fundraiser or development Research assistant ing, and we carry this idea throughout the book. All of
officer those skills are very helpful in many different jobs.
Gerontology Sales representative ◗ Research skills: We will introduce you to science and
psychological research, from the research methods
Government researcher Social services
in Modules 2–6 to the Statistics Appendix. This will
Health services Social worker help you be a more educated and literate consumer of
Hospice coordinator Teaching
research in your chosen career, especially if it involves
applying psychological research in any way.
Human resources Technical writer ◗ Critical thinking skills: From the discussion of criti-
Immigration officer Travel agent cal thinking in Modules 2 and 6 to the Think Critically
questions at the end of the modules, we stress criti-
Labor relations specialist Youth worker
cal thinking skills. The term critical thinking actually
Adapted from Canadian Psychological Association (2016) encompasses a wide array of related skills, includ-
ing defining problems, searching for and evaluating
information to address those problems, and synthe-
sizing and applying information that you gather. You
Travel agent? Think about it for a moment. A travel can see why such skills are in high demand among
agent may not need content expertise, such as being able to employers.
list Freud’s stages of psychosexual development or explain ◗ Cultural awareness skills: OK, so we couldn’t take you
what psychological functions are controlled by the differ- on a field trip to Japan, but throughout the book, we
ent parts of the brain. But it would help to be able to work will invite you to reflect on the differences among peo-
independently, do your own research, be able to make pre- ple of different ethnicities, sexual orientations, ages, and
sentations to individuals or groups, have some sensitivity to genders. This kind of information will be particularly
cross-cultural issues, write well, and, in general, work well important when you find yourself having to work with
with people. While these sorts of skills also can be learned others whose background or belief system is not the
in other ways, studying psychology provides a “golden op- same as your own.
portunity” for you to develop an impressive set of skills that
are sought by many employers. Not to put too fine a point on it, but that’s a lot of ca-
reer-relevant skills, no? Of course, we understand that the
how This Book Will help you classroom isn’t the only place to learn skills that can help
with Skill Development you in your personal life and career. Many college and uni-
versity students will also have part-time jobs, or will par-
You probably won’t be surprised to learn that Psychology:
ticipate in other learning experiences such as study abroad,
Modules for Active Learning has been written with the
community-based volunteering, or campus activities such
APA Guidelines in mind, in an effort to help you further
as student government or clubs. Often, the skills that you
develop your career-related skill set. Here are some skill
develop through these extra-curricular experiences will
highlights:
support or complement the skills that you can learn through
◗ Skills in Action modules: Every few modules, you will the assignments that you’ll complete for your courses.
encounter a Skills in Action module. Each of these mod- For example, common part-time student jobs in-
ules connects the field of psychology to a skill that is volving interaction with the public (e.g., waiting tables,
likely to be useful across a broad range of career paths. customer service, or retail jobs) often help to build ver-
These modules, combined with the digital resources bal communication skills such as the ability to speak to
for this book, will allow you to measure your skill level others, and to listen effectively to what others are saying.
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4 P Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

In contrast, class assignments often build writing skills a much-deserved sigh of relief. By reacting mindfully
and the ability to read and understand complex material. (Siegel, 2007), you engaged in reflective processing
When you are attempting to persuade an employer that (Kahneman, 2011; Norman, 1994). Rather than just hav-
you have a broad range of communication skills, then ing an experience, you actively thought about it. Similarly,
you should make sure that you discuss what you have reflective learning occurs when you engage in deliber-
learned from a variety of experiences both inside and ately reflective and active self-regulated study (Anthony,
outside of the classroom to demonstrate the full range of Clayton, & Zusho, 2013; Mega, Ronconi, & De Beni,
your abilities. 2014). Here, in general, is how you can promote reflective
learning of both content and skills:
Reflective learning: The Most
Important Ingredient 1. Set specific, objective learning goals. Begin each learn-
ing session with specific goals in mind. What knowledge
Simply deciding that you want to learn content or skills isn’t
or skills are you trying to master? What do you hope to
going to actually make it happen. To understand why, think
accomplish (Pychyl, 2013)?
about the last time you spent the evening vegging out in
2. Plan a learning strategy. How will you accomplish your
front of the television. It probably was fun, but you may have
goals? Make daily, weekly, and monthly plans for learn-
noticed that you didn’t think too much about what you were
ing. Then put them into action.
watching and that your subsequent memories are not de-
tailed. You were engaging in experiential processing, more 3. Be your own teacher. Effective learners silently give
or less passively soaking up the experience (Kahneman, themselves guidance and ask themselves questions.
2011; Norman, 1994). For example, as you are learning, you might ask your-
Now contrast that with your experience in a recent job self, “What are the important ideas here? What do I
interview. It is highly unlikely that you got through the remember? What don’t I understand? What do I need to
interview by relying on experiential processing alone (and review? What should I do next?”
even less likely that you landed the job if you did). Instead, 4. Monitor your progress and correct when neces-
you actively and carefully listened to the questions and sary. Reflective learning depends on self-monitoring.
put some serious effort into thinking through the impli- Exceptional learners keep records of their progress
cations of answering in different ways before responding. toward learning goals (pages read, hours of study-
No drifting off here; you were focused and controlled ing, assignments completed, and so forth). They quiz
until you left the interview, when you likely breathed themselves, use study guides, and find other ways to
check their understanding while learning. Consider
asking yourself these questions regularly as you work
toward mastering both course content and skills: Do
any specific areas of your work need improvement? If
you are not making good progress toward long-range
goals, do you need to revise your short-term targets?
If you fall short of your goals, you may need to adjust
how you budget your time. You may also need to
change your learning environment to deal with dis-
tractions such as browsing the web, daydreaming,
talking to friends, or testing the limits of your hearing
with your iPod.
5. Reward yourself. When you meet your daily, weekly, or
Haefeli/Cartoonbank.com

monthly goals, reward your efforts in some way, such as

going to a movie or downloading some new music. Be
aware that self-praise also rewards learning. Being able
to say “Hey, I did it!” can be rewarding. In the long run,
success, self-improvement, and personal satisfaction are
the real payoffs for learning.

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 MODU LE 1 Th e Psyc h o lo gy o f R e f lecTive sTu dyi n g 5

Reflective Reading—How to Tame a Textbook

Survey Question: 1.2 How can I get the most out of this Remember to look for answers as you read and to
textbook? recite or take notes before moving on. Ask yourself
How can I be more reflective while reading? One powerful repeatedly, “What is the main idea here?” Repeat
way to be more reflective is through self-reference. As you the question–read–recite cycle until you’ve fin-
read, relate new facts, terms, and concepts to your own expe- ished an entire module (or just a part of a module
riences and information that you already know well. Doing if you want to read shorter units).
this will make new ideas more personally meaningful and R3 5 Reflect. As you read, reflect on what you are read-
easier to remember. Critical thinking is another powerful ing. As stated earlier, two powerful ways to do
way to be more reflective. Critical thinkers pause to evalu- this are self-reference and critical thinking. This
ate, compare, analyze, critique, and synthesize what they are is the most important step in the reflective SQ4R
reading (Chaffee, 2015). You should, too. In Module 2, we method. The more mindfulness and genuine inter-
will learn how to think critically about psychology. est that you can bring to your reading, the more
These ways to improve learning can be combined into you will learn (Hartlep & Forsyth, 2000; Wong,
the reflective SQ4R method. SQ4R stands for survey, ques- 2015).
tion, read, recite, reflect, and review, which are six steps that R4 5 Review. When you’re done reading, skim back over
can help you get more out of your reading: a module or read your notes. Then check your
memory by reciting and quizzing yourself again.
S 5 Survey. Skim through the text before you begin Try to make frequent, active review a standard
reading it. Start by looking at topic headings, fig- part of your study habits (see ➤ Figure 1.1).
ure captions, and summaries. Try to get an overall
picture of what lies ahead. Because this book is Does this really work? You bet! Using a reflective reading
organized into short modules, you can survey just strategy improves learning and course grades (Taraban,
one module at a time if you prefer. Rynearson, & Kerr, 2000). It also results in enhanced long-
Q 5 Question. As you read, reword each major topic term understanding. Simply reading straight through a text-
heading into one or more questions. For example, book can give you intellectual indigestion. That’s why it’s
when you read the heading “Sleep Stages,” you might better to stop often to survey, question, recite, reflect, re-
ask: “Is there more than one stage of sleep?” “What view, and digest information as you read.
are the stages of sleep?” “How do they differ?” Asking
How to Use Psychology: Modules
questions prepares you to read with a purpose.
for Active Learning
R1 5 Read. The first R in SQ4R stands for read. As you
read, look for answers to the questions you asked. You can apply the reflective SQ4R method to any course of
Read in short bites, from one main topic heading to study. However, we have specifically designed this textbook
the next, and then stop. For difficult material, you to help you reflectively learn psychology. Please consider
may want to read only a paragraph or two at a time.
R2 5 Recite. After reading a small amount, you should
pause and recite or rehearse. Try to mentally Experiential processing Thought that is passive, effortless, and
answer your questions. Also, make brief notes to automatic.
summarize what you just read. Making notes will Reflective processing Thought that is active, effortful, and con-
trolled.
reveal what you do and don’t know, so you can fill
Reflective learning Deliberately reflective and active self-guided
in gaps in your knowledge (Peverly et al., 2003). study.
If you can’t summarize the main ideas, skim Self-reference The practice of relating new information to prior life
over each section again. Until you can understand experience.
and remember what you just read, there’s little Critical thinking An ability to evaluate, compare, analyze, critique,
and synthesize information.
point to reading more. After you’ve studied a short
Reflective SQ4R method An active study-reading technique based
“bite” of text, turn the next topic heading into on these steps: survey, question, read, recite, reflect, and review.
questions. Then read to the following heading.
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6 P Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Question How can I use the reflective SQ4R method to make

Survey reading more interesting and effective? Try to actively interact
with your textbooks as you read. Perhaps the most effective
way to do this is to ask yourself a lot of questions as you read.
Question For example, as noted earlier, modules and major module sec-
Read tions begin with headings; try turning them into questions.
Recite
Reflect One Module 2 heading is “Critical Thinking—Take It with a
Question
Grain of Salt.” Turn this into a question that occurs to you,
Read such as “Why should I be skeptical of what I read?” If you read
Recite
Reflect
with an aim toward answering your questions, you will be
much more likely to get the key points in what you are read-
Question
Read ing. Dialogue Questions like the one that began this paragraph
Recite will also help you focus on seeking information as you read.
Reflect
These questions are much like those running through the
Question
Read
minds of students like you as they read this book. Similarly,
Recite the Survey Questions are repeated throughout each module
Reflect
to help you recognize key topics. Try to anticipate these ques-
tions. Even better, be sure to ask your own questions.

Read As an aid to reading, important terms are printed in

Review
boldface type and defined when they first appear. (Some are
followed by pronunciations—capital letters show which syl-
➤ Figure 1.1 lables are accented.) You’ll also find a running glossary in the
The reflective SQ4R method. Active learning and information lower right-hand corner of pages that you are reading, so you
processing are promoted by the reflective SQ4R method. You never have to guess about the meaning of technical terms. If
begin with a survey of the module, or module section, depending
on how much you plan to read. You then proceed through cycles
you want to look up a term from a lecture or another module,
of questioning, reading, reciting, and reflecting and conclude with a check the main Subject Index/Glossary. This mini-dictionary
review of the section or the entire module. is located near the end of the book. In addition, figures and
tables will help you quickly grasp important concepts.
trying out the following suggestions as you work through Recite To help you study in smaller “bites,” each mod-
this module: ule in this textbook ends with a brief study guide called a
Survey Each module opens with a survey that includes a Knowledge Builder. After reaching a Knowledge Builder, it
short introduction to what will be covered, as well as a list is worthwhile to stop reading to recite or rehearse what you
of Survey Questions. You can use these features to identify just read. Make summary notes and try mentally answer
important ideas as you begin reading. The introduction your questions. Recitation will tell you what you do and
should help interest you in the topics that you will be read- don’t understand. Answering the “Recite” questions in the
ing about, and the Survey Questions are a good guide to the Knowledge Builders gives you another way to check on how
kinds of information that you should look for as you read. well you understand and remember what you just read.
In fact, answers to the Survey Questions are a good sum- Reflect Every Knowledge Builder also includes opportu-
mary of the core concepts in each module. If, years from nities to reflect on what you have just read. Think Critically
now, you still remember those core concepts, your authors questions invite you to reflect more deeply about the how
will be happy indeed. and why of what you have just read, and Self-Reflect ques-
After you’ve studied these features, take a few minutes tions help you connect new ideas to your own life. (Don’t
to do your own survey of the module, including the figure forget to take notes and recite and reflect on your own.)
captions and module-ending material. You should also no-
tice that each major module heading is accompanied by a Review Each module concludes with a point-by-point
Survey Question. Doing so will help you build a mental map Summary to help you identify psychology’s big ideas and
of upcoming topics. enduring principles. These summaries are organized around

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 MoDU lE 1 th e Psyc h o lo gy o f r e f lective stu dyi n g 7

the same Survey Questions you read at the beginning of the What can I expect to get out of MindTap? Many of the
module. Ultimately, they will provide a good high-level more active elements of reflective learning are better pre-
summary of what you learned in this course. By making sented digitally. There is room, for example, to include only
these ideas your own, you will gain something of lasting a few practice quizzes in a print textbook (and the reader
value: you will learn to see human behavior as psychologists has to self-score them). In contrast, digital media make it
do. For further review, you can use the running glossary in feasible to present more extensive practice materials, as well
the margin, as well as boldface terms, figures, and tables. as to provide immediate feedback.
■ Table 1.3 summarizes how this text helps you apply MindTap has been designed to make it easier for you to
the reflective SQ4R method. Even with all this help, there is engage in reflective learning by presenting the entire course
still much more that you can do on your own. (yup, the textbook, too) through the reflective SQ4R learn-
ing path, which includes video and other interactive ac-
Going Digital tivities. You will be able to complete reading assignments,
Digital media can also offer several ways to learn more re- annotate your readings, complete homework, get detailed
flectively from this textbook. Dedicated reflective support instant feedback on Guided Practice Activities, and interact
for studying this textbook can be found by using MindTap. with quizzes and assessments. MindTap includes a variety of
apps known as “MindApps,” allowing functionality such as
MindTap What is MindTap? MindTap is a highly person-
having the text read aloud to you, as well as synchronizing
alized, fully online learning platform that integrates in one
your notes with your personal Evernote account. MindApps
site all of the authoritative content, assignments, and ser-
are woven into the MindTap platform and enhance your
vices that accompany your textbook, Psychology: Modules
learning experience with this textbook.
for Active Learning.
Psychology Websites As you read (reflectively, of
course) through this textbook, you may, from time to time,
Table 1.3using the reflective find yourself wanting to read more about a particular topic.
sQ4r Method Consider following up by looking up some of the references
◗ Module-Opening Introduction included in this text. Suppose that you were just reading about
◗ Survey Questions procrastination and wanted to learn more about the reference
Survey Pychyl (2013). You can look up all in-module references in the
◗ Figure Captions
◗ Module Summaries “References” section at the back of this text. There, you will
find that Pychyl (2013) is a book (it happens to be an excellent
◗ Topic Headings recent paperback how-to about overcoming procrastination).
Question ◗ Survey Questions Sometimes, though, the reference that you are interest-
◗ In-Text Dialogue Questions ed in will be a psychology journal article. To locate journal
◗ Boldface Terms articles, you can use PsycINFO, a specialized online data-
Read ◗ Running Glossary (in margin) base offered by the American Psychological Association
◗ Figures and Tables (APA). PsycINFO provides summaries of the scientific and
scholarly literature in psychology. Each record in PsycINFO
◗ Recite Questions (in Knowledge Builders)
consists of an abstract (short summary), plus notes about
Recite ◗ Practice Quizzes (online)
the author, title, source, and other details. Entering the au-
◗ Notes (make them while reading)
thor’s name(s) and article title will bring you to the article
◗ Reflect Questions, including Think Critically and in question. Also, all PsycINFO entries are indexed using
Reflect Self-Reflect questions (in Knowledge Builders) key terms. Thus, you can search for various topics by enter-
◗ Skills in Action Modules (throughout the text) ing words such as procrastination, postpartum depression, or
◗ Module Summaries creativity and find research papers on any topic in psychol-
◗ Boldface Terms ogy that might interest you.
Review ◗ Running Glossary (in margin)
◗ Figures and Tables
PsycINFO A searchable, online database that provides brief sum-
◗ Practice Quizzes (online) maries of the scientific and scholarly literature in psychology.

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8 P Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Almost every college and university subscribes to Psy- psychology. For example, the American Psychological Asso-
cINFO. You can usually search PsycINFO from a termi- ciation (APA) and the Association for Psychological Science
nal in your college library or computer center—for free. (APS) maintain online libraries of general-interest articles
PsycINFO can also be directly accessed (for a fee) through on many topics. They are well worth consulting when you
the Internet via APA’s PsycINFO Direct service. For more have questions about psychological issues. You’ll find them
information on how to gain access to PsycINFO, check out at www.apa.org and www.psychologicalscience.org. For
www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/index.aspx. Beware, links to recent articles in newspapers and magazines, check
though: many of the primary research papers available the APA’s PsycPORT page at www.apa.org/news/psycport
through PsycINFO are highly technical. Don’t be put off /index.aspx. Other high-quality websites include those
by this; read and digest what you can. You’ll pick up some maintained by other professional organizations, such as the
interesting information and become a better psychology Alzheimer’s Association (www.alz.org), and government
student in the process. agencies, such as the National Institute of Mental Health
Aside from PsycINFO, there are a number of good web- (www.nimh.nih.gov). (See Module 6 for more on the impor-
sites that you can consult for reliable information about tant skill of information literacy.)

Reflective Note Taking—LISAN Up!

Survey Question 1.3 How can I get the most out of class A 5 Actively listen. Sit where you can get involved and ask
time? questions. Bring questions that you want answered
from the last lecture or from your text. Raise your
Just as studying a textbook is best done reflectively, so, too,
hand at the beginning of class or approach your
is learning in class (Norman, 1994). Like effective reading,
professor before the lecture. Do anything that helps
good notes come from actively seeking information. A
you stay active, alert, and engaged.
reflective listener avoids distractions and skillfully gath-
ers ideas. Here’s a listening/note-taking plan that works N 5 Note taking. Students who take accurate lecture
for many students. The letters LISAN, pronounced like the notes tend to do well on tests (Williams & Eggert,
word listen, will help you remember the steps: 2002). However, don’t try to be a tape recorder.
Listen to everything, but be selective and write
L 5 Lead. Don’t follow. Read assigned materials before down only key points. If you are too busy writing,
coming to class. Try to anticipate what your teacher you may not grasp what your professor is saying.
will say by asking yourself questions. If your teacher When you’re taking notes, it might help to think of
provides course notes or Microsoft PowerPoint® yourself as a reporter who is trying to get a good
overheads before lectures, survey them before story (Ryan, 2001; Wong, 2015).
coming to class. Reflective questions can come
from those materials or from study guides, reading Most students take reasonably good notes—and then
assignments, or your own curiosity. don’t use them! Many students wait until just before ex-
I 5 Ideas. Every lecture is based on a core of ideas. ams to review. By then, their notes have lost much of
Usually, an idea is followed by examples or expla- their meaning. If you don’t want your notes to seem like
nations. Ask yourself often, “What is the main idea chicken scratches, it pays to review them periodically
now? What ideas support it?” (Ellis, 2016).
S 5 Signal words. Listen for words that tell you what
direction the instructor is taking. For instance, Using and Reviewing your Notes
here are some signal words: When you review, you will learn more if you take these
There are three reasons . . . Here come ideas extra steps (Ellis, 2016; Pychyl, 2013; Santrock & Halonen,
Most important is . . . Main idea 2013):
On the contrary . . . Opposite idea ◗ As soon as you can, reflect on your notes to fill in gaps,
As an example . . . Support for main idea complete thoughts, and look for connections among
Therefore . . . Conclusion ideas.

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 MoDU lE 1 th e Psyc h o lo gy o f r e f lective stu dyi n g 9

◗ Remember to link new ideas to what you already know. Summary The letters LISAN are a guide to active listen-
◗ Summarize your notes. Boil them down and organize them. ing, but listening and good note taking are not enough.
◗ After each class session, write down several major ideas, You must also review, organize, reflect, extend, and think
definitions, or details that are likely to become test ques- about new ideas. Use active listening to get involved in
tions. Then, make up questions from your notes and be your classes and you will undoubtedly learn more (Van
sure that you can answer them. Blerkom, 2012).

Reflective Study Strategies—Making a Habit of Success

Survey Question 1.4 How can I best prepare for tests? Dunlosky, et al, 2013). Spaced practice consists of a large
number of relatively short study sessions. Long, uninter-
Grades depend as much on effort as they do on intelligence.
rupted study sessions are called massed practice. (If you
But good students work more efficiently, not just harder,
“massed up” your studying, you probably messed it up,
and that’s true when they study as well as when they write
too.) Cramming places a big burden on memory. Usually,
exams. In this section, we provide some tips for improving
you shouldn’t try to learn anything new about a subject dur-
your studying and test-taking skills.
ing the last day before a test. It is far better to learn small
amounts every day and review frequently.
Strategies for Studying
Recently, researchers reviewed more than 700 articles on Other Suggestions for Studying Ideally, you should
10 of the most commonly used learning strategies to deter- study in a quiet, well-lit area free of distractions. If possible,
mine which ones were the most effective (Dunlosky et al., you should also have one place only for studying. Do noth-
2013). One of the study strategies most commonly used by ing else there: keep magazines, MP3 players, friends, cell
students—highlighting or underlining material in the text phones, pets, Twitter®, video games, puzzles, food, lovers,
or lecture notes—was found to be a particularly ineffective sports cars, elephants, pianos, televisions, Facebook®, and
way to master the material, largely because it doesn’t usually other distractions out of the area. In this way, the habit of
promote active or reflective learning. If you cannot imagine studying will become strongly linked with one specific place.
your textbook without the pretty neon colors, make sure Also, many students underprepare for exams, and most
that you combine your highlighting with one (or more!) of overestimate how well they will do. A solution to both prob-
the effective strategies that we discuss below. lems is overlearning, in which you continue studying be-
yond your initial mastery of a topic. In other words, plan to
Test Yourself A great way to improve grades is to take prac- do extra study and review after you think you are prepared
tice tests before the real one (Karpicke & Blunt, 2011), and this for a test. One way to overlearn is to approach all tests as
strategy came out as a clear winner in the review of learning if they will be essays. That way, you will learn more com-
strategies. In other words, reflective studying should include pletely, so you really “know your stuff.”
self-testing, in which you pose questions to yourself. You can
use flashcards; Knowledge Builder Recite, Think Critically, Strategies for Taking Tests
and Self-Reflect questions; online quizzes; a study guide; or OK, but what about actually taking the tests? Are there any
other means. As you study, ask yourself several questions and strategies for that? You bet! You’ll do better on all types of
be sure you can answer them. Studying without self-testing
is like practicing for a basketball game without shooting
any baskets. Reflective listener A person who knows how to maintain attention,
avoid distractions, and actively gather information from lectures.
Use Spaced Study Sessions Another clear winner in Self-testing Evaluating learning by posing questions to yourself.
the review of learning strategies was the use of spaced study Spaced practice Practice spread over many relatively short study
sessions. It is reasonable to review intensely before an exam. sessions.
Massed practice Practice done in a long, uninterrupted study session.
However, you’re taking a big risk if you are only cram-
Overlearning Continuing to study and learn after you think that
ming (learning new information at the last minute). Spaced you’ve mastered a topic.
practice is much more efficient (Anderson, J. R., 2014;

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10 P Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

tests if you observe the following guidelines (Van Blerkom, 7. Search for the one best answer to each question. Some
2012; Wong, 2015): answers may be partly true, yet flawed in some way. If
you are uncertain, try rating each multiple-choice alter-
1. Read all directions and questions carefully. They may
native on a 1 to 10 scale. The answer with the highest
give you good advice or clues about what to include in
rating is the one you are looking for.
your answer and how to format it.
8. Remember that few circumstances are always or never
2. Survey the test quickly before you begin.
present. Answers that include superlatives such as most,
3. Answer easy questions before spending time on more
least, best, worst, largest, or smallest are often false.
difficult ones.
4. Be sure to answer all questions. Essay Tests Essay questions are a weak spot for students
5. Use your time wisely. who lack organization, don’t support their ideas, or don’t di-
6. Ask for clarification when necessary. rectly answer the question (Van Blerkom, 2012). When you
take an essay exam, try the following:
Objective Tests Several additional strategies can help
you do better on objective tests. Such tests (multiple-choice 1. Read the question carefully. Be sure to note key words,
and true-false items) require you to recognize a correct an- such as compare, contrast, discuss, evaluate, analyze, and
swer among wrong ones or a true statement versus a false describe. These words all demand a certain emphasis in
one. Here are some strategies for taking objective tests: your answer.
2. Answer the question. If the question asks for a defini-
1. Relate the question to what you know about the topic. tion and an example, make sure that you provide both.
Then, read the alternatives. Does one match the answer Providing just a definition or just an example will get
that you expected to find? If none match, reexamine the you half marks.
choices and look for a partial match. 3. Reflect on your answer for a few minutes and list the
2. Read all the choices for each question before you make main points that you want to make. Just write them as
a decision. Here’s why: if you immediately think that a is they come to mind. Then rearrange the ideas in a logical
correct and stop reading, you might miss seeing a better order and begin writing. Elaborate plans or outlines are
answer like both a and d. not necessary.
3. Read rapidly and skip items that you are unsure about. 4. Don’t beat around the bush or pad your answer. Be
You may find free information in later questions that direct. Make a point and support it. Get your list of ideas
will help you answer difficult items. into words.
4. Eliminate certain alternatives. With a four-choice 5. Look over your essay for errors in spelling and gram-
multiple-choice test, you have one chance in four of mar. Save this for last. Your ideas are more important.
guessing right. If you can eliminate two alternatives, You can work on spelling and grammar separately if
your guessing odds improve to 50-50. they affect your grade.
5. Be sure to answer any skipped items, unless there is
a penalty for guessing. Even if you are not sure of the Short-Answer Tests Tests that ask you to fill in a blank,
answer, you may be right. If you leave a question blank, define a term, or list specific items can be difficult. Usually,
it is automatically wrong. When you are forced to guess, the questions themselves contain little information. If you
don’t choose the longest answer or the letter that you’ve don’t know the answer, you won’t get much help from the
used the least. Both strategies lower scores more than questions.
random guessing does. The best way to prepare for short-answer tests is to
6. Following this bit of folk wisdom is a mistake: “Don’t overlearn the details of the course. As you study, pay special
change your answers on a multiple-choice test. Your attention to lists of related terms.
first choice is usually right.” This is wrong. If you change Again, it is best to start with the questions whose answers
answers, you are more likely to gain points than to lose you’re sure you know. Follow that by completing the ques-
them. This is especially true if you are uncertain of your tions whose answers you think you probably know. Ques-
first choice, or it was a hunch and your second choice is tions whose answers you have no idea about can be left blank.
more reflective (Higham & Gerrard, 2005). See ➤ Figure 1.2 for a summary of study skills.

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 MoDU lE 1 th e Psyc h o lo gy o f r e f lective stu dyi n g 11

general study skills, so let’s consider these other strategies

in a little more detail.
Study Skills Checklist
Time Management A weekly time schedule is a written
Time Management
Make formal schedule plan that allocates time for study, work, and leisure activi-
Set specific goals ties. To prepare your schedule, make a chart showing all the
Study Habits hours in each day of the week. Then fill in times that are al-
Study in specific area ready committed: sleep, meals, classes, work, team practices,
Pace study and review
Create memory aids lessons, appointments, and so forth. Next, fill in times when
Test yourself
Overlearn
you will study for various classes. Finally, label the remaining
hours as open or free times. Each day, you can use your sched-
Reading
Use reflective SQ4R method ule as a checklist. That way, you’ll know at a glance which
Study while reading tasks are done and which still need attention (Pychyl, 2013).
Review frequently
You may also find it valuable to make a term schedule
Note Taking that lists the dates of all quizzes, tests, reports, papers, and
Listen actively
Use LISAN method other major assignments for each class. The beauty of stick-
Review notes frequently ing to a schedule is that you know you are making an honest
effort. It will also help you avoid feeling bored while you are
working or guilty when you play.
➤ Figure 1.2 Be sure to treat your study times as serious commit-
Study skills checklist. ments, but respect your free time, too. And remember, stu-
dents who study hard and practice time management do get
Procrastination: Don’t Be late! better grades (Nandagopal & Ericsson, 2011).
All these techniques are fine. But what can I do about pro- Goal Setting As mentioned earlier, students who are re-
crastination? Procrastination, the tendency to put off work- flective, active learners set specific goals for studying. Such
ing on unpleasant tasks, is almost universal. (When campus goals should be clear-cut and measurable (Pychyl, 2013). If
workshops on procrastination are offered, many students you find it hard to stay motivated, try setting goals for the
never get around to signing up!) Even when procrastination semester, the week, the day, and even for single study sessions.
doesn’t lead to failure, it can cause much suffering (Sirois & Also, be aware that more effort early in a course can greatly
Tosti, 2012; Wohl, Pychyl, & Bennett, 2010). Procrastinators reduce the stress that you might experience later. If your pro-
work only under pressure, skip classes, give false reasons fessors don’t give frequent assignments, set your own day-by-
for late work, and feel ashamed of their last-minute efforts. day goals. That way, you can turn big assignments into a series
They also tend to feel frustrated, bored, and guilty more of- of smaller tasks that you can complete. An example would be
ten (Pychyl, 2013). reading, studying, and reviewing eight pages a day to com-
Why do so many students procrastinate? Many students plete a 40-page chapter in five days. For this textbook, reading
equate grades with their personal worth—that is, they act one module every day or two might be a good pace. Remem-
as if grades tell whether they are good, smart people who ber, many small steps can add up to an impressive journey.
will succeed in life. By procrastinating, they can blame their
Developing a Positive Attitude A final point to re-
poor work on a late start rather than a lack of ability (Hagh-
member is that you are most likely to procrastinate if you
bin, McCaffrey, & Pychyl, 2012). After all, it wasn’t their
best effort, was it? Perfectionism is a related problem. If you
expect the impossible, it’s hard to start an assignment. Stu- Procrastination The tendency to put off working on unpleasant
dents with high standards often end up with all-or-nothing tasks.
work habits (Rice, Richardson, & Clark, 2012). Weekly time schedule A written plan that allocates time for study,
While procrastination can be a real problem for work, and leisure activities during a one-week period.
Term schedule A written plan that lists the dates of all major assign-
students, most can improve by learning to manage time
ments for each of your classes for an entire term.
effectively, setting realistic goals, and considering their Specific goals Goals with clearly defined and measurable outcomes.
attitude toward learning. We have already discussed

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12 P Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

think that a task will be unpleasant. Learning can be hard yours, you must set out to actively and reflectively learn as
work. Nevertheless, reflective students find ways to make much as you can. The ideas presented here should get you
schoolwork interesting and enjoyable (Mega, Ronconi, & off to a good start. Good luck!
De Beni, 2014). Try to approach your schoolwork as if it For more information, consult any of the following books:
were a game, a sport, an adventure, or simply a way to be-
Chaffee, J. (2015). Thinking critically (11th ed.). Belmont,
come a better person. The best educational experiences are
CA: Cengage Learning/Wadsworth.
challenging, yet fun (Santrock & Halonen, 2013).
Virtually every topic is interesting to someone, some- Ellis, D. (2016). The essential guide to becoming a master
where. You may not be particularly interested in the sex life student (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
of South American tree frogs. However, a biologist might be Pychyl, T. A. (2013). Solving the procrastination puzzle:
fascinated. (Another tree frog might be, too.) If you wait for A concise guide to strategies for change. New York:
teachers to make their courses interesting, you are missing the Tarcher/Penguin.
point. Interest is a matter of your attitude (Sirois & Tosti, 2012).
Santrock, J. W., & Halonen, J. S. (2013). Your guide
The Whole human: Psychology and you to college success: Strategies for achieving your goals
(7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning/Wadsworth.
There is a distinction in Zen between live words and dead
words. Live words come from personal experience; dead Van Blerkom, D. L. (2012). College study skills: Becoming
words are about a subject. This book will be only a collec- a strategic learner (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage
tion of dead words unless you accept the challenge of taking Learning/Wadsworth.
an intellectual journey. You will find many helpful, useful, Wong, W. (2015). Essential study skills (8th ed.).
and exciting ideas in the pages that follow. To make them Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning/Wadsworth.

MODULE

1 Summary
1.1 how can studying psychology help me in my 1.2.3 Digital media offer another way to be more
personal and professional life? reflective.
1.1.1 Two broad categories of learning are learning content
1.3 how can I get the most out of class time?
and learning skills.
1.1.2 Psychology students learn a variety of study skills, re- 1.3.1 Reflective learning in class involves active
search skills, critical thinking skills, cultural awareness listening.
skills, and personal skills during their studies. 1.3.2 One way to be a more active listener in class is to
1.1.3 The study of psychology will prepare you for many follow the five steps of the LISAN method: lead,
potentially rewarding careers. Some of those exist don’t follow; ideas; signal words; actively listen;
within the field of psychology, but the skills learned note taking.
in a psychology degree can also be applied to a wide
1.4 how can I best prepare for tests?
range of other career paths.
1.1.4 Reflective learning is deliberately reflective and active 1.4.1 More reflective studying involves studying in a
self-guided study. specific place, using spaced study sessions, trying
mnemonics, testing yourself, and overlearning.
1.2 how can I get the most out of this textbook? 1.4.2 A variety of guidelines are available for improving
1.2.1 Reflective reading, which involves actively think- general test taking skills.
ing about what is being read, is better than passive 1.4.3 More specialized strategies are available for objective
reading. tests, essay tests, and short-answer tests.
1.2.2 One way to be a more active reader is to follow the six 1.4.4 Procrastination can be overcome through time
steps of the reflective SQ4R method: survey, question, management, setting goals, and making learning an
read, recite, reflect, and review. adventure.

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 MoDU lE 1 th e Psyc h o lo gy o f r e f lective stu dyi n g 13

Knowledge Builder The Psychology of Reflective Studying

Recite Reflect
1. The facts you pick up during your academic studies are Think critically
the most important aspect of your education. T or F? 9. How are the reflective SQ4R and the LISAN methods
2. Setting learning goals and monitoring your progress are related?
important parts of ______________________________
learning. Self-Reflect
3. The four Rs in reflective SQ4R stand for read, recite, Do you already use any of the reflective learning techniques
reflect, and review. T or F? discussed in the module?
4. When using the LISAN method, students try to write What career paths are you considering? What skills do
down as much of a lecture as possible so that their notes you think would be valuable in a job like that? Do you already
are complete. T or F? possess these skills? If so, how might you strengthen them? If
5. Spaced study sessions are usually superior to massed not, what kinds of experiences can you undertake during your
practice. T or F? degree to develop these skills? One of the best ways to begin
6. According to research, you should almost always stick answering these questions is to sit down and undertake an
with your first answer on multiple-choice tests. T or F? inventory of the skills you have learned from your psychology
7. To use the technique known as overlearning, you should studies and elsewhere.
continue to study after you feel you have mastered a
topic. T or F? AN SW E R S
8. Procrastination is related to seeking perfection and more effectively.
equating self-worth with grades. T or F?
to be reflective and to actively seek information as a way of learning
1. F. 2. reflective 3. T 4. F 5. T 6. F 7. T 8. T 9. Both encourage people

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MODULE

2 Introducing Psychology
Psychology, Critical Thinking, and Science

The Triple Seven Quest

Only poor weather could have prevented Fiona Oakes from com-
pleting her own Triple Seven Quest: seven marathons on seven
continents within seven days. Although the storm wouldn’t have
stopped her from running, it did prevent her from flying from Chile
to Antarctica in time to complete her seventh run.
What could Fiona possibly have been thinking, you might wonder.
But you might equally wonder why people get married, go skydiving,
grow roses, become suicide bombers, go to college, or live out their lives
in monasteries. You might even wonder why you do some of the things

PIERRE VERDY/AFP/Getty Images

you do. In other words, the odds are that you are curious about human
behavior (just like your authors). That may even be a part of the reason
that you are taking a course in psychology and reading this book.
How, in general, do psychologists set out answer questions about
human behavior, such as, “Why, Fiona, why?” Let’s find out.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
2.1 What is psychology? 2.3 How is the scientific method applied in psychological
2.2 What is critical thinking? research?

Psychology—Behave!
Survey Question 2.1 What is psychology?
return to the profession of psychology. For now, let’s focus
We humans have always been curious about humankind. on how psychologists answer questions in psychology.
Even the word psychology is thousands of years old, com-
ing from the ancient Greek roots psyche, meaning mind, Answering Questions in Psychology
and logos, meaning knowledge or study. Today, psychology If psychology is the study of the mind, then how can a psy-
is both a science and a profession. As scientists, some psy- chologist tell me anything about my mind that I don’t already
chologists do research to discover new knowledge. Others know? The earliest psychologists would have agreed. After
apply psychology to solve problems in fields such as mental all, you are the only person who can directly observe the
health, business, education, sports, law, medicine, and the inner workings of your own mind, right? To answer ques-
design of machines (Davey, 2011). Still others are teach- tions about you, they would have relied upon introspection,
ers who share their knowledge with students. Later, we will the personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings,

14
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 MODU LE 2 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: Psyc h o lo gy, c r ItI cal th I n k I n g, an d s c I e n c e 15

45

40

35

Percentage preference
30

25

20

Don Hammond /Design Pics/Corbis

15

10

0
A B C D
Psychologists are highly trained professionals who have specialized Serial position of pairs of silk stockings
skills in counseling and therapy, measurement and testing, research
and experimentation, statistics, diagnosis, treatment, and many
➤ Figure 2.1
other areas. Here, a psychologist tests the sensitivity of a worker’s The effects of serial position on preference. The four pairs of
hands as part of a series of tests to determine if he has recovered silk stockings in this experiment were labeled A, B, C, and D, from
from a hand injury enough to return to work. left to right. The results clearly show that the serial position of the
individual pairs of stockings (that is, where each pair appeared
in the “lineup”) influenced shoppers’ preferences. (Adapted from
Wilson and Nisbett, 1978.)
and behavior. Stop reading, close your eyes, and carefully
describe aloud your inner thoughts, feelings, and sensations.
subjective reason for his or her choice. Apparently, you are
You are introspecting. (Introspect, Fiona, introspect!)
not always the best judge of why you behave the way you do
The Failings of Introspection: Position D, Stockings, (Wilson, 2004). That is, introspection does not always yield
and Murder You may be surprised to learn that introspec- accurate information.
tion was abandoned years ago when psychologists realized What reasons did the shoppers give? If you think about
that it was too flawed to serve as a truly scientific method it, it would be odd to hear someone say, “The pair in posi-
(see Module 3). To begin to understand the problem, imag- tion D are the best because they are on the far right.” Appar-
ine that you are one of the shoppers psychologists Timothy ently, not knowing exactly why they made their choice, the
Wilson and Richard Nesbitt invited to examine four pairs of shoppers gave the sorts of reasons that you (and they) might
silk stockings hanging on a rack. The shoppers were asked expect a thoughtful shopper to give: smoothness, visual ap-
a deceptively simple question: ”Which pair is the highest pearance, color, weave, and so on. They gave plausible but
quality, and why?” (Wilson & Nisbett, 1978). The results can incorrect answers such as, “I chose the pair in position D
be found in ➤ Figure 2.1. As you can see, the order in which because they were the sheerest and most elastic.”
the stockings were displayed strongly influenced which pair Wilson and Nisbett’s finding is only one of hundreds of
was chosen. similar reports. Taken together, they indicate that much of
The shoppers were not told that all the stockings were our thinking actually takes place in the cognitive uncon-
objectively identical. Also, each pair appeared equally of- scious, the part of the mind of which we are subjectively un-
ten in each of the four serial positions. This was achieved aware and is not open to introspection (see, e.g., Bar-Anan,
by changing the order of the four pairs before each shop- Wilson, & Hassin, 2010; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). Oddly
per made a choice. This made it virtually impossible that enough, then, objective scientific methods often yield more
the pair in position D was actually consistently of better accurate answers than subjective introspection.
quality.
If the shoppers were introspectively aware of the actual
psychological processes that resulted in their choices, they Introspection Personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings,
and behavior.
surely would have identified serial position as a relevant fac-
Cognitive unconscious The part of the mind of which we are sub-
tor. Amazingly, while serial position objectively influenced jectively unaware and that is not open to introspection.
the shopper’s choice, no shopper gave serial position as a

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16 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

We will encounter the cognitive unconscious many developing suitable objective research methods—systematic
times during our exploration of psychology. For example, in scientific approaches to answering particular questions. For
Module 33, we explore the accuracy of police lineups. Given example, at one time we had no choice but to rely upon the
what you now know, just imagine being arrested on suspi- introspective reports of people who say they never dream.
cion of committing a murder . . . and being assigned to posi- Then the electroencephalograph (EEG) was invented to
tion D in a four-person lineup. measure brainwaves. Certain brainwave patterns, as well
as the presence of eye movements, can objectively reveal
Objectivity in Psychology Because introspection is
whether a person is dreaming. People who report never
not the best way to answer many psychological questions,
dreaming, it turns out, dream frequently. Rather, they forget
psychologists accept that the mind can’t be fully understood
their dreams upon awakening. If they are awakened when the
from a subjective viewpoint. Accordingly, psychology is
EEG and eye movement patterns indicate they are dream-
now defined as the scientific study of behavior and men-
ing, they vividly remember the dream. Thus, the EEG helped
tal processes (i.e., covert behavior). It is this reliance on
make the study of dreaming more scientific.
objective scientific observation to systematically answer
questions about all sorts of behaviors that distinguish Scientific Observation People have been observing other
psychology from many other fields, such as history, law, art, people for centuries. Isn’t psychology, by now, mostly common
and business (Stanovich, 2013). sense? You may be surprised to learn how many common-
To what does behavior refer in the definition of psychology? sense beliefs about human behavior are false. For example,
Any directly observable action or response—eating, hanging have you ever heard that some people are left-brained and
out, sleeping, talking, or sneezing—is an overt behavior. So are some are right-brained? Or that subliminal advertising re-
studying, gambling, watching television, tying your shoes, giv- ally works? Or that people prefer to receive thoughtful gifts
ing someone a gift, reading this book, and, yes, extreme mara- rather than an impersonal gift, like money? It turns out that
thoning. But psychologists haven’t left out the mind; they also these widely held beliefs, and many others, are simply wrong
objectively study covert behaviors. These are mental events, (Lilienfeld et al., 2010).
such as dreaming, thinking, remembering, understanding But how could common sense be wrong so often? One
what you read, choosing stockings (or murder suspects), and problem with common sense is that it often depends on casu-
other mental processes (Jackson, 2016). al or haphazard observations. For example, has someone ever
But how can you study covert behaviors without relying told you that people in New York City (or Mexico, or Paris,
on introspection? Progress in psychology often depends on or wherever) are rude? This often means no more than that
someone is relying on hearsay or had a bad encounter on one
visit. It may well say nothing about those people in general.
Unlike casual observation, psychologists rely on scientific
observation. Although both are based on gathering empiri-
cal evidence (information gained from direct observation),
scientific observation is systematic, or carefully planned.
Scientific observations also are intersubjective, which means
that more than one observer can confirm them. Basically, the
scientific approach says, “Let’s take a more objective look”
(Stanovich, 2013).
Psychologists, then, study behavior directly by system-
AJPhoto/Science Source

atically collecting data (observed facts) so that they can draw

valid conclusions. Would you say it’s true, for instance, that
“the clothes make the man”? Or do you believe that “you can’t
judge a book by its cover”? Why argue about it? As psycholo-
The scientific study of dreaming was made possible by use of the gists, we simply look at some people who are well dressed
EEG, a device that records the tiny electrical signals the brain and some who are not and, through scientific observation,
generates as a person sleeps. The EEG converts these electrical
find out who makes out better in a variety of situations.
signals to a written record of brain activity. Certain shifts in brain
activity, coupled with the presence of rapid eye movements, are Here’s an example of gathering empirical evidence:
strongly related to dreaming. (See Module 24 for more details.) Have you ever wondered if, when it comes to giving gifts,

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 MODU LE 2 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: Psyc h o lo gy, c r ItI cal th I n k I n g, an d s c I e n c e 17

7 ➤ Figure 2.2
Results of an empirical study.
The graph here shows that the
6 recipients of gifts appreciate gifts
that they have requested more
Appreciation rating

than gifts that the giver chooses.

Gift givers were slightly more
5 likely to believe that recipients
would prefer receiving an
unrequested gift (although the
difference was not statistically
4
significant). (Data adapted from
Gino and Flynn, 2011.)

3
Requested gift Unrequested gift Requested gift Unrequested gift
Gift recipient Gift giver

it really is “the thought that counts”? Francesca Gino and confirmed by scientific observation. However, it could easily
Francis Flynn (2011) decided to find out. They asked gift have turned out differently.
recipients to rate how much they would appreciate getting How about getting money for a gift—does that make
a gift that they requested, as opposed to one chosen by the a difference? Gino and Flynn (2011) checked that out as
gift giver. It turns out people prefer gifts that they specifi- well. They found that gift recipients preferred getting
cally request over gifts that the giver thinks might be ap- money even more than getting a gift that they request-
preciated. In contrast, gift givers believed that recipients ed, even though gift givers thought exactly the opposite.
would be just as appreciative of a gift that they chose for Apparently, we struggle more with the idea of thought-
them (see ➤ Figure 2.2). ful gifts when we are the givers than when we are the
Isn’t the outcome of this study obvious? It isn’t if you start- recipients.
ed out believing otherwise. Sometimes the results of studies One way to summarize the foregoing is to say that it
match our personal observations or commonsense beliefs, would be impossible to accurately answer most questions
and other times they come as a surprise. In this instance, about human behavior without the aid of objective, scien-
you may have guessed the outcome. Your suspicions were tific observation.

Critical Thinking—Take It with a Grain of Salt

Survey Question 2.2 What is critical thinking? astrology describing people’s personalities, psychics predict-
ing their future, and so forth. However, critical thinkers are
But isn’t there more to psychology and science than a reli-
willing to challenge both conventional and unconventional
ance on scientific observation? Yes. In general, psychologists
wisdom by asking hard questions (Ruggiero, 2015). For this
rely on critical thinking. Critical thinking in psychol-
ogy is a type of reflection (you did read Module 1, “The
Psychology of Reflective Studying,” right?) that involves
asking whether a particular belief can be supported by both Psychology The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Research methods Systematic approaches to answering scientific
scientific theory and observation (Vaughn, 2016; Yanchar,
questions.
Slife, & Warne, 2008). Scientific observation An empirical investigation structured to an-
Because we deal with human behavior every day, we swer questions about the world in a systematic and intersubjective
think that we already know what is true in psychology. All fashion (i.e., observations can be reliably confirmed by multiple
too often, however, we are tempted to accept commonsense observers).
Critical thinking In psychology, a type of reflection involving the
beliefs, urban legends, and even outrageous claims about
support of beliefs through scientific explanation and observation.
the powers of healing crystals, miraculous herbal remedies,

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18 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

and many other reasons, learning to think critically is one of an exquisite balance between two conflicting needs: the
the lasting benefits of a college education. most skeptical scrutiny of all hypotheses that are served
For example, when it comes to achieving our goals, is up to us and at the same time a great openness to new
it better to focus on how far we still have to go before we ideas” (Kida, 2006, p. 51).
reach a goal, or should we focus on what we have already 5. Critical thinkers often wonder what it would take to
accomplished? Critical thinkers might immediately ask: “Is show that a “truth” is false. Falsification is the delib-
there any theory to support stressing either a goal focus or erate attempt to uncover how a commonsense belief
an accomplishment focus? Is there any empirical evidence or scientific theory might be false. Critical thinkers
either way? What could we do to find out for ourselves?” adopt an attitude of actively seeking to falsify beliefs,
(Be on the lookout later in this module for some evidence including their own. They want to find out when they
concerning this question.) are wrong, even if it is difficult to accept. As Susan
Blackmore (2000, p. 55) said when her studies caused
her to abandon some long-held beliefs, “Admitting you
Critical Thinking Principles
are wrong is always hard—even though it’s a skill that
The heart of critical thinking is a willingness to actively every psychologist has to learn.” On the plus side, find-
reflect on ideas. Critical thinkers evaluate ideas by delib- ing out what is wrong with a belief often points the way
erately probing for weaknesses in their reasoning and to improving it. Similarly, critical thinkers can be more
analyzing the evidence supporting their beliefs. They ques- confident in beliefs that have survived their attempts
tion assumptions and look for alternative conclusions. True at falsification.
knowledge, they recognize, comes from constantly revising
our understanding of the world. Critical thinking relies on To put these principles into action, here are some questions
the following basic principles (Jackson & Newberry, 2016; to ask as you evaluate new information (Browne & Keeley,
Vaughn, 2016; Ruggiero, 2015): 2012; Jackson & Newberry, 2016):

1. Few truths transcend the need for logical analysis and 1. What is the claim being made? Is it understandable?
empirical testing. Whereas religious beliefs and personal Does it make logical sense? What are the implications of
values are often held as matters of faith, most other the claim? Is there another possible explanation? Is it a
ideas can and should be evaluated by applying the rules simpler explanation?
of logic, evidence, and the scientific method. 2. What empirical tests of this claim have been made (if
2. Authority or claimed expertise does not automatically any)? How good is the evidence? (In general, scientific
make an idea true or false. Just because a teacher, guru, observations provide the highest-quality evidence.) Can
celebrity, or authority is convincing or sincere doesn’t the claim be falsified?
mean that you should automatically believe (or disbe- 3. Who did the tests? How reliable and trustworthy were
lieve) that person. Naively accepting (or denying) the the investigators? Do they have conflicts of interest?
word of an expert is unscientific and self-demeaning Do their findings appear to be objective? Has any other
unless you ask, “Is this a well-supported explanation, or independent researcher duplicated the findings?
is there a better one? What evidence convinced her or
him?” Uncritical Acceptance and Confirmation Bias If
3. Judging the quality of the evidence is crucial. Imagine that falsification is a good strategy, then what is the opposite of
you are a juror in a courtroom, judging claims made by falsification, and why would people do that? Good question.
two battling lawyers. To decide correctly, you can’t just We humans are vulnerable to uncritical acceptance—the
weigh the amount of evidence. You must also critically tendency to believe claims because they seem true or it
evaluate the quality of the evidence. Then you can give would be nice if they were true. Consider horoscopes, which
greater weight to the most credible facts. generally contain mostly flattering traits. Naturally, when
4. Critical thinking requires an open mind. Be prepared to your personality and your future are described in desirable
consider daring departures and go wherever the evi- terms, it is hard to deny that the description has the ring of
dence leads. However, don’t become so open-minded truth (Rogers & Soule, 2009). On the other hand, how much
that you are simply gullible. Astronomer Carl Sagan acceptance would astrology receive if all horoscopes read
once noted, “It seems to me that what is called for is like this?

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 MODU LE 2 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: Psyc h o lo gy, c r ItI cal th I n k I n g, an d s c I e n c e 19

Virgo: Your nitpicking is unbearable to your friends. You of superstition, an unfounded belief held without objective
are cold, unemotional, and usually fall asleep while making evidence or in the face of falsifying evidence.
love. You have no chance of ever finding a person who will Astrology is based on a zodiac map invented several
love you. Virgos make good doorstops.
thousand years ago in the ancient civilization of Babylon.
Even when a horoscope contains a mixture of good and bad Unlike scientific theories, which are regularly falsified and
traits, it may seem accurate because we humans are also vul- rejected or revised accordingly, the basic underpinnings of
nerable to confirmation bias, the tendency to remember astrology have remained relatively unchanged. Neverthe-
or notice things that confirm our expectations and ignore less, to date, no astrologer has offered a convincing theory
the rest (Lilienfeld, Ammirati, & Landfield, 2009). For ex- of how the positions of the planets at a person’s birth affect
ample, how well does the following astrological description his or her future.
describe your personality? Empirical studies of astrology have also failed to un-
cover supporting evidence. One classic study of more than
Your Personality Profile 3,000 predictions by famous astrologers found that only a
You have many personality strengths, with some weak-
nesses to which you can usually adjust. You tend to be
small percentage of them were accurate. These successful
accepting of yourself. You are comfortable with some predictions tended to be vague (“There will be a tragedy
structure in your life but do enjoy diverse experiences somewhere in the east in the spring”) or easily guessed from
from time to time. Although on the inside, you might be current events (Culver & Ianna, 1988). Similarly, no connec-
a bit unsure of yourself, you appear under control to oth- tion exists between people’s astrological signs and their intel-
ers. You are sexually well adjusted, although you do have ligence or personality traits (Hartmann, Reuter, & Nyborg,
some questions. Your life goals are more or less realistic.
Occasionally, you question your decisions and actions be-
2006). There also is no connection between the compat-
cause you’re unsure that they are correct. You want to be ibility of couples’ astrological signs and their marriage
liked and admired by other people. You are not using your and divorce rates or between astrological signs and leader-
potential to its full extent. You like to think for yourself ship, physical characteristics, or career choices (Martens &
and don’t always take other people’s word without think- Trachet, 1998).
ing it through. You are not generally willing to disclose Many superstitious beliefs such as astrology can seem
to others because it might lead to problems. You are a
natural introvert, cautious, and careful around others, al-
scientific at first. For example, graphology, the study of
though there are times when you can be an extrovert who handwriting, is useful for detecting forgeries. Isn’t it plau-
is the life of the party. sible that personality traits are also revealed by handwrit-
ing? On further examination, though, this turns out to be
A psychologist read a similar summary to college students pseudoscience (i.e., false science). Graphologists score no
who thought they were taking a personality test. Only a better than average on tests of accuracy in rating personality
few students felt that the description was inaccurate. Re- (Dazzi & Pedrabissi, 2009; Furnham, Chamorro-Premuzic, &
read the description and you will see that it contains both Callahan, 2003).
sides of several personality dimensions (“You are a natural In closing, valid psychological principles are based,
introvert . . . although there are times when you can be an then, on critical thinking, scientific theory, and evidence,
extrovert . . .”). Its apparent accuracy is an illusion based on not superstitions, pseudoscience, fads, opinions, or wishful
confirmation bias. thinking.
To summarize, we humans are vulnerable to uncritical
acceptance and confirmation bias. The result is the selec-
tion of evidence and arguments to support your own be-
liefs while ignoring contradictory evidence or arguments Falsification The deliberate attempt to uncover how a common-
(Boudry, Blancke, & Pigliucci, 2015). This is a sure-fire way sense belief or scientific theory might be false.
to protect yourself from confronting your mistaken beliefs. Uncritical acceptance The tendency to believe claims because they
It is also a sure-fire way to remain mistaken (Schick & seem true or because it would be nice if they were true.
Vaughn, 2014). Confirmation bias The tendency to remember or notice informa-
tion that fits one’s expectations, while forgetting or ignoring
discrepancies.
Superstition vs. Science Before leaving this topic, we
Superstition Unfounded belief held without evidence or in spite of
should note that the entire belief system of astrology fails the falsifying evidence.
test of critical thinking. As such, it can be considered a type

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20 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

Scientific Research—How to Think Like a Psychologist

Survey Question 2.3 How is the scientific method applied achievement-focused approaches are popular. If the goal is
in psychological research? weight loss, for example, one goal-focused approach is to
count down the pounds (only 10 pounds to go!), while one
Psychology generally follows the scientific method, a form
achievement-focused approach is to celebrate milestones.
of critical thinking based on the systematic collection of
(Congratulations on losing the first 10 pounds!)
evidence, accurate description and measurements, precise
definitions, controlled observations, and repeatable results 2. Define the Problem The researchers also noted
(Jackson, 2016; Yanchar, Slife, & Warne, 2008). As we noted that maintaining a goal focus seems to inspire more goal-
previously, the first step in the scientific method is the care- oriented behaviors. Thus, they defined their main problem
ful recording of observation, the foundation of all science as “Will people lose more weight if they maintain a goal
(Stanovich, 2013). To be scientific, our observations must be focus compared to an achievement focus?”
systematic, so they reveal something reliable about behavior.
3. Propose a Hypothesis What exactly is a hypothesis?
To return to an earlier example, if you are interested in wheth-
A theoretical question or statement (like “Will people lose
er gift recipients prefer gifts that they requested or gifts that
more weight if they maintain a goal focus or if they maintain
were chosen for them, you will learn little by making haphaz-
an achievement focus?”) is too vague to be assessed directly.
ard observations of gift-giving at family birthday parties.
In contrast, a hypothesis (hi-POTH-eh-sis) is the predicted
The Six Steps of the Scientific Method
In its ideal form, the scientific method has six steps
(➤ Figure 2.3). All six steps are found in the following Make observations
example, from Florida State University psychologist Kyle
Conlon and his colleagues (2011). Earlier, we wondered
whether goals are more attainable if people maintain a Define problem
goal focus (stressing how much remains to be done to
achieve the goal) or an achievement focus (stressing how
much has already been achieved). These researchers de- Propose hypothesis
termined to find out.

1. Make Observations The researchers reviewed previ- Gather evidence

ously published studies, noting that both goal-focused and Test hypothesis

Reject hypothesis Retain hypothesis

Build theory
The Star-Ledger/Robert Sciarrino/The Image Works

Publish results

➤ Figure 2.3
The scientific method. Psychologists use the logic of science
to answer questions about behavior. Specific hypotheses can be
tested in a variety of ways, including experiments, naturalistic
observation, correlational studies, controlled experiments, case
Applying the scientific method to the study of behavior requires studies, and surveys. Psychologists revise their theories to reflect
careful observation. Here, two psychologists observe and record a the evidence that they gather. New or revised theories then lead to
session in which a child’s eating behavior is being studied. new observations, problems, and hypotheses.

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 MODU LE 2 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: Psyc h o lo gy, c r ItI cal th I n k I n g, an d s c I e n c e 21

outcome of an experiment or an educated guess about the participants were asked to describe how much weight they
relationship between variables. In common terms, a hypoth- had already lost.
esis is a testable hunch about behavior.
4. Gather Evidence/Test Hypothesis Now let’s re-
Theoretical questions are transformed into testable hy-
turn to the question of whether weight loss is easier when
potheses through operational definitions. An operational
you maintain a goal focus or an achievement focus. As pre-
definition states the exact procedures used to measure
dicted, goal-focused individuals lost more weight than did
a concept. Conlon and his colleagues began by creating a
either achievement-focused or control individuals. They
12-week exercise program involving weekly group meet-
also reported being more committed to reaching their goal
ings and a companion website. Defining weight loss was
weights. Accordingly, the researchers retained the hypoth-
straightforward; participants were weighed on a standard
esis rather than rejecting it.
digital scale at the beginning of the weight-loss period and
once every week until the program ended. 5. Build Theory How do theories fit in? A theory is a sys-
Measuring someone’s goal focus or achievement focus tem of ideas designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a
is a bit harder since these terms refer to covert behaviors. way that summarizes existing data and predicts future ob-
Fortunately, operational definitions also allow covert be- servations. Good theories summarize observations, explain
haviors that are not directly observable to be tested in real- them, allow prediction, and guide further research. Without
world terms (see ➤ Figure 2.4). Conlon and his colleagues theories of forgetting, personality, stress, mental illness, and
modified their weight-loss program so that the weekly the like, psychologists would drown in a sea of disconnected
surveys, feedback, and group discussions revolved around facts (Stanovich, 2013).
either a goal focus or an achievement focus. They then as- Conlon and his colleagues interpreted their results as
signed a third of their participants to one program or the consistent with theories of motivation that stress the impor-
other (the final third was assigned to a group without either tance of being aware of how much work remains to be done
focus). For example, every week, goal-focused participants to achieve a goal. The results were also portrayed as extending
were asked to describe how much more weight they need- these theories into the field of health psychology and as being
ed to lose to reach their goal, while achievement-focused relevant to the design of health-intervention programs.
6. Publish Results Because scientific information
must always be publicly available, the results of psycho-
Conceptual level
logical studies are usually published in professional jour-
Hypothesized relationship nals (see ■ Table 2.1). That way, other researchers can read
about the results and make their own observations if they
Goal-focus or doubt the study’s findings (Gravetter & Forzano, 2016). If
Concepts Weight loss
achievement focus
others are able to replicate (repeat) the results of a study,
those results become more credible.
In a scholarly article published in the Journal of Experi-
Concrete level
mental Social Psychology, Conlon and his colleagues (2011)
Participation in a describe the question they investigated, the methods they
Difference in
Operational
12-week weight loss
measured weight from used, and the results of their study comparing goal-focused
program focusing on
definitions
either a goal focus or
week-to-week during and achievement-focused dieters.
weight loss program
an achievement focus

Observed relationship
Scientific method A form of critical thinking based on careful mea-
➤ Figure 2.4 surement, controlled observation, and repeatable results.
Operational definition. Operational definitions are used to link Hypothesis Predicted outcome of an experiment or an educated
concepts with concrete observations. Conlon and his colleagues guess about the relationship between variables.
(2011) define their weight-loss programs in enough detail that Operational definition Defining a scientific concept by stating
other researchers can confirm both the validity of their operational the specific actions or procedures used to measure it. For ex-
definitions and the accuracy of their results. Operational definitions ample, hunger might be defined as the number of hours of food
vary in how well they represent concepts. For this reason, many deprivation.
different experiments may be necessary to draw clear conclusions Theory Comprehensive explanation of observable events.
about hypothesized relationships in psychology.

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22 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

Table 2.1 outline of a research report Table 2.2 Basic ethical guidelines
for Psychological researchers
◗ Abstract. Research reports begin with a brief summary of
the study and its findings. The abstract lets you get an over- Do no harm.
view of the contents without reading the entire article.
Describe risks accurately to potential participants.
◗ Introduction. The introduction describes the question to be
Ensure that participation is voluntary.
investigated. It also provides background information by
reviewing prior studies on the same or related topics. Minimize any discomfort to participants.
◗ Method. This section tells how and why observations Maintain confidentiality.
were made. It also describes the specific procedures used
Do not invade privacy unnecessarily.
to gather data. That way, other researchers can repeat the
study to see if they get the same results. Use deception only when absolutely necessary.
◗ Results. The outcome of the investigation is presented. Data Remove any misconceptions caused by deception (i.e., debriefing).
may be graphed, summarized in tables, or statistically analyzed.
Provide results and interpretations to participants.
◗ Discussion. The results of the study are discussed in rela-
Treat participants with dignity and respect.
tion to the original question. Implications of the study are
explored, and further studies may be proposed.

As a reply to such questions, American Psychological As-

Research Ethics sociation (APA) guidelines state: “Psychologists must carry
Aren’t there rules about how scientists must treat the people out investigations with respect for the people who participate
they study? Psychology experiments sometimes raise ethical and with concern for their dignity and welfare” (American
questions. The obedience studies of Stanley Milgram (1963) Psychological Association, 2010a; see ■ Table 2.2). Ethi-
are a classic example (see Module 71). Participants were or- cal guidelines also apply to animals, where investigators are
dered to give what they thought were painful electric shocks expected to “ensure the welfare of animals and treat them
to another person (no shocks were actually given). Believing humanely.” To ensure that ethical guidelines are applied prop-
that they had hurt someone, many people left the experi- erly, most university and college psychology departments have
ment shaken and upset. A few suffered guilt and distress for ethics committees that oversee research. Nevertheless, no easy
some time afterward. Such experiments raise serious ethical answers exist for the ethical questions raised by psychology,
questions. Did the information gained justify the emotional and debate about specific experiments is likely to continue.
costs? Was deception really necessary? (See Module 16 for a more general discussion of ethics.)

MODULE

2 Summary
2.1 What is psychology? 2.2.2 The validity of beliefs can be judged through perform-
2.1.1 Introspection is of limited use as a research method ing logical analysis, evaluating evidence for and against
since people may be subjectively unaware of their the claim, and evaluating the quality of the evidence.
own mental processes. 2.2.3 Critical thinkers seek to falsify claims by making up
2.1.2 Psychology applies objective scientific methods to the their own minds, rather than automatically taking the
study of overt behavior and covert mental processes. word of experts.
2.2.4 Superstitions are unfounded systems that change
2.2 What is critical thinking? little over time because followers seek evidence that
2.2.1 Psychologists engage in critical thinking as they sys- appears to confirm their beliefs (uncritical accept-
tematically gather and analyze empirical evidence to ance) and avoid evidence that contradicts their beliefs
answer questions about behavior. (confirmation bias).
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 MODU LE 2 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: Psyc h o lo gy, c r ItI cal th I n k I n g, an d s c I e n c e 23

2.3 how is the scientific method applied in psy- 2.3.3 The results of scientific studies are made public
chological research? so that others can evaluate them and use them
2.3.1 In the scientific method, systematic observation is to suggest new hypotheses, which lead to further
used to define problems and test hypotheses to pro- research.
vide the highest-quality information about behavior 2.3.4 Psychological research must be done ethically
and mental events. to protect the rights, dignity, and welfare of
2.3.2 Concepts must be defined operationally before they participants.
can be studied empirically.

Knowledge Builder
Introducing Psychology: Psychology,
Critical Thinking, and Science
Recite Reflect
1. The cognitive unconscious is Think Critically
a. better studied objectively 6. Superstitions like astrology and graphology are harmless.
b. inaccessible through introspection True or false?
c. outside subjective awareness
d. all of the above Self-Reflect
2. Psychology is the ___________________ study How stringently do you evaluate your own beliefs and the
of ______________________ behaviors and claims made by others?
____________ mental processes. How might you scientifically test the old saw, “You can’t
3. Horoscopes provided by astrology are stated in positive teach an old dog new tricks”?
terms, which have a “ring of truth.” This fact is the Follow the steps of the scientific method to propose
basis of a testable hypothesis and decide how you would gather
a. falsification evidence. (But don’t worry—you don’t have to publish your
b. uncritical acceptance results.)
c. confirmation bias
d. critical thinking AN SW E R S
4. A psychologist does a study to see whether exercising (Simner & Goffin, 2003).

increases a sense of well-being. In the study, she will be

handwriting analysis should not be used to select people for jobs
your handwriting. Even a graphological society recommends that
testing a(n) who was hired by the company to evaluate your suitability by analyzing
a. theoretical statement Lynn, 2008). Or imagine being turned down for a job by a graphologist
b. operational definition ineffective, pseudoscientific therapies (Kida, 2006; Lilienfeld, Ruscio, &
c. empirical definition disorders may become the victims of self-appointed “experts” who offer
d. anthropomorphic theory do real harm. For example, people seeking treatment for psychological

5. ____________ behaviors are operationally defined in

superstitions may seem like no more than a quaint nuisance, they can
1. d. 2. scientific, overt, covert 3. b 4 a 5. c 6. False. Although
terms of ____________ behavior.
a. Overt, covert
b. Observable, overt
c. Covert, overt
d. Covert, abstract

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MODULE

3 Introducing Psychology
Psychology Then and Now

From Bumps to Brains

Throughout psychology’s history, various viewpoints have helped us
understand and interpret human behavior. Early attempts yielded
mixed results. One such attempt, phrenology, was popularized in the
early 1800s by Franz Gall, a German anatomy teacher. Phrenology
claimed that the shape of the skull reveals personality traits. Psycho-
logical research has long since shown that bumps on the head have
nothing to do with talent or ability. The phrenologists were so far off
that they listed the part of the brain that controls hearing as a center
for combativeness!
Today, little more than 130 years after psychology became a
recognized discipline, three complementary perspectives (the
biological perspective, the psychological perspective, and the so-
Universal History Archive/UIG via Getty Images

ciocultural perspective) guide research and theorizing in psychol-

ogy. Also, psychologists around the world are now researching,
teaching, and helping people in a wide range of specialties. In this
module, we survey the whole of psychology from its beginnings
until now.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
3.1 How did the field of psychology emerge? 3.3 What are the major specialties in psychology?
3.2 What are the contemporary perspectives in psychology?

A Brief History of Psychology—Psychology’s Family Album

Survey Question 3.1 How did the field of psychology
(VILL-helm Voont), the father of psychology, set up a labo-
emerge?
ratory to study conscious experience.
As we noted previously, people have been observing human How, Wundt wondered, do we experience sensations,
behavior and philosophizing about it informally for thou- images, and feelings? To find out, he systematically observed
sands of years. Yet most historians now agree that scientif- and measured stimuli of various kinds (e.g., lights, sounds,
ic psychology truly took hold in the late 1800s in Leipzig, and weights). A stimulus is any physical energy that affects
Germany (Kardas, 2014). There, in 1879, Wilhelm Wundt a person and evokes a response [stimulus: singular; stimuli

24
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 MODU LE 3 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: Psyc h o lo gy th e n an d n ow 25

even Wundt didn’t think that you could do that, the struc-
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920). Wundt
is credited with making psychology turalists tried to explore “mental chemistry,” mostly by us-
an independent science, separate ing introspection. For instance, an observer might hold an
from philosophy. Wundt’s original apple and decide that she or he had experienced the item’s
training was in medicine, but
hue (color), roundness, and weight. Another question that
he became deeply interested in
psychology. In his laboratory, Wundt a structuralist might have asked is, “What basic tastes mix
investigated how sensations, images, together to create complex flavors as different as broccoli,
and feelings combine to make up lime, bacon, and strawberry cheesecake?”
personal experience.
Once again, introspection proved to be a poor way to
answer psychological questions (Benjafield, 2015). No mat-
(STIM-you-lie): plural]. Wundt then used introspection, or ter how systematic the observations, the structuralists fre-
looking inward, to probe observers’ reactions to various quently disagreed. Even worse, there was no way to settle
stimuli (Asthana, 2015). Aware that casual introspecting intersubjective differences (my trained introspectionists
may be unreliable, he sought to train his introspectionists to are better than your trained introspectionists?) Marbe and
be systematic and scientific. Over the years, Wundt studied Titchener even quarreled about imageless thought (Hergen-
vision, hearing, taste, touch, memory, time perception, and hahn & Henley, 2014). Think about it. If you and a friend
many other topics. By insisting on systematic observation both introspect on your perceptions of an apple and end up
and measurement, he asked some interesting questions and listing different basic elements, who would be right?
got psychology off to a good start (Schultz & Schultz, 2016). Although introspection is no longer the preferred re-
In 1901, one of Wundt’s students, Karl Marbe, discov- search method in psychology, it is still used as one source of
ered what he called imageless thought (Hergenhahn & insight in studies of hypnosis, meditation, problem solving,
Henley, 2014). He asked trained introspectionists to intro- moods, and many other topics.
spect while they compared two objects of different weights,
Functionalism
holding one in each hand. They could clearly describe their
experiences of each weight and which one was heavier, but American scholar William James broadened psychology to
they could not describe the mental process of judging which include animal behavior, religious experience, abnormal
one was heavier. As Marbe put it, the thought process of behavior, and other interesting topics. James’s brilliant first
comparing the weights did not form a conscious “image.” book, Principles of Psychology (1890), helped establish the
So does imageless thought take place in the cognitive un- field as a separate discipline (Kardas, 2014).
conscious? Precisely! Try it for yourself. Close your eyes and
extend both hands palms up while a friend gives you two William James (1842–1910).
objects of different weights, one in each outstretched palm. William James was the son of
philosopher Henry James, Sr., and
You will certainly become aware of the sensations associated the brother of novelist Henry James.
with each object and should notice that you immediately During his long academic career,
know which is heavier. It will just “pop into your mind.” But James taught anatomy, physiology,
how did you decide this? Marbe couldn’t know it in 1901, psychology, and philosophy at
Harvard University. He believed
but by documenting an example of the cognitive unconscious strongly that ideas should be
in action (remember the stockings from the previous mod- judged in terms of their practical
ule?), he set in motion a debate that would soon result in the consequences for human conduct.
rejection of introspectionism.

Structuralism
Another of Wundt’s students, Edward Titchener (TICH-in- Stimulus Any physical energy that an organism senses.
er), brought his ideas to the United States. He called Wundt’s Imageless thought An old term describing the inability of intro-
ideas structuralism, the study of sensations and personal spectionists to become subjectively aware of some mental pro-
experience analyzed as basic elements. cesses; an early term describing the cognitive unconscious.
Structuralism Study of sensations and personal experience analyzed
But how could he do that? You can’t analyze conscious ex-
as basic elements.
perience as you do a chemical compound, can you? Although

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26 P SychOLO Gy M o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

James’s interest in how the mind functions to help us objective because they did not involve introspecting based
adapt to the environment grew into functionalism, a school on subjective experience. Why not, he asked, apply the same
of psychology that considers behaviors in terms of active ad- objectivity to study human behavior?
aptations. James regarded consciousness as an ever-changing Watson soon adopted Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov’s
stream or flow of images and sensations, not a set of lifeless (ee-VAHN PAV-lahv) concept of conditioning to explain
building blocks, as the structuralists claimed. most behavior. (A conditioned response is a learned reaction
The functionalists admired Charles Darwin, who deduced to a particular stimulus.) Watson claimed, “Give me a dozen
that creatures evolve in ways that favor survival. According healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to
to Darwin’s principle of natural selection, physical features bring them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take any one at ran-
that help plants and animals adapt to their environments are dom and train him to become any type of specialist I might
retained in evolution. Similarly, the functionalists wanted to select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, beg-
find out how the mind, perception, habits, and emotions help garman and thief ” (Watson, 1913/1994).
us adapt and survive. Would most psychologists agree with Watson’s claim? No.
What effect did functionalism have on modern psychology? The early behaviorists believed that all responses are deter-
Functionalism brought the study of animals into psychology. mined by stimuli. Today, this is regarded as an overstate-
It also promoted educational psychology (the study of learning, ment. Just the same, by stressing the study of observable
teaching, classroom dynamics, and related topics). Learning behavior, behaviorism helped make psychology a natural
makes us more adaptable, so the functionalists tried to find science rather than a branch of philosophy.
ways to improve education. For similar reasons, functional-
Radical Behaviorism The best-known behaviorist, B. F.
ism spurred the rise of industrial/organizational psychology,
Skinner (1904–1990), believed that our actions are con-
the study of people at work (see Module 75).
trolled by rewards and punishments. Many of Skinner’s
Behaviorism ideas about learning grew out of his work with rats and
pigeons. Nevertheless, he believed that the same laws
Functionalism and structuralism were soon challenged by
of behavior apply to humans. As a radical behaviorist,
behaviorism, a school of thought in psychology that em-
Skinner not only rejected introspection, he also believed
phasizes the study of observable actions over study of the
that covert mental events, such as thinking, are inap-
mind. Behaviorist John B. Watson objected strongly to the
propriate topics for scientific psychology and are not
study of the “mind” or conscious experience. He believed
needed to explain behavior (Schultz & Schultz, 2016).
that introspection is unscientific precisely because there is
(See Modules 27, 29, and 30 for more information about
no objective way to settle disagreements between observ-
operant conditioning.)
ers. Watson realized that he could study the overt behavior
Behaviorists deserve the credit for much of what we
of animals even though he couldn’t ask animals questions
know about learning, conditioning, and the proper use
or know what they were thinking (Hergenhahn & Henley,
of rewards and punishments. Skinner was convinced that
2014). He simply observed the relationship between any
a designed culture based on positive reinforcement could
stimuli (i.e., events in the environment) and an animal’s
encourage desirable behavior. He also opposed the use of
response (any muscular action, glandular activity, or other
punishment because it doesn’t teach correct responses. Too
identifiable aspect of behavior). These observations were
often, he believed, misguided rewards and punishments

John B. Watson (1878–1958).

Watson’s intense interest in B. F. Skinner (1904–1990). Skinner
observable behavior began with studied simple behaviors under
his doctoral studies in biology carefully controlled conditions. In
and neurology. Watson became addition to advancing psychology,
a psychology professor at Johns he hoped that his radical brand of
Hopkins University in 1908 and behaviorism would improve human
advanced his theory of behaviorism. lives.
He remained at Johns Hopkins until
1920—when he left for a career in
the advertising industry.

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 MODU LE 3 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: Psyc h o lo gy th e n an d n ow 27

lead to destructive actions that create problems such as

overpopulation, pollution, and war.
Behaviorism is also the source of behavior therapy,
which uses learning principles to change problem behaviors
such as overeating, unrealistic fears, or temper tantrums
(see Module 67).

Gestalt Psychology
Imagine playing “Happy Birthday” on a flute and then on a
guitar. The guitar duplicates none of the flute’s sounds. Yet
the melody is still recognizable—so long as the relationship
between the notes remains the same.
Now imagine what would happen if you played the
notes of “Happy Birthday” in the correct order, but at a rate
of one per hour. What would you have? Nothing! The sepa-
rate notes would no longer be a melody. Perceptually, the
melody is more than the individual notes that define it.
Observations like these launched the Gestalt school of The design illustrated here is entirely made up of broken circles.
thought. German psychologist Max Wertheimer (VERT- However, as the Gestalt psychologists discovered, our perceptions
have a powerful tendency to form meaningful patterns. Because
hi-mer) was the first to advance the Gestalt viewpoint. It
of this tendency, you will probably see a cube in this design, even
is inaccurate, he said, to analyze psychological events into though it is only an illusion. Your whole perceptual experience
pieces, or elements, as the structuralists did. Accordingly, exceeds the sum of its parts.
Gestalt psychology studied thinking, learning, and percep-
tion as whole units, not by analyzing experiences into parts. different ideas that opened new horizons in art, literature,
Their slogan was, “The whole is greater than the sum of its and history, as well as psychology (Barratt, 2013). Freud
parts.” In fact, the German word Gestalt means form, pat- believed that mental life is like an iceberg: Only a small
tern, or whole. part is exposed. He called the area of the mind that lies
Like a melody, many experiences cannot be broken into outside personal awareness the unconscious. Today, Freud’s
smaller units, as the structuralists proposed. For this reason, notion often is referred to as the dynamic unconscious,
studies of perception and personality have been especially to differentiate it from the concept of the cognitive uncon-
influenced by the Gestalt viewpoint. Gestalt psychology also scious (Zellner, 2011). According to Freud, our behavior is
inspired a type of psychotherapy (see Module 66). deeply influenced by unconscious thoughts, impulses, and
desires—especially those concerning sex and aggression.
Psychoanalytic Psychology
Functionalism School of psychology that considers behaviors in
As American psychology grew more scientific, an Austrian terms of active adaptations.
doctor named Sigmund Freud was developing radically Natural selection Darwin’s theory that evolution favors those plants
and animals best suited to their living conditions.
Behaviorism School of thought in psychology that emphasizes study
of observable actions over study of the mind.
Max Wertheimer (1880–1941).
Response Any muscular action, glandular activity, or other identifi-
Wertheimer first proposed the
able aspect of behavior.
Gestalt viewpoint to help explain
perceptual illusions. He later Radical behaviorism A behaviorist approach that rejects both intro-
promoted Gestalt psychology spection and any study of covert mental events, such as thinking,
as a way to understand not only as inappropriate topics for scientific psychology.
perception, problem solving, Gestalt psychology Study of thinking, learning, and perception in
thinking, and social behavior, but whole units, not by analysis into parts.
also art, logic, philosophy, and Dynamic unconscious In Freudian theory, the parts of the mind
politics. that are beyond awareness, especially conflicts, impulses, and
desires not directly known to a person.

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28 P SychOLO Gy M o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). For Abraham Maslow (1908–1970). As

more than 50 years, Freud probed a founder of humanistic psychology,
the unconscious mind. In doing so, Maslow was interested in studying
he altered modern views of human people of exceptional mental health.
nature. His early experimentation with Such self-actualized people, he
a “talking cure” for hysteria is regarded believed, make full use of their talents
as the beginning of psychoanalysis. and abilities. Maslow offered his
Through psychoanalysis, Freud added positive view of human potential as
psychological treatment methods to an alternative to the perspectives of
psychiatry. behaviorism and psychoanalysis.

Freud theorized that many unconscious thoughts are on conditioning. Both views have a strong undercurrent
repressed, or held out of awareness, because they are threat- of determinism—the idea that behavior is determined by
ening. But sometimes, he said, they are revealed by dreams, forces beyond our control.
emotions, or slips of the tongue. (Freudian slips are often In contrast, humanists stress free will, our ability to
humorous, as when a student who is late for class says, “I’m make conscious, voluntary choices. Of course, past expe-
sorry I couldn’t get here any later.”) riences and the unconscious do affect us. Nevertheless,
Like the behaviorists, Freud believed that all thoughts, humanists believe that people can freely choose to live more
emotions, and actions are determined. In other words, noth- creative, meaningful, and satisfying lives.
ing is an accident. If we probe deeply enough, we will find Humanists believe that everyone has this potential, and
the causes of every thought or action. Unlike the behavior- they seek ways to help it emerge. Humanists are interested
ists, he believed that unconscious processes (not external in psychological needs for love, self-esteem, belonging,
stimuli) were responsible for what people do. self-expression, creativity, and spirituality. Such needs, they
Freud was also among the first to appreciate that child- believe, are as important as our biological urges for food
hood affects adult personality (perhaps best expressed by the and water. For example, newborn infants deprived of hu-
quote by poet William Wordsworth, “the child is father to man love may die just as surely as they would if deprived of
the man”). Freud also created psychoanalysis, the first fully food. Maslow’s concept of self-actualization is a key feature
developed psychotherapy, or “talking cure” to explore uncon- of humanism. Self-actualization refers to the process of
scious conflicts and emotional problems (see Module 65). fully developing personal potential.
It wasn’t long before some of Freud’s students modified How scientific is the humanistic approach? Initially,
his ideas. Known as neo-Freudians (neo means “new” or humanists were less interested in treating psychology as a
“recent”), they accepted some of Freud’s theory but revised science. They stressed subjective factors, such as one’s self-
parts of it. Many, for instance, placed less emphasis on sex image, self-evaluation, and frame of reference. (Self-image
and aggression and more on social motives and relation- is your perception of your own body, personality, and capa-
ships. Some well-known neo-Freudians are Alfred Adler, bilities. Self-evaluation refers to appraising yourself as good
Anna Freud (Freud’s daughter), Karen Horney (HORN- or bad. A frame of reference is a mental perspective used to
eye), Carl Jung (yoong), Otto Rank (rahnk), and Erik Erik- interpret events.) Today, humanists still try to understand
son. Today, Freud’s ideas have been altered so much that few how we perceive ourselves and experience the world. How-
strictly psychoanalytic psychologists are left. However, his ever, most now do research to test their ideas, just as other
legacy is still evident in psychodynamic theory, which con- psychologists do (Schneider, Bugental, & Pierson, 2001).
tinues to emphasize internal motives, conflicts, and uncon-
scious forces (Moran, F., 2010). Cognitive Behaviorism and Cognitive Psychology
Eventually, radical behaviorism was criticized for “throwing
humanistic Psychology the baby out with the bath water.” When the early behaviorists
Humanistic psychology is the study of people as inher- rejected introspection as a legitimate scientific method, they
ently good and motivated to learn and improve. Abraham also ignored the role that thinking plays in our lives.
Maslow, Carl Rogers, and other humanists rejected the Eventually, behaviorism became less radical as it em-
Freudian idea that we are ruled by unconscious forces. They braced cognitive behaviorism, a view that combines condi-
also were uncomfortable with the behaviorist emphasis tioning and cognition (thinking) to explain even the behavior

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 MODU LE 3 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: Psyc h o lo gy th e n an d n ow 29

Table 3.1 the early development of Psychology

Perspective Date Notable Events

Experimental 1879 ◗ Wilhelm Wundt opens the first psychology laboratory in Germany.
psychology
1883 ◗ The first psychology lab in the United States is founded at Johns Hopkins University, in
Baltimore, Maryland.
1886 ◗ The first psychology textbook is published in the United States; written by John Dewey.
Structuralism 1898 ◗ Edward Titchener advances psychology based on introspection.
Functionalism 1890 ◗ William James publishes Principles of Psychology.
1892 ◗ American Psychological Association is founded.
Psychodynamic 1895 ◗ Sigmund Freud publishes his first studies.
psychology
1900 ◗ Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams.
Behaviorism 1906 ◗ Ivan Pavlov reports his research on conditioned reflexes.
1913 ◗ John Watson presents the behaviorist viewpoint.
Gestalt psychology 1912 ◗ Max Wertheimer and other researchers advance the Gestalt viewpoint.
Humanistic 1942 ◗ Carl Rogers publishes Counseling and Psychotherapy.
psychology
1943 ◗ Abraham Maslow publishes A Theory of Human Motivation.
Cognitive psychology 1956 ◗ George Miller publishes The Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two.

of animals (Zentall, 2002, 2011). As an example, let’s say that man to earn a doctoral degree in psychology. Inez Beverly
a rat frequently visits a particular location in a maze because Prosser, the first African-American female psychologist,
it offers access to food. A behaviorist would say that the rat was awarded her PhD in 1933.
visits this location because it is rewarded by the pleasure of
eating each time that it goes there. A cognitive behaviorist
Psychoanalysis Freudian approach to psychotherapy emphasizing
would add that, in addition, the rat expects to find food at the
the exploration of unconscious conflicts.
location. This is the cognitive part of the rat’s behavior. Neo-Freudians Psychologists who accepts the broad features
By the late 1950s, cognitive psychology took form of Freud’s theory but have revised the theory to fit their own
as the study of information processing, thinking, reason- concepts.
ing, and problem solving (Goldstein & Brockmole, 2017; Psychodynamic theory Any theory of behavior that emphasizes
internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces.
Neisser, 1967). Like cognitive behaviorism, cognitive
Humanistic psychology Study of people as inherently good and
psychology relies primarily upon objective observation motivated to learn and improve.
rather than subjective introspection. ■ Table 3.1 presents Determinism The idea that all behavior has prior causes that would
a summary of psychology’s early development. completely explain one’s choices and actions if all such causes
were known.
The Importance of Diversity in Psychology Free will The idea that human beings are capable of making choices
or decisions themselves.
Were all the early psychologists Caucasian men? Although
Self-actualization The process of fully developing personal poten-
women and ethnic minorities were long underrepresented tials.
among psychologists, there were a few pioneers (Minton, Cognitive behaviorism An approach that combines behavioral
2000). In 1894, Margaret Washburn became the first woman principles with cognition (i.e., perception, thinking, and
to be awarded a PhD in psychology. By 1906 in the United anticipation) to explain behavior.
Cognitive psychology The study of information processing,
States, about 1 psychologist in 10 was a woman. In 1920,
thinking, reasoning, and problem solving.
Francis Cecil Sumner became the first African-American

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30 P SychOLO Gy M o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

Kohlberg’s oversight is just one form of gender bias in

Margaret Washburn (1871–1939).
In 1908, Washburn published The research. This term refers to the tendency for females to be
Animal Mind, an influential textbook underrepresented as research subjects and female-related top-
on animal behavior. ics to be ignored by many investigators. Consequently, inves-
tigators assume that conclusions based on men also apply to
women. But without directly studying women, it is impossible
to know how often this assumption is wrong. A related prob-
lem occurs when researchers combine results from men and
women. Doing so can hide important male–female differences.
An additional problem is that unequal numbers of men
and women may volunteer for some kinds of research. For
Francis Cecil Sumner (1895–1954). example, in studies of sexuality, more male college students
Sumner served as chair of the volunteer to participate than females (Wiederman, 1999).
psychology department at Howard
Conversely, more females than males participate in studies
University and wrote articles critical
of the underrepresentation of of nursing (Polit & Beck, 2013).
African Americans in U.S. colleges
and universities.
The Perils of Ignoring Diversity: Who’s WEIRD?
Similar types of bias also arise when it comes to people of
different ages, sexual orientations, races, and ethnic groups
(Denmark, Rabinowitz, & Sechzer, 2005; Guthrie, 2004). Far
too many conclusions have been created by, and based on,
small groups of people who do not represent the rich tapes-
try of humanity. For example, to this day, the vast majority of
Inez Beverly Prosser (c.1895–1934). human participants in psychology experiments are recruited
Prosser was one of the early leaders
in the debate about how to best
from introductory psychology courses. This fact led psy-
educate African-American children. chologist Edward Tolman to note that much of psychology is
based on two sets of subjects—rats and college sophomores—
and to joke that rats are certainly not people and that some
college sophomores may not be, either! Further, most of these
participants have, over the years, been Caucasian members of
the middle class, and most of the researchers themselves have
been Caucasian males (Guthrie, 2004). While none of this au-
tomatically invalidates the results of psychology experiments,
it may place limitations on their implications.
The predominance of early Caucasian male psycholo- Perhaps the most general research bias of all becomes
gists is worrisome because it inadvertently introduced a clear when you ask about people who live in the oddest
narrowness into psychological theory and research. As one societies in the world. The answer is just plain WEIRD
example, Lawrence Kohlberg (1969) proposed a theory (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic).
about how we develop moral values. His studies suggested According to Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan (2010), we
that women were morally “immature” because they were not have a strongly ingrained tendency to assume that what
as concerned with justice as men were. However, few wom- Western researchers discover studying Western research
en were involved in doing the studies, and Kohlberg merely participants is the norm in human behavior and that the be-
assumed that theories based on men also applied to women. havior of those in other societies is unusual. However, after
In response, Carol Gilligan (1982) provided evidence that a careful review of studies comparing Westerners to peo-
women were more likely to make moral choices based on ple from other societies, Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan
caring rather than justice. From this point of view, it was (2010) concluded that exactly the opposite is the case. We
men who were morally immature. Today, we recognize that are WEIRD, so we should be careful to assume that what
both justice and caring perspectives may be essential to we learn from studying behavior in our society illuminates
adult wisdom. (See Module 15.) the behavior of people in non-Western societies.

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 MODU LE 3 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: Psyc h o lo gy th e n an d n ow 31

The solution to problems of bias is straightforward: example, according to a 2014 survey of members of the
We need to encourage a much wider array of people to American Psychological Association (American Psycholog-
become researchers and, when possible, researchers need ical Association, 2015a):
to include a much wider array of people in their stud-
◗ 57% of members are women, and 9% are racial/ethnic
ies. In recognition of human diversity, many researchers
minorities
are doing just that (Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010;
◗ 49% of members working full time in universities, col-
Lum, 2011).
leges, and other academic settings are women, and 14%
Fortunately, psychology is coming to better reflect hu-
are racial/ethnic minorities
man diversity as the proportion of women and racial/eth-
nic minorities in the psychology work force continues to ◗ 57% of members holding PhD degrees (or equivalent)
increase (American Psychological Association, 2015b). For are women, and 9% are racial/ethnic minorities

Psychology Today—Three Complementary Perspectives

on Behavior
Survey Question 3.2 What are the contemporary perspec- newer, broader perspectives. The three broad views that
tives in psychology? shape modern psychology are the biological, psychological,
and sociocultural perspectives ■ Table 3.2).
Key insights from the early schools of thought continue to
influence modern psychology. Some early systems, such as
structuralism, have disappeared entirely, while new ones Gender bias in research A tendency for females and female-related
issues to be underrepresented in research, whether psychological
have gained prominence. Also, viewpoints such as func- or otherwise.
tionalism and Gestalt psychology have been absorbed into

Table 3.2 contemporary ways to look at Behavior

Biological Perspective
Biopsychological View
Key idea: Human and animal behavior is the result of internal physical, chemical, and biological processes.
Seeks to explain behavior through activity of the brain and nervous system, physiology, genetics, the endocrine system, and
biochemistry; a neutral, reductionistic, and mechanistic view of human nature.
Evolutionary View
Key idea: Human and animal behavior is the result of the process of evolution.
Seeks to explain behavior through principles based on natural selection; a neutral, reductionistic, and mechanistic view of human nature.
Psychological Perspective
Behaviorist View
Key idea: Behavior is shaped and controlled by one’s environment.
Emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the effects of learning; stresses the influence of external rewards and
punishments; a neutral, scientific, and somewhat mechanistic view of human nature.
Cognitive View
Key idea: Much human behavior can be understood in terms of the mental processing of information.
Concerned with thinking, knowing, perception, understanding, memory, decision making, and judgment; explains behavior in
terms of information processing; a neutral, somewhat computer-like view of human nature.
Psychodynamic View
Key idea: Behavior is directed by forces within one’s personality that are often hidden or unconscious.
Emphasizes internal impulses, desires, and conflicts—especially those that are unconscious; views behavior as the result of clashing
forces within personality; a somewhat negative, pessimistic view of human nature.
(Continued)
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32 P SychOLO Gy M o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

Table 3.2 (continued)

Humanistic View
Key idea: Behavior is guided by one’s self-image, by subjective perceptions of the world, and by the need for personal growth.
Focuses on subjective, conscious experience, human problems, potentials, and ideals; emphasizes self-image and self-actualization
to explain behavior; a positive, philosophical view of human nature.
Sociocultural Perspective
Sociocultural View
Key idea: Behavior is influenced by one’s social and cultural context.
Emphasizes that behavior is related to the social and cultural environment within which a person is born, grows up, and lives from
day to day; a neutral, interactionist view of human nature.

The Biological Perspective

The biological perspective seeks to explain behavior in
terms of biological principles such as evolution, genetics, and
brain processes. Evolutionary psychology is an approach
that emphasizes inherited, adaptive aspects of behavior and
mental processes. Biopsychologists and others who study the
brain and nervous system, such as biologists and biochem-
ists, comprise the broader field of neuroscience. Using new

© eddtoro/Shutterstock.com
techniques, neuroscientists are producing exciting insights
about how the brain relates to thinking, feelings, perception,
abnormal behavior, and other topics.

The Psychological Perspective

The psychological perspective views behavior as the result As illustrated by this photo of holiday shoppers, the United States
is becoming more diverse. To understand human behavior fully,
of psychological processes within each person. This view personal differences based on age, race, culture, ethnicity, gender,
continues to emphasize scientific observation, just as the ear- and sexual orientation must be taken into account.
ly behaviorists did. However, cognitive psychology has gained
prominence in recent years as researchers have devised re- rapidly becoming a multicultural society. Over 100 million
search methods to objectively study covert behaviors, such Americans are now African American, Hispanic, Asian
as thinking, memory, language, perception, problem solving, American, Native American, or Pacific Islander (Humes,
consciousness, and creativity (Reed, 2013). With a renewed Jones, & Ramirez, 2011). In some large cities, such as Detroit
interest in thinking, it can be said that psychology has finally and Baltimore, minority groups have become the majority.
“regained consciousness” (Robins, Gosling, & Craik, 1998). Cultural Relativity How has this affected psychology?
Freudian psychoanalysis continues to evolve into the In the past, psychology was based mostly on the cultures of
broader psychodynamic view. Although many of Freud’s North America and Europe. Now, we must ask, do the prin-
ideas have been challenged or refuted, psychodynamic psy- ciples of Western psychology apply to people in all cultures
chologists continue to trace our behavior to unconscious (WEIRD, remember?)? Are some psychological concepts
mental activity. They also seek to develop therapies to help invalid in other cultures? Are any universal?
people lead happier, fuller lives. The same is true of human- As psychologists have probed such questions, one thing
istic psychologists, although they stress subjective, con- has become clear: Cultural relativity—the idea that behav-
scious experience and the positive side of human nature. ior must be judged relative to the values of the culture in
which it occurs—can greatly affect our understanding of
The Sociocultural Perspective “other people.” Most of what we think, feel, and do is in-
The sociocultural perspective stresses the impact that fluenced, in one way or another, by the social and cultural
social and cultural contexts have on our behavior. We are worlds in which we live (Baumeister & Bushman, 2017;
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 MODU LE 3 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: Psyc h o lo gy th e n an d n ow 33

Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010). This includes the what is average, normal, or correct has been the behavior of
diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders (Lum, 2011). middle-aged, white, heterosexual, middle-class Western males
To be effective, psychologists must be sensitive to people (Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010). An appreciation of
who are ethnically and culturally different from themselves the fuller spectrum of human diversity can enrich your life as
(Lowman, 2013; see Module 65). well as your understanding of psychology (Helgeson, 2012).

A Broader View of Diversity The Whole Human Today, many psychologists realize
In addition to cultural differences, the behavior of people is that any single perspective is unlikely to fully explain com-
influenced by differences in age, ethnicity, gender, religion, plex human behavior. As a result, they are eclectic (ek-LEK-
disability, and sexual orientation, which all affect the social tik) and draw insights from a variety of perspectives. As we
norms that guide behavior. Social norms are rules that de- will see throughout this book, insights from one perspec-
fine acceptable and expected behavior for members of vari- tive often complement insights from the others as we seek to
ous groups. Too often, the unstated standard for determining better understand the whole human.

Psychologists—Guaranteed Not to Shrink

Survey Question 3.3 What are the major specialties in every psychologist is highly trained in the methods,
psychology? knowledge, and theories of psychology. Psychologists
have usually earned a master’s degree or a doctorate,
Do all psychologists do therapy and treat abnormal behav-
typically requiring several years of postgraduate train-
ior? Only about 45 percent of psychologists are directly
ing. About 31 percent are employed full time at colleges
involved in providing mental health services. Regardless,
or universities (including medical schools), where they
teach and do research, consulting, or therapy. The re-
(a) Where Psychologists Work
mainder give psychological tests, do research in other
settings, or serve as consultants to business, industry,
31.4% Colleges/
32.7% Private practice universities government, or the military (see ➤ Figure 3.1).
At present, the American Psychological Association
(APA) consists of more than 50 divisions, each reflect-
ing special skills or areas of interest. No matter where
7.6% Other they are employed, or what their area of specialization is,
12.3% Hospitals/clinics
3.1% Schools many psychologists do research. Some do basic research,
6.9% Human services
6% Businesses/
industry/
government Biological perspective The attempt to explain behavior in terms of
(b) What Psychologists Do (Primary Activity) underlying biological principles.
Evolutionary psychology Approach that emphasizes inherited,
45.6% Mental
health services adaptive aspects of behavior and mental processes.
Neuroscience The broader field of biopsychologists and others
who study the brain and nervous system, such as biologists and
biochemists.
13.1% Not specified 15.5% Education
and educational Psychological perspective The traditional view that behavior is
1.2% Other services shaped by psychological processes occurring at the level of the
3.7% Applied psychology 9.4% Management/
individual.
administration Sociocultural perspective The focus on the importance of social
11.5% Research
and cultural contexts in influencing the behavior of individuals.
➤ Figure 3.1 Cultural relativity The idea that behavior must be judged relative to
Where psychologists work and what they do. (a) Where the values of the culture in which it occurs.
psychologists work. (b) This chart shows the main activities that Social norms Rules that define acceptable and expected behavior for
psychologists do at work. Any one psychologist might participate members of a group.
in several of these activities during a workweek. As you can see, Psychologist A person highly trained in the methods, factual
most psychologists specialize in applied areas and work in applied knowledge, and theories of psychology.
settings (American Psychological Association, 2015a).
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34 P SychOLO Gy M o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

in which they seek knowledge for its own sake. For ex-
ample, a psychologist might study memory simply to
understand how it works. Others do applied research to
solve immediate practical problems, such as finding ways
to improve athletic performance (Davey, 2011). Some do
both types of research. Some of the major specialties are
listed in ■ Table 3.3.

Animals and Psychology Research involving animals

was mentioned in some of the psychology specialties listed in

Ashley Cooper/Corbis
Table 3.3. Why is that? You may be surprised to learn that
psychologists are interested in the behavior of any living
creature—from flatworms to humans. Indeed, some com-
parative psychologists spend their entire careers studying This timber wolf is wearing a tracking collar. Through tracking
rats, cats, dogs, parrots, or chimpanzees. studies and other tests, psychologists are better able to understand
how wild wolves think and communicate (Range, Möslinger, &
Although only a small percentage of psychological
Virányi, 2012). Since wolves are endangered across much of their
studies involve animals, they include many different types normal range, this understanding may prove crucial in enhancing
of research (Baker & Serdikoff, 2013). Some psychologists efforts to conserve these intriguing creatures.

Table 3.3 types of Psychologists and what they do

Specialty Typical Activities Sample Research Topic

Biopsychology B* Researches the brain, nervous system, and other “I’ve been doing some exciting research on how the
physical origins of behavior brain controls hunger.”
Clinical A Does psychotherapy; investigates clinical “I’m curious about the relationship between early
problems; develops methods of treatment childhood trauma and adult relationships and how it
can help adults be more successful in their marriages.”
Cognitive B Studies human thinking and information- “I want to know how reasoning, problem solving,
processing abilities memory, and other mental processes relate to playing
computer games.”
Community A Promotes communitywide mental health through “How can we prevent the spread of sexually
research, prevention, education, and consultation transmitted diseases more effectively? That’s what
I want to understand better.”
Comparative B Studies and compares the behavior of different “I’m fascinated by the communication abilities of
species, especially animals porpoises.”
Consumer A Researches packaging, advertising, marketing “My job is to improve the marketing of products that
methods, and characteristics of consumers are environment-friendly.”
Counseling A Does psychotherapy and personal counseling; “I am focused on understanding more about why
researches emotional disturbances and counseling people become hoarders and how to help them stop.”
methods
Cultural B Studies the ways in which culture, subculture, and “I am interested in how culture affects human eating
ethnic group membership affect behavior behavior, especially the foods that we eat and whether
we eat with a spoon, chopsticks, or our fingers.”
Developmental A, Conducts research on infant, child, adolescent, “I’m focusing on transitioning from the teenage years
B and adult development; does clinical work with to early adulthood.”
disturbed children; acts as a consultant to parents
and schools

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 MODU LE 3 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: Psyc h o lo gy th e n an d n ow 35

Table 3.3 (continued)

Specialty Typical Activities Sample Research Topic

Educational A Investigates classroom dynamics, teaching styles, “My passion is to figure out how to help people with
and learning; develops educational tests, evaluates different learning styles be effective learners.”
educational programs
Engineering A Does applied research on the design of machinery, “I’m studying how people use movement-based
computers, airlines, automobiles, and so on for computer interfaces, like Kinect on the X-box.”
business, industry, and the military
Environmental A, Studies the effects of urban noise, crowding, “I am concerned about global warming and want to
B attitudes toward the environment, and human use of understand what impact rising temperatures have on
space; acts as a consultant on environmental issues human culture.”
Evolutionary B Studies how behavior is guided by patterns that “I am studying some interesting trends in male and
evolved during the long history of humankind female mating choices.”
Forensic A Studies problems of crime and crime prevention, “I am interested in improving the reliability of
rehabilitation programs, prisons, and courtroom eyewitness testimony during trials.”
dynamics; selects candidates for police work
Gender B Researches differences between males and females, “I want to understand how young boys and girls are
the acquisition of gender identity, and the role of influenced by gender stereotypes.”
gender throughout life
Health A, Studies the relationship between behavior and “How to help people overcome drug addictions is my
B health; uses psychological principles to promote field of study.”
health and prevent illness
Industrial- A Selects job applicants; does skills analysis; “Which plays a greater role in successful management
organizational evaluates on-the-job training; improves styles, intelligence or emotion? That is my question.”
work environments and human relations in
organizations and work settings
Learning B Studies how and why learning occurs; develops “Right now, I’m investigating how patterns of
theories of learning reinforcement affect learning. I am especially
interested in superstitious conditioning.”
Medical A Applies psychology to manage medical problems, “I want to know how to help people take charge of
such as the emotional impact of illness, self-screening their own health.”
for cancer, and compliance in taking medicine
Personality B Studies personality traits and dynamics; develops “I am especially interested in the personality profiles
theories of personality and tests for assessing of people who are willing to take extreme risks.”
personality traits
School A Does psychological testing, referrals, and “My focus is finding out how to keep students in
emotional and vocational counseling of students; school instead of having them drop out.”
detects and treats learning disabilities; improves
classroom learning
Sensation and B Studies the sense organs and the process of “I am using a perceptual theory to study how we are
perception perception; investigates the mechanisms of sensation; able to recognize faces in a crowd.”
develops theories about how perception occurs
Social B Investigates human social behavior, including “My interest is interpersonal attraction. I place two
attitudes, conformity, persuasion, prejudice, strangers in a room and analyze how strongly they are
friendship, aggression, helping, and so forth attracted to each other.”

*Research in this area is typically applied (A), basic (B), or both (A, B).

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36 P SychOLO Gy M o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

use an animal model to discover principles that apply to Other Mental health Professionals
humans. For instance, animal studies have helped us un-
Clinical and counseling psychologists often coordinate their
derstand stress, learning, obesity, aging, sleep, and many
efforts with psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, counselors, and
other topics. Psychology can also benefit animals. Behav-
other mental health professionals. Each has a specific blend
ioral studies can help us better care for domestic animals
of training and skills.
and those in zoos, as well as conserve endangered species
Psychologists are all shrinks, right? Nope. A shrink (a slang
in the wild.
term derived from the term head shrinkers) is a psychiatrist, a
helping People medical doctor who treats serious mental disorders, often by
prescribing drugs. Today, many psychiatrists also use psycho-
Although most psychologists help people in one way or an-
therapy. Psychologists in New Mexico, Louisiana, and Illinois
other, those interested in emotional problems usually spe-
can also legally prescribe drugs, as can psychologists in the
cialize in clinical or counseling psychology (see Table 3.3). A
U.S. military. It will be interesting to see whether other states
clinical psychologist treats psychological problems or does
grant similar privileges (McGrath & Moore, 2010).
research on therapies and mental disorders. In contrast, a
To be a psychoanalyst, you must have a moustache and
counseling psychologist generally treats milder problems,
goatee, spectacles, a German accent, and a well-padded
such as troubles at work or school.
couch—or so the stereotype goes. In reality, to become a
To become a clinical psychologist, it is best to have a
psychoanalyst, you must have an MD or PhD degree, plus
doctorate (PhD, PsyD, or EdD). Most clinical psychologists
further training in Freudian psychoanalysis. In other words,
have a PhD and follow a scientist-as-practitioner model—
either a physician or a psychologist may become a psycho-
that is, they are trained to do either research or therapy.
analyst by learning a specific type of psychotherapy.
Many do both. Other clinicians earn the PsyD (Doctor of
In many states, counselors also do mental health work.
Psychology) degree, which emphasizes therapy skills rather
A counselor is an adviser who helps solve problems with
than research (Stricker, 2011).
marriage, career, school, work, or the like. To be a licensed
Does a psychologist need a license to offer therapy? Yes.
counselor (such as a marriage and family counselor, a child
Psychologists must also meet stringent legal requirements.
counselor, or a school counselor) typically requires a mas-
To work as a clinical or counseling psychologist, you must
ter’s degree (but it doesn’t have to be in psychology), plus
have a license issued by a state examining board. However,
one or two years of full-time supervised counseling experi-
the law does not prevent people from calling themselves al-
ence. Counselors learn practical helping skills and do not
most anything else they choose—therapist, rebirther, primal
treat serious mental disorders.
feeling facilitator, cosmic aura balancer, or life skills coach—
or from selling “psychological” services to anyone willing
Animal model In research, an animal whose behavior is studied to
to pay. Beware of people with self-proclaimed titles. Even
derive principles that may apply to human behavior.
if their intentions are honorable, they may have little actual Clinical psychologist A psychologist who specializes in the treat-
training. A licensed psychologist who chooses to use a par- ment of psychological and behavioral disturbances or who does
ticular type of therapy is not the same as someone trained research on such disturbances.
solely in that technique. Counseling psychologist A psychologist who specializes in the
treatment of milder emotional and behavioral disturbances.
Licensed clinical and counseling psychologists must
Psychiatrist A medical doctor with additional training in the diag-
also follow an ethical code that stresses (1) high levels nosis and treatment of mental and emotional disorders.
of competence, integrity, and responsibility; (2) respect Psychoanalyst A mental health professional (usually a medical doc-
for people’s rights to privacy, dignity, confidentiality, and tor) trained to practice psychoanalysis.
personal freedom; and, above all, (3) protection of the cli- Counselor A mental health professional who specializes in helping
ent’s welfare (American Psychological Association, 2010a; people with problems that do not involve serious mental disor-
ders; examples include marriage counselors, career counselors,
Barnett et al., 2007). (See Module 16 for a more general and school counselors.
discussion of ethics.)

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 MODU LE 3 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: Psyc h o lo gy th e n an d n ow 37

MODULE

3 Summary
3.1 how did the field of psychology emerge? 3.2 What are the contemporary perspectives in
3.1.1 The field of psychology emerged over 130 years ago, psychology?
when researchers began to directly study and observe 3.2.1 Three complementary streams of thought in
psychological events. modern psychology are the biological perspective
3.1.2 The first psychological laboratory was established in (including evolutionary psychology and biopsy-
Germany in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt, who studied chology); the psychological perspective (including
conscious experience. behaviorism, cognitive psychology, the psychody-
3.1.3 The first school of thought in psychology was struc- namic approach, and humanism); and the sociocul-
turalism, a kind of “mental chemistry” based on tural perspective.
introspection. 3.2.2 Most of what we think, feel, and do is influenced by
3.1.4 Structuralism was followed by functionalism, behav- the social and cultural worlds in which we live.
iorism, and Gestalt psychology. 3.2.3 Today, many viewpoints within psychology have
3.1.5 Psychodynamic approaches, such as Freud’s psycho- contributed to what is now an eclectic blend.
analytic theory, emphasize the unconscious origins of 3.3 What are the major specialties in
behavior. psychology?
3.1.6 Humanistic psychology accentuates subjective expe-
3.3.1 The field of psychology now has dozens of
rience, human potential, and personal growth.
specialties.
3.1.7 Cognitive psychology focuses on the experimental
3.3.2 Psychological research can be basic or applied.
study covert mental processes, such as thinking, feeling,
3.3.3 Psychologists may be directly interested in animal
problem solving, perception, and the use of language.
behavior, or they may study animals as models of
3.1.8 Because most early psychologists were Caucasian
human behavior.
men, bias was inadvertently introduced into psycho-
3.3.4 Although psychologists, psychiatrists, psychoanalysts,
logical research. Today, more women and minorities
and counselors all work in the field of mental health,
are becoming psychologists and being studied as
their training and methods differ considerably.
research participants.

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38 P SychOLO Gy M o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

Knowledge Builder Introducing Psychology: Psychology Then and Now

Recite 9. A psychologist who specializes in treating human emo-

tional difficulties is called a(n) ____________________
1. A psychotherapist is working with a person from an
psychologist.
ethnic group other than her own. She should be aware
of how cultural relativity and _____________________ Reflect
affect behavior.
a. anthropomorphic error Think critically
b. operational definitions 10. Modern sciences like psychology are built on intersubjec-
c. biased sampling tive observations, which can be verified by two or more
d. social norms independent observers. Did structuralism meet this
Match the following research areas with the topics that they standard? Why or why not?
cover.
Self-Reflect
2. Developmental A. Attitudes, groups,
psychology leadership At first, many students think that psychology is primarily
3. Learning about abnormal behavior and psychotherapy. Did you? How
B. Behavior as related
would you describe the field now?
to the legal system
Which contemporary perspective most closely matches
4. Personality c. Brain and nervous
your own view of behavior? Can you explain why so many
system
psychologists are eclectic?
5. Sensation and D. Child psychology
Which specialty in psychology is most interesting to you?
perception
Why?
6. Biopsychology E. Individual differ-
ences, motivation
AN SW E R S
7. Social psychology F. Processing visual, person can observe.
auditory, and other contents of his or her own mind—which is something that no other
information did not. Structuralism’s downfall was that each observer examined the
8. Forensic psychology G. Conditioning, 1. d 2. D 3. G 4. E 5. F 6. C 7. A 8. B 9. clinical or counseling 10. No, it
memory

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 MODULE
Introducing Psychology
The Psychology Experiment 4
Getting Causality Right
Would she feel stared at in a pair of those new wearable computer
smart glasses? Sally was intrigued that they could display directions
while she walked downtown from location to location. It would cer-
tainly make her job finding and interviewing people a lot easier. But
Sally worried that people would stop to gawk. To see if they would,
she borrowed a pair from someone who worked for a company that
created them. After wearing them to work for a few days, she realized
that people didn’t seem to notice them much, compared to her regular
glasses. At the same time, the smart glasses seemed to be very helpful;
she even wondered if it would be okay to use them while driving her

ViewStock/AGE Fotostock
car. Case closed; Sally resolved to get a pair as soon as possible.
Like Sally, we all conduct little experiments to detect cause-and-
effect connections. In a more formal way, that is exactly what psy-
chologists do when they want to explain why we act the way we do.
Let’s see why.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
4.1 How is an experiment performed? 4.2 What is a double-blind study?

The Experimental Method—Where Cause Meets Effect

Survey Question 4.1 How is an experiment performed?
it is generally accepted as the most powerful scientific re-
Many different research strategies may be used to investi- search tool. To perform an experiment, you would do the
gate human behavior. However, to discover the causes of be- following:
havior, we must usually conduct an experiment—a study in
1. Directly vary a condition that you think might affect
which the investigator manipulates at least one variable while
behavior.
measuring at least one other variable. These are formal trials
2. Create two or more groups of participants. These groups
undertaken to confirm or disconfirm a hypothesis about the
should be alike in all ways except the condition you
causes of behavior (although causes are sometimes revealed
by naturalistic observation or correlations). An experiment
Experiment A study in which the investigator manipulates at least
allows the careful control of conditions to bring cause-and- one variable while measuring at least one other variable.
effect relationships into sharp focus (Stangor, 2015). Hence,

39
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40 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

are varying. Usually, one group serves as a control group 2. Driving ability (defined by scores achieved on a test of
with which the other groups are compared. driving ability) is the dependent variable—she wants to
3. Record whether varying the condition has any effect on know if the ability to drive well depends on whether a
behavior. person is using smart glasses.
3. All other variables that could affect driving ability are
Suppose that Sally just happened to be a psychologist who
extraneous. Examples of extraneous variables are the
wanted to find out if using smart glasses while driving af-
number of hours slept the night before the test, driving
fects the likelihood of having an accident. First, she would
experience, and familiarity with the vehicle used in the
form two groups of people. Then she could give the mem-
experiment.
bers of one group a test of driving ability while using their
smart glasses. The second group would take the same test As we write this book, your authors are unaware of any
without using smart glasses. By comparing the average driv- published research report testing the hypothesis that using
ing ability scores for the two groups, she could tell if the use smart glasses interferes with driving. But it would be un-
of smart glasses affects driving ability. surprising if this turned out to be true, since engaging in
As you can see, the simplest psychological experiment is almost any extra activity takes the focus away from driv-
based on two groups of experimental subjects—animals or ing safely. For example, psychologist Davis Strayer and his
people whose behavior is investigated. Human subjects are colleagues have confirmed that almost all drivers talking
typically called participants. One group is the experimental on cellphones drive no better than people who are legally
group; the other becomes the control group. The experimental drunk, and texters perform even worse (Drews et al., 2009;
group and the control group are treated exactly alike except Strayer, Drews, & Crouch, 2006; Watson & Strayer, 2010).
for the condition (or variable) that you intentionally vary. As you can see, the experimental group is the group
that receives the treatment that the study is designed to test
Variables and Groups (the use of smart glasses in the preceding example). The
What are the different kinds of variables? A variable is any control group includes the subjects in an experimental study
factor or characteristic that is manipulated or measured in who do not receive the treatment being investigated (the use
research. Identifying causes and effects in an experiment in- of smart glasses in the preceding example).
volves three types of variables: Is a control group really needed? Can’t people just drive
a car while navigating wearing smart glasses to see if they do
1. An independent variable is a variable that is manipu-
worse? Worse than what? The control group provides a point
lated by the researcher in an experiment. The experi-
of reference for comparison with the scores in the experi-
menter chooses the values that this variable takes.
mental group. Without a control group, it would be impos-
Independent variables are suspected causes for differ-
sible to tell whether using smart glasses had any effect on
ences in behavior.
driving ability. If the average test score of the experimental
2. A dependent variable is an element of an experiment
group is lower than the average of the control group, we can
that measures any effect of the manipulation. It meas-
conclude that using smart glasses negatively affects driving
ures the extent to which behavior depends on the inde-
ability. If there is no difference, it’s clear that the indepen-
pendent variable—that is, dependent variables reveal
dent variable had no effect on driving ability.
the effects that independent variables have on behavior.
In this experiment, driving ability (indicated by scores
Such effects are often revealed by measures of perfor-
on the test) is the dependent variable. We are asking: Does
mance, such as test scores.
the independent variable affect the dependent variable?
3. An extraneous variable is a condition that a researcher (Does using smart glasses affect or influence driving ability?)
wants to prevent from affecting the outcome of the
experiment. Experimental Control How do we know that the people
in one group aren’t just worse drivers than those in the other
We can apply these terms to Sally’s smart glasses/driving ex- group? It’s true that personal differences in driving ability
periment in this way: might affect the experiment. However, an extraneous vari-
1. The use of smart glasses is the independent variable— able like this one can be controlled by randomly assign-
she wants to know if using smart glasses affects driving ing people to groups. Random assignment is the use of
ability. chance to place subjects in experimental and control groups.

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 MoDU lE 4 i ntr o d u c i n g Psyc h o lo gy: th e Psyc h o lo gy e x P e r i M e nt 41

In practice, this means that a participant has an equal chance Dependent variable
of being in either the experimental group or the control
group. Randomization balances personal differences in the
two groups. In our driving experiment, this could be done
by simply flipping a coin for each participant: heads, and
the participant is in the experimental group; tails, it’s the
control group. This would result in few average differences
Experimental group Control group
in the number of people in each group who are better (or
worse) drivers, women or men, comfortable navigating with
Extraneous variables
a global positioning system (GPS) or not, hungry, hung over,
Independent variable
tall, music lovers, or whatever.
Other extraneous variables—such as the navigation task ➤ Figure 4.2
assigned while driving, the weather on the days that the Controlling extraneous variables. Experimental control is
achieved by balancing extraneous variables for the experimental
drivers are tested, the time of day, lighting conditions, and
group and the control group. For example, both groups could be
so forth—must also be prevented from affecting the out- formed so that the average age (A), education (B), and intelligence
come of an experiment. How can we achieve that? Usually, (C) of group members is the same. Then the independent variable
it is done by making all conditions (except the independent can be applied to the experimental group. If their behavior (the
dependent variable) changes (in comparison with the control
variable) exactly alike for both groups. When all conditions group), the independent variable must be causing the change.
are the same for both groups—except the presence or ab-
sence of the smart glasses—then any decline in driving abil-
ity must be caused by using the smart glasses (➤ Figure 4.1.) equalized for all groups. Then the effect of the independent
Cause and Effect Now let’s summarize. In an experi- variable (or variables) on some behavior (the dependent var-
ment, two or more groups of subjects are treated differently iable) is measured. In a carefully controlled experiment, the
with respect to the independent variable. In all other ways, independent variable is the only possible cause for any effect
they are treated the same—that is, extraneous variables are noted in the dependent variable. This allows clear cause-and-
effect connections to be identified (➤ Figure 4.2.)
Evaluating Results If the experimental group using the
Possible smart glasses performed worse than the control group on the
subjects
test of driving ability, then we can conclude that the independ-
ent variable really made a difference, right? Almost—but one
Random assignment
controls for subject
differences
Experimental subjects Humans (also referred to as participants) or
Experimental Control
animals whose behavior is investigated in an experiment.
group group
Participants Humans whose behavior is investigated in an
experiment.
Study and testing Identical conditions Study and testing Variable Factor or characteristic manipulated or measured in
conditions to control extraneous conditions research.
variables
Independent variable Variable manipulated by the researcher in an
Uses No experiment.
smart Independent variable smart
glasses (Cause) glasses Dependent variable The element of an experiment that measures
any effect of the manipulation.
Extraneous variable A condition or factor that may change and is
Behavior Dependent variable Behavior excluded from influencing the outcome of an experiment.
(driving scores) (Effect) (driving scores)
Experimental group Group that receives the treatment the study is
Is there a difference? designed to test.
Control group Subjects in an experimental study who do not
➤ Figure 4.1 receive the treatment being investigated.
A simple experiment. Elements of a simple psychological Random assignment Use of chance to place subjects in experimental
experiment to assess the effects of using smart glasses while and control groups.
driving on test scores of driving ability.

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42 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

last issue remains. Suppose the smart glass users scored each study adds to our understanding, the results of various
40 percent on the driving test and the control group scored studies don’t always agree. Let’s say that we are interested in
80 percent. Scoring half as well as the control group almost whether males or females tend to be greater risk takers. A
certainly means that the smart glass users were driving computer search would reveal that many studies have inves-
poorly. But suppose that the difference was 66.3 percent tigated various types of risk taking (for example, smoking,
versus 66.1 percent? In other words, how big a difference fast driving, or unprotected sex).
do we have to find before we can conclude that the driving Is there a way to combine the results of the studies?
test scores are meaningfully different? Yes—a statistical technique called meta-analysis can be
Fortunately, this question can be handled statistically used to combine the results of many studies as if they were
(see the Statistics Appendix for more on inferential statis- all part of one big study (Cooper, 2010). In other words,
tics). Reports in psychology journals almost always include a meta-analysis is a study of the results of other studies.
the statement, “Results were statistically significant.” This In recent years, meta-analyses have been used to summa-
means that the obtained results would occur rarely by chance rize and synthesize mountains of psychological research.
alone. To be statistically significant, a difference must be This allows us to see the big picture and draw conclusions
large enough that it would occur by chance in fewer than that might be missed in a single, small-scale study. Oh,
5 out of 100 experiments. Of course, findings also become and about that risk-taking: A meta-analysis showed that
more convincing when they can be replicated (repeated) by males do tend to take more risks than females (Byrnes,
other researchers. Miller, & Schafer, 1999). (The most frequent last words
uttered by deceased young males are rumored to be, “Hey,
Meta-Analysis As you might guess, numerous stud-
watch this!”)
ies are done on important topics in psychology. Although

Double-Blind—On Placebos and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies

Survey Question 4.2 What is a double-blind study? behavior caused by the influence of their expectations. No-
tice also that experimental group participants swallowed a
Suppose that a researcher hypothesizes that the drug am-
pill, and control participants did not. This is another form
phetamine (a stimulant) improves learning. She explains her
hypothesis to her participants and gives experimental group
participants an amphetamine pill before they begin study-
ing. Control group members get nothing. Later, she assesses
how much each participant learned. Does this experiment
seem valid? Well, it isn’t. It is seriously flawed for several
reasons.
Why is it flawed? The experimental group took the drug
and the control group didn’t. Differences in the amount they
learned must have been caused by the drug, right? No. The
drug wasn’t the only difference between the groups. Because
Bruce Laurance/Photodisc/Getty Images

of what they were told, participants in the experimental

group likely expected to learn more (as compared to the con-
trol group). Any observed differences between groups, then,
might reflect differences in expectations, not the actual ef-
fect of the drug.

Research Participant Bias The placebo effect is a major factor in medical treatments. Would
In a well-designed experiment, you must be careful what you expect the placebo effect to occur in psychotherapy as well?
It does, which complicates studies on the effectiveness of new
you tell participants. Small bits of information might cre- psychotherapies, but likely also enhances the effectiveness of
ate research participant bias—changes in participants’ psychotherapy (Justman, 2011).

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 MoDU lE 4 i ntr o d u c i n g Psyc h o lo gy: th e Psyc h o lo gy e x P e r i M e nt 43

of research participant bias. It could be that those who Researcher Bias

swallowed a pill unconsciously expected to do better. After
How could a researcher unwittingly influence participants?
all, pills are medicine, aren’t they? This alone might have
As we noted earlier, when the experimenter explained her
created a placebo effect—a change in symptoms due to a
hypothesis to the participants, she likely biased the results
participant’s expectation that a drug or treatment will do
of the study. But even if a researcher uses a single-blind pro-
something.
cedure to avoid deliberately biasing participants, researcher
To control for a placebo effect, the researcher would
bias—changes in behavior caused by the unintended influ-
do better to give the experimental group an amphetamine
ence of a researcher—remains a problem. Experimenters
pill and the control group a placebo (plah-SEE-bo), an in-
run the risk of finding what they expect to find because hu-
active substance or treatment that is distinguishable from a
mans are sensitive to hints about what is expected of them
real, active substance or treatment. Now, if the experimental
(Rosenthal, 1994).
group still does better than the control group, it cannot be a
Researcher bias even applies outside the laboratory.
placebo effect just because a pill was swallowed, since both
Psychologist Robert Rosenthal (1973) reported a classic
groups swallowed a pill.
example of how expectations influence people: At the U.S.
If a placebo has any effect, it must be based on sugges-
Air Force Academy Preparatory School, 100 student pi-
tion, not chemistry (White & McBurney, 2013). Even so,
lots were randomly assigned to five different math classes.
placebo effects can be quite powerful and usually account
Their teachers did not know about this random placement.
for at least one-third of the apparent effectiveness of the of-
Instead, each teacher was told that his or her students had
ficial treatment. For instance, a placebo saline injection is
unusually high or low ability. Students in the classes labeled
70 percent as effective as morphine in reducing pain. That’s
as “high ability” improved much more in math scores than
why doctors sometimes prescribe placebos—especially for
those in “low-ability” classes. Yet, the initial randomization
complaints that seem to have no physical basis. Placebos
made it likely that the average ability of all the classes was
have been shown to affect pain, anxiety, depression, alert-
roughly equal.
ness, tension, sexual arousal, cravings for alcohol, and many
Although the teachers were not conscious of any bias,
other processes (Justman, 2011; Wampold et al., 2005).
apparently they subtly communicated their expectations
How could an inert substance have any effect? Placebos
to students. Most likely, they did this through their tone
alter our expectations, both conscious and unconscious,
of voice, body language, and encouragement or criticism.
about our own emotional and physical reactions. Because
Their hints, in turn, created a self-fulfilling prophecy that
we associate taking medicine with feeling better, we ex-
affected the students. A self-fulfilling prophecy is a pre-
pect placebos to make us feel better, too (Benedetti, 2009;
diction that prompts people to act in ways that make the
Czerniak & Davidson, 2012). After a person takes a placebo,
brain activity linked with pain is reduced, so the effect is not
imaginary (Wager et al., 2004).
Statistically significant Experimental results that would rarely oc-
Controlling Research Participant Bias How can you cur by chance alone.
avoid research participant bias? You could use a single-blind Meta-analysis A statistical technique for combining the results of
many studies on the same subject.
study. In this case, participants do not know whether they
Research participant bias Changes in the behavior of research
are in the experimental or the control group or whether participants caused by the unintended influence of their own
they are receiving a real drug or a placebo. All participants expectations.
are given the same instructions, and everyone gets a pill Placebo effect A change in symptoms due to a participant’s expecta-
or injection. People in the experimental group get the real tion that a drug or treatment will do something.
Placebo Inactive substance or treatment that is distinguishable from
drug, and those in the control group get a placebo. Because
a real, active substance or treatment.
participants are blind as to the hypothesis under investiga- Single-blind study An arrangement in which participants remain
tion and whether they received the drug, their expectations unaware of whether they are in the experimental group or the
(conscious and unconscious) tend to be similar. Any differ- control group.
ence in their behavior is likely to be caused by the drug itself. Researcher bias Changes in participants’ behavior caused by the
unintended influence of a researcher’s actions.
However, even this arrangement is not enough because
Self-fulfilling prophecy A prediction that prompts people to act in
researchers themselves sometimes unwittingly affect experi- ways that make the prediction come true.
ments by influencing participants. Let’s see how this occurs.

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44 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

prediction come true. For instance, many teachers underes- including preparing the pills or injections, typically hire
timate the abilities of ethnic minority children, which hurts research assistants to collect data from the participants.
the students’ chances for success (Jussim & Harber, 2005). In The research assistants are blind in that they do not
short, people sometimes become what we predict for them. know which pill or injection is a drug or placebo, or
It is wise to remember that others tend to live up or down to whether any particular participant is in the experimental
our expectations of them (Madon et al., 2011). or control group.
Double-blind testing has shown that at least 50 percent
The Double-Blind Experiment Because of research
of the effectiveness of antidepressant drugs, such as the anti-
participant bias and researcher bias, it is common to keep
depressant drug Prozac, is due to the placebo effect (Kirsch
both participants and researchers blind. In a double-blind
& Sapirstein, 1998; Rihmer et al., 2012). Much of the popu-
study, research is conducted so that neither the observer
larity of herbal health remedies is also based on the placebo
nor the subjects know which subjects received which treat-
effect (Seidman, 2001).
ment. This not only controls for research participant bias,
but it also keeps researchers from unconsciously influenc-
ing participants.
Double-blind study Research in which neither the observer nor the
How can the researchers be blind—it’s their experiment, subjects know which subjects received which treatment.
isn’t it? The researchers who designed the experiment,

MODULE

4 summary
4.1 how is an experiment performed? result if the research can be replicated or if it contrib-
4.1.1 Experiments involve two or more groups of subjects utes to the conclusions of a meta-analysis.
that differ only regarding the independent variable. 4.2 What is a double-blind study?
Effects on the dependent variable are then measured.
4.2.1 Research participant bias is a problem in some stud-
All other conditions (extraneous variables) are held
ies; the placebo effect is a source of research partici-
constant.
pant bias in experiments involving drugs.
4.1.2 Because the independent variable is the only differ-
4.2.2 Researcher bias is a related problem. Researcher
ence between the experimental group and the control
expectations can create a self-fulfilling prophecy, in
group, it is the only possible cause of a change in the
which a participant changes in the direction of the
dependent variable.
expectation.
4.1.3 The design of experiments allows cause-and-effect
4.2.3 In a double-blind study, neither the research
connections to be clearly identified.
participants nor the researchers collecting data
4.1.4 To be taken seriously, the results of an experiment
know who was in the experimental group or the
must be statistically significant (i.e., they would occur
control group, allowing valid conclusions to be
very rarely by chance alone). It also strengthens a
drawn.

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 MoDU lE 4 i ntr o d u c i n g Psyc h o lo gy: th e Psyc h o lo gy e x P e r i M e nt 45

Knowledge Builder Introducing Psychology: The Psychology Experiment

Recite Reflect
1. To understand cause and effect, a simple psychological Think critically
experiment is based on creating two groups: the ____ 5. The following statement has a loophole: “I’ve been
______________________________ group and the taking vitamin C tablets, and I haven’t had a cold all year.
_____________________________ group. Vitamin C is great!” What is the loophole?
2. Three types of variables must be considered in an
experiment: ______________________ variables self-Reflect
(which are manipulated by the experimenter); We all conduct little experiments to detect cause-and-effect
_____________________ variables (which connections. If you enjoy music, for example, you might try
measure the outcome of the experiment); and listening with different types of headphones. One question
_________________________ variables (factors to be might be, “Does the use of earbuds versus sound-canceling
excluded in a particular experiment). headphones [the independent variable] affect the enjoyment
3. A researcher performs an experiment to learn whether of music [the dependent variable]?” Can you think of an
room temperature affects the amount of aggression informal experiment that you’ve run in the last month? What
displayed by college students under crowded conditions were the variables? What was the outcome?
in a simulated prison environment. In this experiment,
the independent variable is which of the following? AN sW E R s
a. room temperature to learn whether vitamin C has any effect on susceptibility to colds.
b. the amount of aggression group given vitamin C and a control group not taking vitamin C is needed
c. crowding getting a cold could be a coincidence. A controlled experiment with a
d. the simulated prison environment 5. The statement implies that vitamin C prevented colds. However, not
4. A procedure used to control both research participant 1. experimental, control 2. independent, dependent, extraneous 3. a 4. c

bias and researcher bias in psychological experiments

is the
a. correlation method
b. controlled experiment
c. double-blind study
d. random assignment of participants

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MODULE

5 Introducing Psychology
Nonexperimental Research Methods

Get Out The Critter Cam

Because it is not always possible to conduct experiments, psy-
chologists gather evidence and test hypotheses in many other ways
(Jackson, 2016). For example, psychologists who want to study be-
havior as it unfolds in natural settings use naturalistic observation.
As an example of this technique, New Caledonian crows wearing
tiny “crow cams” have been recorded using twigs to forage for food.
Psychologists who are looking for interesting relationships be-
tween events often rely on the correlational method. It also can be
difficult or impossible to study rare events or unique individuals
with the experimental method. When more detail about, say, mental
© Jolyon Troscianko 2006
disorders such as depression or psychosis, is required, a case study
may be preferred. Likewise, the survey method allows questions
about the behavior of large groups of people to be answered by con-
ducting polls. Let’s see how each of these nonexperimental methods
is used to advance psychological knowledge.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
5.1 Why do psychologists rely on naturalistic observation? 5.3 What benefits arise from case studies?
5.2 What is the correlational method? 5.4 What is a survey?

Naturalistic Observation
Survey Question 5.1 Why do psychologists rely on natu-
provides only descriptions of behavior. To explain observa-
ralistic observation?
tions, we may need information from other research meth-
Psychologists sometimes rely on naturalistic observation, ods. Just the same, Goodall’s discovery showed that humans
a research method based on careful recording of behavior are not the only tool-making animals.
in normal settings. This often means observing behavior in Chimpanzees in zoos use objects as tools. Doesn’t that
a natural setting (the typical environment in which a per- demonstrate the same thing? Not necessarily. Naturalistic
son or animal lives). For example, in 1960, Jane Goodall first observation allows us to study behavior that hasn’t been
observed a wild chimpanzee in Tanzania use a grass stem tampered with or altered by outside influences. Only by
as a tool to remove termites from a termite mound (Van observing chimps in their natural environment can we tell
Lawick-Goodall, 1971). Notice that naturalistic observation whether they use tools without human interference.

46
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 MODU LE 5 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: n o n e x P e r I m e ntal r es ear c h m eth o d s 47

Limitations classic study were told to watch normal elementary school

children who had been labeled (for the study) as learning
Doesn’t the presence of human observers affect the animals’
disabled, mentally challenged, emotionally disturbed, or
behavior? Yes. The observer effect—changes in a subject’s
normal. Sadly, teachers gave the children widely different
behavior caused by an awareness of being observed—is a
ratings, depending on the labels used (Foster & Ysseldyke,
major problem. Naturalists should be careful to keep their
1976). In some situations, observer bias can have serious
distance and avoid making friends with the animals that
consequences (Page, Taylor, & Blenkin, 2012). For example,
they are watching. Likewise, if you are interested in why au-
a police officer who expects criminal behavior might shoot
tomobile drivers have traffic accidents, you can’t simply get
someone who he assumes is reaching for a gun, even though
in people’s cars and start taking notes. As a stranger, your
the person was simply reaching for his wallet or his phone.
presence would likely change the drivers’ behaviors.
A special mistake to avoid when observing animals is
When possible, the observer effect can be minimized
the anthropomorphic error (AN-thro-po-MORE-fik).
by concealing the observer. Another solution is to use hid-
This is the error of attributing human thoughts, feelings, or
den recorders. One naturalistic study of traffic accidents was
motives to animals, especially as a way to explain their be-
done with video cameras installed in 100 cars (Dingus et al.,
havior (Waytz, Epley, & Cacioppo, 2010). The temptation
2006). It turns out that most accidents are caused by failing
to assume that an animal is angry, jealous, bored, or guilty
to look at the traffic in front of the car (eyes forward!).
can be strong. If you have pets at home, you probably know
As recording devices have become miniaturized, it has
how difficult it is to avoid anthropomorphizing, but it can
become possible to attach “critter cams” directly to many
lead to false conclusions. For example, if your dog growls at
species, allowing observations to be made in a wide range of
your date, you might assume that the dog doesn’t like your
natural environments. As mentioned previously, zoologist
companion. But it’s also possible that your date is wearing a
Christian Rutz and his colleagues outfitted shy New Caledo-
cologne or perfume that irritates the dog’s nose.
nian crows with “crow cams” to better understand their use
Psychologists doing naturalistic studies make a special
of tools to forage for food (Rutz & St. Clair, 2012). Not only
effort to minimize bias by keeping a detailed record of data
can these clever crows use twigs to reach food, but they also
and observations. As suggested by the study of traffic acci-
can use a shorter twig to obtain a longer twig to get food
dents and the use of critter cams, recording video often pro-
(Wimpenny et al., 2009). Apparently, humans and other pri-
vides the most objective record of all. Despite its problems,
mates are not the only tool-using species.
naturalistic observation can supply a wealth of information
Observer bias is a related problem, in which observers
and raise many interesting questions. In most scientific re-
see what they expect to see or record only selected details
search, it is an excellent starting point.
(Gravetter & Forzano, 2016). For instance, teachers in one

Correlational Method
Survey Question 5.2 What is the correlational method?
Naturalistic observation Research method based on careful
Let’s say that a psychologist notes an association between recording of behavior in normal settings.
the IQs of parents and their children, between beauty and Observer effect Changes in an organism’s behavior brought about
by an awareness of being observed.
social popularity, or between anxiety and test performance.
Observer bias The tendency of an observer to distort observations
A correlation exists when two observations or events are or perceptions to match his or her expectations.
linked together in an orderly way. The term correlational Anthropomorphic error The error of attributing human thoughts,
research refers to any nonexperimental study that quanti- feelings, or motives to animals, especially as a way to explain their
fies the degree to which events, measures, or variables are behavior.
Correlation The existence of a consistent, systematic relationship
associated (see the Statistics Appendix).
between two events, measures, or variables.
For example, John Simister and Cary Cooper (2005) de- Correlational research Nonexperimental study that quantifies
cided to find out if there is a correlation between the weather the degree to which events, measures, or variables are
and crime. They obtained data on temperatures and criminal associated.
activity in Los Angeles over a four-year period. When they

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48 P sychOLO Gy m o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

graphed air temperature and the frequency of aggravated as- the IQs of parents and children is .35; between identical
saults, a clear relationship emerged. Assaults and tempera- twins, it’s .86 (see Module 40).
tures rise and fall more or less in parallel (so there may be What do the terms positive and negative correlation
something to the phrase hot under the collar). Knowing the mean? In a positive correlation, higher scores on one meas-
temperature in Los Angeles now allows us to predict whether ure are matched by higher scores on the other. For exam-
the number of aggravated assaults will increase. ple, a moderate positive correlation exists between high
school grades and college grades; students who do well in
correlation coefficients high school tend to do well in college (and vice versa; see
How is the degree of correlation expressed? The strength and Figure 5.1d). In a negative correlation, higher scores on one
direction of a relationship can be expressed as a correlation measure are associated with lower scores on the other. We
coefficient. This can be calculated as a number falling some- might observe, for instance, a moderate negative correlation
where between 11.00 and 21.00 (see the Statistics Appendix). between the number of hours that students play computer
Drawing graphs of relationships can also help clarify their games and their grades—that is, more play is associated with
nature (see ➤ Figure 5.1). If the number is zero or close to lower grades. (This is the well-known “computer game–
zero, the association between two measures is weak or nonex- zombie” effect; see Figure 5.1b).
istent (see Figure 5.1c). For example, the correlation between Wouldn’t that show that playing computer games too much
shoe size and intelligence is zero. (Sorry, size-12 readers.) If causes lower grades? It might seem so, but as we noted previ-
the correlation is 11.00, a perfect positive relationship exists ously, the best way to be confident that a cause-and-effect
(see Figure 5.1e); if it is 21.00, a perfect negative relationship relationship exists is to perform a controlled experiment.
has been discovered (see Figure 5.1a). Correlation and Causation Correlational studies help
Correlations in psychology are rarely perfect. But the us discover relationships and make predictions. However,
closer the coefficient is to 11.00 or 21.00, the stronger the correlation does not demonstrate causation (a cause-effect
relationship. For example, identical twins tend to have al- relationship) (Ruggiero, 2015). For instance, it could be that
most identical IQs. By contrast, the IQs of parents and their students who aren’t interested in their classes have more
children are only generally similar. The correlation between time for computer games. If so, then their lack of study and

Correlation
Strength of relationship
Negative Positive
Perfect Very large Large Medium Small Zero Small Medium Large Very large Perfect
–1.00 –.75 –.50 –.30 –.10 0.0 +.10 +.30 +.50 +.75 +1.00

Y Y

X X
Perfect Moderate No relationship Moderate Perfect
negative negative positive positive
relationship relationship relationship relationship
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

➤ Figure 5.1
Correlation coefficients. The correlation coefficient tells how strongly two measures are related. These graphs show a range of
relationships between two measures, X and Y. If a correlation is negative (a), increases in one measure are associated with decreases in
the other. (As Y gets larger, X gets smaller.) In a positive correlation (e), increases in one measure are associated with increases in the
other. (As Y gets larger, X gets larger.) The center-left graph (b; a moderate negative relationship) might result from comparing time spent
playing computer games (Y) with grades (X): More time spent playing computer games is associated with lower grades. The center graph
(c; no relationship) would result from plotting a person’s shoe size (Y) and his or her IQ (X). The center-right graph (d; a moderate positive
relationship) could be a plot of grades in high school (Y) and grades in college (X) for a group of students: Higher grades in high school are
associated with higher grades in college.

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 MODU LE 5 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: n o n e x P e r I m e ntal r es ear c h m eth o d s 49

lower grades is the result of lack of interest rather than ex- Z

cessive game playing (which would be another result of lack Low
of interest in classes). Just because one thing appears to be socioeconomic
status
related directly to another does not mean that a cause-and-
effect connection exists.
Here is another example of mistaking correlation for
causation: What if a psychologist discovers a correlation Juvenile
Parental smoking
between parents who smoke cigarettes and juvenile de- delinquency
linquency in their children? Does this show that parental
X Y
smoking causes juvenile delinquency? Perhaps, but maybe
it’s that juvenile delinquents drive their parents to take up ➤ Figure 5.2
smoking (to handle the stress of dealing with them). Better Correlation and causality. A correlation between two variables
might mean that X causes Y, that Y causes X, or that some third
yet, maybe both parental smoking and juvenile delinquency
variable, Z, causes both X and Y.
are related to some third factor, such as socioeconomic sta-
tus (SES). Poorer parents are more likely to be smokers, to cause another does not confirm that it does. The best
and poorer juveniles are more likely to become delinquents way to be confident that a cause-and-effect relationship
(➤ Figure 5.2). To reiterate, just because one thing appears exists is to perform a controlled experiment.

Case Studies
Survey Question 5.3 What benefits arise from case
studies?

It may be impractical, unethical, or impossible to use the

experimental method to study rare events, such as unusual
mental disorders, childhood geniuses, or rampage school
shootings (Harding, Fox, & Mehta, 2002). In such instances,
a case study (clinical method)—an in-depth analysis of the
behavior of one person or a small number of people—may
be the best source of information. (Because clinical psychol-
ogists rely heavily on case studies, this is also referred to as
the clinical method.) Case studies have been especially useful
to investigate mental disorders, such as depression or psy-
chosis. Also, case studies of psychotherapy have provided
many useful ideas about how to treat emotional problems
(Wedding & Corsini, 2014).
Case studies may also be used to study accidents or other
natural events. Gunshot wounds, brain tumors, accidental
poisonings, and similar disasters have provided much in- ➤ Figure 5.3
formation about the human brain. One remarkable case was The case of Phineas Gage. Some of the earliest information on
reported by Dr. J. M. Harlow (1868). Phineas Gage, a young the effects of damage to frontal areas of the brain came from a case
study of the accidental injury of Phineas Gage (illustrated here).
foreman on a work crew, had a 13-pound steel rod driven into
the front of his brain by a dynamite explosion (➤ Figure 5.3).
Amazingly, he survived the accident. Within two months, Correlation coefficient A statistical index ranging from 21.00 to
Gage could walk, talk, and move normally, but the injury for- 11.00 that indicates the direction and degree of correlation.
ever changed his personality. Instead of the honest and de- Causation The act of causing some effect.
Case study (clinical method) In-depth analysis of the behavior of
pendable worker he had been before, Gage became a surly,
one person or a small number of people.
foul-mouthed liar. Dr. Harlow carefully recorded all details of

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50 P sychOLO Gy m o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

what was perhaps the first in-depth case study of an acciden- The chances of identical quadruplets all accidentally becom-
tal frontal lobotomy (the destruction of front brain matter). ing schizophrenic are about 1 in 1.5 billion.
When a Los Angeles carpenter named Michael Melnick The Genains, who have been studied for more than
suffered a similar injury in 1981, he recovered completely, 55 years, were in and out of mental hospitals most of their
with no lasting ill effects. Melnick’s different reaction to a lives. The fact that they share identical genes suggests that
similar injury shows why psychologists prefer controlled heredity influences mental disorders. The fact that some
experiments and often use lab animals for studies of the of the sisters are more disturbed than others suggests that
brain. Since case studies lack formal control groups, the environmental conditions also affect mental illness. Myra,
conclusions that can be drawn are limited. the least ill of the four, was the only sister who was able to
Nevertheless, case studies can provide special opportu- avoid her father, an alcoholic who terrorized, spied on, and
nities to answer interesting questions. For instance, a classic sexually molested the girls. Thus, cases like theirs provide
case study in psychology concerns the Genain sisters, identi- insights that can’t be obtained by any other means (Mirsky
cal quadruplets. In addition to having identical genes, all four et al., 2000). (See Module 61 for more information about the
women became schizophrenic before age 24 (Duncan, 2013). causes of schizophrenia.)

Survey Method
Survey Question 5.4 What is a survey?
women). Because surveying entire populations is often not
Sometimes psychologists would like to ask everyone in the feasible, typically a sample—a subset of a population being
world a few well-chosen questions: “What form of discipline studied—is asked a series of carefully worded questions.
did your parents use when you were a child?” “What is the If a survey is administered to a representative sample—
most dishonest thing you’ve done?” “Why do you think you a sample that accurately reflects a larger population—we
run extreme marathons?” Honest answers to such questions can draw conclusions about the larger population without
can reveal much about people’s beliefs and behavior. Be- polling every person. For a sample to be representative, it
cause it is impossible to question everyone, doing a survey is must include the same proportion of men, women, young,
often more practical. old, professionals, blue-collar workers, Republicans, Demo-
A survey is a descriptive research method in which par- crats, whites, African Americans, Native Americans, Latinos,
ticipants are asked the same questions (Babbie, 2016; Thrift, Asians, and other groups as they are found in the popula-
2010). Usually, we are interested in surveying entire popu- tion as a whole. Representative samples are often obtained by
lations. A population—the group of people from which randomly selecting who will be included (➤ Figure 5.4).
a sample is drawn—might be all the people in a particu- (Notice that this is similar to randomly assigning partici-
lar category (for example, all college students or all single pants to groups in an experiment.)

➤ Figure 5.4
Random sampling. If you were conducting
a survey in which a person’s height might be
an important variable, the upper, nonrandom
sample would not be representative. The
lower sample, selected using a table of
random numbers, better represents the
group as a whole.

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 MODU LE 5 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: n o n e x P e r I m e ntal r es ear c h m eth o d s 51

How accurate is the survey method? Modern surveys like Would you exaggerate? Would you be embarrassed? Re-
the Gallup and Harris polls can be quite accurate. However, plies to survey questions are not always accurate or truth-
if a survey is based on a biased sample, it could paint a ful. Many people show a distinct courtesy bias (a tendency
false picture. A biased sample does not accurately reflect to give polite or socially desirable answers). For example,
the population from which it was drawn. Surveys done answers to questions concerning sex, drinking or drug use,
by magazines, websites, and online information services income, and church attendance tend to be less than truth-
can be quite biased. Surveys on gun-control laws done by ful. Likewise, the week after an election, more people will
O: The Oprah Magazine and Guns and Ammo magazine say they voted than actually did—and the ones who did vote
would probably produce different results—neither of which may not be honest about who they voted for (Babbie, 2016).
would likely represent the general population. That’s why
Summary Despite their limitations, surveys frequently
psychologists using the survey method go to great lengths
produce valuable information. For instance, one survey ex-
to ensure that their samples are representative. Fortunate-
plored the vulnerability of U.S. retail malls to terrorism, with
ly, people can often be polled by telephone or the Internet,
the goal of improving our capacity to prevent and respond
which makes it easier to obtain large samples. Even if one
to an attack (Rigakos et al., 2009). To sum up, the survey
person out of three refuses to answer survey questions, the
method can be a powerful research tool. Like other meth-
results are still likely to be valid (Hutchinson, 2004).
ods, it has limitations, but new techniques and strategies are
Internet Surveys These days, psychologists often rely on providing valuable information about our behavior.
the Internet to do online surveys and experiments. Web- Is so much emphasis on science necessary in psychology?
based research can be a cost-effective way to reach large In a word, yes. Science is a powerful way of asking questions
groups of people, especially those who are not easy to sur- about the world and getting unbiased, trustworthy answers.
vey any other way (Gosling & Mason, 2015). Internet stud- (■ Table 5.1 summarizes many of the important ideas that
ies have provided interesting information about topics such we have covered so far.)
as anger, decision making, racial prejudice, what disgusts
people, religion, sexual attitudes, and much more. Biased Survey method Using questionnaires and surveys to poll large
samples can limit web-based research (it isn’t easy to con- groups of people.
trol who answers your online questionnaire), but psycholo- Representative sample A small, randomly selected part of a larger
population that accurately reflects characteristics of the whole
gists are getting better at gathering valid information online
population.
(Weigold, Weigold, & Russell, 2013). Population The entire group of people from which a sample is
Social Desirability Even well-designed surveys may be drawn.
Sample Subset of a population being studied.
limited by another problem. If a psychologist were to ask
Biased sample A subpart of a larger population that does not ac-
you detailed questions about your sexual history and cur- curately reflect characteristics of the whole population.
rent sexual behavior, how accurate would your replies be?

Table 5.1 comparison of Psychological research methods

Advantages Disadvantages

Experimental method Clear cause-and-effect relationships can be May be somewhat artificial; some natural behavior not
identified; powerful controlled observations can easily studied in the laboratory (field experiments may
be staged; no need to wait for a natural event address these objections)
Naturalistic observation Behavior is observed in a natural setting; Little or no control is possible; observed behavior may
much information is obtained, and hypotheses be altered by the presence of the observer; observations
and questions for additional research can be may be biased; causes cannot be conclusively identified
formed
Correlational method Demonstrates the existence of relationships; Little or no control is possible; relationships may be
allows prediction; can be used in a lab, clinic, coincidental; cause-and-effect relationships cannot be
or natural setting confirmed

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52 P sychOLO Gy m o d u les fo r actIve lear n I n g

Table 5.1 (continued)

Advantages Disadvantages

Clinical method Allows investigation of rare or unusual Little or no control is possible; does not provide a
problems or events control group for comparison; subjective interpretation
is often necessary; a single case may be misleading or
unrepresentative
Survey method Allows information about large numbers of Obtaining a representative sample is critical and can be
people to be gathered; can address questions difficult to do; answers may be inaccurate; people may
not answered by other approaches not do what they say or say what they actually do

MODULE

5 summary
5.1 Why do psychologists rely on natural coefficient is computed to gauge the strength of
observation? the relationships. Correlations may be positive or
5.1.1 Psychologists rely on naturalistic observation, the negative. Correlations allow prediction but do not
correlational method, case studies, and the survey demonstrate cause and effect.
method. Unlike controlled experiments, nonexperi- 5.3 What benefits arise from case studies?
mental methods usually cannot demonstrate cause-
5.3.1 By focusing in detail on one individual (or a few
and-effect relationships.
individuals), a case study (clinical method) can
5.1.2 Naturalistic observation is a good starting place in
provide insights into human behavior that can’t be
many investigations. Two problems with naturalistic
gained by other methods.
observation are the effects of the observer on the
observed, and observer bias. 5.4 What is a survey?
5.2 What is the correlational method? 5.4.1 In the survey method, a sample of people are asked
a series of carefully worded questions. Obtaining
5.2.1 In the correlational method, two or more traits,
a representative sample is crucial when the survey
responses, or events are measured, and a correlation
method is used to study large populations.

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 MODU LE 5 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy: n o n e x P e r I m e ntal r es ear c h m eth o d s 53

Knowledge Builder
Introducing Psychology: Nonexperimental
Research Methods
Recite self-Reflect
1. Two major problems in naturalistic observation are the Google “Critter cam” and find one that you can watch. What
effects of the observer and observer bias. T or F? species did you watch? What behaviors might you observe
2. The ____________________________ fallacy and record?
involves attributing human feelings and motives See if you can identify at least one positive correlation and
to animals. one negative correlation that involve human behavior.
3. Correlation typically demonstrates causation. T or F? Have you ever known someone who suffered a brain
4. Case studies are frequently used by clinical psychologists. injury or disease? How did his or her behavior change?
T or F? Have you ever been asked to complete a survey? If you
5. For the survey method to be valid, a representative agreed, were you honest about your answers? What would it
sample of people must be polled. T or F? say about accuracy if many people did not answer honestly?
6. A problem with the survey method is that
answers to questions may not always be AN sW E R s
_______________________________ or
(and even machines) in human terms.
appears to be difficult for humans to resist thinking of other species
_____________________________. 1. T 2. anthropomorphic 3. F 4. T 5. T 6. accurate, truthful 7. Yes. It

Reflect
Think critically
7. Attributing mischievous motives to a car that is not
working properly is a thinking error similar to anthropo-
morphizing. T or F?

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MODULE

6 Introducing Psychology Skills

in Action
Information Literacy

How Do You Know?

To help you get the most out of studying psychology, the Skills
in Action modules in this book are intended to provide you with
information about skills that can be helpful in your personal life,
as well as in the world of work. Many of the skills that employers
are interested in—teamwork, critical thinking, and communica-
tion, for example—are topics of great interest to people who do
psychological research.
In this first Skills in Action module, we explore how to think
critically about the information that we see in the popular media.
Let’s face it: You can’t believe everything you read. Or hear. Or even
see! What, for example, should you make of media reports that peo-
TORU YAMANAKA/AFP/Getty Images

ple can learn to use the power of their minds to protect their feet
while they walk on hot coals? Should you be impressed or skepti-
cal? Read on to find out.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
6.1 How reliable is information found in the popular media?

Psychology in the Media—Who Can You Trust?

Survey Question 6.1 How reliable is information found in
New York sewers (Hughes, 2008). Unfortunately, much of what
the popular media?
you will encounter is based on entertainment value rather than
Modern media—especially the Internet—functions as a critical thinking or science (Ruggiero, 2015). Here are some
giant echo chamber, awash with rumors, hoaxes, half-truths, suggestions for separating high-quality information from
and urban legends like the one about giant alligators living in misleading fiction (Lawson, Jordan-Fleming, & Bodle, 2015).

54
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 MODU LE 6 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy s k I lls I n ActI o n: I n fo r mAtI o n lIte r Acy 55

Suggestion 1: Consider the source of information. The designed to “stabilize the electricity flow through the body.”
popular media provides an endless stream of information. Do you think that the necklaces provided the players with
The Internet, in particular, has transformed our ability to some sort of mystical batting and throwing abilities? While
access information in very positive ways: Suddenly, you can it might be tempting to think that those necklaces brought
find vast amounts of material simply by doing a Google about something extraordinary, it’s always important to stop
search on your phone. But it’s becoming clear that there’s and consider what else may have caused the events you’ve
also a downside to having such easy access. Good informa- observed. The 2004 Red Sox team was a group of dedicated
tion is readily available, but so is unreliable information. athletes. It’s more likely that their success at the World Series
How can we tell the difference? was a function of their hard work and talent, and not their
One way to become a critical consumer of informa- choice of jewelry.
tion is to look carefully at where that information is coming But what about your good friend Beth, who tells you
from. If it’s presented in a book or on TV, then you should that she had a dream about someone that she hadn’t seen
be asking yourself about the credentials of the person who’s for months, and then met that very same person at the mall
making the claim, and whether (and how) they will profit the next day. Do you think that Beth has special powers?
from getting you to believe them. Determining the accuracy What alternative explanation could there possibly be? The
of web-based information is a bit trickier, but there are a few truth is not likely to be nearly as exciting as finding out that
strategies that you can use (November Learning, 2015). First, your friend is psychic: Although such occurrences make for
check out the domain name of the website—that’s the part of a good story, the reality is that events like meeting a friend
the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) that comes after the at the mall after a long time happen by chance all the time.
http://www. and before the first forward slash. The domain
Suggestion 3: Beware of claims based on poor—or care-
name will give you some very basic information about the
fully selected—evidence, and don’t overgeneralize. For
source of the information you’ll read on the site. You should
research conclusions to be trustworthy, they need to come
also consider the website’s extension. Extensions such as
from a study that has been carefully designed. For exam-
.gov (a government website), .edu (educational websites, of-
ple, researchers need to ask their questions in such a way
ten universities), and .k12 (used by some U.S. schools) are
that they will not get misleading or biased information from
typically more reliable than information coming from sites
their participants. This means avoiding questions that are
with extensions such as .com, .net, or .org. These sites can be
vague and unclear, as well as those that are likely to “lead”
purchased by anyone, including companies and individuals
participants to one particular answer. Statements in the me-
with their own special interests.
dia that are supported by poor data are unlikely to stand the
Pay particular attention to personal websites, since the
test of time, so it’s important to look closely at the quality of
information they contain is often authored by one person
the information on which any claim is based.
and may not have been screened by anyone else. Personal
Of course, even good research can still be used to sup-
pages are often recognizable, either because they have a per-
port claims that are totally misleading. Imagine a website
son’s name in the URL alongside a tilde (~) or percent sign
reporting that a new form of therapy has been associated
(for example, ~jsmith), or because the URL contains the
with reduced symptoms of autism in three high-quality
words people, or users, or members. That doesn’t automati-
research studies. That’s quite exciting, right? Maybe, but
cally mean that information you find on those websites isn’t
maybe not. What the website may have failed to report is
trustworthy, of course, but it’s useful to keep it in mind if
that the beneficial effects of the therapy are short term, or
you’re looking for unbiased material.
that five other studies found that this new form of therapy
Suggestion 2: Always consider alternative explanations, doesn’t seem to work at all. This type of “cherry-picking” is
and remember that some things just happen by chance. common in the popular media. People are quick to report
If you see a person crying, is it correct to assume that she or findings that are in line with the story that they want others
he is sad? It seems reasonable to make this assumption, but to believe but fail to note findings that are contradictory.
it could easily be wrong. Maybe he or she just peeled some You should always be looking for disconfirming evidence—
onions or is trying contact lenses for the first time. even if it means seeking out information that conflicts with
Or consider how the Boston Red Sox won the World something you want to believe.
Series in 2004 after many members of the team began wear- Finally, it’s important to distinguish between com-
ing a particular metal-impregnated twisted rope necklace ments in the media that are based on evidence from a large

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56 P SychOLO Gy m o d u les fo r ActIve leAr n I n g

number of people and those that come from one or two ex- well-known astrologer, once answered a group of promi-
amples, anecdotes, or testimonials. The media is often keen nent scientists—who had declared that there is no scientific
to overgeneralize a finding that is based on one or two cases, foundation for astrology—by saying, “They would do well
suggesting that it should apply to everyone. Unfortunately, to check the records at their local police stations, where
such individual cases (or even several) tell us nothing about they will learn that the rate of violent crime rises and falls
what is true in general (Stanovich, 2013). For example, good with lunar cycles.” Dixon, of course, believed that the moon
research studies based on large groups of people show that affects human behavior.
smoking increases the likelihood of lung cancer. It is less rel- If it is true that violent crime is more frequent at cer-
evant if you know a lifelong heavy smoker who is 95 years tain times of the month, doesn’t that prove her point? Far
old. The general finding is the one to remember. from it. Increased crime could be due to darker nights,
the fact that we expect others to act crazier during a full
Suggestion 4: Ask yourself if there was a control group.
moon, or any number of similar factors. Besides, di-
The importance of a control group in any experiment is
rect studies of the alleged lunar effect have shown that
frequently overlooked by the unsophisticated—an error to
it doesn’t occur (Dowling, 2005). Moonstruck criminals,
which you are no longer susceptible! The popular media are
influenced by a bad moon rising, are the stuff of fiction
full of reports of experiments performed without control
(Iosif & Ballon, 2005).
groups: “Talking to Plants Speeds Growth”; “Special Diet
Controls Hyperactivity in Children”; “Graduates of Fire- Suggestion 6: Beware of oversimplifications, especially
walking Seminar Risk Their Soles.” those motivated by monetary gain. You’ll find as you read
Consider the last example. Expensive commercial cours- this textbook that most psychological behaviors and phe-
es have long been promoted to teach people to walk barefoot nomena like emotional well-being, healthy relationships,
on hot coals. Firewalkers supposedly protect their feet with a and a good memory typically have multiple causes and often
technique called “neurolinguistic programming.” Many peo- develop over many years. For this reason, you should im-
ple have paid good money to learn the technique, and most mediately question any claims that suggest, for example, that
do manage a quick walk on the coals. But is the technique the cause of aggression has been established. Clearly, people’s
necessary? And is anything remarkable happening? aggressive behaviors occur for many reasons, including how
To really answer these questions, we need a com- their parents treated them, the coping strategies that they
parison group that has not learned the technique to see have learned, and possibly even how their brains are wired.
if they, too, can walk on the coals. Fortunately, physicist Likewise, websites devoted to a video that promises to
Bernard Leikind has provided one. Leikind showed with reveal “the secret to unlimited joy, health, money, relation-
volunteers that anyone (with reasonably callused feet) can ships, love, youth: everything you have ever wanted” should
walk over a bed of coals without being burned. This is be immediately suspect. According to these sites, all you
because the coals, which are made of light, fluffy carbon, need to do is send your desires out to the universe and the
transmit little heat when touched. The principle involved universe must respond by granting your wishes. And all it
is similar to briefly putting your hand in a hot oven with- will cost you is the price of ordering the video. (It’s no secret
out touching any of its surfaces. If you touch a pan, you that the promoters are the real winners in this game.)
will be burned because metal transfers heat efficiently.
But if your hand stays in the heated air, you’ll be fine be- Summary
cause air transmits little heat (Kida, 2006; Mitchell, 1987).
We are all bombarded daily with such a mass of new in-
Mystery solved!
formation that it is difficult to absorb it all. The available
Suggestion 5: Look for errors in distinguishing between knowledge in an area like psychology, biology, or medi-
correlation and causation. As you now know, it is dan- cine is so vast that no single person can completely know
gerous to presume that one thing caused another just be- or comprehend it. With this reality in mind, it becomes
cause they are correlated. In spite of this, you will see many increasingly important that you become a critical, selec-
claims based on questionable correlations. Here’s an exam- tive, and informed consumer of information (Lilienfeld
ple of mistaking correlation for causation: Jeane Dixon, a et al., 2010).

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 MODU LE 6 I ntr o d u c I n g Psyc h o lo gy s k I lls I n ActI o n: I n fo r mAtI o n lIte r Acy 57

MODULE

6 Summary
6.1 how reliable is psychological information 6.1.3 Problems in media reports are often related to biased
found in the popular media? or unreliable sources of information, uncontrolled
6.1.1 Information in the mass media varies greatly in observation, misleading correlations, false inferences,
quality and accuracy and should be approached with oversimplification, use of single examples, and unre-
skepticism and caution. peatable results.
6.1.2 It is essential to critically evaluate information from
popular sources (or from any source, for that matter)
to separate facts from fallacies.

Knowledge Builder Psychological Skills in Action: Information Literacy

Recite Self-Reflect
1. Popular media reports usually stress objective accuracy. How actively do you evaluate and question claims made by an
T or F? authority or found in the media? Could you be a more critical
2. The finding that people can walk on hot coals after tak- consumer of information? Should you be a more critical con-
ing a “firewalking” course demonstrates that the course is sumer of information?
necessary for people who want to learn this skill. T or F?
3. Blaming the lunar cycle for variations in the rate of AN SW E R S
(Halpern, 2003).
violent crime is an example of mistaking correlation for is happening, but the equinox has nothing to do with egg balancing
causation. T or F? The lack of a control group gives the illusion that something amazing
4. If a psychology student uses a sleep-learning device to 1. F 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. Eggs can be balanced at any time that you choose.
pass a midterm exam, it proves that the device works. T
or F?

Reflect
Think critically
5. Mystics have shown that fresh eggs can be balanced on
their large ends during the vernal equinox, when the
sun is directly over the equator, day and night are equal
in length, and the world is in perfect balance. What is
wrong with this observation?

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MODULE

7 Brain and Behavior

The Nervous System

Punch-Drunk
He died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound in February 2011. Not to his
head, mind you, to his stomach, because he wanted to leave his brain to
science. Two-time Super Bowl winner Dave Duerson blamed his post-
football troubles, including memory loss, difficulty spelling words, de-
pression, and moodiness, on the repeated concussions that he suffered
on the playing field. The boxers even have a name for it: punch-drunk.
Sure enough, autopsies have since revealed the same signs of
chronic traumatic encephalopathy in the brains of dozens of other de-
ceased National Football League players, as well as in athletes from
many other violent sports, such as hockey and boxing. We don’t nor-
mally notice the key role the nervous system, and especially the brain,
plays in all that makes us human. But an injury to this vital system,
Flirt/SuperStock

such as the one Dave Duerson suffered, can dramatically change a per-
son forever. How does it all work? Let’s explore this fascinating realm.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
7.1 What are the major divisions of the nervous system? 7.3 How do neurons communicate with each other?
7.2 How do individual neurons function? 7.4 Can the nervous system grow and heal itself?

The Nervous System—Wired for Action

Survey Question 7.1 What are the major divisions of the
traumatic encephalopathy, can take years to become ap-
nervous system?
parent (Montenigro et al., 2015).
Who you are can be traced to electrical impulses flash- Let’s get an overview of the nervous system by follow-
ing through your nervous system. Suppose you suffered ing Mike and Molly, who are out in the park playing catch.
a stroke, which occurs when an artery carrying blood A blaze of activity lights up many of its 85 billion neurons
in the brain bleeds or becomes blocked, causing some [a neuron (NOOR-on) is a cell in the nervous system that
brain tissue to die. Almost instantly, you would real- transmits information] (see ➤ Figure 7.1). All of those
ize that something is wrong. You might not be able to neurons are sustained by at least 10 times as many glia,
move, feel parts of your body, see, or speak. However, cells that support neurons in a variety of ways (Herculano-
some nervous system injuries involve less dramatic, but Houzel, 2012).
equally disabling, changes in personality, thinking, judg- The central nervous system (CNS), consists of the
ment, or emotions. Some, such as Dave Duerson’s chronic brain, which contains most of those neurons and does most

58
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 MODU LE 7 B r ai n an d B e havi o r: Th e n e rvo us sysTe m 59

➤ Figure 7.1 THE NERVOUS

Divisions of the nervous system. The SYSTEM
nervous system can be divided into the
central nervous system, made up of the
brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral The central The peripheral
nervous system, composed of the nerves nervous system nervous system
connecting the body to the central
nervous system.
The somatic The autonomic
The brain
nervous system nervous system

The spinal
cord The sympathetic
nervous system

The parasympathetic
nervous system

of the “computing,” and the spinal cord (Banich & Compton, (what’s that sound behind me?), and sent to her brain to
2011). The spinal cord is a large column of nerves that be interpreted. Information from her muscles flows back
transmits information between the brain and the peripheral to her brain via the spinal nerves while input from her
nervous system. Suppose that Mike’s brain, the “command eyes and ears arrives via two of the 12 pairs of cranial
center,” gets the bright idea to throw the ball a bit high over nerves, which connect to the brain directly without pass-
Molly’s head. His spinal cord then relays the message to his ing through the spinal cord. Decisions must be made, and
peripheral nervous system (PNS), the parts of the nervous messages must then be sent out to direct countless muscle
system outside the brain and spinal cord. Directed by mes- fibers (move my body and hands to catch that ball while
sages that flow down many of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves avoiding that couple and their dog sitting on the lawn
carrying sensory and motor messages to and from the spinal behind me).
cord, Mike’s body, right hand, and arm coordinate to throw
the ball.
Neuron A cell in the nervous system that transmits information.
Are nerves the same as neurons? No. Neurons, as we Central nervous system (CNS) The brain and spinal cord.
will soon see, are tiny. You usually need a microscope Spinal cord A column of nerves that transmits information between
to see one. Nerves are large bundles of many neuron the brain and the peripheral nervous system.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) The parts of the nervous system
fibers (called axons). You can easily see nerves without
outside the brain and spinal cord.
magnification. Spinal nerves Major nerves that carry sensory and motor messages
Oops. The ball is even higher than Mike anticipated. in and out of the spinal cord.
To catch it, a huge amount of information must quickly be Nerve A bundle of neuron axons.
Cranial nerves Major nerves that leave the brain without passing
collected by Molly’s eyes (where’s that ball going?), mus- through the spinal cord.
cles (are my hands in place to catch it?), and other senses

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60 p SychOLO Gy m o d u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

The peripheral Nervous System Parasympathetic Sympathetic

The peripheral nervous system can be divided into two
major parts. The somatic nervous system (SNS) is the
network linking the spinal cord with the body and sense Constricts pupil
Stimulates tears
organs. In general, it controls voluntary behavior, such Stimulates salivation
as when Molly lurches backwards to catch the ball. In Dilates pupil
contrast, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the Inhibits heart rate Inhibits tears
Inhibits salivation
collection of axons that carry information to and from Constricts respiration
Activates sweat glands
Constricts blood vessels
internal organs and glands. The word autonomic means Increases heart rate
Stimulates digestion Increases respiration
self-governing. Activities governed by the ANS are mostly Inhibits digestion
vegetative or automatic, such as heart rate, digestion, and Release of adrenaline
perspiration. Thus, messages carried by the SNS can make Release of sugar from liver
Relaxes bladder
Molly’s hand move, but they cannot make her eyes dilate. Inhibits elimination
Likewise, messages that the ANS carries can stimulate the Inhibits genitals
Contracts bladder Ejaculation in males
release of the hormone adrenaline, but they cannot help Stimulates elimination
Molly voluntarily dodge that snarling dog. If Molly feels a Stimulates genitals
burst of fear when she almost steps on the dog, or a surge
of love for Mike when he shows concern, that activity will
be carried by her ANS. The ANS plays a central role in our ➤ Figure 7.2
emotional lives. In fact, without the ANS, a person would Branches of the ANS. Both branches control involuntary actions.
The sympathetic system generally activates the body. The
feel little emotion. (See Module 44 for more information
parasympathetic system generally quiets it. The sympathetic
about the ANS and emotion.) branch relays its messages through clusters of neurons outside
The SNS and ANS work together to coordinate the body’s the spinal cord.
internal reactions to events in the world outside the body. For
example, when the dog lunges at Molly, her SNS controls her (➤ Figure 7.2). The sympathetic branch energizes Molly’s
leg muscles so that she can jump out of the way. At the same heightened reaction to the lunging dog. It is responsible for
time, her ANS activates her internal organs, raising her blood initiating the “fight or flight” reaction during times of danger
pressure, quickening her rate of breathing, and other auto- or high emotion. Right after she escapes the dog, she has to
matic reactions. The ANS can be divided into the sympathetic stop and catch her breath for a moment while her parasym-
and parasympathetic branches. In essence, the sympathetic pathetic branch returns her internal organs to a lower level
nervous system is the division of the ANS that coordinates of arousal. Of course, both branches of the ANS are always
arousal, while the parasympathetic nervous system is the active. At any given moment, their combined activity deter-
part of the ANS that quiets the body and conserves energy mines the degree to which your body is relaxed or aroused.

Neurons—Biocomputer Building Blocks

Survey Question 7.2 How do individual neurons function?
(DEN-drytes), which look like tree roots, are neuron fibers
Oddly enough, any single neuron is not very smart—it that receive incoming messages. The cell body, or soma
takes many of them just to make Molly blink. Yet individ- (SOH-mah), does the same. In contrast, the axon (AK-
ual neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system. sahn) is the fiber that carries information away from the cell
Understanding how they function is the first step in better body of a neuron. Axons branch out into even thinner fibers
understanding how the nervous system functions. ending in bulb-shaped axon terminals.
Like miniature cables, millions of miles of axons carry
parts of a Neuron messages through the brain and nervous system (Breedlove,
While neurons come in very different shapes and sizes, Watson, & Rosenzweig, 2010). Although some axons are
most have four basic parts (➤ Figure 7.3). The dendrites only 0.1 millimeter long (about the width of a human hair

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 MODU LE 7 B r ai n an d B e havi o r: Th e n e rvo us sysTe m 61

➤ Figure 7.3
Synapse (see Figure 2.7
A stylized neuron. Action potentials usually for an enlarged view)
travel from the dendrites and soma to the Other neuron
branching ends of the axon.

Axon terminals

Myelin
Nerve impulse

Neurilemma

Soma
(cell body) Nerve impulse
Axon collateral
(branch)
Axon

Nerve cell fiber Myelin sheath

Axon

Dendrites

or a pencil line), others stretch for several feet through the To prove this point, researcher José Delgado once entered
nervous system (from the base of your spine to your big toe, a bullring with a cape and a radio transmitter. The bull
for instance). Large bundles of axons comprise most of the charged. Delgado retreated. At the last instant, the speed-
spinal cord and the nerves of the peripheral nervous system ing bull stopped short. Why? Delgado had placed radio-ac-
(PNS). By forming connections with the dendrites and so- tivated electrodes (metal wires) deep within the bull’s brain.
mas of other neurons, axon terminals allow information to These, in turn, electrically stimulated control centers that
pass from neuron to neuron. brought the bull to a halt (Blackwell, 2012; Horgan, 2005).
Try this metaphor: imagine that you are standing in a Electrically charged molecules called ions (EYE-ons) are
line of people who are holding hands. A person on the left found inside each neuron. Other ions lie outside the neuron.
end of the line wants to send a silent message to the person Some ions have a positive electrical charge, whereas others
on the right end. She does this by pressing the hand of the
person to her right, who presses the hand of the person to
Somatic nervous system (SNS) A network linking the spinal cord
his right, and so on. The message arrives at your left hand with the body and sense organs.
(your dendrites). You decide whether to pass it on. (You are Autonomic nervous system (ANS) The collection of axons that
the soma.) The message goes out through your right arm carry information to and from internal organs and glands.
Sympathetic nervous system The division of the autonomic nervous
(the axon). With your right hand (the axon terminals), you
system that coordinates arousal.
squeeze the hand of the person to your right, and the mes- Parasympathetic nervous system The part of the autonomic ner-
sage moves on. vous system that quiets the body and conserves energy.
Dendrites Neuron fibers that receive incoming messages.
Cell body The part of the neuron or other cell that contains the
Neural Function nucleus of the cell.
So how does a neuron actually send messages from the den- Axon A fiber that carries information away from the cell body of a
drites (the left hand in this metaphor) to the axon terminals neuron.
Axon terminals Bulb-shaped structures at the ends of axons that
(the right hand)? Neural function is primarily electrical. form synapses with the dendrites and cell bodies of other neurons.
That’s why electrically stimulating the brain affects behavior.

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62 p SychOLO Gy m o d u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

+30 Action
potential
Membrane potential

0
(in millivolts)

Resting Negative
potential after-potential Threshold

–50

–70

Time
+ + + + + + +
– – – – – – –
– – – – – – –
+ + + + + + +
Axon

➤ Figure 7.4
Measuring electrical activity in the neuron. Tiny electrical probes called microelectrodes, placed inside and outside an axon,
measure its activity. The inside of an axon at rest is about 260 to 270 millivolts, compared with the outside. Electrochemical changes
in a neuron generate an action potential. When sodium ions (Na1) that have a positive charge rush into the cell, its interior briefly
becomes positive. After the action potential, positive potassium ions (K 1) flow out of the axon and restore its negative charge. (See
Figure 7.5 for further explanation.)

have a negative charge. When a neuron is inactive (or rest- What happens during an action potential? Tiny tunnels
ing), more of these plus, or positive, charges exist outside the or holes called ion channels pierce the axon membrane.
neuron and more minus, or negative, charges exist inside. As Normally, these tiny openings are blocked by molecules that
a result, the inside of each resting neuron in your brain has an act like gates or doors. During an action potential, the gates
electrical charge of about 260 to 270 millivolts at the axon. (A pop open. This allows sodium ions (Na1) to rush into the
millivolt is one-thousandth of a volt.) In this way, every neu-
Axon
ron in your brain can be thought of as a tiny biological battery.
1. In its resting state, the axon has a
The electrical charge of an inactive neuron is called its rest- negatively charged interior.
– – – – – – – – – – – – –
ing potential. But neurons seldom get much rest. Messages are + + + + + + + + + + + +

constantly arriving from other neurons, causing the resting 2. During an action potential, positively
Action potential
charged atoms (ions) rush into the axon.
potential to fluctuate. Some inputs excite the neuron, slightly This briefly changes the electrical charge
inside the axon from negative to positive.
raising the resting potential, while others inhibit the neuron, Simultaneously, the charge outside the + + + + – – – – – – – – –
axon becomes negative.
slightly lowering the resting potential. If enough excitatory in- – – – – + + + + + + + +

puts arrive within a short span of time, the overall electrical 3. The action potential advances as Action potential
positive and negative charges reverse in
charge will rise quite a bit. At about 250 millivolts, the neuron a moving zone of electrical activity that
sweeps down the axon.
will reach its threshold, or trigger point for firing (see – – – – + + + + – – – – –
+ + + + – – – – + + + +
➤ Figure 7.4). It’s as if the neuron says, “Ah-ha! I have had
enough combined input to justify an output of my own.” When a Action potential
4. After an action potential passes, positive
neuron reaches its threshold, an action potential, a brief change ions rapidly flow out of the axon to
quickly restore its negative charge. An
in a neuron’s electrical charge, sweeps down the axon at up to outward flow of additional positive ions – – – – – – – – + + + + –
returns the axon to its resting state.
+ + + + + + + – – – – +
200 miles per hour (➤ Figure 7.5). That may seem fast, but it
still takes at least a split second to react. That’s one reason it is so ➤ Figure 7.5
difficult to return a 130-mile-per-hour professional tennis serve. The action potential. The inside of an axon normally has a
negative electrical charge, and the fluid surrounding an axon is
Resting potential The electrical charge of an inactive neuron. normally positive. As an action potential passes along the axon,
Action potential A brief change in a neuron’s electrical charge. these charges reverse, so that the interior of the axon briefly
Ion channels Tiny openings through the axon membrane. becomes positive. This process is described in more detail in
Figure 7.6.
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 MODU LE 7 B r ai n an d B e havi o r: Th e n e rvo us sysTe m 63

of the line. Similarly, when an action potential is triggered

Action potential
near the soma, a wave of activity travels down the length of
Resting potential
Axon Na+ Na+
the axon. This is what happens in long chains of neurons as
– – – – – + + + + + a dancer’s brain tells her feet what to do next, beat after beat.
Ion After each action potential, the cell briefly dips below
channels + + + + + – – – – – its resting level and becomes less able or ready to fire. This
– – – – – + + + + + negative after-potential occurs because potassium ions (K1)
Na+ Na+ flow out of the neuron while the membrane gates are open
Na+ (Figure 7.6). After an action potential, ions flow both into and
Action potential
out of the axon, recharging it for more action. In our model,
it takes an instant for the row of dominoes to be set up again.
+ + + + + – – – – –
Soon, however, the axon is ready for another wave of activity.
Saltatory Conduction The axons of some neurons
– K+ – – K+–– – + + + + +
K+ K+ (such as the one pictured in Figure 2.3) are coated with an
+ + + + + – – – – –
insulating material called the myelin sheath (MY-eh-lin).
Axon repolarizes Under a microscope, myelin appears white, while neurons
appear gray. Because of this, areas of the brain containing
➤ Figure 7.6
The interior of an axon. The right end of the top axon is at rest.
mainly neuron cell bodies are commonly referred to as gray
Thus, it has a negative charge inside. An action potential begins matter, while areas containing mainly myelinated axons are
when ion channels open and sodium ions (Na1) rush into the axon. labeled white matter. Similarly, if you were to cut through
In this drawing, the action potential travels from left to right along the spinal cord, you would see columns of insulating white
the axon. In the lower axon, the action potential has moved to the
right. After it passes, potassium ions (K1) flow out of the axon.
matter wrapped around a gray-matter core of bundles of
This quickly renews the negative charge inside the axon, so that axons (look ahead to Figure 7.8).
it can fire again. Sodium ions that enter the axon during an action Small gaps in the myelin help action potentials travel
potential are pumped out more slowly. Removing them restores
faster. Instead of passing down the entire length of an axon,
the original resting potential.
the action potential leaps from gap to gap, a process called
axon (Toates, 2011). The channels first open near the soma. saltatory conduction. (The Latin word saltare means to
Then, gate after gate opens down the length of the axon as jump or leap.) Without the added speed of saltatory action
the action potential zips along (➤ Figure 7.6). potentials, it would probably be impossible to brake in time
Each action potential is an all-or-nothing event (it to avoid many automobile accidents. When the myelin layer
occurs completely or not at all). You might find it helpful to is damaged, a person may suffer from numbness, weakness,
picture the axon as a row of dominoes set on end. Tipping or paralysis. That is what happens in multiple sclerosis, a dis-
over the dominoes is an all-or-nothing act. Once the first ease that occurs when the immune system attacks and de-
domino drops, a wave of falling blocks zips rapidly to the end stroys the myelin in a person’s body (Keough & Yong, 2013).

Synaptic Transmission and Neural Networks—

Wiring the Biocomputer
Survey Question 7.3 How do neurons communicate with Synapse A microscopic space over which messages pass between
two neurons.
each other?
Synaptic transmission The chemical process that carries informa-
Remarkably, neurons do not physically touch each other; tion from one neuron to another.
Neurotransmitter A chemical that moves information from one
they are separated by a microscopic gap called the synapse nervous-system cell to another.
(SIN-aps). Synaptic transmission occurs when an action Negative after-potential A drop in electrical charge below the rest-
potential reaches the tips of the axon terminals, releas- ing potential.
Myelin sheath Insulating material that covers some axons.
ing a neurotransmitter (NOOR-oh-TRANS-mit-ers)—a
Saltatory conduction The process by which action potentials travel-
chemical that moves information from one neuron to an- ing down the axons of neurons coated with myelin jump from gap
other—into the synaptic gap (➤ Figure 7.7). to gap in the myelin layer.
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64 p SychOLO Gy m o d u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

gun in his or her right hand. To pass along a message, you

Presynaptic would squirt the left hand of the person to your right. When
axon terminal that person notices this “message,” he or she would squirt
the left hand of the person to the right, and so on.
When neurotransmitters cross over a synapse, they tem-
Synaptic gap
porarily bond to special receiving areas on the next neuron
Synaptic
vesicle (see Figure 7.7). These tiny receptor sites on the cell mem-
Neurotransmitter
brane are sensitive to neurotransmitters. The sites are found
in large numbers on neuron cell bodies and dendrites. Mus-
cles and glands have receptor sites, too.
Receptor site

Postsynaptic Neurotransmitters
dendrite
Do neurotransmitters always trigger an action potential? No,
➤ Figure 7.7 but they do change the likelihood of an action potential.
The synapse. Neurotransmitters are stored in tiny sacs called
Some neurotransmitters excite the next neuron (move it
synaptic vesicles (VES-ih-kels). When an action potential reaches
the end of an axon, the vesicles move to the surface and release closer to firing). Others inhibit it (make firing less likely).
neurotransmitters. These molecules cross the synaptic gap to affect More than 100 neurotransmitters are found in the brain.
the next neuron. The size of the gap is exaggerated here; it is only Some examples are acetylcholine, dopamine, gamma-ami-
about one-millionth of an inch. Some transmitter molecules excite
nobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, norepinephrine, and
the next neuron and some inhibit its activity.
serotonin ■ Table 7.1.
Let’s return to our metaphor of people standing in a Why are there so many neurotransmitters? Some neu-
line. To be more accurate, you and the others shouldn’t be rotransmitters are used by specific pathways that interlink
holding hands. Instead, each person should have a squirt regions of the brain. It is as if different pathways “speak”

Table 7.1 major neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter Main Mode of Action Function in the Brain Effects of Imbalance

Acetylcholine Excitatory neurotransmitter Participates in movement, Deficiency may play a role in

autonomic function, learning, Alzheimer’s disease
and memory
Dopamine Excitatory neurotransmitter Participates in motivation, reward, Deficiency may lead to Parkin-
planning of behavior son’s disease, reduced feelings
of pleasure; excess may lead to
schizophrenia
GABA Inhibitory neurotransmitter Major inhibitory effect in the CNS; Deficiency may lead to anxiety
participates in moods
Glutamate Excitatory neurotransmitter Major excitatory effect in the CNS; Excess may lead to neuron
participates in learning and memory death and autism; deficiency
may lead to tiredness
Norepinephrine Excitatory neurotransmitter Participates in arousal, vigilance, Excess may lead to anxiety
and mood
Serotonin Inhibitory neurotransmitter Participates in mood, appetite, Deficiency may lead to
and sleep depression and/or anxiety

Adapted from Freberg, 2016; Kalat, 2016, Prus, 2014.

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 MODU LE 7 B r ai n an d B e havi o r: Th e n e rvo us sysTe m 65

different languages. Perhaps this helps prevent confusing Finniss, & Benedetti, 2008). A release of endorphins also
crosstalk or intermixing of messages. For example, the brain seems to underlie runner’s high, masochism, acupuncture,
has a reward or pleasure system that communicates mainly and the euphoria sometimes associated with childbirth, pain-
via dopamine (Mark et al., 2011; Opland, Leinninger, & ful initiation rites, and even sport parachuting (Janssen &
Myers, 2010). Arntz, 2001). In each case, pain and stress cause the release
Slight variations in neurotransmitter function may be of endorphins. In turn, these endorphins induce feelings of
related to temperament differences in infancy and person- pleasure or euphoria similar to being high on morphine. Peo-
ality differences in adulthood (Ashton, 2013). Outright ple who say they are “addicted” to running may be closer to
disturbances of any neurotransmitter can have serious the truth than they realize. Ultimately, neural regulators may
consequences. For example, too much dopamine may help explain addiction, depression, schizophrenia, and other
cause schizophrenia (Kendler & Schaffner, 2011), whereas puzzling topics.
too little serotonin may underlie depression (Torrente,
Gelenberg, & Vrana, 2012). Neural Networks
Many drugs mimic, duplicate, or block neurotransmit- While our earlier metaphor for neural functioning and
ters. For example, the chemical structure of cocaine is simi- synaptic transmission (people squirting water at each oth-
lar to that of dopamine. In the short run, cocaine can trigger er) is helpful for beginning to understand nervous system
an increase in dopamine in the reward system, resulting in function, it is, like all metaphors, an oversimplification.
a drug high (España et al., 2010). In the long run, the over- Most importantly, neurons, unlike people, can have thou-
use of recreational drugs such as cocaine overstimulates the sands of “arms” and “hands.” That is, any given neuron
reward system and disturbs dopamine function, resulting in may synapse with many thousands of other neurons, espe-
drug addiction (Taber et al., 2012). cially in your brain. It is this vast overall neural network
As another example, the drug curare (cue-RAH-ree) of 100 trillion or more interlinked neurons that allows
causes paralysis. Acetylcholine (ah-SEET-ul-KOH-leen) you to process immense amounts of information, produc-
normally activates muscles. By attaching to receptor sites ing intelligence and consciousness (Kalat, 2016; Sporns &
on muscles, curare blocks acetylcholine, preventing the Betzel, 2016).
activation of muscle cells. As a result, a person or animal A simple network, a reflex arc, occurs when a stim-
given curare cannot move—a fact known to the indig- ulus provokes an automatic response. Such reflexes
enous peoples of South America’s Amazon River basin, arise within the spinal cord, without any help from the
who use curare as an arrow poison for hunting. Without brain (➤ Figure 7.8). Imagine that Molly steps on a thorn.
acetylcholine, a golfer couldn’t move a muscle, much less (Yes, she’s still playing catch with Mike.) Pain is detected in
swing a club. her foot via a sensory neuron, a neuron that carries mes-
sages from the senses toward the CNS. Instantly, the sensory
Neural Regulators More subtle brain activities are af-
neuron fires off a message to Molly’s spinal cord.
fected by chemicals called neuropeptides (NOOR-oh-
Inside the spinal cord, the sensory neuron synapses
PEP-tides). Neuropeptides do not carry messages directly.
with an interneuron, a neuron that links two others. The in-
Instead, they regulate the activity of other neurons. By do-
terneuron in turn activates a motor neuron, a neuron that
ing so, they affect memory, pain, emotion, pleasure, moods,
carries commands from the CNS to muscles. The muscle
hunger, sexual behavior, and other basic processes. For
example, when you touch something hot, you jerk your
hand away. The messages for this action are carried by neu- Receptor site An area on the surface of neurons and other cells that
is sensitive to neurotransmitters or hormones.
rotransmitters. At the same time, pain may cause the brain Neuropeptides Brain chemicals, such as enkephalins and endor-
to release neuropeptides called enkephalins (en-KEF-ah- phins, that regulate the activity of neurons.
lins). These opiate-like neural regulators relieve pain and Neural network Interlinked collection of neurons that processes
information in the brain.
stress. Related neuropeptide chemicals called endorphins
Reflex arc The simplest behavior, in which a stimulus provokes an
(en-DORF-ins) are released by the pituitary gland. Togeth- automatic response.
er, these chemicals reduce the pain so that it is not too dis- Sensory neuron A cell that transmits information from the sense
abling (Bruehl et al., 2012). organs to the central nervous system.
Motor neuron A cell in the nervous system that transmits com-
We now can explain the painkilling effect of placebos mands from the brain to the muscles.
(fake pills or injections); they raise endorphin levels (Price,

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66 p SychOLO Gy m o d u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

Gray matter White matter

1
Cell body of
sensory neuron A
Sensory
nerve Sensory neuron

1 1
Connector 2 1
neuron
Spinal cord 2
(cross section) Motor neuron

Muscle cell responds

by contracting

➤ Figure 7.9
A small stylized neural network. In this depiction, Neuron A
receives inputs from two weaker and one stronger excitatory
connections (1) and two inhibitory connections (2) and combines
the inputs into a “decision” to launch an action potential, which may,
Sensory in turn, help trigger further synaptic transmissions in other neurons.
receptor Any actual network involved in processing decisions like these
in skin would be much more complicated than illustrated here, but the
basic idea remains the same.
Stimulus to skin

➤ Figure 7.8 How can neural networks make decisions? Simplified

A simple reflex. A sensory-motor arc, or reflex, is set in motion greatly, ➤ Figure 7.9 shows a small stylized neural network in-
by a stimulus to the skin (or other part of the body). The neural volved in making a decision. Five neurons synapse with a sin-
message travels to the spinal cord and then back out to a muscle, gle neuron that, in turn, connects with three more neurons. At
which contracts. Such reflexes provide “automatic” protective
the time depicted in the diagram, the single neuron is receiving
devices for the body.
one stronger and two weaker excitatory messages (1), as well
as two inhibitory ones (2). Does it fire an impulse? It depends:
fibers are made up of effector cells (cells capable of produc- If enough exciting messages arrive close together in time, the
ing a response). The muscle cells contract and cause Molly’s neuron reaches its threshold and fires—but only if it doesn’t get
foot to withdraw. Notice that no brain activity is required too many inhibiting messages that push it away from its trig-
for a reflex arc to occur. Molly’s body reacts automatically ger point. In this way, messages are combined before a neuron
to protect itself. “decides” to fire its all-or-nothing action potential.
In reality, even a simple reflex usually triggers more Think of Figure 7.9 in terms of another metaphor. You
complex activity. For example, the muscles of Molly’s other are out shopping with five friends and find a pair of jeans
leg must contract to support her as she shifts her weight. that you want to buy. Three of them think you should buy
Even this can be done by the spinal cord, but it involves a the jeans, and your best friend is especially positive (1),
bigger network of cells and several spinal nerves. Also, the while two friends think you shouldn’t (2). Because, on bal-
spinal cord normally informs the brain of its actions. As ance, the input is positive, you go ahead and buy the jeans.
her foot pulls away from the thorn, Molly feels the pain and Maybe, in turn, you even tell some other friends that they
thinks, “Ouch! What was that?” should buy those jeans. Similarly, any single neuron in a
Perhaps you have realized how adaptive it is to have a neural network “listens” to the neurons that synapse with
spinal cord capable of responding on its own. Such automat- it and combines that input into an output. At any instant, a
ic responses free up brain-based neural networks in Mike single neuron may weigh hundreds or thousands of inputs
and Molly to make more complex calculations—such as to produce an outgoing message. After the neuron recovers
determining the locations of trees, lampposts, and chatting from the resulting action potential, it again combines the
picnickers—as they take turns deciding how best to make inputs, which may have changed in the meantime, into an-
grandstand catches. other output, and another, and another.

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 MODU LE 7 B r ai n an d B e havi o r: Th e n e rvo us sysTe m 67

In this way, each neuron in your brain functions as a these events by billions of neurons and trillions of synapses,
tiny biocomputer. Compared with the average laptop com- all operating at the same time, and you have an amazing bio-
puter, a neuron is terribly simple and slow. But multiply computer—one that could fit easily inside a shoebox.

Neuroplasticity and Neurogenesis—The Dynamic

Nervous System
Survey Question 7.4 Can the nervous system grow traumatic encephalopathy, the prospects for recovery are not
and heal itself? good because the brain damage suffered from head traumas
can be extensive and often triggers a subsequent disease
How is the nervous system programmed? Although it is ap-
process that continues to damage the brain long after the
propriate to describe the brain as a biocomputer, it is not
original traumas have ended (Baugh et al., 2012).
programmed in the usual sense of the word. Instead, it (and
you) learns (Kolb & Whishaw, 2013). This capacity of our Neurogenesis
nervous systems to change in response to experience is
The nervous system is “plastic” in another way. It has long
known as neuroplasticity.
been known that nerves in the peripheral nervous system
Consider, for example, taxi drivers from London,
(PNS) can regrow if they are damaged. Because of this, pa-
England, who must learn the names and locations of tens of
tients can expect to regain some control over severed limbs
thousands of streets in order to earn their licenses. Not only
once they have been reattached. In contrast, a serious injury
do experienced cabbies have superior memory for street in-
to the central nervous system was long thought to be per-
formation, but the parts of their brains responsible for pro-
manent. Recently, however, scientists have begun to make
cessing this learning also are enlarged (Woollett & Maguire,
progress repairing damaged neurons in the spinal cord
2011). Similarly, after undergoing cognitive behavior ther-
(Rossignol & Frigon, 2011; Watson & Yeung, 2011).
apy, not only do people with depression become more able
Can brain damage also be repaired? Until a few years
to control their negative moods, but images of their brains
ago, it was widely believed that we are born with all the brain
reveal more normal activity in brain areas related to
cells we will ever have (Ben Abdallah et al., 2010). This led
emotional processing (Ritchey et al., 2011).
to the depressing idea that as we age, we all slowly go down-
Neuroplasticity must be complicated, no? Maybe not. Ac-
hill because the brain loses thousands of neurons every day.
cording to Hebb’s rule, the repeated activation of synapses be-
Rather than facing a steady decline, however, we now know
tween two neurons strengthens the connection between them
that the brain is also capable of neurogenesis (noor-oh-JEN-
(Hebb, 1949). As a result of repeated experiences, synaptic con-
uh-sis), the production of new brain cells (Lee, Clemenson,
nections may grow stronger, and new ones may form. (Figure
& Gage, 2011). Each day, thousands of new cells originate
7.9 shows one particularly strong synapse—the large 1.) Con-
deep within the brain, move to the surface, and link up with
versely, inactive synaptic connections may weaken and even die.
other neurons to become part of the brain’s circuitry. This
Consequently, every new experience is reflected in syn-
was stunning news to neuroscientists, who must now figure
aptic changes in the brain. For example, rats raised in a com-
out what the new cells do. Most likely, they are involved in
plex environment have more synapses and longer dendrites
learning, memory, and our ability to adapt to changing cir-
in their brains than rats raised in a simpler environment
cumstances (Cameron & Glover, 2015).
(Kolb, Gibb, & Gorny, 2003). Or consider Nico and Brooke,
The discovery of neurogenesis in adult brains is leading
teenagers who had large portions of their brains removed as
to treatment possibilities that offer new hope for people suf-
infants. Nevertheless, they are functioning well today; over
fering from a variety of other disabilities, such as depression,
the years, their brains have literally “rewired” themselves
addiction, and schizophrenia (Chambers, 2012; Fournier &
(Immordino-Yang, 2008; Kolb et al., 2011).
Duman, 2012).
Are adult human brains also neuroplastic? Could Dave
Duerson’s brain have healed itself? Although adult brains are
much less neuroplastic, they too can be changed with pa- Neuroplasticity The capacity of the brain to change in response to
experience.
tience and persistence (Arden, 2010; Xerri, 2012). Unfortu- Neurogenesis The production of new brain cells.
nately for adults like Dave Duerson, who suffer from chronic

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68 p SychOLO Gy m o d u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

MODULE

7 Summary
7.1 What are the major divisions of the nervous 7.2.2 Neural function, including fluctuations of the resting
system? potential and the firing of the action potential, is
7.1.1 Sensations, thoughts, feelings, motives, actions, basically electrical in nature.
memories, and all other human capacities are associ-
7.3 how do neurons communicate with each
ated with nervous system activities and structures. other?
7.1.2 The nervous system can be divided into the central
7.3.1 Communication between neurons is chemical: neu-
nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous
rotransmitters cross the synapse, attach to receptor
system (PNS).
sites, and excite or inhibit the receiving cell.
7.1.3 The CNS is made up of the brain, which carries out
7.3.2 Chemicals called neuropeptides regulate synaptic
most of the “computing” in the nervous system,
activity in the brain.
and the spinal cord, which connects the brain to
7.3.3 All behavior can be traced to networks of neurons.
the PNS.
The spinal cord can process simple reflex arcs.
7.1.4 The PNS includes the somatic nervous system (SNS),
which carries sensory information to the brain and 7.4 can the nervous system grow and heal
motor commands to the body, and the autonomic itself?
nervous system (ANS), which controls vegetative and 7.4.1 The brain’s circuitry is not static. The brain can rewire
automatic bodily processes. The ANS has a sympa- itself and even grow new nerve cells in response to
thetic branch and a parasympathetic branch. changing environmental conditions.
7.4.2 Neurons and nerves in the peripheral nervous system
7.2 how do individual neurons function? can often regenerate. At present, damage in the
7.2.1 The dendrite and soma of a neuron combine neural central nervous system is usually permanent, although
input and send it down the axon to the axon terminals scientists are working on ways to repair damaged
for output across synapses to other neurons. neural tissue.

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 MODU LE 7 B r ai n an d B e havi o r: Th e n e rvo us sysTe m 69

Knowledge Builder Brain and Behavior: The Nervous System

Recite Reflect
1. The somatic and autonomic systems are part of the Think critically
_________________ nervous system.
8. Where in all the brain’s “hardware” do you think the
2. The parasympathetic nervous system is most active dur-
mind is found? What is the relationship between mind
ing times of high emotion. T or F?
and brain?
3. The _______________ and ____________ are the re-
ceiving areas of a neuron where information from other Self-Reflect
neurons is accepted.
How much of the functioning of your brain can you become
4. Action potentials are carried down the
aware of through introspection?
__________________ to the ______________
How does a neural network differ from the central
_______________________.
processing unit of a computer?
5. The ______________ potential becomes a(n)
______________ potential when a neuron passes the
threshold for firing. AN SW E R S
instrument.
6. The simplest neural network is a(n) _____________ musical instrument, then mental life would be like music played on that
____________. the sum of their parts. Or, to use a rough analogy, if the brain were a
7. Neuroplasticity refers to the capacity of the nervous brain activity forms complex patterns that are, in a sense, more than
system to is that mental states are emergent properties of brain activity—that is,

a. grow new neurons

body problem, have challenged thinkers for centuries. One recent view
resting, action 6. reflex arc 7. d 8. These questions, known as the mind–
b. cover some axons with a thin layer of cells 1. peripheral 2. F 3. dendrites, cell body 4. axon, axon terminals 5.
c. quickly recover from action potentials
d. form new synaptic connections

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MODULE

8 Brain and Behavior

Brain Research

How to Look Under Your Skull

Your 3-pound brain is wrinkled like a walnut, the size of a grapefruit,
and the texture of tofu. How could such a squishy little blob of tis-
sue enable us to make music of exquisite beauty? To seek a cure for
cancer? To fall in love? Or become a neuroscientist? Biopsychology is
the study of how biological processes, especially those occurring in
the nervous system, relate to behavior.
Biopsychologists seek to learn which parts of the brain control
particular mental or behavioral functions, such as being able to rec-
ognize faces or move your hands. That is, they try to learn where
functions are localized (located) in the brain. Since it is not possible
to settle issues about the brain subjectively, many objective tech-
niques have been developed to help identify brain structures and the
functions that they control. For example, the brain in this CT scan
Scott Camazine/Science Source

was damaged (shown in red) by a stroke, which occurs when an ar-

tery carrying blood in the brain bleeds or becomes blocked, causing
some brain tissue to die. The location of the stroke determines what
mental or behavioral functions are disrupted.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
8.1 How are different parts of the brain identified? 8.2 How can we study brain function?

Mapping Brain Structure—Pieces of the Puzzle

Survey Question 8.1 How are different parts of the brain and the MRI scan, can be used to map brain structures in
identified? living brains (Kalat, 2016).
Anatomists have learned much about brain structure by cut-
ting apart (dissecting) autopsied brains. Dissection reveals CT Scans
that the brain is made up of many anatomically distinct ar- Computed tomographic (CT) scans revolutionized the
eas comprised of gray matter (clusters of neuron cell bodies) study of the brain by providing clearer images than those
interspersed with regions of white matter (bundles of my- provided by conventional X-ray machines. In a CT scan, a
elinated axons), or pathways between those clusters. Fortu- computer collects X-rays taken from a number of different
nately, newer, less invasive technologies, such as the CT scan angles and forms them into an image. This procedure can

70
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 MODU LE 8 B r ai n an d B e havi o r: B r ai n r es ear c h 71

Tom Barrick,Chris Clark,Sghms/Science Source

GEOFF TOMPKINSON/Science Photo Library/Getty Images

This colored MRI image reveals pathways in the brain of a healthy

adult. Each pictured thread is a bundle of hundreds of thousands of
axons (Human Connectome Project, 2013).

A colored MRI scan of the brain reveals many details. Can you
identify any brain regions? images than are possible with CT scans. In an MRI scan,
a person’s body is placed inside a strong magnetic field.
reveal brain structure, as well as the location of strokes, in- Processing by a computer then creates a three-dimensional
juries, tumors, and other brain disorders. model of the brain or body. Any two-dimensional plane,
or slice, of the body can be selected and displayed as an
MRI image on a computer screen. MRI scans allow us to peer
Since they are X-rays, repeated CT scans may expose into the living brain, almost as if it were transparent. Re-
patients to unhealthy doses of radioactivity. Fortunately a cent developments in MRI technology have even made it
newer technology with no known side effects, magnetic possible to explore pathways in the brain in great detail
resonance imaging (MRI), provides even more detailed (Sporns, 2013) .

Exploring Brain Function—What Do the Parts Do?

Survey Question 8.2 How can we study brain function? case of Phineas Gage reported in Module 5, for example), this
has been done through case studies. Such case studies examine
Imagine a mechanic handing you a car part. Even though
changes in personality, behavior, or sensory capacity caused by
you can clearly see the structure of the thing (it’s about
brain diseases or injuries. If damage to a particular part of the
an inch long, with a round knob on one end, and a little
brain consistently leads to a particular loss of function, then we
prong . . .), you probably won’t be able to figure out its func-
say that the function is localized in that structure. Presumably,
tion (. . . but is it part of the steering system, the brakes, or
that part of the brain controls the same function in all of us.
what?). Similarly, while it is valuable to be able to examine
images of different brain structures and their interconnec-
tions, such as those made possible by CT scans and MRIs, Computed tomographic (CT) scan A computer-enhanced X-ray
image of the brain or body.
it is another matter entirely to understand what role those
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) An imaging technique that
structures play in normal brain function. results in a three-dimensional image of the brain or body, based
What parts of the brain allow us to think, feel, perceive, on its response to a magnetic field.
or act? To answer questions such as this, we must localize Localization of function The research strategy of linking specific
structures in the brain to specific psychological or behavioral
function by linking psychological or behavioral capacities functions.
with particular brain structures. In many instances (the strange

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72 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

Although major brain injuries are easy enough to spot, (LEE-zhun-ing), structures below the surface of the brain
psychologists also look for more subtle behavioral signs that can also be removed. In this case, an electrode is lowered
the brain is not working properly. Neurological soft signs, into a target area inside the brain, and a strong electric cur-
as they are called, include clumsiness, an awkward gait, poor rent is used to destroy a small amount of brain tissue (see
eye–hand coordination, and other problems with perception Figure 8.1). Again, any resulting changes in behavior give
or fine muscle control (Raymond & Noggle, 2013). These clues to the function of the affected area.
telltale signs are “soft” in the sense that they aren’t direct To find out what individual neurons are doing, we
tests of the brain, like a CT or MRI scan. Long-term brain need to do a microelectrode recording. A microelectrode
damage is usually first diagnosed with soft signs. Likewise, is an extremely thin glass tube filled with a salty fluid.
soft signs help psychologists diagnose problems ranging The tip of a microelectrode is small enough to detect the
from childhood learning disorders to full-blown psychosis electrical activity of a single neuron. Watching the ac-
(Banich & Compton, 2011). tion potentials of just one neuron provides a fascinating
In addition to case studies, researchers have learned glimpse into the true origins of behavior. (The action po-
much from electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) tential shown in Module 7, Figure 7.4, was recorded with
(➤ Figure 8.1). For example, the surface of the brain can be a microelectrode.)
“turned on” by stimulating it with a mild electrical current Are any less invasive techniques available for studying
delivered through a thin insulated wire called an electrode. brain function? Whereas CT scans and MRIs cannot tell us
When this is done during brain surgery, the patient can de- what different parts of the brain do, several other techniques
scribe the effect of the stimulation. (The brain has no pain re- allow us to observe the activity of parts of the brain without
ceptors, so surgery can be done while a patient is awake. Only doing any damage at all. These include the EEG, PET scan,
local painkillers are needed for the scalp and skull. Any vol- and fMRI (Freberg, 2016), described next.
unteers?) Even structures below the surface of the brain can
be activated by lowering a stimulating electrode, insulated EEG
except at the tip, into a target area inside the brain. ESB can Electroencephalography (ee-LEK-tro-in-SEF-ah-LOG-ruh-
call forth behavior with astonishing power. Instantly, it can fee) measures the waves of electrical activity produced
bring about aggression, alertness, eating, drinking, sleeping, near the surface of the brain. Small electrodes (disk-shaped
movement, euphoria, memories, speech, tears, and more. metal plates) are placed on a person’s scalp. Electrical im-
An alternative approach is ablation (ab-LAY-shun)— pulses from the brain are detected and sent to an electroen-
the surgical removal of parts of the surface of the brain (see cephalograph (EEG), which amplifies these weak signals
Figure 8.1). When ablation causes changes in behavior or (i.e., brain waves) and records them on a moving sheet of
sensory capacity, we also gain insight into the purpose of the paper or a computer screen. Various brain-wave patterns
missing “part.” By using a technique called deep lesioning can identify the presence of tumors, epilepsy, and other dis-
eases. The EEG also reveals changes in brain activity dur-
Deep-lesioning ing sleep, daydreaming, hypnosis, and other mental states.
Stimulation
electrode
electrode

Surgical
ablation
AJPhoto/Science Source

➤ Figure 8.1
Activating or removing brain structures. The functions of brain
structures can be explored by selectively activating or removing
them. Brain research is often based on electrical stimulation, but
chemical stimulation also is used at times. An EEG recording.
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 MODU LE 8 B r ai n an d B e havi o r: B r ai n r es ear c h 73

(Module 24 explains how changes in brain waves help

define various stages of sleep).

pET Scan
Positron emission tomography (PET) is a high-resolution
imaging technique that captures brain activity by attaching
radioactive particles to glucose molecules. A PET scan de-
tects positrons (i.e., subatomic particles) emitted by weakly
Right side Left side
radioactive glucose (sugar) as it is consumed by the brain.
Because the brain runs on glucose, a PET scan shows which

Source: Daniel Langleben, University of Pennsylvania

areas are using more energy. Higher energy use corresponds
with higher activity. Thus, by placing positron detectors Lie Activation
Truth Activation
around the head and sending data to a computer, it is pos-
sible to create a moving, color video of changes in brain ac-
tivity. As you can see in ➤ Figure 8.2, PET scans reveal that
different brain areas are active when you see, hear, speak,
or think. PET scans even suggest that different patterns of
Anterior
brain activity accompany major psychological disorders,
such as depression or schizophrenia. (See Module 61.) ➤ Figure 8.3
Is it true that most people use only 10 percent of their fMRI. Participants were asked to tell the truth or to lie while fMRI
images of their brains were taken. When compared to telling the
brain capacity? This is one of the lasting myths about the
truth (shown in blue), areas toward the front of the brain were active
brain. Brain scans show that all parts of the brain are active during lying (shown in red). Adapted from Langleben et al. (2005).
during waking hours. Obviously, some people make better
use of their innate brainpower than others. Nevertheless, a areas of your brain involved in understanding what you read
normally functioning brain has no great hidden or untapped would be highlighted in an fMRI image. (In contrast, if we
reserves of mental capacity. used MRI, rather than fMRI, we would get a beautiful image
of your brain structure without any clues as to which parts
fMRI of your brain were more or less active.)
A functional MRI (fMRI) uses MRI technology to record Psychiatrist Daniel Langleen and his colleagues have
activity levels in various areas of the brain. For example, if even used fMRI images to examine if a person is lying. As
we scanned your brain while you are reading this textbook, ➤ Figure 8.3 shows, the front of the brain is more active
when a person is lying rather than telling the truth. This may

Neurological soft signs Behavioral signs of nervous system dys-

function, including clumsiness, an awkward gait, poor hand–eye
coordination, and other perceptual and motor problems.
Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) Direct electrical stimula-
tion and activation of brain tissue.
Electrode Any device (such as a wire, needle, or metal plate) used
Seeing Hearing to stimulate or destroy nerve tissue electrically or to record its
WDCN/Univ. College London/Science Source

activity.
Ablation In biopsychology, the surgical removal of tissue from the
surface of the brain.
Deep lesioning Removal of tissue within the brain by the use of an
electrode.
Electroencephalograph (EEG) A device that records electrical
activity in the brain.
Speaking Thinking Positron emission tomography (PET) A high-resolution imaging
technique that captures brain activity by attaching radioactive
particles to glucose molecules.
➤ Figure 8.2
Functional MRI (fMRI) An MRI technique that records activity
PET scans. PET scans reveal different patterns of brain activation levels in various areas of the brain.
when we engage in different tasks.
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74 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

occur because it takes extra effort to lie, and that extra brain Clearly, it is just a matter of time until even brighter bea-
activity is detected with fMRI (Langleben, 2008). Eventu- cons are flashed into the shadowy inner world of thought
ally, such findings may validate the use of fMRI evidence (Sporns & Betzel, 2016).
in courts of law (Langleben & Moriarty, 2013; Rusconi &
Mitchener-Nissen, 2013).

MODULE

8 Summary
8.1 how are different parts of the brain identified? brain with specific psychological or behavioral
8.1.1 Brain structure is investigated though dissection and functions.
less intrusive CT scans and MRI scans. 8.2.1 Brain function is investigated through case studies,
electrical stimulation, ablation, deep lesioning,
8.2 how can we study brain function? electrical recording, and microelectrode recording
8.2.1 A major brain research strategy involves localiz- as well as less intrusive EEG recording, PET scans,
ing function by linking specific structures in the and fMRI scans.

Knowledge Builder Brain and Behavior: Brain Research

Recite interest in food and eating. Why would it be a mistake

to automatically conclude that the destroyed area is a
1. Which of the following research techniques has the
hunger center?
most in common with case studies of the effects of brain
injuries? Self-Reflect
a. EEG recording
You suspect that a certain part of the brain is related to risk-
b. deep lesioning
taking. How could you use case studies, ablation, deep lesion-
c. microelectrode recording
ing, and ESB to study the structure?
d. PET scan
You want to know which areas of the brain’s surface are
2. CT scans cannot determine which part of your brain
most active when a person sees a face. What methods will
plays a role in speech because they
you use?
a. use X-rays
b. reveal brain structure, not brain activity
c. reveal brain activity, not brain structure AN SW E R S
area merely relays the messages that cause the rat to eat.
d. use magnetic fields possible that hunger originates elsewhere in the brain, and the ablated
3. _________________ links brain structures to brain might be affected, or the rat might have difficulty swallowing. It also is
functions. the apparent loss of appetite. For example, the taste or smell of food
4. People use only 10 percent of their brain capacity. T or F? 1. b 2. b 3. Localization of function 4. F 5. Other factors might explain

Reflect
Think Critically
5. Deep lesioning is used to destroy an area in the hy-
pothalamus of a rat. After the operation, the rat loses

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 MODULE
Brain and Behavior
Hemispheres and Lobes 9
of the Cerebral Cortex

Wrinkle, Wrinkle, Little Star

In many ways, we humans are pretty unimpressive creatures. Other
animals surpass us in almost every category of strength, speed, and
sensory sensitivity. However, we are the stars when it comes to intel-
ligence; our brains, not our brawn, give us our greatest advantage as
a species. Even at first glance, the human brain appears to be com-
posed primarily of the heavily wrinkled tissue called the cerebral
cortex. We owe our human intelligence not to the overall size of our
brains but rather to just how much of our brains are made up of this
cortical tissue rather than subcortical tissue.

© decade3d/Shutterstock.com
The cerebral cortex can be divided into two hemispheres,
which differ in what abilities they control, and smaller areas
known as lobes. Parts of various lobes are responsible for the abil-
ity to see, hear, move, think, and speak. Thus, a map of the cere-
bral cortex is in some ways like a map of human abilities, as we
shall see.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
9.1 How do the left and right hemispheres differ? 9.2 What are the different functions of the lobes of the
cerebral cortex?

The Cerebral Cortex—Bigger Is Not Better

Survey Question 9.1 How do the left and right
(small, squirrel-like, insect-eating mammals) is about
hemispheres differ?
1/30. So our human brains are not noteworthy in terms of
Do humans have the largest brains? No, that honor goes to either absolute or relative weight (Coolidge & Wynn, 2009;
whales, whose brains can weigh as much as six times more Herculano-Houzel, 2012).
than the puny 3-pound human brain. However, when we So having a larger brain doesn’t necessarily make a
compare brain weight to body weight, we find that a whale’s person smarter? Although a small positive correlation ex-
brain makes up as little as 1/10,000 of its total weight. The ists between intelligence and brain size, overall size alone
ratio for humans is 1/60. And yet the ratio for tree shrews does not determine human intelligence (Kievit et al.,

75
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76 p syCHoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

➤ Figure 9.1
Corticalization of the human brain. A more wrinkled
cortex has greater cognitive capacity. Extensive Cerebral
cortex Sulci
corticalization is the key to human intelligence.
Gyrus
Fissure

Rat Sheep Human

2012; Royle et al., 2013). In fact, many parts of your brain Damage to one hemisphere may also cause a curious
are surprisingly similar to corresponding brain areas in problem called spatial neglect (Silveri, Ciccarelli, & Cappa,
other animals, such as lizards. What is different is your 2011). A spatial neglect patient may pay no attention to one
cerebral cortex (seh-REE-brel or ser-EH-brel), the thin,
outer covering of the brain in which high-level processes
take place.
The cerebral cortex, which looks a little like a giant,
wrinkled walnut, consists of the two large hemispheres that
cover the upper part of the brain. The two hemispheres
are divided into smaller areas known as lobes. The cere-
bral cortex covers most of the brain with a mantle of gray
matter (spongy tissue made up mostly of cell bodies). Al-
though the cortex is only 3 millimeters thick (one-tenth of
an inch), it contains 70 percent of the neurons in the cen-
tral nervous system. It is largely responsible for our ability
to use language, make tools, acquire complex skills, and
(a)
live in complex social groups (Coolidge & Wynn, 2009). In
Corpus callosum
humans, the cortex is twisted and folded, and it is the larg-
est brain structure (Striedter, Srinivasan, & Monuki, 2015).
In lower animals, it is smooth and small (➤ Figure 9.1).
The fact that humans are more intelligent than other ani-
mals is related to this corticalization (KORE-tih-kal-ih-
ZAY-shun), or increase in the size and wrinkling of the
cortex. Without the cortex, we humans wouldn’t be much
smarter than toads.

The Cerebral Hemispheres

The cortex is composed of two sides, or cerebral
hemispheres (half-globes), connected by a thick band of
axon fibers called the corpus callosum (KORE-pus kah-
LOH-sum) (➤ Figure 9.2). It has long been known that
the cerebral cortex displays lateralization, a specializa- (b)
tion in the abilities of the left and right hemispheres. For ➤ Figure 9.2
example, the left hemisphere mainly controls the right The corpus callosum. (a) The corpus callosum seems
side of the body. Likewise, the right hemisphere controls unremarkable when seen in cross-section. (b) Seen from above,
the left side of the body. If a stroke were to cause you to with the neurons of the cerebral cortex that normally cover it
removed, it is easier to appreciate the full extent of this thick
lose the ability to move your left arm, it would have been band of axon fibers that richly interconnects the two cerebral
to your right hemisphere. hemispheres.

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 MoDU LE 9 B r Ai n An d B e hAvi o r: h e M i s p h e r es An d lo B es o f th e c e r e B r Al c o rte x 77

Sample Patient’s version Also, oddly enough, mixed dominance is quite com-
mon. Most people (about 75 percent) are strongly right- or
left-handed (McManus et al., 2010). The rest show some in-
consistency in hand preference. For example, one of your
authors plays sports right-handed but writes left-handed.
Other people may be ambidextrous, preferring either hand
(or side) equally. For example, baseball player Pete Rose,
who holds the record for the most hits in a career, was a
“switch hitter,” batting almost equally well from either the
left side or the right side of the plate.
Similarly, you may have mixed preferences for using
your left or right feet, eyes, and ears. You even have pref-
➤ Figure 9.3 erences for which nostril you usually breathe through and
Spatial neglect. A patient with right-hemisphere damage asked which direction you lean your head when kissing (Green-
to copy images will likely neglect the left-hand side when drawing wood et al., 2006; van der Kamp & Cañal-Bruland, 2011).
them. Shown images of a human-like stick figure or a playing card,
(Do you kiss “right”?)
such a patient might produce versions like those shown here.
Similar instances of neglect occur in many patients with right- The Split-Brain In 1981, Roger Sperry (1914–1994) won
hemisphere damage (Silveri, Ciccarelli, & Cappa, 2011). Of course,
a patient with left-hemisphere damage would neglect the right side
a Nobel prize for his remarkable discovery that the right
of these images. and left brain hemispheres also perform differently on
tests of language, perception, music, and other capabilities
(Corballis, 2010).
side of visual space (➤ Figure 9.3). Patients with right hemi-
How is it possible to test only one side of the brain?
sphere damage may not eat food on the left side of a plate.
One way is to work with people who’ve had a split-brain
Some even refuse to acknowledge a paralyzed left arm as
operation. In this rare surgery, the corpus callosum is cut
their own (Hirstein, 2005). If you point to the “alien” arm,
to control severe epilepsy. The result is essentially a person
the patient may well say, “Oh, that’s not my arm. It must be-
with two brains in one body (Schechter, 2012). After the
long to someone else.”
right and left brain are separated, each hemisphere has its
Hemispheric Dominance and Handedness In addi- own separate perceptions, concepts, and impulses to act.
tion to lateralization, the cerebral hemispheres also display It also becomes possible to send information solely to one
dominance. For example, what is your handedness—do you hemisphere or the other (➤ Figure 9.4).
prefer to use your right hand or your left hand? If you are How does a split-brain person act after the operation?
right-handed, your dominant hemisphere is most likely the Having two “brains” in one body can create some interest-
left hemisphere (and vice versa for left-handedness). About ing dilemmas. One split-brain patient, Karen, has to endure
90 percent of all humans are right-handed; 10 percent are an out-of-control left hand. As Karen put it, “I’d light a ciga-
left-handed (Meguerditchian, Vauclair, & Hopkins, 2013). rette, balance it on an ashtray, and then my left hand would
If a person is strongly left-handed, does that mean the right reach forward and stub it out. It would take things out of my
hemisphere is dominant? Overall hemispheric dominance is
difficult to assess based on handedness alone. For example, Cerebral cortex A thin, wrinkled outer covering of the brain in
which high-level processes take place.
about 95 percent of right-handers process speech in the left Corticalization An increase in the relative size of the cerebral cortex.
hemisphere and are left-brain dominant. A good 70 percent Cerebral hemispheres The left and right sides of the cerebral cortex;
of left-handers produce speech from the left hemisphere, interconnected by the corpus callosum.
Lateralization Differences between the two sides of the body, espe-
just as right-handed people do. However, 19 percent of left-
cially differences in the abilities of the brain hemispheres.
ies and 3 percent of righties use their right brain for lan- Handedness A preference for the right or left hand in most activities.
guage. Some left-handers (approximately 12 percent) even Dominant hemisphere A term usually applied to the side of a per-
use both sides of the brain for language processing. All told, son’s brain that produces language.
Split-brain operation A surgical procedure that involves cutting the
more than 90 percent of the population uses the left brain corpus callosum.
for language (Szaflarski et al., 2011).

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78 p syCHoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

L d Left Brain Right Brain

el Language Time sense Nonverbal Recognition and

e f t vi

l fi
Speech Rhythm Perceptual skills expression of emotion
su Writing Ordering of complex Visualization Spatial skills

ua
a l fi is
eld Rig h t v Calculation movements Recognition of Simple language
patterns, faces, comprehension
melodies

Left eye Right eye

Optic nerve I see

I see a
Optic chiasm circle. nothing.
Corpus callosum (crossover)
(cut)
Lateral geniculate
body of thalamus
Optic
radiation
Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere
Occipital
lobe
➤ Figure 9.5
The split brain. A circle is flashed to the left brain of a split-brain
➤ Figure 9.4 patient, and he is asked what he saw. He easily replies, “A circle.”
He also can pick out the circle by merely touching shapes with his
Basic pathways of vision. Notice that the left portion of each eye
right hand, which is out of sight behind a screen. However, his left
connects to the left half of the brain; likewise, the right portion of
hand can’t identify the circle. If a triangle is flashed to the patient’s
each eye connects to the right brain. When the corpus callosum is
right brain, he can’t say what he saw (because speech is controlled
cut, a split brain results. Then visual information can be sent to just
by the left hemisphere). He also can’t identify the triangle by touch
one hemisphere by flashing it in the right or left visual field as the
with the right hand. Now, however, the left hand has no difficulty
person stares straight ahead.
picking out the triangle. In other tests, the hemispheres reveal
distinct skills, as listed above the drawing.

handbag and I wouldn’t realize so I would walk away. I lost

a lot of things before I realized what was going on” (Mosley,
In addition, the left hemisphere is superior at math, judg-
2011). However, such conflicts are actually rare. That’s be-
ing time and rhythm, and coordinating the order of complex
cause both halves of the brain normally have about the same
movements, such as those needed for speech (Kell et al.,
experience at the same time. Also, if a conflict arises, one
2011; Pinel & Dehaene, 2010).
hemisphere usually overrides the other.
In contrast, the right hemisphere can produce only the
Split-brain effects are easiest to see in specialized testing.
simplest language and numbers. Working with the right
For example, we could flash a dollar sign to the right brain
brain is like talking to a child who can say only a dozen
and a question mark to the left brain of a patient named
words or so. To answer questions, the right hemisphere
Tom (Figure 9.4 shows how this is possible.) Next, Tom is
must use nonverbal responses, such as pointing at objects
asked to draw what he saw, using his left hand, out of sight.
(see Figure 9.5).
Tom’s left hand draws a dollar sign. If Tom is then asked to
Although it is poor at producing language, the right
point with his right hand to a picture of what his hidden left
brain is especially good at perceptual skills, such as rec-
hand drew, he will point to a question mark (Sperry, 1968).
ognizing patterns, faces, and melodies; putting together a
In short, for the split-brain person, one hemisphere may not
puzzle; or drawing a picture. It also helps you express emo-
know what is happening in the other. This has to be the ulti-
tions and detect the emotions that other people are feeling
mate case of the “right hand not knowing what the left hand
(Castro-Schilo & Kee, 2010).
is doing”! ➤ Figure 9.5 provides another example of split-
Even though the right hemisphere is nearly “speechless,”
brain testing.
it is superior at some aspects of understanding language. If
Hemispheric Lateralization Earlier, it was stated that the right side of the brain is damaged, people lose their abil-
the hemispheres differ in abilities. In what ways are they ity to understand jokes, irony, sarcasm, implications, and
different? The brain divides its work in interesting ways. other nuances of language. Basically, the right hemisphere
As stated previously, roughly 95 percent of us use our left helps us see the overall context in which something is said
brain for language (speaking, writing, and understanding). (Dyukova et al., 2010).

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 MoDU LE 9 B r Ai n An d B e hAvi o r: h e M i s p h e r es An d lo B es o f th e c e r e B r Al c o rte x 79

In general, the left hemisphere is involved mainly with At the same time, she will use her right brain to recognize
analysis (breaking information into parts). It also processes and organize melodies.
information sequentially (in order, one item after the next).
Sex Differences: His and Her Brains? How about
The right hemisphere appears to process information holis-
men’s and women’s brains? Are they specialized in different
tically (all at once) and simultaneously.
ways? Yes, they are. Many physical differences between male
To summarize further, you could say that the right hemi-
and female brains have been found, although their impli-
sphere is better at assembling pieces of the world into a coher-
cations remain to be better understood (McCarthy et al.,
ent picture; it sees overall patterns and general connections.
2012). One generalization that may stand the test of time is
The left brain focuses on small details (➤ Figure 9.6). The
that the two hemispheres appear to be more interconnected
right brain sees the wide-angle view; the left zooms in on
in women than in men (Ingalhalikara et al., 2013; Tomasi &
specifics. The focus of the left brain is local; the right is global
Volkow, 2012). (See ➤ Figure 9.7).
(Hübner & Volberg, 2005).
This structural difference may underlie many observed
Left Brain/Right Brain Are there left-brained and functional differences between men’s and women’s brains.
right-brained people? Numerous books and websites have For example, in one classic series of studies, researchers
been devoted to how to use the left brain or the right observed brain activity as people did language tasks. Both
brain to manage, teach, draw, ride horses, learn, and even men and women showed increased activity in Broca’s area,
make love. But this is a drastic oversimplification because on the left side of the brain, exactly as expected. Surpris-
people normally use both sides of their brain at all times ingly, the right brain was also activated in more than half
(Nielsen et al., 2013). It’s true that some tasks may make the women tested. Despite this difference, the two sexes per-
more use of one hemisphere or the other. But in most re- formed equally well on a task that involved sounding out
al-world activities, the hemispheres share the work. Each words (Shaywitz et al., 1995). Another study, this time fo-
does the parts that it does best and shares information cused on intelligence, also found that women are more likely
with the other side. than men to use both sides of their brains (Tang et al., 2010).
A smart brain is one that grasps both the details and It is tempting to conclude that the front-to-back con-
the overall picture at the same time. For instance, during a nection pattern of the male hemispheres explains men’s
concert, a guitarist will use her left brain to judge time and
rhythm and coordinate the order of her hand movements.

Left hemisphere Right hemisphere

DETAILS OVERALL PATTERN

D
D
D
“A bunch of Ds” D “The letter L”
D
DDDDD

“It’s about sewing.” A stitch in time “A small effort now

saves nine. saves time later.”
National Academy of Sciences

“Dots and blobs” “An eye”

➤ Figure 9.7
➤ Figure 9.6 Male and female brains. (top) Male brains have more front-to-
Local and global processing. The left and right brains have back connections in each hemisphere. (bottom) Female brains have
different information processing styles. The right brain gets the big more left-to-right connections between hemispheres (Ingalhalikara
pattern; the left focuses on small details. et al., 2013).

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80 p syCHoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

readiness to quickly go from perception to action. Similarly, Propper, & Christman, 2013). For example, when Broca’s
the left-to-right connection pattern in females seems to ex- area is damaged, some women can use the right side of their
plain women’s greater willingness to combine rational and brains to compensate for the loss, which allows them to
intuitive judgments. For now, these are just hypotheses that resume speaking (Sommer, 2010). A man with similar dam-
await further research. age might be permanently impaired. Thus, when a man says,
Regardless, using both sides of the brain for language and “I have half a mind to tell you what I think,” he may be stating
other forms of intelligence may be advantageous (Prichard, a curious truth.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex—Hey, You, Four Lobes!

Survey Question 9.2 What are the different functions of The very front of the frontal lobes is known as the
the lobes of the cerebral cortex? prefrontal area (prefrontal cortex) ➤ Figure 9.9. This part
of the brain is responsible for the executive functions, the
Each of the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex can be
higher-level mental processes that allow us to regulate and
divided into several smaller lobes. Some of the lobes of the
coordinate our own thought processes (Banich & Compton,
cerebral cortex are defined by larger fissures on the surface
2011). (See Module 11, on self-regulation, and Module 26, on
of the cortex. Others are regarded as separate areas because
metacognition.) Damage to the prefrontal cortex will most
their functions are quite different (➤ Figure 9.8).
likely affect reasoning or planning (Roca et al., 2010). Pa-
The Frontal Lobes tients with damage to the prefrontal areas often get stuck on
mental tasks and repeat the same wrong answers over and
The frontal lobes are areas of the cortex associated with
over (Stuss & Knight, 2002).
movement, sense of self, and higher mental functions.
Most of the rest of the frontal lobes are usually referred
If the frontal lobes are damaged, a patient’s personality
to as frontal association areas. Only a small portion of the ce-
and emotional life may change dramatically. Remem-
rebral cortex (the primary areas) directly controls the body
ber Phineas Gage, the railroad foreman described in
or receives information from the senses. All the surround-
Module 5? He’s the person who accidentally destroyed
ing areas, which are called association areas (or association
much of his frontal cortex. It’s likely that Gage’s person-
cortex), combine and process information. For example,
ality changed after he suffered brain damage because
if you see a rose, association areas help you connect your
the frontal cortex generates our sense of self, including
primary sensory impressions with memories, so that you
an awareness of our current emotional state (Jenkins &
can recognize the rose and name it. Some association areas
Mitchell, 2011).
also contribute to higher mental abilities, such as language.
For example, a person with damage to association areas in
Frontal lobe
(sense of self, motor control,
the left hemisphere may suffer aphasia (ah-FAZE-yah), an
and higher mental abilities impaired ability to use language.
such as reasoning and planning) Parietal lobe
(sensation such as
One type of aphasia is related to Broca’s area (BRO-
touch, temperature, cahs), a speech center that is part of the left frontal asso-
and pressure)
ciation area (for 5 percent of all people, the area is part of
the right frontal association area). (See Figure 9.9.) Damage
Occipital to Broca’s area causes motor (or expressive) aphasia, a great
lobe difficulty in speaking or writing (Grodzinsky & Santi,
(vision)
2008). Generally, the person knows what she or he wants to
say but can’t seem to fluently utter the words (Fridriksson et
Temporal lobe
(hearing and al., 2012). Typically, a patient’s grammar and pronunciation
language) Cerebellum
(posture, coordination, are poor and speech is slow and labored. For example, the
muscle tone, and memory person may say “bife” for bike, “seep” for sleep, or “zokaid”
of skills and habits)
for zodiac.
➤ Figure 9.8 Positron emission tomography (PET) and functional
Functions of the lobes of cerebral cortex. magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans suggest that

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 MoDU LE 9 B r Ai n An d B e hAvi o r: h e M i s p h e r es An d lo B es o f th e c e r e B r Al c o rte x 81

Primary Motor Primary Somatosensory

Head
Shoulder
k

Neck
Trunk
p

Arm
Elbow
Shoulder

Elboew
HiLeg

Wrist
ip

Trun

For t
Wraisnd
Hand
H

H ttle
Knee

Litting le

Li ng le
Foot

R idd x b

Ri iddex

arm
M e
Ankle

M d
le
T Toes

In humck

In
Toes Ey hum Genitalia

d
T e
r s ers
No e b

N
Br ge
Eyeow ng
Fin Fac es Fi
Fac lid an Up e Left
e d Left pe
eye hemisphere
Lips ba hemisphere Lips r lip
ll

Voc
Lowe
r lip
alization
Jaw Teeth, gums, an
e
Tongu d jaw
SalivM S w Tongue al
a all ry n x min
ion sticatioowing Pha -abdo
at
n a
Intr ans
org

Temporal lobe Temporal lobe

➤ Figure 9.9
Functions of some cortical Primary motor area Primary
areas. The lobes of the cerebral somatosensory
area
cortex and the primary sensory,
motor, visual, and auditory areas on Prefrontal area Primary
visual area
each. The top diagrams show (in
cross-section) the relative amounts Wernicke’s
Broca’s area
of cortex assigned to the sensory and area
motor control of various parts of the
body. (Each cross-section, or slice, Cerebellum
Primary auditory area
of the cortex has been turned 90 Pons
degrees, so that you see it as it would Medulla
appear from the back of the brain.) Spinal cord

much of what we call intelligence is related to increased Incidentally, due to neuroplasticity, learning and experi-
activity in the prefrontal and frontal association areas of ence can alter these “motor maps” (Hoenig et al., 2011).
the cortex (Cole et al., 2012; Duncan, 2005). Reduced fron- For instance, violin, viola, and cello players have larger
tal lobe function also leads to greater impulsivity, includ- “hand maps” in motor cortex (Hashimoto et al., 2004).
ing increased risk for drug addiction (Crews & Boettiger,
2009). In turn, drug abuse can further damage this impor- Lobes of the cerebral cortex Areas on the left and right cortex
tant area of the brain (Perry et al., 2011). bordered by major fissures or defined by their functions.
The frontal lobes are also responsible for controlling Frontal lobes Areas of the cortex associated with movement, the
movement. Specifically, an arch of tissue at the rear of the sense of self, and higher mental functions.
Prefrontal area (prefrontal cortex) The very front of the frontal
frontal lobes, called the primary motor area (cortex), di- lobes; involved in the sense of self, executive functions, and
rects the body’s muscles. If this area is stimulated with planning.
an electrical current, various parts of the body twitch or Executive functions The higher-level mental processes that allow us
to regulate and coordinate our own thought processes.
move. The drawing wrapped around the motor cortex in
Association areas (association cortex) All areas of the cerebral
Figure 9.9 is out of proportion because it reflects the dex- cortex that are not primarily sensory or motor in function.
terity of body areas, not their size. The hands, for example, Aphasia A speech disturbance resulting from brain damage.
get more area than the feet. If you’ve ever wondered why Broca’s area A language area related to grammar and pronunciation.
Primary motor area (cortex) A brain area associated with the
your hands are more skilled or agile than your feet, it’s control of movement.
partly because more motor cortex is devoted to the hands.

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82 p syCHoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Mirror Neurons The motor cortex is one brain area that (the ability to identify with another person’s experiences and
contains mirror neurons. These neurons become active feelings) may arise from the activation of mirror neurons
when we perform an action and when we merely observe (Corradini & Antonietti, 2013).
someone else carrying out the same action. Mirror neurons even may partially explain autism spec-
But how could we know that? Italian researchers had trum disorders. Autism’s primary features are impaired com-
just recorded an increase in the activity of a single neuron munication and social interaction (Lord & Bishop, 2015).
in the motor cortex of a monkey as it reached for food. A According to the broken mirrors hypothesis, autism may
few seconds later, one of the researchers happened to reach arise in infants whose mirror neuron system, which plays
for a snack of his own. The same neuron in the monkey’s a role reflecting the actions and words of others, has been
brain obligingly responded as if the monkey had reached for damaged by genetic defects or environmental risk factors
the food itself. Unexpectedly, a neuron involved in control- (Gallese, Rochat, & Berchio, 2013).
ling a particular motor movement also was activated when To date, these are still hypotheses that await empirical
the monkey merely observed that same motor movement in confirmation (Hunter, Hurley, & Taber, 2013; Southgate,
someone else. Just like that, the Italians discovered mirror 2013). Nevertheless, the possibilities are exciting.
neurons (Rizzolatti, Fogassi, & Gallese, 2006).
Their discovery triggered a flood of interest. Research- The parietal Lobes
ers were quick to confirm that mirror neurons are found in Bodily sensations register in the parietal lobes (puh-RYE-
various areas of the monkey brain and appear to exist in the ih-tal), located just behind the frontal lobes. Touch, temper-
human brain as well (Molenberghs, Cunnington, & Mat- ature, pressure, and other somatic sensations flow into the
tingley, 2012). Psychologists had long assumed that learning primary somatosensory area (cortex) (SO-mat-oh-SEN-
new skills by imitating others involved a complicated pro- so-ree) of the parietal lobes. Again, we find that the map of
cess (see Module 27 to read more about imitation). But now bodily sensations is distorted. In the case of somatosensory
it seemed possible that newborn humans (and monkeys) cortex, the drawing in Figure 9.9 reflects the sensitivity of
easily imitate others because networks of mirror neurons are body areas, not their size. For example, the lips are large
activated when an infant watches someone perform an ac- in the drawing because of their great sensitivity, where-
tion. Then the same mirror network can be used to perform as the back and trunk, which are less sensitive, are much
that action (Meini & Paternoster, 2012). Psychologists and smaller. Notice that the hands are also large in the map of
neuroscientists have also speculated that human empathy body sensitivity—which is obviously an aid to musicians,
typists, watchmakers, massage therapists, lovers, and brain
surgeons.

The Temporal Lobes

The temporal lobes are located on each side of the brain.
Auditory information is sent via the auditory nerve direct-
ly to the primary auditory area (cortex). If we did a PET
scan of your brain while you listened to your favorite song,
your primary auditory area would be the first to “light up,”
followed by association areas in your temporal lobes. Like-
wise, if we could electrically stimulate the primary auditory
area of your temporal lobe, you would “hear” a series of
sound sensations.
Attila Kisbenedek/Afp/Getty Images

A left temporal lobe association area called Wernicke’s

area (VER-nick-ees) also functions as a language site (see
Figure 9.9; again, for 5 percent of all people, the area is on the
right temporal lobe). If it is damaged, the result is a receptive
(or fluent) aphasia. Although the person can hear speech, he
Does this chimpanzee imitate researcher Jane Goodall by relying or she has difficulty understanding the meaning of words.
on mirror neurons? Thus, when shown a picture of a chair, someone with Broca’s

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 MODU LE 9 B r ai n an d B e havi o r: h e m i s p h e r es an d Lo B es o f th e C e r e B r aL C o rte x 83

aphasia might say “tssair.” In contrast, a Wernicke’s patient the hospital, and she was unable to identify pictures of her
might fluently, but incorrectly, identify the photo as “truck” children. However, as soon as visitors spoke, she knew them
(Robson, Sage, & Ralph, 2012). immediately by their voices.
Areas devoted to recognizing faces and the emotions
The Occipital Lobes they convey lie in association areas in the occipital and fron-
At the back of the brain, we find the occipital lobes (awk- tal lobes (Prochnow et al., 2013). These areas appear to be
SIP-ih-tal), cortical areas that play a role in visual process- highly specialized. Why would parts of the brain be set aside
ing. Patients with tumors (cell growths that interfere with solely for processing faces? From an evolutionary stand-
brain activity) in the primary visual area (cortex), the part point, it is not really so surprising. After all, we are social
of the cortex to first receive input from the eyes, experience animals for whom facial recognition is very important.
blind spots in their vision. In summary, the bulk of our daily experience and all of
Do the primary visual areas of the cortex correspond di- our understanding of the world can be traced to the differ-
rectly to what is seen? Images are mapped onto the cortex, ent areas of the cortex. The human brain may be the most
but the map is greatly stretched and distorted (Toates, 2011). advanced and sophisticated of the brain-bearing species on
That’s why it’s important to avoid thinking of the visual area earth. This, of course, is no guarantee that our marvelous
as a little television screen in the brain. Visual information biocomputer will be put to full use. Still, we must stand in
creates complex patterns of activity in neurons; it does not awe of the potential it represents.
make a television-like image.
One of the most fascinating results of brain injury is
visual agnosia (ag-KNOW-zyah), an inability to identify Mirror neurons Neurons that become active when a motor action is
seen objects. Visual agnosia is often caused by damage to the carried out and when another organism is observed performing
the same action.
association areas on the occipital lobes (Farah, 2004). This Parietal lobes Areas of the cortex in which body sensations register.
condition is sometimes referred to as mindblindness. For ex- Primary somatosensory area (cortex) A receiving area for body
ample, if we show Alice, an agnosia patient, a candle, she sensations.
can see it and can describe it as “a long narrow object that Temporal lobes Areas of the cortex that include the sites where
hearing registers.
tapers at the top.” Alice can even draw the candle accurately, Primary auditory area (cortex) The part of the temporal lobe that
but she cannot name it. However, if she is allowed to feel the first receives input from the ears.
candle, she will name it immediately. In short, Alice can still Wernicke’s area A temporal lobe brain area related to language
comprehension.
see color, size, and shape. She just can’t form the associations
Occipital lobes Cortical areas at the back of the brain that play a
necessary to perceive the meanings of objects. role in visual processing.
An especially fascinating form of mindblindness is Primary visual area (cortex) The part of the occipital lobe that first
facial agnosia, an inability to perceive familiar faces (Farah, receives input from the eyes.
Visual agnosia An inability to identify seen objects.
2006; Sacks, 2010). One patient with facial agnosia couldn’t Facial agnosia An inability to perceive familiar faces.
recognize her husband or mother when they visited her in

MODULE

9 Summary
9.1 How do the left and right hemispheres Regardless, more than 90 percent of right-handed
differ? persons and about 70 percent of the left-handed also
9.1.1 The human brain is marked not by overall size but produce speech from the left hemisphere.
by advanced corticalization, or enlargement of the 9.1.4 Split brains can be created by cutting the corpus cal-
cerebral cortex. losum. The split-brain individual shows a remarkable
9.1.2 The cortex is lateralized, with left and right degree of independence between the right and left
hemispheres specializing in different abilities. hemispheres.
9.1.3 The vast majority of people are right-handed and, 9.1.5 The left hemisphere is good at analysis, and it pro-
therefore, left-brain dominant for motor skills. cesses small details sequentially. It contains speech or

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84 p syCHoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

language centers in most people. It also specializes in association areas, which combine and process
writing, calculating, judging time and rhythm, and information. Damage to Broca’s area results in motor
ordering complex movements. aphasia, a difficulty in speaking or writing. The
9.1.6 The right hemisphere detects overall patterns; prefrontal cortex is related to abstract thought and
it processes information simultaneously and one’s sense of self.
holistically. It is largely nonverbal and excels at spatial 9.2.2 The parietal lobes contain the primary sensory area,
and perceptual skills, visualization, and recognition which processes bodily sensations.
of patterns, faces, and melodies. 9.2.3 The temporal lobes contain the primary auditory
9.1.7 Women’s brains may be less lateralized than men’s area and are responsible for hearing and language.
brains. Damage to Wernicke’s area results in fluent
aphasia, a difficulty understanding the meanings
9.2 What are the different functions of the lobes
of the cerebral cortex? of words.
9.2.4 The occipital lobes contain the primary visual area,
9.2.1 The frontal lobes contain the primary motor area
which first receives input from the eyes.
(which includes many mirror neurons) and many

Knowledge Builder Brain and Behavior: Hemispheres and Lobes

of the Cerebral Cortex

Recite Reflect
See if you can match the following. Think Critically
1. _____ Corpus callosum A. Visual area
13. If your brain were removed, replaced by another, and
2. _____ Occipital lobes B. Language, speech,
moved to a new body, which would you consider to be
writing
yourself—your old body with the new brain, or your new
3. _____ Parietal lobes C. Motor cortex and
body with the old brain?
abstract thinking
4. _____ Temporal lobes D. Spatial skills, self-Reflect
visualization, pattern
Learning the functions of the brain lobes is like learning areas
recognition
on a map. Try drawing a map of the cortex. Can you label
5. _____ Frontal lobes E. Speech disturbances
all the different lobes and name their functions? Where is
6. _____ Association cortex F. Hearing
the primary motor area? The primary somatosensory area?
7. _____ Aphasias G. Increased ratio of
Broca’s area? Keep redrawing the map until it becomes more
cortex in brain
detailed and you can do it easily.
8. _____ Corticalization H. Bodily sensations
9. _____ Left hemisphere I. Treatment for severe
AN sW E R s
epilepsy body being more nearly the “real you.”
10. _____ Right hemisphere J. Inability to identify activity—a fact which makes a strong case for your old brain in a new
seen objects edge, personal memories, and self-concept all derive from brain
11. _____ Split brain K. Fibers connecting the there is no “correct” answer to this question, your personality, knowl-
1. K 2. A 3. H 4. F 5. C 6. L 7. E 8. G 9. B 10. D 11. I 12. J 13. Although
cerebral hemispheres
12. _____ Agnosia L. Cortex that is not
sensory or motor in
function

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 MODULE
Brain and Behavior
The Subcortex and Endocrine System 10
Our Animal Brain
Although our cerebral cortex makes us uniquely human, it is important
to recognize the critical role of our more primitive subcortex and its links
to the endocrine system. For example, the cerebral cortex is surprising-
ly unnecessary for physical survival. You, or at least your body, would
continue to live even if you lost large portions of your cerebral cortex.
Not so with the subcortex, the brain structures underneath the cerebral
cortex. Hunger, thirst, sleep, attention, sex, breathing, and many other
vital functions are controlled by parts of the subcortex. Serious damage

iStockphoto.com/Juanmonino
to our “lower brain” usually leads to coma or even to death. The endo-
crine glands form a second, more primitive, communication system in
the body. Hormones can affect everything from personality and emo-
tions to hunger and reactions to stress. Let’s check out our animal brain.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
10.1 What are the major parts of the subcortex? 10.2 How does the endocrine system affect behavior?

The Subcortex—At the Core of the (Brain) Matter

Survey Question 10.1 What are the major parts of the that govern higher-order mental processes. (The
subcortex? forebrain also includes the cerebral cortex, which we
Like a multilevel parking garage beneath an apartment build- discuss separately in Module 9 because of its size and
ing, the subcortex lies beneath the cerebral hemispheres. importance.)
In turn, the subcortex can be divided into three layers
(➤ Figure 10.1): Subcortex A term referring to all brain structures below the cerebral
cortex.
◗ The hindbrain is the most primitive part of the brain. It Hindbrain A primitive part of the brain that comprises the medulla,
comprises the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. pons, and cerebellum.
◗ The midbrain is made up of the brain structure that Midbrain A structure that connects the hindbrain with the forebrain.
connects the hindbrain with the forebrain. Forebrain A brain structure, including the limbic system, thalamus,
hypothalamus, and cortex, that governs higher-order mental
◗ The forebrain comprises the brain structures, includ- processes.
ing the limbic system, thalamus, and hypothalamus,

85
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86 p Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Cerebral Cortex Corpus Callosum

Voluntary movements; Band of fibers connecting
sensations, learning, the two hemispheres
remembering, thinking,
emotion, consciousness
Thalamus
Relay station to cortex for
Hypothalamus sensory information
Control of hunger, thirst,
temperature, and other
visceral and bodily Midbrain
functions Conduction and
switching center

Cerebellum
Muscle tone; body balance;
coordination of skilled
movement

Pituitary Gland
The ”master gland” Reticular Formation
of the endocrine system Arousal; attention;
movement; reflexes

Medulla
Centers for control over Spinal Cord
breathing, swallowing, Conduction paths for motor
Forebrain
digestion, heart rate and sensory impulses; local
Midbrain
reflexes (reflex arc)
Hindbrain

➤ Figure 10.1
Main structures of the human brain. This simplified drawing shows the main structures of the human brain and describes some of their
most important features. (You can use the color code in the foreground to identify which areas are part of the forebrain, midbrain, and
hindbrain.)

The hindbrain muscle tone, posture, and movements of the eyes, face, head,
body, and limbs. At the same time, the RF controls the reflexes
Why are the lower brain areas so important? Let’s find out. The
involved in breathing, sneezing, coughing, and vomiting.
brainstem is the thickening of the spinal cord where it joins the
The RF also keeps us vigilant, alert, and awake. Incom-
brain. Virtually all communication between the cerebral cortex
ing messages from the sense organs branch into the RF,
and the rest of the body passes through the brainstem, which
which bombards the cortex with stimulation, keeping it
consists of two major hindbrain structures, the medulla, and the
active and alert. For instance, let’s say that a sleepy driver
pons, along with the midbrain. For our purposes, the midbrain
rounds a bend and encounters a deer standing in the road.
can be viewed as a link between the forebrain and the hind-
The driver snaps to attention and applies the brakes. She can
brain. Therefore, let’s focus on the rest of the subcortex.
thank her RF for arousing the rest of her brain and averting
The medulla connects the brain with the spinal cord and
an accident. If you’re getting sleepy while reading this mod-
controls vital life functions. The pons, which looks like a small
ule, try pinching your ear—a little pain will cause the RF to
bump on the brainstem, acts as a bridge between the medulla
momentarily arouse your cortex.
and other brain areas. In addition to connecting with many
other locations, including the cerebellum, the pons influences
sleep and arousal. Various drugs, diseases, and injuries can The cerebellum
disrupt the medulla and end or endanger life. The cerebellum is also part of the hindbrain. Looking like a
The Reticular Formation A collection of cells and fi- miniature cerebral cortex, the cerebellum lies near the brain-
bers called the reticular formation (RF) (reh-TICK-you-ler) stem at the base of the brain. Although there is growing evidence
lies inside the medulla and pons. As messages flow into the that it plays a role in cognition and emotion (Schmahmann,
brain, the RF gives priority to some while turning others aside 2010), the cerebellum primarily regulates posture, muscle tone,
(Freberg, 2016). By doing so, the RF influences attention. The and muscular coordination. The cerebellum also stores memo-
RF doesn’t fully mature until adolescence, which may be why ries related to “know-how” or skill memories. (Alstermark &
children have such short attention spans. The RF also modifies Ekerot, 2013). “Know-what” memories, such as remembering a
outgoing commands to the body. In this way, the RF affects person’s name or knowing what the cerebellum does, are stored
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 MoDU lE 1 0 B r Ai n An d B e hAvi o r: th e s u B c o rte x An d e n d o c r i n e syste M 87

elsewhere in the brain. (Module 32.) Once again, we see that The thalamus acts as a final “relay” for sensory informa-
experience shapes the brain: musicians and athletes, who prac- tion on its way to the cerebral cortex. Vision, hearing, taste,
tice special motor skills throughout their lives, have larger than and touch all pass through this small, football-shaped struc-
average cerebellums (Hutchinson et al., 2003; Park et al., 2012). ture. Thus, injury to even small areas of the thalamus can cause
What happens if the cerebellum is injured? Without the deafness, blindness, or loss of any other sense, except smell.
cerebellum, tasks such as walking, running, or playing catch About the size of a grape, the human hypothalamus is
become impossible. The first symptoms of a crippling disease a small area of the brain that regulates emotional behaviors
called spinocerebellar degeneration are tremors, dizziness, and and basic biological needs (Toates, 2011). The hypothala-
muscular weakness. Eventually, victims have difficulty merely mus affects behaviors as diverse as sex, rage, temperature
standing, walking, or feeding themselves. control, hormone release, eating and drinking, sleep, wak-
ing, and emotion. (See, for example, Module 43.)
locked-In Syndrome The hypothalamus is basically a “crossroads” that con-
At the age of 33, a stroke caused catastrophic damage to Kate nects many areas of the brain. It is also the final pathway for
Adamson’s brainstem. This event cut off communication be- many kinds of behavior. That is, the hypothalamus is the last
tween her body and her cortex, leaving her with locked-in place where many behaviors are organized or “decided on”
syndrome. Just before the stroke, she was fine, and the next before messages leave the brain, causing the body to react.
moment, she was totally paralyzed, trapped in her own body, The Limbic System As a group, the hypothalamus, parts
and barely able to breathe (Cruse et al., 2011). Unable to move of the thalamus, the amygdala, the hippocampus, and other
a muscle, but still fully awake and aware, she was unable to mainly subcortical structures make up the limbic system
communicate her simplest thoughts and feelings to others. (➤ Figure 10.2). The limbic system plays an important role
Kate thought that she was going to die. Her doctors, in controlling emotion and memory (LeDoux, 2012). Rage,
who thought she was brain dead, or at best only minimally fear, sexual response, and intense arousal can be localized to
conscious, did not administer painkillers as they inserted various points in the limbic system. Laughter, a delightful
breathing and feeding tubes down her throat. In time, Kate part of human social life, also has its origins in the limbic
discovered that she could communicate by blinking her system (Wild et al., 2003).
eyes. After a recovery that was miraculous by any measure, During evolution, the limbic system was the earliest layer
she went on to appear before the U.S. Congress and even of the forebrain to develop. In lower animals, the limbic system
wrote about her experiences (Adamson, 2004). helps organize basic survival responses: feeding, fleeing, fight-
Not everyone is so lucky. Just think what might have ing, and reproduction. In humans, a clear link to emotion re-
befallen Kate had she not even been able to blink her eyes mains. The amygdala (ah-MIG-dah-luh), in particular, is asso-
(Schnakers et al., 2009). In one chilling study, coma research- ciated with emotional processing and is strongly related to fear
ers used fMRI to reexamine 54 patients previously diagnosed and the memory of fearful experiences (Bergstrom et al., 2013).
as being practically brain dead. Patients were repeatedly asked
to imagine swinging a tennis racket or walking down a famil-
iar street. Five of the patients showed clearly different brain Medulla The structure that connects the brain with the spinal cord
and controls vital life functions.
activity for the two tasks, despite being unable to communi-
Pons An area of the hindbrain that acts as a bridge between the
cate with doctors in any other way (Monti et al., 2010). medulla and other structures.
What if they could “will” a computer to speak for them? Reticular formation (RF) A collection of cells and fibers in the
Right on! These results suggest that not all totally locked-in pa- medulla and pons involved in arousal and attention.
tients are brain dead or minimally conscious. The results also Cerebellum The structure in the hindbrain involved in controlling
hold out hope that we may eventually be able to develop brain– coordination and balance.
Thalamus The brain structure that relays sensory information to the
computer interfaces to help free these patients from their bodily
cerebral cortex.
prisons (Laureys & Boly, 2007; Shih & Krusienski, 2012). Hypothalamus A small area of the brain that regulates emotional
behaviors and basic biological needs.
The Forebrain Limbic system A set of brain structures that play important roles in
regulating emotion and memory.
Two key parts of the forebrain are the thalamus (THAL-
Amygdala A part of the limbic system associated with the rapid
uh-mus) and an area just below it called the hypothalamus processing of emotions; especially fear.
(HI-po-THAL-uh-mus) (see Figure 10.1).

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88 p Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Cingulate gyrus Mammillary body stimulation is satisfying or pleasurable. Indeed, several areas
of the limbic system act as reward, or “pleasure,” pathways.
Thalamus
Many are found in the hypothalamus, where they overlap
with areas that control thirst, sex, and hunger. As we men-
tioned in Module 7, commonly abused drugs, such as co-
caine, amphetamine, heroin, nicotine, marijuana, and alco-
hol, activate many of the same pleasure pathways (see also
Module 25). This appears to be part of the reason that these
Fornix drugs feel so rewarding (Niehaus, Cruz-Bermúdez, & Kauer,
2009; Prus, 2014).
You also might be interested to know that music you
Hippocampus would describe as “thrilling” also activates pleasure systems
Hypothalamus in your brain. This may explain some of the appeal of mu-
sic that can send shivers down your spine (Salimpoor et al.,
2011). (It also may explain why people pay so much for con-
cert tickets!)
Amygdala
Punishment, or aversive, areas also have been found in
➤ Figure 10.2
the limbic system. When these locations are activated, ani-
Parts of the limbic system. Although only one side is shown here,
the hippocampus and the amygdala extend into the temporal lobes
mals show discomfort and work hard to turn off the stimu-
at each side of the brain. The limbic system is a sort of primitive lation. Because much of our behavior is based on seeking
core of the brain strongly associated with emotion. pleasure and avoiding pain, these discoveries continue to
fascinate psychologists.
The amygdala provides a primitive, quick pathway to the
cortex. Like lower animals, we can be startled and, as such, The Whole human
are able to react to dangerous stimuli before we fully know We have seen that the human brain is an impressive assem-
what is going on (LeDoux, 2012). In situations in which true bly of billions of interconnected neurons. The brain regu-
danger exists, such as in military combat, the amygdala’s lates vital bodily functions, keeps track of the external world,
rapid response may aid survival. However, disorders of the learns, controls the muscles and glands, responds to current
brain’s fear system can be very disruptive. An example is the needs, regulates its own behavior, and even creates the mind
war veteran who involuntarily dives into the bushes when and the magic of consciousness—all at the same time.
he hears a car backfire. The role of the amygdala in emo- Two notes of caution are now in order. First, for the sake
tion also may explain why people who suffer from phobias of simplicity, we have assigned functions to each part of the
and disabling anxiety often feel afraid without knowing why brain as if it were a computer, but this is only partially true.
(Lamprecht et al., 2009; Schlund & Cataldo, 2010). (See the In reality, incoming information scatters all over the brain
discussion of anxiety disorders in Module 63.) and converges again as it goes out through the spinal cord to
Some parts of the limbic system have taken on additional, muscles and glands. The overall system is much more com-
higher-level functions. A part called the hippocampus plicated than our discussion of separate parts implies. Second,
(HIP-oh-CAMP-us) is important for storing memories try introspecting on how your nervous system allows you to
(Jurd, 2011; Moscovitch et al., 2016). The hippocampus lies read this paragraph. You are aware of understanding what
inside the temporal lobes, which is why stimulating the tem- you are reading (right?) but undoubtedly have no awareness
poral lobes can produce memory-like or dream-like expe- of how you are reading. Only the use of objective methods
riences. The hippocampus also helps us navigate the space such as those discussed in this chapter can clarify how your
around us. The right side of your hippocampus becomes eyes send information to your primary visual area and how
more active, for instance, if you mentally plan a drive across other brain structures cooperate to interpret that information
town (Aradillas, Libon, & Schwartzman, 2011). as written language. And yet, understanding how the brain
Psychologists have discovered that animals will learn lets you read (and play music, love someone, want to skydive,
to press a lever to deliver a dose of electrical stimulation to and even play catch) may hold the key to improving ourselves
the limbic system (see Module 30). The animals act like the and helping those who are experiencing difficulties.

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 MoDU lE 1 0 B r Ai n An d B e hAvi o r: th e s u B c o rte x An d e n d o c r i n e syste M 89

The Endocrine System—My Hormones Made Me Do It

Survey Question 10.2 How does the endocrine system during times of high emotion intensify memory forma-
affect behavior? tion; at least some of the emotional turmoil of adolescence
The endocrine (EN-duh-krin) system forms an equally is due to elevated hormone levels; and different hormones
important, parallel communication system in the body prevail when you are angry rather than fearful. Pregnancy
(Kalat, 2016). The endocrine system is made up of glands and motherhood cause the release of hormones that lead
that secrete chemicals directly into the bloodstream or to the changes involved in maternal behavior (Henry &
lymphatic system (➤ Figure 10.3). These hormones are Sherwin, 2012). Even some disturbing personality pat-
carried throughout the body, where they affect both inter- terns may be linked to hormonal irregularities (Evardone,
nal activities and visible behavior. Hormones are related Alexander, & Morey, 2007). Because these are just samples,
to neurotransmitters. Like neurotransmitters, hormones let’s consider some additional effects that hormones have
activate cells in the body affecting puberty, personality, on the body and behavior.
dwarfism, jet lag, and much more.
How do hormones affect behavior? Although we are
seldom directly aware of them, hormones affect us in many Hippocampus A part of the limbic system associated with storing
ways (Toates, 2011). Here is a brief sample: hormone output memories.
Endocrine system A network of glands that release hormones into
from the adrenal glands rises during stressful situations;
the bloodstream.
androgens (meaning “male” hormones) are related to the Hormones A chemical released by the endocrine glands.
sex drive in both males and females; hormones secreted

Pineal gland
(helps regulate
body rhythms
and sleep cycles)

Pituitary gland
(influences growth and
lactation; also regulates
the activity of other glands)

Thyroid gland
(regulates the rate of
metabolism in the body)

Adrenal glands
(secrete hormones
that arouse the body,
help with adjustment
to stress, regulate salt
balance, and affect
sexual functioning)

Pancreas
(releases insulin to regulate
blood sugar and hunger)

Testes
(secrete testosterone,
which influences male
sexual function)

Ovaries
(secrete estrogen, which
influences female sexual ➤ Figure 10.3
function) The endocrine system.

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90 p Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Glands of the Endocrine System

The pituitary gland is a pea-sized globe hanging from the
base of the brain (see Figure 10.1). The pituitary is often
called the “master gland” because it influences the other
endocrine glands (especially the thyroid, adrenal glands,
and ovaries or testes). These glands in turn regulate such
body processes as metabolism, responses to stress, and re-
production. But the master has a master: the pituitary is di-

© Anneka/Shutterstock.com
rected by the hypothalamus, which lies directly above it. In
this way, the hypothalamus can affect glands throughout
the body. This, then, is the major link between the brain
and hormones (Kalat, 2016; Prus, 2014).
One of the pituitary’s more important roles is to regulate
Known as the “cuddle” hormone, oxytocin is released by the
growth (Beans, 2009). If too little growth hormone is released pituitary gland in a wide variety of intimate situations. For example,
by the pituitary during childhood, a person may remain far a mother’s oxytocin levels play an important role in deepening the
smaller than average. If this condition is not treated, a child mother/child bond during the all-important early years (Feldman
may be 6 to 12 inches shorter than age-mates. As adults, some et al., 2013).

will have hypopituitary (HI-po-pih-TU-ih-ter-ee) dwarfism.

Such individuals are perfectly proportioned, but tiny. Regular The thyroid gland, located in the neck, regulates
injections of growth hormone can raise a hypopituitary child’s metabolism, the rate at which energy is produced and ex-
height by several inches, usually to the short side of average. pended in the body. By altering metabolism, the thyroid
Too much growth hormone produces gigantism (excessive can have a sizable effect on personality. A person suffer-
bodily growth). Secretion of too much growth hormone late in ing from hyperthyroidism (an overactive thyroid) tends
the growth period causes acromegaly (AK-row-MEG-uh-lee), to be thin, tense, excitable, and nervous. An underactive
a condition in which the arms, hands, feet, and facial bones thyroid (hypothyroidism) in an adult can cause inactivity,
become enlarged. Acromegaly produces prominent facial fea- sleepiness, slowness, obesity, and depression (Joffe, 2006).
tures, which some people have used as a basis for careers as When you are frightened or angry, some important re-
character actors, wrestlers, and the like. actions prepare your body for action: your heart rate and
Oxytocin is another important hormone released by the blood pressure rise; stored sugar is released into the blood-
pituitary. It plays a broad role in regulating many behaviors stream for quick energy; your muscles tense and receive
generally involved in social bonding (Kumsta & Heinrichs, more blood; and your blood is prepared to clot more quickly
2013; Stoop, Hegoburu, & van den Burg, 2015). These in- in case of injury. As we discussed in Module 7, these chang-
clude pregnancy, parenthood, sexual activity, happiness, es are controlled by the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
trust, and even reducing stress reactions (Gordon et al., Specifically, the sympathetic branch of the ANS causes the
2010; Stallen et al., 2012). adrenal glands to release the hormones epinephrine and
The pineal gland (pin-EE-ul) was once considered a norepinephrine. (Epinephrine also is known as adrenaline,
useless remnant of evolution. In certain fishes, frogs, and a word that may be more familiar to you.) Epinephrine (ep-
lizards, the gland is associated with a well-developed light- eh-NEF-rin), which is associated with fear, tends to arouse
sensitive organ, or so-called third eye. In humans, the func- the body. Norepinephrine, which also functions as a neu-
tion of the pineal gland is just now coming to light (so to rotransmitter in the brain, also tends to arouse the body, but
speak). The pineal gland releases a hormone called mela- it is linked with anger.
tonin (mel-ah-TONE-in) in response to daily variations in The adrenal glands are located just under the back of
light. Melatonin levels in the bloodstream rise at dusk, peak the rib cage, atop the kidneys. The adrenal medulla, or in-
around midnight, and fall again as morning approaches. As ner core of the adrenal glands, is the source of epinephrine
far as the brain is concerned, it’s bedtime when melatonin and norepinephrine. The adrenal cortex, or outer “bark” of
levels rise (Norman, 2009). Melatonin can be used to reset the adrenal glands, produces a set of hormones called cor-
the body’s “clock” and minimize jet lag for long-distance pi- ticoids (KOR-tih-coids). One of their jobs is to regulate salt
lots, aircrews, and travelers (see Module 42.) balance in the body. A deficiency of certain corticoids can

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 MoDU lE 1 0 B r Ai n An d B e hAvi o r: th e s u B c o rte x An d e n d o c r i n e syste M 91

evoke a powerful craving for the taste of salt in humans. The testicles, sexual impotence, or breast enlargement in men
corticoids also help the body adjust to stress, and they are a (Millman & Ross, 2003). Dangerous increases in hostility
secondary source of sex hormones. and aggression (“roid rage”) have also been linked to steroid
An oversecretion of the adrenal sex hormones can cause use (Cunningham, Lumia, & McGinnis, 2013; Hartgens &
virilism (exaggerated male characteristics). For instance, a Kuipers, 2004). Increased risk of heart attack and stroke, liver
woman may grow a beard, or a man’s voice may become so damage, and stunted growth also are common when younger
low that it is difficult to understand. Oversecretion early in adolescents use steroids. Understandably, almost all major
life can cause premature puberty (full sexual development sports organizations ban the use of anabolic steroids.
during childhood).
In this brief discussion of the endocrine system, we have
considered only a few of the more important glands. Nev- Pituitary gland The master gland of the endocrine system that
controls the action of all other glands.
ertheless, this should give you an appreciation of how com-
Growth hormone A hormone, secreted by the pituitary gland, that
pletely behavior and personality are tied to the ebb and flow promotes body growth.
of hormones in the body. Oxytocin A hormone, released by the pituitary gland, that plays a
broad role in regulating pregnancy, parenthood, sexual activity,
Anabolic Steroids While we are on the topic of hor- social bonding, trust, and even reducing stress reactions.
mones, there is a related issue worth mentioning. Testoster- Pineal gland A gland in the brain that helps regulate body rhythms
one, one of the principal androgens, or “male” hormones, is and sleep cycles.
supplied in small amounts by the adrenal glands. (The tes- Melatonin A hormone released by the pineal gland in response to
tes are the main source of testosterone in males.) Perhaps daily cycles of light and dark.
Thyroid gland An endocrine gland that helps regulate the rate of
you have heard about the use of anabolic steroids by athletes
metabolism.
who want to “bulk up” or promote muscle growth. Most of Epinephrine An adrenal hormone that tends to arouse the body;
these drugs are synthetic versions of testosterone. epinephrine is associated with fear. (Also known as adrenaline.)
Although there is some disagreement about whether ste- Norepinephrine Both a brain neurotransmitter and an adrenal hor-
roids actually improve athletic performance, it is widely ac- mone that tends to arouse the body; norepinephrine is associated
with anger. (Also known as noradrenaline.)
cepted that they may cause serious side effects (Kanayama
Adrenal glands Endocrine glands that arouse the body, regulate salt
et al., 2012; Sjöqvist, Garle, & Rane, 2008). Problems include balance, adjust the body to stress, and affect sexual functioning.
voice deepening or baldness in women and shrinkage of the

MODULE

10 Summary
10.1 What are the major parts of the subcortex? 10.1.5 The cerebellum maintains coordination, posture,
10.1.1 The brain can be subdivided into the hindbrain, and muscle tone.
midbrain, and forebrain. The subcortex includes 10.1.6 The thalamus carries sensory information to the
hindbrain and midbrain brain structures, as well cortex.
as the lower parts of the forebrain, beneath the 10.1.7 The hypothalamus exerts powerful control over
cortex. eating, drinking, sleep cycles, body temperature,
10.1.2 The medulla contains centers essential for reflex and other basic motives and behaviors.
control of heart rate, breathing, and other vegeta- 10.1.8 The limbic system is strongly related to emotion.
tive functions. It also contains distinct reward and punishment
10.1.3 The pons links the medulla with other brain areas. areas and the hippocampus, which is important
10.1.4 The reticular formation directs sensory and motor for forming memories.
messages and acts as an activating system for the
cerebral cortex.

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92 p Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

10.2 how does the endocrine system affect 10.2.2 Many of the endocrine glands are influenced by
behavior? the pituitary (the master gland), which is in turn
10.2.1 Endocrine glands serve as a chemical communication influenced by the hypothalamus. Thus, the brain
system within the body. The ebb and flow of hormones controls the body through both the fast nervous
from the endocrine glands entering the bloodstream system and the slower endocrine system.
affect behavior, moods, and personality.

Knowledge Builder Brain and Behavior: The Subcortex and Endocrine System

Recite Reflect
1. Three major divisions of the brain are the ,
the , and the . Think critically
2. Reflex centers for heartbeat and respiration are found in 7. Subcortical structures in humans are quite similar to cor-
the responding brain areas in most animals with spinal cords.
a. cerebellum Why would knowing this allow you to predict, in general
b. thalamus terms, what functions the subcortex controls?
c. medulla
d. RF Self-Reflect
3. A portion of the reticular formation serves as a(n) What are the major subcortical structures, and what functions
system in the brain. do they control?
a. activating Why is it especially important to understand the limbic
b. alternate system and the role that it plays in your emotional life?
c. adjustment
d. aversive
4. The is a final relay, or switching
station, for sensory information on its way to the cortex. AN SW E R S
from the senses and outgoing commands to the muscles.
5. Reward and punishment areas are found throughout lation. The subcortex also routes and processes incoming information
the system, which also is vegetative functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and temperature regu-
related to emotion. common to all higher animals: motives, emotions, sleep, attention, and
6. The body’s ability to resist stress is related to the action of 6. adrenal 7. Because the subcortex must be related to basic functions
the glands.
1. hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain 2. c 3. a 4. thalamus 5. limbic

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 MODULE
Brain and Behavior Skills in Action
Self-Regulation 11
One or Two Marshmallows?
Imagine that you are a four-year-old visiting the “Surprise Room” at
Stanford University. A woman named Karen lets you choose a treat
from a plate of pretzels, cookies, mints, and marshmallows. You eagerly
pick the marshmallows. Karen the puts two plates in front of you. With
one marshmallow on the first plate and two marshmallows on the sec-
ond plate, you have a choice to make. Do you want to eat one marshmal-
low now, or two marshmallows later? Karen explains that if you want the

doble.d/Getty Images
larger reward, you’ll have to wait by yourself, with the marshmallows,
for about 20 minutes. She also leaves you with a bell so that if you just
can’t wait any longer, you can ring it and call her back. But she warns that
if you do that, you’ll only get one marshmallow. What do you do?
You might be surprised to learn that how well you self-regulate Surprise Room. What is self-regulation, and what
as an adult is predicted by how many marshmallows you ate in the can you do about it as an adult? Let’s look into it.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
11.1 How is self-regulation related to the study of 11.2 How can self-regulation help me in my personal and
psychology? professional life?

Mind Control: Control Yourself!

Survey Question 11.1 How is self-regulation related to the a report to prepare.”), and financial situation (“Do I really
study of psychology? need to buy a bigger TV?”) (Berman et al., 2013).
Designed by Stanford psychologist Walter Mischel, the I was a one marshmallow kid. Does that mean I will al-
“Marshmallow Test” is often used to examine children’s ways be a poor self-regulator? To some extent, our ability to
ability to resist temptation. Psychologists refer to this as self-regulate is managed by our brain (Luna et al., 2015).
self-regulation—the ability to consciously exert self-con- Fortunately, Mischel has found that self-regulation is also
trol. How about you? As a four-year-old, would you have a skill—one that anyone can develop with enough practice
hung in there for two marshmallows, or would you have (Mischel, 2014).
settled for one? How about you as an adult? In adulthood,
for example, youthful self-regulators are likely to enjoy bet-
ter health (“I should probably skip that extra helping of des- Self-regulation The ability to consciously exert self-control.
sert.”), professional success (“I can’t party tonight; I have

93
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94 p Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

For the most part, the roots of self-regulation lie in the Executive functions are at the heart of self-regulation
brain’s frontal lobes (the prefrontal cortex), though some because they allow us to set goals (I’m going to try to wait
other regions of the brain are also involved. In particular, as and get the two marshmallows instead of eating one now),
mentioned in Module 9, the prefrontal cortex is home to an make plans that will help us to achieve those goals (I’m not
important set of abilities referred to as executive functions, going to touch the marshmallow), control our attention and
which provide the foundation for higher-level thinking in- emotions in ways that will be helpful as we work toward our
cluding our ability to demonstrate self-control. goals (I’m going to close my eyes so that I don’t have to look
What are executive functions? It sounds like a part of my at the marshmallow while I’m waiting), and monitor our
brain should be wearing a suit! Executive functions are a set progress toward the goal so that we know if we need to
of controls that operate on our thinking. Like an air traffic change our strategy (Only five more minutes before she comes
control system that permits the coordination of incoming back and I can have two marshmallows. I’m doing great!).
and outgoing flights on multiple runways, executive func- So if self-regulation is based in the brain, is it determined
tions coordinate our thinking and behavior so that we can by genetics? Because the ability to control our behavior is so
accomplish the things that we need to do. For example, they closely connected with the prefrontal cortex, you might imag-
allow us to pay attention to important things and filter out ine that there’s little you can do to change how it develops over
distractions, prioritize information, make plans, and sup- time. And while it is true that brain development is, in part,
press behaviors that would prevent us from carrying those controlled by genetics, it’s also influenced by our environment
plans out (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard and our actions. This is why Walter Mischel believes firmly that
University, 2011). self-regulation is a skill that we can all develop.

From Marshmallows to Retirement Funds

Survey Question 11.2 How can self-regulation help me in
self-regulation has important connections to the quality of
my personal and professional life?
our adult lives. Things such as good health and adequate
If you think about it, there are many times during our adult retirement savings often require us to give up immedi-
lives when it becomes important to control the impulse to ate rewards for something better later on, even though
give in to immediate temptation. Sometime during this se- doing so is really hard work (Baumeister, 2015; Inzlicht &
mester, for example, you’ll probably put aside some time to Schmeichel, 2012).
study for exams rather than going out with friends because But does the ability to control behavior in childhood really
you understand that your performance at school can have predict what happens so many years later? It may not initially
important implications for your ability to find a job later, be easy to see how children’s behavior in the Surprise Room
after graduation. If you marry and find yourself in a bar with at Stanford would be connected to the lives that they live
a stranger who is flirting with you, you’ll likely want to resist as adults, but Mischel’s work clearly suggested that it was.
the temptation to cheat on your spouse because you’ll recog- Other work from New Zealand has confirmed these find-
nize that it could one day spell the end of a relationship that ings (Moffitt et al., 2011). Researchers there followed every
is important to you. And when you find yourself with some child born in the small town of Dunedin between 1972 and
extra money, you may have to stop yourself from spending 1973—more than 1,000 of them!—until they were in their
it on a new car and instead put it into your retirement sav- thirties. They assessed the children’s self-regulation in a
ings so that you’ll be comfortable many years down the road variety of ways, including the children’s own comments
when you stop working. about their ability to control themselves, reports from par-
There are many more day-to-day examples of how ents and teachers, and observations made by the research-
self-regulation can have consequences for later, such as ers. Later in life, children who had displayed greater levels
sticking to your diet or your plan to give up cigarettes. of self-regulation were doing better on a variety of mea-
Viewed like this, it becomes a bit easier to see how sures, including ones that assessed health, substance abuse,

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 MoDU lE 11 B r Ai n An d B e hAvi o r s k i lls i n Acti o n: s e lf-r eg u lAti o n 95

finances (saving habits, credit card problems), and antiso- that’s called selective attention. Employing selective attention
cial behavior, such as criminal activity. means that you focus on things that are removed from the
You may be wondering how a child’s behavior could temptation—in other words, you take your attention away
be so important to their circumstances as an adult de- from the things that the hot system is focused on. Rather
cades later. Though the story behind these relationships than looking longingly at a friend’s brochures for a sun-filled
is complex and involves brain development, it’s also likely trip during spring break, you might focus your attention on
that when children grow up having had some success with the cars outside and tell yourself that it won’t be long before
self-regulation—say, their experiences lead them to realize you can have one yourself.
that waiting generally leads to better results than giving in to You might also engage in cognitive reappraisal, which
impulses—they learn that it pays to control themselves and essentially means that you try to reframe situations in ways
wait for a larger payoff later. As a result, self-regulation starts that are more likely to help you stay in control (Duckworth,
to become more natural for them, and they will do it more Gendler, & Gross, 2014). For example, your efforts to save
often. When you think about it this way, it’s not too hard to money for a car might lead you to think differently about an
see how a simple task like the Marshmallow Test, done dur- invitation to go to the pub with your friends. Instead of feel-
ing childhood, can be connected to some of the important ing as though you’re missing out if you limit yourself to one
outcomes that we see later in life. Kids who are learning that drink while you’re out, you might think that you won’t need
it pays to wait will find themselves in better circumstances an extra trip to the gym to work off the calories that would
as they grow up. come with the extra beer!
I can see that self-regulation is important. But if it’s really Mischel also suggests that it’s important to find ways to
a skill, then how can I get better at it? That’s a great question. bring the long-term rewards and consequences to the front
Imagine, for example, that you are a university student try- of your mind, to ensure that the cool system is in control.
ing to save up for a car so that you don’t have to take the bus One way to do this is by stepping outside of the here and
everywhere. It’s hard, though, because there are lots of other now and clearly imagining your future self suffering the
ways to spend your money that would give you more im- consequences of your impulsive actions. If you’re saving for
mediate pleasure. Maybe you’d like to go out to the pub with a car, then, imagine yourself still standing at the bus stop
your friends, or buy some new clothes. Or perhaps you’d like in two years because you couldn’t stop spending your ex-
to take a trip during spring break. The tendency to focus on tra money. If you’re trying to quit smoking, clearly picture
what we want now and ignore the consequences that will the doctor showing your future self an X-ray and telling you
come later has been referred to as the hot emotional system, that you have lung cancer.
and it tends to be associated with the limbic system of the While strategies aimed at cooling the hot system are
brain. It’s the system that will dominate your thinking when very effective, a second way to improve your self-regulation
you’re faced with temptation right now, and it will issue a skills is to simply avoid putting yourself in an environment
powerful push to do what you want in that moment. In con- where the temptation will be too great to resist (Duckworth
trast, the cool cognitive system is one that allows you to care- et al., 2014). We can do this by actively choosing or changing
fully consider the potential long-term consequences of your the environments we find ourselves in, so that we are more
actions (Mischel, 2014). As you might guess, the cool system likely to do what we know is right in the long term. If you
is associated with the prefrontal cortex, and it’s essential for were trying to save money for a car, then, you might decide
self-regulation. you aren’t going to go out for a pricey dinner and drinks
While it may be difficult to control the hot system when with friends (choosing the environment). Alternatively, if
working toward long-term goals like buying a car, research- you did go out for dinner, you might make sure that you
ers such as Walter Mischel have suggested that this is one of only take a specified amount of money to spend (changing
the most important ways that people can work toward im- the environment by restricting what you can buy).
proving their self-control (Mischel, 2014). There are a num- Of course, there may be times when you are faced with
ber of ways to cool your immediate impulses. For example, temptation and find it difficult to change the environment
one way to improve your self-regulation efforts would be or your thinking. In such cases, you can still rely on the old-
to work on changing what you pay attention to, a strategy fashioned way of showing self-control: just say no!

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96 p Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

MODULE

11 Summary
11.1 how is self-regulation related to the study of 11.2 how can self-regulation help me in my
psychology? personal and professional life?
11.1.1 Self-regulation is associated with the frontal lobes of 11.2.1 Self-regulation in childhood predicts many things in
the brain. adulthood, including health, antisocial and criminal
11.1.2 Self-regulation depends on executive functions, which behavior, and financial security.
allow us to set goals, make plans to achieve those goals, 11.2.2 We can improve our self-regulation skills by chang-
control attention and emotions as we work toward our ing what we pay attention to, how we think about
goals, and monitor our progress on the goal so that we situations we’re in, or the environments we find
know if we need to change our strategy. ourselves in.

Knowledge Builder Brain and Behavior Skills in Action: Self-Regulation

Recite Self-Reflect
1. Executive functions are important to self-regulation What types of goals have you set for yourself? What kinds of
because they help us to set goals and work toward them things are likely to get in the way of you achieving those goals?
successfully. T or F? Can you use some of the strategies from this module to help
2. The ability to self-regulate in childhood is not related to you stay on track with your goals?
the ability to self-regulate in adulthood. T or F?
3. Selective attention and cognitive reappraisal are two
AN SW E R S
strategies that can be used to improve self-regulation where you’re likely to give in to temptation.
skills. T or F? You can also try avoiding environments (e.g., fast food restaurants)
about those potato chips in terms of how bad they are for your health).

Reflect
than the foods you are trying to avoid) or cognitive reappraisal (think
the kitchen or a restaurant, focus your attention on something other
Think critically 1. T 2. F 3. T 4. You can use strategies like selective attention (when in

4. If you were setting the goal of losing 10 pounds, how could

you improve the chances that you’d resist the temptation of
your favorite foods and stick to your diet?

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 MODULE

Human Development
Heredity and Environment 12
It’s a Boy!
With those words, Gloria first glimpsed her amazing newborn baby,
Joseph. Like parents everywhere, Gloria and her husband, Jay, won-
dered: How will Joseph’s life unfold? What kind of a person will he
be? Will he be a happy teenager, marry, become a father, find an
interesting career, live a full and satisfying life?
Research tells a fascinating story about human growth and de-
velopment, from birth and infancy to maturing, aging, and death.
Understanding your development might well help you answer two
important questions: “How did I become the person I am today?”

© Maria Svetlychnaja/Shutterstock.com
and “Who will I become tomorrow?”
Like Joseph, our heredity and our environment will influence
every stage of our lives. How does our genetic inheritance combine
with our life experiences to shape who we are and who we will be-
come? Let’s look at this dance in more detail.

~SURVEY QUESTION~
12.1 How do heredity and environment affect development?

Nature and Nurture—It Takes Two to Tango

Survey Question 12.1 How do heredity and environment
analogy: What is more important to define the area of a rect-
affect development?
angle, height or width? Of course, both are essential. Without
When we think of development, we naturally think of chil- height and width, there is no rectangle. Although heredity
dren growing up into adults. But even as adults, we never gives each of us a variety of potentials and limitations, these
really stop changing. Developmental psychology, the study are, in turn, affected by environmental influences, such as
of normal changes in behavior that occur across the lifes- learning, nutrition, culture, and disease. Some events, such
pan, involves every stage of life from conception to death, as when Joseph reaches sexual maturity, are governed more
or womb to tomb (Newman & Newman, 2015). Heredity by heredity. Others, such as when Joseph learns to swim,
(our “nature”) and environment (our “nurture”) also affect read, or drive a car, are matters primarily of environment.
us throughout our lifetimes. Ultimately, the person you are today reflects a continu-
Which is more important, heredity or environment? ous interaction, or interplay, between the forces of nature
Neither. Biopsychologist Donald Hebb once offered a useful and nurture (Kalat, 2016). If Joseph grows up to become a

97
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98 p sycHolo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

prominent civil rights lawyer, his success will be due to both

heredity and environment.

Heredity and Maturation

The dance of development begins at conception, when a
father’s sperm cell fertilizes a mother’s egg cell (ovum). The

© SARANS/Shutterstock.com
resulting combination of genes from the two parents con-
stitutes the genome, the genetic heritage that will determine
many of the physical and psychological characteristics of a
rapidly developing new life. The term heredity (“nature”)
refers, in part, to this genetic transmission of genes from
parents to offspring. If some of the transmitted genes are This digital illustration shows a pair of human chromosomes.
(Color is artificial).
defective, genetic disorders will result. Examples are sickle-
cell anemia, hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy,
albinism, and some types of intellectual disability.
Genes are the coded instructions of heredity—the areas
The Genome What, exactly, is the genome? The nucleus on a strand of DNA that carry hereditary information.
of every human cell contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Sometimes a single gene is responsible for an inherited fea-
(dee-OX-see-RYE-bo-new-KLEE-ik), a long, ladderlike ture, such as Joseph’s eye color. Genes may be dominant or
chain of pairs of chemical molecules (➤ Figure 12.1). The recessive. When a dominant gene controls a feature, that
order of these molecules, or organic bases, acts as a code feature will appear every time the gene is present. A recessive
for genetic information. The DNA in each cell contains a gene must be paired with a second recessive gene before its
record of all the instructions needed to make a human— effect will be expressed. For example, if Joseph got a blue-eye
with room left over to spare. A major scientific milestone gene from Jay and a brown-eye gene from Gloria, Joseph will
was reached when the Human Genome Project complet- be brown eyed, because brown-eye genes are dominant.
ed sequencing all 3 billion chemical base pairs in human If brown-eye genes are dominant, why do two brown-
DNA (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, 2014). eyed parents sometimes have a blue-eyed child? If one or both
Human DNA is organized into 46 chromosomes. (The parents have two brown-eye genes, the couple’s children can
word chromosome means “colored body.”) These rodlike only be brown eyed. But what if each parent has one brown-
structures in the cell nucleus house the genes. Notable ex- eye gene and one blue-eye gene? In that case, both parents
ceptions are sperm cells and ova, which contain only 23 would have brown eyes. Yet there is one chance in four that
chromosomes. Thus, Joseph received 23 chromosomes from their children will get two blue-eye genes and have blue eyes
Gloria and 23 from Jay. This is his genome. (➤ Figure 12.2).

DNA
Sugar-phosphate
backbone
➤ Figure 12.1
DNA. (Top left) Linked molecules (organic Organic
bases
bases) make up the rungs on DNA’s twisted
molecular ladder. The order of these molecules
Cell
serves as a code for genetic information. The Nucleus
code provides a genetic blueprint that is unique Chromosome
for each individual (except identical twins). The
drawing shows only a small section of a DNA
strand. An entire strand of DNA is composed
of billions of smaller molecules. (Bottom left)
The nucleus of each cell in the body contains
chromosomes made up of tightly wound coils
of DNA.

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 MoDU lE 12 H u MAn d eve lo p M e nt: H e r e d ity An d e nvi r o n M e nt 99

Brown-eyed mother gene; in fact, about 200 genetic variations have already been
Mother's shown to play a role in determining height (Allen, Estrada,
genes et al., 2010). Through the expression of genes, heredity de-
termines eye color, height, skin color, and susceptibility to
Brown-eyed child Brown-eyed child some diseases.
Epigenetics While the genome contains all the instructions
needed to make a human, it cannot do so by itself. Like people
Brown-eyed father

who follow a blueprint to build a house, epigenetic processes

within cells translate the “genetic blueprint” encoded in the
Father's
genes

genome, step by step, into an actual organism (the phenome).

Blue-eyed child Brown-eyed child
These processes can intensify or weaken the effects of genes
and can even switch genes on or off at certain ages or develop-
mental stages. In this way, heredity continues to exert a pow-
erful influence throughout maturation, the physical growth
and development of the body, brain, and nervous system
(Cummings, 2016). As the human growth sequence unfolds
➤ Figure 12.2 over time, genetic instructions influence body size and shape,
Expression of single gene characteristics. Gene patterns for height, intelligence, athletic potential, personality traits, sexu-
children of brown-eyed parents, where each parent has one brown- al orientation, and a host of other details (■ Table 12.1).
eye gene and one blue-eye gene. Because the brown-eye gene
is dominant, one child in four will be blue-eyed. Thus, there is a
significant chance that two brown-eyed parents will have a blue-
Environment and Maturation
eyed child. Our environment also exerts a profound influence on our
development right from conception onward. Environment
In actuality, few of our characteristics are controlled by (“nurture”) refers to the sum of all external conditions
single genes. Instead, most are polygenic characteristics that affect a person. Although the intrauterine (interior of
(pol-ih-JEN-ik), controlled by many genes working in the womb) environment is highly protected, environ-
combination. So, for example, there is no one tall or short mental conditions can even affect the developing child.

Developmental psychology The study of the normal changes in

behavior that occur across the lifespan.
Heredity (“nature”) The transmission of physical and psychological
characteristics from parents to offspring through genes.
Genetic disorders Problems caused by defects in the genes or by
inherited characteristics.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Deoxyribonucleic acid, a molecular
structure that contains coded genetic information.
Chromosomes Rodlike structures in the cell nucleus that house an
individual’s genes.
Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc./Corbis

Genes Areas on a strand of DNA that carry hereditary information.

Dominant gene A gene whose influence will be expressed each time
the gene is present.
Recessive gene A gene whose influence will be expressed only when
it is paired with a second recessive gene of the same type.
Twins who share identical genes (identical twins) demonstrate Polygenic characteristics Personal traits or physical properties that
the powerful influence of heredity. Even when they are reared are influenced by many genes working in combination.
apart, identical twins are strikingly alike in motor skills, physical Maturation The physical growth and development of the body,
development, and appearance. At the same time, identical twins brain, and nervous system.
are never completely identical and are less alike as adults than they Environment (“nurture”) The sum of all external conditions affect-
were as children, showing that environmental influences are at work ing development, including especially the effects of learning.
(Freberg, 2016; Larsson, Larsson, & Lichtenstein, 2004).

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100 p sycHolo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 12.1 periods of life*

period Approximate Duration Descriptive Name

Prenatal period From conception to birth

Germinal period Conception to 2 weeks after conception Zygote
Embryonic period 2 weeks to 8 weeks after conception Embryo
Fetal period 8 weeks after conception to birth Fetus
Infancy From birth to childhood Infant, baby
Childhood From infancy to adolescence Child
Early childhood 18 months to 3 years Toddler
Preschool period 3 years to about 5 years Preschooler
Middle childhood 5 years to 12 years School-age child
Adolescence From puberty to full social maturity (it’s difficult to define Adolescent
the duration of this period)
Adulthood From adolescence to death Adult
Young adulthood 20 to 40 years Emerging adult
Middle age 40 to 65 years Mature adult
Late adulthood 65 years and older Old age

*Note: Various periods of life have no exact beginning or ending point. The ages are approximate, and each period may be thought of as blending into the next.

For example, during the last few months of Gloria’s preg- Many environmental factors can influence epigenesis,
nancy, Joseph’s fetal heart rate changed whenever he heard and hence maturation. Had Gloria experienced excess stress
his mother’s voice (Kisilevsky & Hains, 2011). during her pregnancy, Joseph might have been a smaller,
weaker baby at birth (Schetter, 2011). If Gloria’s health or
nutrition had been poor, or if she had had German measles,
syphilis, or Zika, had used alcohol or drugs, or had been ex-
posed to lead or radiation, Joseph’s growth sequence might
also have been harmed (Lanphear, 2015). In such cases, ba-
bies can suffer from congenital problems, or birth defects.
These environmental problems affect the developing fetus
and become apparent at birth.
How is it possible for the embryo or the fetus to be
harmed? No direct intermixing of blood takes place
Nestle/Petit Format/Science Source

between a mother and her unborn child. Yet some

substances—especially drugs—can reach the fetus. Any
harmful substance that can cause birth defects is called a
teratogen (teh-RAT-uh-jen). Sometimes women are un-
knowingly exposed to powerful teratogens, such as radia-
tion, lead, pesticides, or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
An 11-week-old fetus. Because of the rapid growth of basic
But pregnant women do have direct control over many
structures, the developing fetus is sensitive to a variety of diseases,
drugs, and sources of radiation. This is especially true during the teratogens. For example, a woman who takes cocaine runs
first trimester (three months) of gestation (pregnancy). a serious risk of injuring her fetus (Dow-Edwards, 2011).

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 MoDU lE 12 H u MAn d eve lo p M e nt: H e r e d ity An d e nvi r o n M e nt 101

© 2011 Susan Astley PhD, University

of Washington

BSIP/Science Source
Some of the typical features of children suffering from FAS include
a small, nonsymmetrical head, a short nose, a flattened area
between the eyes, oddly shaped eyes, and a thin upper lip. Many of
these features become less noticeable by adolescence. However,
intellectual disabilities and other problems commonly follow the FAS ➤ Figure 12.3
child into adulthood. The children shown here represent moderate
Brain development after birth. On the left is an illustration
examples of FAS.
of the neural networks in the brain of a nine-month-old infant.
By age two, pictured in the center, the number of synapse and
neurons has dramatically increased. By age four, pictured on the
In short, when a pregnant woman takes drugs, her unborn right, the number of synapses and neurons has declined slightly.
child does, too. Nevertheless, at that point, children actually have more brain
synapses than adults do. Then, after age 10, the number continues
Unfortunately, in the United States, alcohol and drugs
to slowly decline, reaching adult levels at about age 16.
are the greatest risk factors facing unborn children (Keegan
et al., 2010). In fact, repeated heavy drinking during preg-
nancy is the most common cause of birth defects in the You can observe the rooting reflex (reflexive head turning
United States (Liles & Packman, 2009). Affected infants and nursing) by touching infants’ cheeks. Immediately, they
have fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), which includes low birth will turn toward your finger, as if searching for something.
weight, a small head, bodily defects, and facial malforma- The rooting reflex helps infants find a bottle or a breast.
tions. Many also suffer from emotional, behavioral, and Then, when a nipple touches infants’ mouths, the sucking
mental disabilities (Hepper, Dornan, & Lynch, 2012; Jones & reflex (rhythmic nursing) helps them obtain needed food.
Streissguth, 2010). Like other reflexes, this is a genetically programmed action.
If a mother is addicted to morphine, heroin, or metha- The Moro reflex also is interesting. If infants’ positions
done, her baby may be born with an addiction. Even tobacco are changed abruptly, or if they are startled by a loud noise,
use is harmful. Smoking during pregnancy greatly reduces they will make a hugging motion. This reaction has been
oxygen to the fetus. Heavy smokers risk miscarrying or compared to the movements that baby monkeys use to cling
having premature, underweight babies who are more likely to their mothers. (We leave it to the reader’s imagination to
to die soon after birth. Furthermore, children of smoking decide whether there is any connection). Human infants
mothers score lower on tests of language and mental ability mature from helpless babies to independent little people
(Clifford, Lang, & Chen, 2012). with dazzling speed. At no other time does development
proceed as rapidly. By their third year, babies are usually able
Maturation in Infancy
to stand, walk, talk, and explore.
Even though newborn human infants will die if not cared
for by adults and cannot lift their heads, turn over, or feed The Role of Learning Once a baby is born, the environ-
themselves, they are born with physical and mental capaci- ment becomes more important because it provides learning
ties that continue to surprise researchers and delight parents. experiences. For example, the brain of a newborn baby has
The emergence of many of these capacities is closely related fewer dendrites (nerve cell branches) and synapses (connec-
to maturation of the brain, nervous system, and body. tions between nerve cells) than an adult brain (➤ Figure 12.3).
For example, at birth, infants have several adaptive re- However, the newborn brain is highly plastic (capable of being
flexes (Siegler, DeLoache, & Eisenberg, 2011). To elicit the
grasping reflex, press an object in newborn’s palms, and they
Congenital problems Defects that originate during prenatal devel-
will grasp it with surprising strength. Many infants, in fact,
opment in the womb.
can hang from a raised bar, like little trapeze artists. The Teratogen A harmful substance that can cause birth defects.
grasping reflex aids survival by helping infants avoid falling.

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102 p sycHolo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

altered by experience). During the first three years of life, mil- world typically sit before they crawl, crawl before they stand,
lions of new connections form in the brain every day. At the and stand before they walk (➤ Figure 12.4).
same time, unused connections disappear. As a result, early Oddly enough, Joseph never crawled. Like Joseph, a
learning environments literally shape the developing brain, few children move directly from sitting to standing to walk-
through the “blooming and pruning” of synapses (Nelson, ing. Even so, their motor development is orderly. In general,
1999; Walker et al., 2011). muscular control spreads in a pattern that is cephalocau-
Although human culture is accelerating the rate at dal (SEF-eh-lo-KOD-ul), meaning from head to toe, and
which human DNA is evolving, modern humans are still proximodistal (PROK-seh-moe-DIS-tul), meaning from the
genetically quite similar to cave dwellers who lived 30,000 center of the body to the extremities.
years ago (Cochran & Harpending, 2009; Hawks et al., Although maturation has a big impact, motor skills
2007). A Stone Age baby could have become only a hunter don’t simply emerge. Joseph must learn to control his ac-
or food gatherer. But a bright baby born today could learn tions. When babies are beginning to crawl or walk, they
to become almost anything—a ballet dancer, an engineer, an actively try new movements and select those that work.
extreme marathoner, a boxer, or a biochemist who likes to Joseph’s first efforts were flawed—wobbly sitting or some
paint in watercolors. shaky first steps. However, with practice, babies fine-
tune their movements to be smoother and more effective.
Motor Development in Infancy Infants will rapidly
Such learning is evident from the very first months of life
mature past grasping, rooting, sucking, and hugging as they
(Adolph & Berger, 2011).
develop more and more motor skills, such as sitting, crawl-
ing, standing, and walking. Of course, the rate of maturation Sensory Development in Infancy Contrary to com-
varies from child to child. Nevertheless, the order of matura- mon belief, newborn babies are not oblivious to their
tion is almost universal. For instance, Joseph was able to sit surroundings. Newborns can see, hear, smell, taste, and
without support from Jay, Gloria, or some other adult be- respond to pain and touch. Although their senses are less
fore he matured enough to stand. Indeed, infants around the acute, babies are very responsive. From birth, Joseph could

1. Fetal posture 2. Holds chin up 3. Holds chest up 4. Sits when supported 5. Sits alone
(newborn) (1 month) (2 months) (4 months) (7 months)

6. Stands holding furniture 7. Crawls 8. Walks if led 9. Stands alone 10. Walks alone
(9 months) (10 months) (11 months) (11 months) (12 months)

➤ Figure 12.4
Motor development. Most infants follow an orderly pattern of motor development. Although the order in which children progress is similar,
there are large individual differences in the ages at which each ability appears. The ages listed are averages for American children. It is not
unusual for many of the skills to appear one or two months earlier than average, or several months later (Adolph & Berger, 2011). Parents
should not be alarmed if a child’s behavior differs some from the average.

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 MoDU lE 12 H u MAn d eve lo p M e nt: H e r e d ity An d e nvi r o n M e nt 103

the people who love and care for them (Leppänen, 2011).
Perhaps that’s why babies have a special fascination with hu-
man faces. Just hours after they are born, babies prefer see-
ing their mother’s face rather than a stranger’s. When babies
are only two to five days old, they will pay more attention to
a person who is gazing directly at them rather than one who
is looking away (Farroni et al., 2004).
Three-day-old babies also prefer complex patterns,
such as checkerboards and bull’s-eyes, to simpler colored
rectangles. When Joseph was six months old, he was able
to recognize categories of objects that differed in shape or

Dr. Carolyn Rovee-Collier

color. By nine months of age, he was able to tell the differ-
ence between dogs and birds or other groups of animals. By
one year of age, he could see as well as his parents (Sigelman &
Rider, 2015). So, a person really is inside that little body!
Psychologist Carolyn Rovee-Collier has shown that babies as
young as 3 months old can learn to control their movements. In her Readiness At what ages was Joseph ready to feed him-
experiments, babies lie on their backs under a colorful crib mobile. self, to walk alone, or to say goodbye to diapers? Such mile-
A ribbon is tied around the baby’s ankle and connected to the
mobile. Whenever babies spontaneously kick their legs, the mobile
stones tend to be governed by a child’s readiness for rapid
jiggles and rattles. Within a few minutes, infants learn to kick faster. learning—that is, a minimum level of maturation must
Their reward for kicking is a chance to see the mobile move occur before many skills can be learned. Parents are asking
(Hayne & Rovee-Collier, 1995).
for failure when they try to force a child to learn skills too
early (Kiddoo, 2012).
follow a moving object with his eyes and turn in the direc- It is more difficult, for instance, to teach children to use
tion of sounds. a toilet before they have matured enough to control their
Tests show that newborn vision is not as sharp as that of bodies. Current guidelines suggest that toilet training goes
adults; newborns can most clearly see objects that are about most smoothly when it begins between 18 and 24 months
a foot away from them. It is as if they are best prepared to see of age. Consider the overeager parents who toilet trained a
14-month-old child in 12 trying weeks of false alarms and
accidents. If they had waited until the child was 20 months
old, they might have succeeded in just 3 weeks. Parents may
control when toilet training starts, but maturation tends to
dictate when it will be completed (Au & Stavinoha, 2008).
On the other hand, parents who significantly delay the
onset of toilet training may fare no better. The older chil-
dren are before toilet training begins, the more likely they
are to fail to develop full bladder control and become a day-
time wetter (Joinson et al., 2009). So why fight nature?
Sensitive Periods Early experiences can have particu-
larly lasting effects. For example, children who are abused
may suffer lifelong emotional problems (Cicchetti, 2016;
cwa/Alamy Stock Photo

Shin, Miller, & Teicher, 2012). At the same time, extra care
can sometimes reverse the effects of a poor start in life
(Walker et al., 2011). In short, environmental forces guide
human development—for better or worse—throughout life.
Newborn babies display a special interest in the human face.
Infants just days old pay more attention to the faces of people
who are gazing directly at them than to people gazing away. A Readiness A condition that exists when maturation has advanced
preference for seeing their mother’s face develops rapidly and enough to allow the rapid acquisition of a particular skill.
encourages social interactions between mother and baby.

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104 p sycHolo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Why do some experiences have more lasting effects than

others? Part of the answer lies in the idea of a sensitive
period, a time when children are more susceptible to par-
ticular types of environmental influences. Events that occur
during a sensitive period can permanently alter the course
of development (Bedny et al., 2012). For example, forming a
loving bond with a caregiver early in life seems to be crucial
for optimal development. Likewise, language abilities may
become impaired when babies don’t hear normal speech
during their first year (Gheitury, Sahraee, & Hoseini, 2012).

REUTERS/Phil McCarten
Deprivation and Enrichment Some environments can
be described as deprived or enriched. Deprivation refers to
a lack of normal nutrition, stimulation, comfort, or love.
Enrichment exists when an environment is deliberately
Christmas, 2013. This underprivileged child is waiting in line for a
made more stimulating, loving, and so forth. holiday gift from a mission in Los Angeles. Children who grow up in
What happens when children suffer severe deprivation? poverty run a high risk of experiencing many forms of deprivation.
Tragically, a few mistreated children have spent their first There is evidence that lasting damage to social, emotional, and
cognitive development occurs when children must cope with severe
years in closets, attics, and other restricted environments. early deprivation.
When first discovered, these children are usually mute, in-
tellectually disabled, and emotionally damaged (Wilson,
2003). Fortunately, such extreme deprivation is unusual. were superior at learning mazes. In addition, they had larger,
Nevertheless, milder perceptual, intellectual, or emotional heavier brains, with a thicker cortex (Benloucif, Bennett, &
deprivation occurs in many families, especially those that must Rosenzweig, 1995). Of course, it’s a long leap from rats to
cope with poverty (Cicchetti, 2016; Matthews & Gallo, 2011). people, but if extra stimulation can enhance the intelligence
Poverty can affect the development of children in at least of a lowly rat, it’s likely that human infants also benefit from
two ways (Huston & Bentley, 2010; Sobolewski & Amato, enrichment. Indeed, many studies have shown that enriched
2005). First, poor parents may not be able to give their chil- environments improve abilities or enhance human develop-
dren necessities and resources such as nutritious meals, ment (Phillips & Lowenstein, 2011). It would be wise for Jay
health care, or learning materials. As a result, impoverished and Gloria to make a point of nourishing Joseph’s mind as
children tend to be sick more often, their mental develop- well as his body (Monahan, Beeber, & Harden, 2012).
ment lags, and they do poorly at school. Second, the stresses What can parents do to enrich a child’s environment?
of poverty also can be hard on parents, leading to marriage They can encourage exploration and stimulating play by
problems, less positive parenting, and poorer parent–child paying attention to what holds the baby’s interest. It is better
relationships. The resulting emotional turmoil can damage a to childproof a house than to put strict limits on what a child
child’s socioemotional development. In the extreme, it may can touch. Actively enriching sensory experiences also are
increase the risk of delinquent behavior and mental illness. valuable. Infants are not vegetables. It makes perfect sense to
Adults who grew up in poverty often remain trapped in take them outside, to hang mobiles over their cribs, to place
a vicious cycle of continued poverty. Because more than 46 mirrors nearby, to play music for them, or to rearrange their
million Americans fell below the poverty line in 2011, this rooms now and then. Children progress most rapidly when
grim reality plays itself out in millions of U.S. homes every they have responsive parents and stimulating play materials
day (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). at home (Beeber et al., 2007). In light of this, it is wise to
Can an improved environment enhance development? To view all of childhood as a relatively sensitive period (Nelson,
answer this question, psychologists have created enriched 1999; Walker et al., 2011).
environments that are especially novel, complex, and stimu- The Whole Human Nurture often affects the expres-
lating. To illustrate, let’s consider the effects of raising rats in sion of hereditary tendencies through ongoing reciprocal
a sort of “rat wonderland.” The walls of their cages were dec- influences. A good example of such influences is the fact
orated with colorful patterns, and each cage was filled with that growing infants influence their parents’ behavior at the
platforms, ladders, and cubbyholes. As adults, these rats same time that they are changed by it.

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 MoDU lE 12 H u MAn d eve lo p M e nt: H e r e d ity An d e nvi r o n M e nt 105

Newborn babies differ noticeably in temperament, the parenting (Parke, 2004). Alternatively, negative parenting
general pattern of attention, arousal, and mood that is evident can turn a moderately shy child into a very shy one. This
from birth. This is the inherited, physical core of personality, suggests that inherited temperaments are dynamically
and it includes sensitivity, irritability, distractibility, and typi- modified by a child’s experiences (Bridgett et al., 2009; Kiff,
cal mood (Shiner et al., 2012). According to one highly influ- Lengua, & Bush, 2011).
ential theory, about 40 percent of all newborns are easy chil- A person’s developmental level is his or her current
dren, who are relaxed and agreeable. Another 10 percent are state of physical, emotional, and intellectual development.
difficult children, who are moody, intense, and easily angered. To summarize, three factors combine to determine your de-
Slow-to-warm-up children (about 15 percent) are restrained, velopmental level at any stage of life: heredity, environment,
unexpressive, or shy. The remaining children do not fit neatly and your own behavior, and each is tightly interwoven with
into a single category (Chess & Thomas, 1986). the others (Easterbrooks et al., 2013).
Because of differences in temperament, some babies are
more likely than others to smile, cry, vocalize, reach out, or
pay attention. As a result, babies rapidly become active par- Sensitive period During development, a period of increased sensi-
ticipants in their own development. For example, Joseph was tivity to environmental influences. It also is a time during which
certain events must take place for normal development to occur.
an easy baby who smiled frequently and was easily fed. This
Deprivation In development, the loss or withholding of normal stimu-
encouraged Gloria to touch, feed, and sing to Joseph. Glo- lation, nutrition, comfort, love, and so forth; a condition of absence.
ria’s affection rewarded Joseph, causing him to smile more. Enrichment In development, deliberately making an environment
In this way, a dynamic relationship blossoms between more stimulating, nutritional, comforting, loving, and so forth.
mother and child. For example, good parenting can recip- Temperament The general pattern of attention, arousal, and mood
that is evident from birth.
rocally influence a shy child who, in turn, might become
Developmental level An individual’s current state of physical, emo-
progressively less shy. The reverse also occurs: difficult chil- tional, and intellectual development.
dren may make parents unhappy and elicit more negative

MODULE

12 summary
12.1 How do heredity and environment affect 12.1.5 The human newborn has several adaptive reflexes,
development? including the grasping, rooting, sucking, and Moro
12.1.1 Heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) are reflexes.
interacting forces that are both necessary for human 12.1.6 Newborns prefer complex patterns to simple ones;
development. However, caregivers can only influ- they also prefer human face patterns, especially
ence environment. familiar faces.
12.1.2 The chromosomes and genes in each cell of the 12.1.7 Many early skills are subject to the principle of
body carry hereditary instructions. Most character- readiness.
istics are polygenic and reflect the combined effects 12.1.8 During sensitive periods in development, infants are
of dominant and recessive genes. more sensitive to specific environmental influences.
12.1.3 Prenatal development is influenced by environmen- 12.1.9 Early perceptual, intellectual, or emotional depriva-
tal factors, such as various teratogens, including dis- tion seriously slows development, whereas deliber-
eases, drugs, and radiation, as well as the mother’s ate enrichment of the environment has a beneficial
diet, health, and emotions. effect on infants.
12.1.4 Maturation of the body and nervous system un- 12.1.10 Temperament is hereditary. Most infants fall into
derlies the orderly development of motor and one of three temperament categories: easy children,
perceptual skills, cognitive abilities, emotions, and difficult children, and slow-to-warm-up children.
language. The rate of maturation varies from person 12.1.11 A child’s developmental level reflects heredity, envi-
to person. ronment, and the effects of the child’s own behavior.

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106 p sycHolo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Knowledge Builder Human Development: Heredity and Environment

Recite Reflect
1. Areas of the DNA molecule called genes are made up of Think critically
dominant and recessive chromosomes. T or F? 8. What is the most direct way that environmental influ-
2. Most inherited characteristics can be described as ences can interact with genetic programming?
polygenic. T or F?
3. Environmental factors begin to influence a child’s self-Reflect
development beginning at Can you think of clear examples of some ways in which he-
a. infancy redity and environmental forces have combined to affect your
b. birth development?
c. conception How would maturation affect the chances of teaching an
d. maturity infant to eat with a spoon?
4. The orderly sequence observed in the unfolding What kind of temperament did you have as an infant?
of many basic responses can be attributed to How did it affect your relationship with your parents or care-
___________________________. givers?
5. A sensitive __________________ is a time of increased
sensitivity to environmental influences. AN sW E R s
6. Slow-to-warm-up children can be described as directly affecting the expression of genetic tendencies.
Environmental conditions sometimes turn specific genes on or off, thus
restrained, unexpressive, or shy. T or F?
1. F 2. T 3. c 4. maturation 5. period 6. T 7. interaction (or interplay) 8.
7. As a child develops, a continuous
________________________ takes place between the
forces of heredity and environment.

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 MODULE
Human Development
Emotional and Social Development 13
in Childhood

Let’s Be Close
Human infants mature from helpless babies to independent little
people with dazzling speed. At no other time except infancy does
development proceed as rapidly. By their third year, babies are usu-
ally able to stand, walk, talk, and explore. During the same period, a
baby’s early emotional life and relationships with other people also
unfold on a timetable that is largely controlled by maturation.
Social development is rooted in emotional attachment and the
need for physical contact as infants first form an emotional bond
with an adult. One sign of attachment is the storm of crying that
sometimes occurs when babies are left alone at bedtime. As many
parents know, it is often eased by the presence of security objects,
such as a stuffed animal or favorite blanket. While parents are the
© Nina Vaclavova/Shutterstock.com

most important influences in early social development, later devel-

opment is enhanced when play with other children begins to extend
a child’s social life beyond the family. Let’s trace our early emotional
and social development.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
13.1 In what order do the emotions develop during infancy? 13.3 How important are parenting styles?
13.2 Of what significance is a child’s emotional bond with
adults?

Emotional Development in Infancy—Curious, Baby?

Survey Question 13.1 In what order do the emotions
(Music, 2011; Panksepp & Pasqualini, 2005). Although
develop during infancy?
there is still disagreement on the details, the basic
As Jay and Gloria can tell you, a baby’s emotional life emotions are the first to appear. Along with distress and
blossoms rapidly. Beginning with the newborn’s cries of contentment, interest and disgust are all apparent shortly
distress and coos of contentment, early emotional devel- after birth. By around seven months, most newborns have
opment appears to follow a pattern tied to maturation also begun to display surprise, anger, fear, sadness, and joy

107
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108 p SyCHolo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

➤ Figure 13.1
Emotional expressions in infants. Infants display many of the same emotional expressions as adults do. Carroll Izard believes that such
expressions show that many distinct emotions appear within the first months of life. Parents can expect to see a full range of basic emotions
by the end of a baby’s first year.

(Shaffer & Kipp, 2014). (Basic emotions are described in At first, a baby’s smiling is haphazard. By the age of 8 to
greater detail in Module 42.) 12 months, however, infants smile more frequently when
How do experts figure this out? They look carefully at the another person is nearby (Mcquaid, Bibok, & Carpendale,
faces of babies (Oster, 2005). Psychologist Carroll Izard, for 2009). This social smile is especially rewarding to par-
one, sees abundant signs of emotion (Izard, Woodburn, & ents. Infants can even use their social smile to communi-
Finlon, 2010; see ➤ Figure 13.1). The most common infant cate interest in an object, like the time Joseph gazed at his
expression, he and his colleagues found, is not excitement; it’s favorite teddy bear and then smiled at his mother (Parlade
interest—followed by joy, anger, and sadness (Izard et al., 1995). et al., 2009).
The rapid development of the basic emotions in infants What is an example of a nonbasic emotion? One type of
suggests that these emotions are mainly unlearned; instead, complex emotion is embarrassment. To feel embarrassed, you
they are governed by heredity and related to evolution first have to be self-aware. Sometime after about 18 months,
(Izard, 2011). Perhaps that’s why smiling is one of a baby’s infants become able to recognize themselves in a mirror. It is
most common reactions. Smiling may help babies survive not until this age that infants first become able to experience
by inviting parents to care for them. embarrassment (Shaffer & Kipp, 2014).

Social Development—Baby, I’m Stuck on You

Survey Question 13.2 Of what significance is a child’s To investigate mother–infant relationships, Harry Harlow
emotional bond with adults? separated baby rhesus monkeys from their mothers at birth.
A baby’s affectional needs—emotional needs for care, love, The real mothers were replaced with surrogate mothers
and positive relationships with others—are every bit as im- (substitutes). Some were made of cold, unyielding wire.
portant as more obvious needs for food, water, and physical Others were covered with soft terry cloth.
care. In part to meet their affectional needs, infants rapidly When the infants were given a choice between the two
begin to form attachments, or close emotional bonds, with mothers, they spent most of their time clinging to the cuddly
their primary caregivers (Music, 2011). As infants form terry-cloth mother. This was true even when the wire mother
their first emotional bond with an adult, usually a parent, held a bottle, making it the source of food. The “love” and
they also begin to develop self-awareness and an aware- attachment displayed toward the cloth replicas was identical
ness of others (Easterbrooks et al., 2013). This early social to that shown toward natural mothers. For example, when
development lays a foundation for subsequent relation- frightened by rubber snakes, windup toys, and other “fear
ships with parents, siblings, friends, and relatives (Shaffer & stimuli,” the infant monkeys ran to their cloth mothers and
Kipp, 2014). clung to them for security. These classic studies suggest that

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 MoDU lE 13 H u MAn d eve lo p M e nt: e M oti o nAl An d s o c iAl d eve lo p M e nt i n c H i ld H o o d 109

to strangers. By around 7 months, babies generally become

truly attached to their mothers, crawling after them if they
can. Shortly thereafter, they begin to form attachments to
other people as well, such as their father, grandparents, or
siblings (Sigelman & Rider, 2015).
A direct sign that an emotional bond has formed ap-
pears around 8 to 12 months of age. At that time, Joseph
displayed separation anxiety—crying and signs of fear—
when he was left alone or with a stranger. Mild separation
anxiety is normal. When it is more intense, it may reveal a
problem. At some point in their lives, about 1 in 20 children
suffer from separation anxiety disorder (Herren, In-Albon,
& Schneider, 2013). These children are miserable when
they are separated from their parents, who they cling to or
constantly follow. Some fear that they will get lost and never
see their parents again. Many refuse to go to school. Chil-
dren tend to outgrow the disorder (Dick-Niederhauser &
Silverman, 2006), but if separation anxiety is intense or
lasts for more than a month, parents should seek profes-
sional help for their child (Allen, Lavallee et al., 2010).
Sometimes parents are afraid of “spoiling” babies with
too much attention, but for the first year or two, this is nearly
Nina Leen/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images

impossible. All things considered, creating a bond of trust and

affection between the infant and at least one other person is a
key event during the first year of life. In fact, a later capacity to
experience warm and loving relationships may depend on it.
Attachment Style According to psychologist Mary Ains-
worth (1913–1999), the quality of attachment is revealed
by how babies act when their mothers return after a brief
An infant monkey clings to a cloth-covered surrogate mother. Baby separation (Ainsworth, 1989). Infants who develop secure
monkeys become attached to the cloth “contact-comfort” mother
but not to a similar wire mother. This is true even when the wire
attachment have a stable and positive emotional bond. They
mother provides food and the cloth mother doesn’t. Contact comfort are upset by the mother’s (or caregiver’s) absence and seek
also may underlie the tendency of children to become attached to
inanimate objects, such as blankets or stuffed toys. Social smile Smiling elicited by a social stimulus, such as seeing a
parent’s face.
attachment begins with contact comfort, the pleasant, reas- Affectional needs Emotional needs for care, love, and positive
relationships with others.
suring feeling that infants get from touching something soft
Attachments Emotional bonding between an infant and its parent
and warm, especially their mother. or caregiver.
There is a sensitive period (roughly the first year of life) Social development The development of self-awareness, attachment
during which attachment must occur for optimal develop- to parents or caregivers, and relationships with other children and
ment. Joseph’s attachment during this period kept him close adults.
Surrogate mother A substitute mother (in animal research, often an
to his mother, Gloria, who provided safety, stimulation, and
inanimate object or a dummy).
a secure “home base” from which Joseph could go exploring. Contact comfort A pleasant and reassuring feeling that human and
Mothers usually begin to feel attached to their babies animal infants get from touching or clinging to something soft
before birth. For their part, as babies mature, they become and warm, usually their mothers.
more and more capable of bonding with their mothers. For Separation anxiety Distress displayed by infants when they are
separated from their parents or principal caregivers.
the first few months, babies respond more or less equally to
Secure attachment A stable and positive emotional bond.
everyone. By 2 or 3 months, most babies prefer their mothers

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110 p SyCHolo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Attachment Category Promoting Secure Attachment One key to secure at-

5% Unclassified tachment is a mother who is accepting and sensitive to her
baby’s signals and rhythms. Poor attachment occurs when
10% Ambivalent
a mother’s actions are constantly inappropriate, inadequate,
intrusive, overstimulating, or rejecting. Examples include a
mother who tries to play with a drowsy infant, or one who
22% Avoidant ignores a baby who is looking at her and vocalizing. The link
between sensitive caregiving and secure attachment appears
to apply to all cultures (Santelices et al., 2011).
What about attachment to fathers? Fathers of securely
63% Secure attached infants tend to be outgoing, agreeable, and happy in
➤ Figure 13.2 their marriage. In general, a warm family atmosphere—one
Distribution of child attachment. In the United States, about that includes sensitive mothering and fathering—produces
two-thirds of all children from middle-class families are securely secure children (Gomez & McLaren, 2007; Mattanah, Lopez,
attached. About one child in three is insecurely attached. & Govern, 2011).
[Percentages are approximate. From Kaplan (1998).]

to be near her when she returns. Infants with an insecure- Day Care
avoidant attachment have an anxious emotional bond. They Does commercial day care interfere with the quality of at-
tend to turn away from the mother (or caregiver) when she tachment? That depends on the quality of day care. Overall,
returns. Insecure-ambivalent attachment also is an anxious high-quality day care does not adversely affect attachment
emotional bond. In this case, babies have mixed feelings: to parents. In fact, high-quality day care can improve chil-
they both seek to be near the returning mother (or caregiver) dren’s social and mental skills (National Institute of Child
and angrily resist contact with her (➤ Figure 13.2). Health and Human Development, 2010). Children in high-
Different attachment styles are associated with lasting quality day care tend to have better relationships with their
effects (Morley & Moran, 2011; Moutsiana et al., 2014). In- mothers (or caregivers) and fewer behavior problems.
fants who are securely attached during infancy later show They also have better cognitive skills and language abilities
resiliency, curiosity, problem-solving ability, and social (Li et al., 2012). However, all the positive effects just noted
skills in preschool. By contrast, attachment failures can be are reversed for low-quality day care. Low-quality day care is
quite damaging (Santelices et al., 2011). Consider, for ex- risky and may weaken attachment (Phillips & Lowenstein,
ample, the plight of children raised in severely overcrowded 2011). Poor-quality day care can even create behavior
orphanages (Rutter et al., 2009). These children get almost problems that didn’t exist beforehand (Pierrehumbert
no attention from adults for the first year or two of their et al., 2002).
lives. Once adopted, many are poorly attached to their new Parents seeking quality day care should look for respon-
parents. Some, for instance, will wander off with strangers, sive and sensitive care providers who offer plenty of attention
are anxious and remote, and don’t like to be touched or to and verbal and cognitive stimulation (Phillips & Lowenstein,
make eye contact with others (O’Conner et al., 2003). In 2011). This is more likely to occur in day-care centers with at
short, for some children, a lack of affectionate care early in least the following: (1) a small number of children per care-
life leaves a lasting emotional impact well into adulthood. giver, (2) small overall group size, (3) trained care providers,
(Discover your adult attachment pattern in Module 72.) (4) minimal staff turnover, and (5) stable, consistent care.

Parental Influences—Life with Mom and Dad

Survey Question 13.3 How important are parenting styles? Parenting Styles
From the first few years of life, when caregivers are the Psychologist Diana Baumrind (1991, 2005) has studied
center of a child’s world, through to adulthood, the style the effects of three major parental styles, which are iden-
and quality of mothering and fathering are very important. tifiable patterns of parental caretaking and interaction

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 MoDU lE 13 H u MAn d eve lo p M e nt: e M oti o nAl An d s o c iAl d eve lo p M e nt i n c H i ld H o o d 111

with children. See if you recognize the styles that she their actions. Typically, the child has rights similar to an
describes. adult’s, but few responsibilities. Rules are not enforced, and
Authoritarian parents enforce rigid rules and demand the child usually gets his or her way (“Do whatever you
strict obedience to authority. Typically, they view children as want”). Permissive parents tend to produce dependent, im-
having few rights, but adultlike responsibilities. The child is mature children who misbehave frequently. Such children
expected to stay out of trouble and to accept, without ques- are aimless and likely to “run wild.”
tion, what parents regard as right or wrong (“Do it because I Some overly permissive parents genuinely wish to em-
say so”). Authoritarian parents tend to discipline their chil- power their children by imposing few limits on their behavior,
dren through power assertion—physical punishment or a making them feel special, and giving them everything they
show of force, such as taking away toys or privileges. Power- want. But such good intentions can backfire, leaving parents
oriented techniques—particularly harsh or severe physical with children who have developed artificially high levels of
punishment—are associated with fear, hatred of parents, self-esteem and a sense of entitlement (Mamen, 2004). Overly
and a lack of creativity, spontaneity, and warmth (Miller, empowered offspring are often spoiled and self-indulgent and
Lambert, & Neumeister, 2012; Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). lack self-control (Crocker, Moeller, & Burson, 2010).
As an alternative, authoritarian parents may use Baumrind describes authoritative parents as those who
withdrawal of love, or withholding affection, by refusing supply firm and consistent guidance, combined with love and
to speak to a child, threatening to leave, rejecting the child, affection. Such parents balance their own rights with those of
or otherwise acting as if the child is temporarily unlovable. their children. They control their children’s behavior through
The children of authoritarian parents are usually obedient management techniques, which combine praise, recognition,
and self-controlled; but they also tend to be emotionally approval, rules, reasoning, and similar means of encouraging
stiff, withdrawn, apprehensive, lacking in curiosity, and de- desirable behavior. Effective parents are firm and consistent,
pendent on adults for approval. In addition, they can de- not harsh or rigid. In general, they encourage the child to
velop low self-esteem. If you regard yourself as a worthwhile act responsibly, to think, and to make good decisions. This
person, you have self-esteem. Low self-esteem is related to style produces children who are resilient (good at bouncing
physical punishment and the withholding of love. And why back after bad experiences) and who develop the strengths
not? What messages do children absorb if a parent beats that they need to thrive even in difficult circumstances
them or tells them they are not worthy of love? (Azadyecta, 2011; Masten, 2014). The children of authori-
Overly permissive parents give little guidance, allow tative parents are competent, self-controlled, independent,
too much freedom, or don’t hold children accountable for assertive, and inquiring. They know how to manage their

Insecure-avoidant attachment An anxious emotional bond marked

by a tendency to avoid reunion with a parent or caregiver.
Insecure-ambivalent attachment An anxious emotional bond
marked by both a desire to be with a parent or caregiver and some
resistance to being reunited.
Parental styles Identifiable patterns of parental caretaking and
interaction with children.
Authoritarian parents Parents who enforce rigid rules and demand
strict obedience to authority.
Power assertion The use of physical punishment or coercion to
enforce child discipline.
Withdrawal of love Withholding affection to enforce child discipline.
Self-esteem Regarding oneself as a worthwhile person; a positive
Peter Steiner/Cartoon Bank.Com

evaluation of oneself.
Overly permissive parents Parents who give little guidance, allow too
much freedom, or do not require the child to take responsibility.
Authoritarian parents Parents who supply firm and consistent
guidance combined with love and affection.
Management techniques Approaches that combine praise, recogni-
tion, approval, rules, and reasoning to enforce child discipline.

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112 p SyCHolo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

emotions and use positive coping skills (Kudo, Longhofer, & It might seem that the father’s role as a playmate makes
Floersch, 2012; Lynch, Geller, & Schmidt, 2004). him less important. Not so. Joseph’s playtime with Jay is
quite valuable. From birth onward, fathers pay more vi-
Maternal and paternal Influences sual attention to children than mothers. Fathers are much
more tactile (lifting, tickling, and handling the baby),
Don’t mothers and fathers parent differently? Yes. Although
more physically arousing (engaging in rough-and-tumble
maternal influences—all the effects that a mother has on her
play), and more likely to engage in unusual play (imitating
child—have a greater impact, fathers also make a unique
the baby, for example) (Fletcher, StGeorge, & Freeman,
contribution to parenting (Bjorklund & Hernández Blasi,
2013). In comparison, mothers speak to infants more, play
2012). Although fathers are spending more time with their
more conventional games (such as peekaboo), and, as noted,
children, mothers still do most of the nurturing and caretak-
spend much more time in caregiving. Young children
ing, especially of young children (Craig, 2006).
who spend a lot of time playing with their fathers tend to
Studies of paternal influences—the sum of all effects that
be more competent in many ways (Fletcher, StGeorge, &
a father has on his child—reveal that fathers are more likely
Freeman, 2013; Tamis-LeMonda, et al., 2004).
to play with their children and tell them stories. In contrast,
Overall, fathers can be as affectionate, sensitive, and
mothers are typically responsible for the physical and emo-
responsive as mothers. Nevertheless, infants and chil-
tional care of their children (➤ Figure 13.3).
dren tend to get very different views of males and females.
3.5 Females, who offer comfort, nurturance, and verbal stimu-
lation, tend to be close at hand. Males come and go, and
3
when they are present, action, exploration, and risk-
2.5
taking prevail. It’s no wonder, then, that the parental
styles of mothers and fathers have a major impact on chil-
2 dren’s gender role development (Holmes & Huston, 2010;
Malmberg & Flouri, 2011).
1.5

0.5

0
n
re

re
ar

io
ca

ca
lc

at
e

e
ic
na
iv

siv
un
ct

io

s
m
ra

Pa
ot

om
te

m
In

/e

/c
al

el
ic

av
ys

Tr
Ph

Type of child care

Fathers
Mothers

➤ Figure 13.3
Mother–child and father–child interactions. This graph shows
© Rob Marmion/Shutterstock.com

what occurred on routine days in a sample of more than 1,400

Australian homes. Mothers spend about twice as long each day on
child care than fathers. Furthermore, mothers spend more time on
physical and emotional care (e.g., feeding, bathing, soothing) than
on interactive care (e.g., playing, reading, activities); fathers show
the reverse pattern. Finally, mothers spend more time on travel (e.g.,
driving children to sports or music lessons), communication (e.g.,
talking to teachers about their children), and passive care (e.g., Fathering typically makes a contribution to early development that
supervising children while they play). [Adapted from Craig (2006).] differs in emphasis from mothering.

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 MoDU lE 13 H u MAn d eve lo p M e nt: e M oti o nAl An d s o c iAl d eve lo p M e nt i n c H i ld H o o d 113

Ethnic Differences: Five Flavors African-American Families Like American Indian

of parenting culture, African-American culture has long been un-
der attack. In part because of this, traditional African-
Baumrind’s work provides a good overall summary of the
American values emphasize loyalty and interdependence
effects of parenting. However, her conclusions are prob-
among family members, security, developing a positive
ably most valid for families whose roots lie in Europe.
racial identity, and not giving up in the face of adversity
Child-rearing in other ethnic groups often reflects dif-
(Rowley et al., 2012). Like Hispanic parents, African-
ferent customs and beliefs (Sorkhabi, 2012). Making
American parents typically stress obedience and respect
generalizations about groups of people is always risky.
for elders (Dixon, Graber, & Brooks-Gunn, 2008). While
Nevertheless, some typical differences in child-rearing
attachment of African-American mothers to their chil-
patterns have been observed in North American ethnic
dren is good (Dexter et al., 2013), child discipline tends
communities (Parke, 2004):
to be fairly strict (Parke, 2004; Burchinal, Skinner, &
Reznick, 2010). Many African-American parents see this
Hispanic Families Hispanic parents tend to have rela-
as a necessity, especially if they live in urban areas where
tively strict standards of discipline (Dixon, Graber, &
safety is a concern. Self-reliance, resourcefulness, and an
Brooks-Gunn, 2008). They also place a high value on
ability to take care of oneself in difficult situations are
familismo: the centrality of the family, with a corresponding
qualities that African-American parents seek to promote
stress on family values, family pride, and loyalty (Glass &
in their children.
Owen, 2010). Hispanic families are typically affectionate
and indulgent toward younger children. However, as chil- Asian-American Families Amy Chua’s 2011 book,
dren grow older, they are expected to learn social skills and Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother, popularized the per-
to be calm, obedient, courteous, and respectful (Calzada, ception of Asian parenting as emphasizing hard work,
Fernandez, & Cortes, 2010). In fact, such social skills may moral behavior, and achievement. However, most Asian-
be valued more than cognitive skills (Delgado & Ford, Americans strive to achieve a balance between their
1998). In addition, Hispanic parents tend to stress coopera- traditions and Western child-rearing practices (Cheah,
tion more than competition. Such values can put Hispanic Leung, & Zhou, 2013). Asian-American parents tend
children at a disadvantage in highly competitive, European- to be group-oriented and emphasize interdependence
American culture. among individuals. In contrast, Western cultures value
individual effort and independence. This difference is
American Indian Families Much has been written often reflected in Asian-American child-rearing prac-
about the poor physical and psychosocial health of American tices (Park et al., 2010). Asian-American children are
Indian cultures. This tragedy is almost certainly a conse- often taught that their behavior can bring either pride
quence of concerted attacks on Native cultures beginning or shame to the family. Therefore, they are obliged to
with the arrival of Europeans in the Americas (Teufel- set aside their own desires when the greater good of the
Shone et al., 2005; Valeggia & Snodgrass, 2015). Never- family is at stake (Parke, 2004). For the first few years,
theless, tribes who have managed to continue to promote parenting is lenient and permissive. However, after about
their cultural heritage do nurture healthy American In- age 5, Asian-American parents tend to act as home-based
dian families (McMahon, & Kenyon, & Carter, 2013). In teachers expecting respect, obedience, self-control, and
such supportive contexts, the healthy American Indian self-discipline from their children.
family can best be described as “close-knit.” It is charac-
terized by a high degree of interconnectedness between Arab-American Families In Middle Eastern cultures,
immediate and extended family members, and even local children are expected to be polite, obedient, disciplined,
community members. Parents stress the importance of and conforming (Erickson & Al-Timimi, 2001). Punish-
indigenous culture and community interconnectedness. ment may consist of spankings, teasing, or shaming in
They are also very loving and supportive while seeking front of others. Arab-American fathers tend to be strong
to foster spiritual, emotional, physical, and social balance authority figures who demand obedience so that the fam-
in their children (Jervis, Boland, & Fickenscher, 2010; ily will not be shamed by a child’s bad behavior. Like
Martin & Yurkovich, 2014). Asian-American parents, Arab-American parents strive

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114 p SyCHolo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

to achieve a balance between their traditions and West-

ern approaches. As a consequence, many Arab-American
parents have tempered their traditional authoritarian style
with more authoritative elements (Al Yacoub, 1997). Suc-
cess, generosity, and hospitality remain highly valued in
Arab-American culture. The pursuit of family honor en-
courages hard work, thrift, conservatism, and educational
achievement. The welfare of the family is emphasized over
individual identity. Thus, Arab-American children are
raised to respect their parents, members of their extended
family, and other adults.

Michigan State University/Steven J. Gold

In other ethnic communities, norms for effective parenting often

differ in subtle ways from parenting styles in Euro-American culture.
In the final analysis, parenting can be judged only if we know what
culture or ethnic community a child is being prepared to enter
(Sorkhabi, 2012).

MODULE

13 Summary
13.1 In what order do the emotions develop dur- 13.2.3 High-quality day care does not appear to harm
ing infancy? children. Low-quality day care can be risky.
13.1.1 Emotions develop in a consistent order, starting
13.3 How important are parenting styles?
with generalized excitement in newborn babies.
13.3.1 Studies suggest that parental styles have a
Three of the basic emotions—fear, anger, and
substantial impact on emotional and intellectual
joy—may be unlearned.
development.
13.2 of what significance is a child’s emotional 13.3.2 Three major parental styles are authoritarian, per-
bond with adults? missive, and authoritative (effective). Authoritative
13.2.1 Meeting a baby’s affectional needs is as important parenting, relying more on management techniques
as meeting needs for physical care. Emotional rather than power assertion or withdrawal of love,
attachment of human infants is a critical appears to benefit children the most.
early event. 13.3.3 Whereas mothers typically emphasize caregiving,
13.2.2 Infant attachment is reflected by separation anxiety. fathers tend to function as playmates for infants.
Attachment styles can be classified as secure, 13.3.4 Parental styles vary across cultures.
insecure-avoidant, or insecure-ambivalent.

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 MoDU lE 13 H u MAn d eve lo p M e nt: e M oti o nAl An d s o c iAl d eve lo p M e nt i n c H i ld H o o d 115

Knowledge Builder Human Development: Emotional and Social

Development in Childhood
Recite Self-Reflect
1. Along with distress and contentment, ___________ Do you think that your experiences as a child, such as your
and ___________ are expressed by infants shortly after early attachment pattern, affect your life as an adult? Can you
birth. think of any examples from your own life?
a. joy, embarrassment Do you know any parents who have young children and
b. fear, sadness who are authoritarian, permissive, or authoritative? What are
c. surprise, anger their children like?
d. interest, disgust Do you think parenting depends on ethnicity? If so, why?
2. Newborns display a social smile as early as 10 days after If not, why not?
birth. T or F?
3. The development of separation anxiety in an infant cor-
responds to the formation of an attachment to parents. AN SW E R S
in their children (Haycraft & Blissett, 2010).
T or F? willing to withdraw from conflicts over eating, can create dietary issues
4. According to Diana Baumrind’s research, effective par- about what their children eat, as well as permissive parents who are too
ents are authoritarian in their approach to their children’s man & Rider, 2015). 8. Authoritarian parents who are too controlling
behavior. T or F?
fetus begin to become emotionally attached to the unborn child (Sigel-
a fetal heartbeat at the doctor’s office or see an ultrasound image of the
5. Fathers are more likely to act as playmates for their chil- baby is coming to life inside her. Likewise, prospective parents who hear
dren, rather than as caregivers. T or F? nant woman begins to feel fetal movements, she becomes aware that a
6. Asian-American parents tend to be more individually 1. d 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. T 6. F 7. It certainly can for parents. When a preg-
oriented than parents whose ethnic roots are European.
T or F?

Reflect
Think Critically
7. Can emotional bonding begin before birth?
8. Which parenting style do you think would be most likely
to lead to eating disorders in children?

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MODULE

14 Human Development
Language and Cognitive Development
in Childhood

Make It Warmer, Mommy

There’s something almost miraculous about a baby’s early language
and thought, which often leaves parents scratching their heads. For
example, when Joseph’s older brother, Manny, was 3, he thought his
bath was too hot and said to Gloria, “Make it warmer, Mommy.”
At first, Gloria was confused. The bath was already fairly hot. She
grinned as she realized that Manny meant, “Bring the water closer
to the temperature we call warm.” It makes perfect sense if you look
at it that way.
As infants, how did we manage to leap into the world of language
and thought? Although maturation (nature) provides the foundation
for language learning and cognitive development, social develop-
Gary Conner/Photolibrary/Getty Images

ment (nurture) plays a critical role, too. For example, parents use a
distinctive style, called motherese or parentese, when speaking to an
infant. In what other ways do nature and nurture work together to
foster language and cognitive development in young children? Let’s
find out.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
14.1 How do children acquire language? 14.2 How do children learn to think?

Language Development—Who Talks Baby Talk?

Survey Question 14.1 How do children acquire language?
Language development is closely tied to maturation
As every parent knows, babies can cry from birth on. By 1 (Gleason & Ratner, 2013). By 7 months of age, Joseph’s
month of age, they use crying to gain attention. Typically, nervous system was mature enough to allow him to grasp
parents can tell whether an infant is hungry, angry, or in objects, smile, laugh, sit up, and babble. In the babbling
pain from the tone of the crying (Nakayama, 2010). Around stage, the consonants b, d, m, and g are combined with the
6 to 8 weeks of age, babies begin cooing (the repetition of vowel sounds to produce meaningless language sounds:
vowel sounds such as “oo” and “ah”). dadadadada or bababa. At first, babbling is the same around

116
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 MODU LE 1 4 H u man D eve lo p m e nt: lan g uag e an D C o g n itive D eve lo p m e nt i n C H i lD H o o D 117

the world. But soon, the language spoken by parents begins walking. If such inborn language capacity does exist, it
to have an influence (Goldstein et al., 2010)—that is, Japa- may explain why children around the world use a limited
nese babies start to babble in a way that sounds like Japa- number of patterns in their first sentences. Typical patterns
nese, Mexican babies babble in Spanish-like sounds, and so include the following (Mussen et al., 1979): identification
on (Garcia-Sierra et al., 2011). (“See kitty.”), nonexistence (“Allgone milk.”), possession
At about 1 year of age, children respond to real words (“My doll.”), agent-action (“Mama give.”), negation (“Not
such as no or hi. Soon afterward, the first connection be- ball.”), and question (“Where doggie?”).
tween words and objects forms, and children may address Does Chomsky’s theory explain why language develops so
their parents as “Mama” or “Dada.” By age 18 months to rapidly? It is certainly part of the story (Saxton, 2010). But
2 years, a child’s vocabulary may include 100 words or more. many psychologists feel that Chomsky underestimates the
First comes the single-word stage, during which children use importance of learning and the social contexts that shape
one word at a time, such as “go,” “juice,” or “up.” Soon after, language development (Behne et al., 2012; Hoff, 2014).
words are arranged in simple two-word sentences called Psycholinguists (specialists in the psychology of language)
telegraphic speech: “Want-Teddy”; “Mama-gone.” have shown that imitation of adults and rewards for cor-
rectly using words (as when a child asks for a cookie) are
Language and the Terrible Twos an important part of language learning. Also, babies actively
At about the same time that children begin to put two or participate in language learning by asking questions, such as
three words together, they become much more indepen- “What dis?” (Domingo & Goldstein-Alpern, 1999).
dent. It’s true that 1-year-olds can do plenty of things par- When a child makes a language error, parents typically
ents don’t want them to do. A 1-year-old may assert his repeat the child’s sentence, with needed corrections, or ask a
independence by saying, “No drink,” “Me do it,” “My cup, clarifying question to draw the child’s attention to the error
my cup,” and the like. It can be worse, of course. During (Hoff, 2014). More important is the fact that parents and
their second year, children become increasingly capable of children begin to communicate long before the child can
mischief and temper tantrums. It’s usually 2-year-olds who speak. A readiness to interact socially with parents may be
do things because you don’t want them to (Raphael-Leff, as important as innate language processing. The next sec-
2012). A 2-year-old may look at you intently, make eye con- tion explains why.
tact, listen as you shout “No, no!” and still pour her juice Early Communication How do parents communicate
on the cat. with infants before they can talk? Parents go to a great deal
Thus, calling this time “the terrible twos” is not entirely of trouble to get babies to smile and vocalize. In doing
inappropriate. Perhaps parents can take some comfort in so, they quickly learn to change their actions to keep the
knowing that a stubborn, negative 2-year-old is simply infant’s attention, arousal, and activity at optimal levels. A
becoming more independent. When children are 2 years familiar example is the “I’m-Going-to-Get-You” game. In it,
old, their parents are wise to remember that “This, too, the adult says, “I’m gonna getcha. . . . I’m gonna getcha. . . .
shall pass.” I’m gonna getcha. . . . Gotcha!” Through such games, adults
After age 2, the child’s comprehension and use of and babies come to share similar rhythms and expectations
words takes a dramatic leap forward. From this point on, (Carroll, 2008). Soon a system of shared signals is created,
vocabulary and language skills grow at a phenomenal rate including touching, vocalizing, gazing, and smiling. These
(Fernald, Perfors, & Marchman, 2006). By first grade, help lay a foundation for later language use (De Schuymer
Joseph will be able to understand around 8,000 words and et al., 2011; Kraus & Slater, 2016). Specifically, signals
use about 4,000. He will have truly entered the world of establish a pattern of “conversational” turn-taking (alternate
language. sending and receiving of messages).

The Roots of Language

Biological predisposition The presumed hereditary readiness of
What accounts for this explosion of language development? humans to learn certain skills, such as how to use language or a
Linguist Noam Chomsky (1986) has long claimed that hu- readiness to behave in particular ways.
mans have a biological predisposition, or hereditary readi- Signals In early language development, behaviors, such as touching,
vocalizing, gazing, or smiling, that allow nonverbal interaction
ness, to develop language. According to Chomsky, language and turn-taking between parent and child.
patterns are inborn, much like a child’s ability to coordinate

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118 p syCHOLO Gy m o D u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

Gloria Joseph tend to use long, adult-style sentences. But as soon as the
(smiles) baby says its first word, they switch to parentese. By the
“Oh what a nice little smile!” time that babies are 4 months old, they prefer parentese over
normal speech (Cooper et al., 1997).
“Yes, isn’t that nice?” (burps)
In addition to being simpler, parentese has a distinct
“Well, excuse you!” “musical” quality (Trainor & Desjardins, 2002). No matter
“Yes, that’s better, yes.” (vocalizes) what language mothers speak, the melodies, pauses, and
“Yes.” (smiles) inflections they use to comfort, praise, or give warning are
“What’s so funny?” universal. Psychologist Anne Fernald has found that moth-
ers of all nations talk to their babies with similar changes
From the outside, such exchanges may look meaning- in pitch. For instance, we praise babies with a rising, then
less. In reality, they represent real communication (Behne falling pitch (“BRA-vo!” “GOOD girl!”). Warnings are deliv-
et al., 2012). One study found that 6-week-old babies change ered in a short, sharp rhythm (“Nein! Nein!” “Basta! Basta!”
their gaze at an adult’s face when the adult’s speech changes “No! Dude!”). To give comfort, parents use low, smooth,
(Crown et al., 2002). Infants as young as 4 months engage drawn-out tones (“Oooh poor baaa-by.” “Oooh pobrecito.”).
in vocal turn-taking with adults (Jaffe et al., 2001). The A high-pitched, rising melody is used to call attention to ob-
more children interact with parents, the faster they learn to jects (“See the pretty BIRDIE?”) (Fernald, 1989).
talk and the faster they develop thinking abilities (Hoff & Parentese helps parents get babies’ attention, communi-
Tian, 2005). Unmistakably, social relationships contribute cate with them, and teach them language (Gardner, 2010).
to early language learning (Hoff, 2014; Vernon-Feagans Later, as a child’s speaking improves, parents tend to adjust
et al., 2011). their speech to the child’s language ability. Especially from
Parentese When they talk to infants, parents use an exag- 18 months to 4 years of age, parents seek to clarify what a
gerated pattern of speaking called motherese (parentese). child says and prompt the child to say more.
Typically, they raise their tone of voice, use short, simple In summary, some elements of language are innate.
sentences, repeat themselves, and use frequent gestures Nevertheless, our inherited tendency to learn language does
(Gogate, Bahrick, & Watson, 2000). They also slow their not determine whether we will speak English or Vietnamese,
rate of speaking and use exaggerated voice inflections: “Did Spanish or Russian. Environmental forces also influence
Joseph eat it A-L-L UP?” whether a person develops simple or sophisticated language
What is the purpose of such changes? Parents are ap- skills. The first seven years of life are a sensitive period in
parently trying to help their children learn language language learning (Hoff, 2014). Clearly, a full flowering of
(Soderstrom, 2007). When a baby is still babbling, parents speech requires careful cultivation.

Cognitive Development—Think Like a Child

Survey Question 14.2 How do children learn to think?
From the earliest days of life, babies are learning
Now that we have Joseph talking, let’s move on to a broader how the world works. They immediately begin to look,
view of intellectual development. Babies are smarter than touch, taste, and otherwise explore their surround-
many people think. While they don’t have learned knowl- ings. In the first months of life, babies are increasingly
edge and skills (crystallized intelligence) early on, they do able to think, to learn from what they see, to make pre-
have a remarkable capability for rapid learning (fluid intel- dictions, and to search for explanations. For example,
ligence). From an evolutionary perspective, a baby’s mind Jerome Bruner (1983) observed that 3- to 8-week-old
is designed to soak up information, which it does at an babies seem to understand that a person’s voice and
amazing pace (Bjorklund, 2012). Although baby Joseph body should be connected. If a baby hears his mother’s
was a “sponge,” soaking up new experiences, by the time voice coming from where she is standing, the baby will
he reaches old age, he will find it much harder to learn new remain calm. If her voice comes from a loudspeaker sev-
skills (such as becoming fluent in a second language) and eral feet away, though, the baby will become agitated and
will rely much more on what he already knows. begin to cry.

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 MODU LE 1 4 H u man D eve lo p m e nt: lan g uag e an D C o g n itive D eve lo p m e nt i n C H i lD H o o D 119

Jean Piaget (1896–1980).

Philosopher, psychologist,
and keen observer of children.

Sally and Richard Greenhill/Alamy Stock Photo

accommodation. Assimilation refers to the application of
an established schema to new objects or problems. Let’s say
that little Lily is taken for a drive in the country. She sees
her first live horse in a field, points, and calls out, “Horse!”
She has already seen horses on television and even has a
stuffed toy horse. In this case, she adds this new experience
When this mother sticks out her tongue, her infant son imitates her.
Is this common? To find out, Andrew Meltzoff videotaped mothers
to her existing concept of horse. Piaget would say that it has
and researchers as they made facial gestures at infants and been assimilated to an existing schema.
recorded the infant’s responses. The resulting videotapes of both In accommodation (learning), existing schemas are
adults and of tested infants helped ensure objectivity.
modified to fit new new objects or problems. For instance,
suppose that a month later, Lily goes to the zoo, where she
As another example, psychologist Andrew Meltzoff has
sees her first zebra. Proudly, she again exclaims, “Horse!”
found that babies are born mimics. Videos of babies con-
This time, her father, Cameron, replies, “No dear, that’s a ze-
firm that they imitate adult facial gestures while they can
bra.” Little Lily has failed to assimilate the zebra to her horse
see them (mirror neurons, anyone?). As early as 9 months
concept, so now she must accommodate by creating a new
of age, infants can remember and imitate actions a day after
concept, zebra, and modifying her concept of horse (to not
seeing them (Heimann & Meltzoff, 1996; Meltzoff, 2005).
include black and white stripes).
Such mimicry obviously aids rapid learning in infancy.
Swiss psychologist and philosopher Jean Piaget (Jahn Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 Years) Look up from this
pea-ah-ZHAY) (1896–1980) provided some of the first great paragraph until your attention is attracted to another ob-
insights into how children develop thinking abilities when ject in the room. Then refocus on this paragraph. Is the
he proposed that children’s cognitive skills progress through object still there? How do you know? As an adult, you can
a series of maturational stages. keep an image of the object in your “mind’s eye.” Accord-
ing to Piaget, newborns, who are in the sensorimotor
piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development stage, cannot create internal representations such as mental
Piaget’s ideas have deeply affected our view of children images. As a result, they lack object permanence, a rec-
(Miller, 2011). According to Piaget (1951, 1952), children’s ognition that physical things continue to exist even when
thinking is, generally speaking, less abstract than that of they are no longer visible. Concepts and language are other
adults. They tend to base their understanding on particu- types of internal representation. (See Module 37 for more
lar examples and objects that they can see or touch. Also, information).
children use fewer generalizations, categories, and princi-
ples. Piaget also believed that all children mature through Motherese (or parentese) A pattern of speech used when talking to
infants, marked by a higher-pitched voice; short, simple sentences;
a series of distinct stages in intellectual development. Many
repetition; slower speech; and exaggerated voice inflections.
of his ideas came from observing his own children as they Assimilation The application of an established schema to new ob-
solved various thought problems. (It is tempting to imagine jects or problems, according to Piaget.
that Piaget’s illustrious career was launched one day when Accommodation (learning) Modification of an established schema
to fit a new object or problem, according to Piaget.
his wife said to him, “Watch the children for a while, will Sensorimotor stage Piaget’s initial stage of development, when the
you, Jean?”) infant’s mental activity is only sensory perception and motor skills.
Object permanence Recognizing that physical things continue to
Mental Processes Piaget was convinced that intellect exist, even when they are no longer visible.
grows through processes that he called assimilation and

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120 p syCHOLO Gy m o D u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

For this reason, in the first two years of life, Joseph’s intel-
lectual development was largely nonintellectual and nonver-
bal. His mental activity was concerned mainly with learning
to coordinate information from his sensory perception with
his motor skills. But sometime during his first year, he, like
other babies, began to actively pursue disappearing objects.
By age 2, infants can anticipate the movement of an object
behind a screen. For example, when watching a toy train,
they will look ahead to the end of a tunnel, rather than stare
at the spot where the train disappeared.
In general, developments in this stage indicate that the

Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit
child’s conceptions are becoming more stable. Objects cease
to appear and disappear magically, and a more orderly and
predictable world replaces the confusing and disconnected
sensations of infancy. Children under age 7 intuitively assume that a volume of liquid
increases when it is poured from a short, wide container into a
Preoperational Stage (2–7 Years) Close your eyes
taller, thinner one. This boy thinks that the tall container holds more
again. Imagine the room you sleep in. What would it look than the short one. In reality, each holds the same amount of liquid.
like if you were perched on the ceiling and your bed was Children make such judgments based on the height of the liquid, not
missing? Now you have operated mentally on your image its volume.
by transforming it. According to Piaget, even though chil-
dren in the preoperational stage can form mental images or
ideas, they are preoperational because they cannot easily use
mental operations, or transformations, to manipulate those According to Piaget, during the preoperational stage,
images or ideas in their minds. the child displays egocentrism, believing that everyone
Difficulty in using transformations is why although thinks as he or she does. Due to this inability to take the
children begin to think symbolically and use language be- viewpoints of other people, the child’s ego seems to stand
fore the age of 6 or 7, they still engage in concrete, intuitive at the center of his or her world. To illustrate, show a pre-
thought—it makes little use of reasoning and logic. (Do you operational child a two-sided mirror. Then hold it between
remember as a child thinking that the Sun and the Moon you and her, so she can see herself in it. If you ask her what
followed you when you took a walk?) she thinks you can see, she imagines that you see her face
Let’s visit Joseph at age 5: If you show him a short, wide reflected in the mirror, instead of your own. She cannot
glass full of milk and a taller, narrow glass full of milk, most mentally transform the view that she sees into the view that
likely he will tell you that the taller glass contains more milk you must be seeing.
(even if it doesn’t). Joseph will tell you this even if he watches Such egocentrism explains why children can seem
you pour milk from the short glass into an empty taller exasperatingly selfish or uncooperative at times. If Lily
glass. Older children can mentally transform the pouring of blocks your view by standing in front of the television,
the milk by mentally reversing it, to see that the shape of the she assumes that you can see it if she can. If you ask her
container is irrelevant to the volume of milk that it contains. to move so you can see better, she may move so that
But Joseph is preoperational: He cannot engage in the men- she can see better! Lily is not being selfish in the ordi-
tal operation of transforming the tall, narrow glass of milk nary sense. She just doesn’t realize that your view differs
back into a short, wide glass. Thus, he is not bothered by the from hers.
fact that the milk appears to be transformed from a smaller In addition, the child’s use of language is not as
to a larger amount. Instead, he responds only to his fact that sophisticated as it might seem. Children have a tendency
taller seems to mean more. to confuse words with the objects that they represent.
After about age 7, children are no longer fooled by this If Lily calls a toy block a “car” and you use that block to
situation. Perhaps that’s why age 7 has been called the “age of make a “house,” she may be upset. To children, the name
reason.” From age 7 on, we see a definite trend toward more of an object is as much a part of the object as its size, shape,
logical, adultlike thought. and color.

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 MODU LE 1 4 H u man D eve lo p m e nt: lan g uag e an D C o g n itive D eve lo p m e nt i n C H i lD H o o D 121

same, no matter what shape the material takes, or how it ap-

pears. The original amount of matter is conserved.
During the concrete operational stage, children begin
to use concepts of time, space, and number. The child can
think logically about concrete objects or situations, catego-
ries, and principles. Such abilities help explain why chil-
dren stop believing in Santa Claus when they reach this
stage. Because they can conserve volume, they realize that

Kokyat Choong/Alamy Stock Photo

Santa’s sack couldn’t possibly hold enough toys for millions
of girls and boys.
Formal Operational Stage (11 Years and Up)
According to Piaget’s theory, after about the age of 11,
children begin to rely less on concrete objects and specific
Crossing a busy street can be dangerous for the preoperational child.
examples. Thinking is based more on abstract principles,
Because their thinking is still egocentric, younger children cannot
understand why the driver of a car can’t see them if they can see such as democracy, honor, or correlation. Children who
the car. Children under the age of 7 also cannot judge the speeds reach the formal operational stage become self-reflective
and distances of oncoming cars consistently. Likewise, adults can about their thoughts, and they become less egocentric. Older
overestimate the “street smarts” of younger children easily. It is
advisable to teach children to cross with the light, in a crosswalk, with
children and young adolescents also gradually become able to
assistance, or all three. consider hypothetical possibilities (suppositions, guesses, or
projections). For example, if you ask a younger child, “What
Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 Years) The hall- do you think would happen if it suddenly became possible
mark of a child in the concrete operational stage is the abil- for people to fly?” the child might respond, “People can’t fly.”
ity to carry out mental operations such as reversing thoughts. Older children are better able to consider such possibilities.
A 4-year-old boy in the preoperational stage might have Full adult intellectual ability is attained during the
a conversation like the following (showing how a child’s stage of formal operations. Older adolescents are capable
thinking lacks reversibility): of inductive and deductive reasoning, and they can com-
prehend mathematics, physics, philosophy, psychology,
“Do you have a brother?”
and other abstract systems. They can learn to test hy-
“Yes.” potheses in a scientific manner. Of course, not everyone
“What’s his name?” reaches this level of thinking. Also, many adults can think
“Billy.” formally about some topics, but their thinking becomes
“Does Billy have a brother?” concrete when the topic is unfamiliar. This implies that
formal thinking may be more a result of culture and learn-
“No.”
ing than maturation. In any case, after late adolescence,
Reversibility of thought allows children in the concrete
operational stage to recognize that if 4 3 2 5 8, then 2 3 Preoperational stage Piaget’s second stage of cognitive develop-
4 does, too. Younger children must memorize each rela- ment, characterized by the use of symbols and illogical thought.
tionship separately. Thus, a preoperational child may know Transformation The mental ability to change the shape or form of
a substance (such as clay or water) and to perceive that its volume
that 4 3 9 5 36, without being able to tell you what 9 3 4
remains the same.
equals. Intuitive thought Thinking that makes little or no use of reasoning
The development of mental operations allows mastery and logic.
of conservation—Piaget’s term for the awareness that physi- Egocentrism The belief that everyone thinks as you do.
Concrete operational stage Piaget’s third stage of cognitive develop-
cal quantities stay constant despite changes in their shape ment, characterized by logical thought.
or appearance. Children have learned conservation when Conservation Piaget’s term for the awareness that physical quanti-
they understand that rolling a ball of clay into a “snake” does ties stay constant despite changes in shape or appearance.
not increase the amount of clay. Likewise, pouring liquid Formal operational stage Piaget’s fourth stage of cognitive devel-
opment, characterized by the ability to engage in thinking that
from a tall, narrow glass into a shallow dish does not reduce includes abstract, theoretical, and hypothetical ideas.
the amount of liquid. In each case, the volume remains the

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122 p syCHOLO Gy m o D u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

improvements in intellect are based on gaining specific

knowledge, experience, and wisdom, rather than on any
leaps in basic thinking capacity.
How can parents apply Piaget’s ideas? Piaget’s theory sug-
gests that the ideal way to guide intellectual development is to

Barbara Smaller The New Yorker Collection/The Cartoon Bank

provide experiences that are only slightly novel, unusual, or
challenging. Remember that a child’s intellect develops mainly
through accommodation. It is usually best to follow a one-step-
ahead strategy, in which your teaching efforts are aimed just be-
yond a child’s current level of comprehension (Brainerd, 2003).
Parents should avoid forced teaching, or “hothousing,”
which is like trying to force plants to bloom prematurely.
Forcing children to learn reading, math, gymnastics, swim-
ming, or music at an accelerated pace can bore or oppress
them. True intellectual enrichment respects the child’s in-
terests. It does not make the child feel pressured to perform.

piaget Today
Today, Piaget’s theory remains a valuable road map for un- infants under the age of 1 year cannot think (i.e., use internal
derstanding how children think. On a broad scale, many of representations). Such abilities, he believed, emerge only after
Piaget’s ideas have held up well. However, there has been a long period of sensorimotor development. Babies, he said,
disagreement about specific details. For example, accord- have no memory of people and objects that are out of sight.
ing to learning theorists, children continuously gain spe- Yet we now know that infants begin forming representations
cific knowledge; they do not undergo stagelike leaps in of the world very early in life. For example, babies as young as
general mental ability (Miller, 2011; Siegler, 2005). On the 3 months of age appear to know that objects are solid and do
other hand, the growth in connections between brain cells not disappear when out of view (Baillargeon, 2004).
occurs in waves that parallel some of Piaget’s stages (see Why did Piaget fail to detect the thinking skills of infants?
➤ Figure 14.1). Thus, the truth may lie somewhere between Most likely, he mistook babies’ limited physical skills for
Piaget’s stage theory and modern learning theory. mental immaturity. Piaget’s tests required babies to search
In addition, it is now widely accepted that children de- for objects or reach out and touch them. Newer, more sen-
velop cognitive skills somewhat earlier than Piaget originally sitive methods are uncovering abilities that Piaget missed.
thought (Bjorklund, 2012). For example, Piaget believed that One such method takes advantage of the fact that babies,
like adults, act surprised when they see something “impos-
sible” or unexpected occur. To use this effect, psychologist
Renee Baillargeon (1991, 2004) puts on little “magic shows”
for infants. In her “theater,” babies watch as possible and
impossible events occur with toys or other objects. Some
3 to 6 years 7 to 15 years 16 to 20 years
3-month-old infants act surprised and gaze longer at impos-
Growth Pruning sible events, for example, seeing two solid objects appear to
pass through each other. By the time that they are 8 months
➤ Figure 14.1
old, babies can remember where objects are (or should be)
Brain maturation and cognition. Between the ages of 3 and
6 years, a tremendous wave of growth occurs in connections
for at least one minute (➤ Figure 14.2).
among neurons in the frontal areas of the brain. This corresponds
Theory of Mind: I’m a Me! . . . and You’re a You! Piaget
to the time when children make rapid progress in their ability to
think symbolically. Between the ages of 7 and 15, peak synaptic thought that children remain egocentric during the pre-
growth shifts to the temporal and parietal lobes. During this period, operational stage and become aware of perspectives other
children become increasingly adept at using language, a specialty than their own only at age 7. Researchers have since begun
of the temporal lobes. In the late teens, the brain actively destroys
unneeded connections, especially in the frontal lobes. This pruning
to refer to this development as theory of mind, the under-
of synapses sharpens the brain’s capacity for abstract thinking standing that people have mental states, such as thoughts,
(Restak, 2001). beliefs, and intentions, and that other people’s mental states
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 MODU LE 1 4 H u man D eve lo p m e nt: lan g uag e an D C o g n itive D eve lo p m e nt i n C H i lD H o o D 123

Before After
➤ Figure 14.2
Testing for object constancy in infancy. An infant
(a) watches as a toy is placed behind the right of two screens
(a). After a delay of 70 seconds, a possible event occurs
as the toy is brought back into view from behind the right
screen. Then the infant watches as the toy is placed
behind the left of two screens (b). Now an impossible event
occurs, as the toy is again retrieved from behind the right
screen. (A duplicate toy was hidden there before testing).
Eight-month-old infants react with surprise when they
see the impossible event staged for them. Their reaction
implies that they remember where the toy was hidden.
Infants appear to have a capacity for memory and thinking
(b) that greatly exceeds what Piaget claimed is possible during
the sensorimotor period (Baillargeon, Scott, & Bian, 2016).
[Adapted from Baillargeon, De Vos, & Graber (1989).]

can be different from one’s own. Psychologists currently be- know that his cousin’s point of view could be different from
lieve that children as young as age 4 can understand that his own. Earlier, we saw that Piaget used the term egocen-
other people’s mental states differ from their own (Apperly, trism to refer to this endearing feature of young children and
2012; Baillargeon, Scott, & Bian, 2016). proposed that young children remain egocentric until they
When you look in a mirror, you recognize the im- enter the concrete operational stage at about age 7. More re-
age staring back as your own—except, perhaps, early on cent evidence suggests that children become less egocentric
Monday mornings. Like many such events, initial self- beginning at about age 4 (Doherty, 2009).
awareness depends on maturation of the nervous system. One way to assess whether a child understands that
In a typical test of self-recognition, infants are shown other people have their own mental states is the false-belief
images of themselves on a television. Most infants are (or Sally-Anne) task. In this test, a child is shown two dolls,
18 months old before they recognize themselves (Nielsen & Sally and Anne. Sally has a basket and Anne has a box. Sally
Dissanayake, 2004). puts a coin in her basket and goes out to play. In the mean-
But just because a 2-year-old knows that he is a me time, Anne takes the coin from Sally’s basket and puts it into
doesn’t mean he knows that you are a you (Samson & Ap- her box. Sally comes back and looks for the coin. To assess
perly, 2010). At age 3, Manny once put his hands over his theory of mind, the child is asked where Sally will look for
eyes and exclaimed to his cousin Luke, “You can’t see me her coin. Although the child knows that the coin is in Anne’s
now!” He knew that he had a point of view, but he did not box, the correct answer is that Sally will look in her basket.
To answer correctly, the child must understand that Sally’s
point of view did not include what the child saw.
Theory of mind develops over time. It takes further de-
velopment to appreciate that other people may lie, be sarcas-
tic, make jokes, or use figures of speech. Some adults never
become good at this. Also, the available evidence suggests
that children with autism spectrum disorders are particu-
larly poor at this task (O’Hare et al., 2009).

Vygotsky’s sociocultural Theory

Ursula Markus/Science Source

Another criticism of Piaget is that he underestimated the

impact of culture on mental development. While Piaget
stressed the role of maturation in cognitive development,
Russian scholar Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) focused on the
A sense of self, or self-awareness, develops at about age 18 months.
Before children develop self-awareness, they do not recognize their Theory of mind The understanding that people have mental states,
own image in a mirror. Typically, they think that they are looking at such as thoughts, beliefs, and intentions, and that other people’s
another child. Some children hug the child in the mirror or go behind mental states can be different from one’s own.
the mirror looking for the child they see there (Lewis, 1995).
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124 p syCHOLO Gy m o D u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

impact of sociocultural factors on development. Many psy- tasks, but they are a little too complex to be mastered alone.
chologists are convinced that Piaget gave too little credit to However, children working within this zone can make rapid
the effects of the learning environment. For example, chil- progress if they receive sensitive guidance from a skilled
dren who grow up in villages where pottery is made can partner (Gredler, 2012). (Notice that this is similar to the
correctly answer questions about the conservation of clay at Piagetian one-step-ahead strategy described previously.)
an earlier age than Piaget would have predicted. Vygotsky’s Vygotsky also emphasized a process that he called
(1962, 1978) key insight is that children’s thinking develops scaffolding. A scaffold is a framework or temporary support.
through dialogues with more-capable persons. Vygotsky believed that adults help children learn how to think
How does that relate to intellectual growth? So far, no one by “scaffolding,” or supporting, their attempts to solve prob-
has published A Child’s Guide to Life on Earth. Instead, children lems or discover principles (Daniels, 2005). To be most effec-
must learn about life from various “tutors,” such as parents, tive, scaffolding must be responsive to a child’s needs. For ex-
teachers, and older siblings. Even if A Child’s Guide to Life on ample, as Tanya’s father helped her with the puzzle, he tailored
Earth did exist, we would need a separate version for every cul- his hints and guidance to match her evolving abilities. The two
ture. It is not enough for children to learn how to think. They of them worked together, step by step, so that Tanya could bet-
also must learn specific intellectual skills valued by their culture. ter understand how to assemble a puzzle. In a sense, Tanya’s fa-
Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children actively ther set up a series of temporary bridges that helped her move
seek to discover new principles. However, Vygotsky empha- into new mental territory. As predicted by Vygotsky’s theory,
sized that many of a child’s most important “discoveries” the reading skills of 8- to 10-year-old children are closely re-
are guided by skillful tutors. Psychologists Jay Shaffer and lated to the amount of verbal scaffolding that their mothers
Katherine Kipp (2014) offer the following example: provided at ages 3 and 4 (Dieterich et al., 2006).
Tanya, a 4-year-old, has just received her first jigsaw puzzle as
During their collaborations with others, children learn
a birthday present. She attempts to solve the puzzle but gets important cultural beliefs and values. For example, imagine
nowhere until her father comes along, sits down beside her, that a boy wants to know how many baseball cards he has.
and gives her some tips. He suggests that it would be a good His mother helps him stack and count the cards, moving
idea to put together the corners first, points to the pink area at each card to a new stack as they count it. She then shows
the edge of one corner piece, and says, “Let’s look for another him how to write the number on a slip of paper so that
pink piece.” When Tanya seems frustrated, he places two in-
terlocking pieces near each other so that she will notice them,
he can remember it. This teaches the child not only about
and when Tanya succeeds, he offers words of encouragement. counting, but also that writing is valued in our culture. In
As Tanya gradually gets the hang of it, he steps back and lets other parts of the world, a child learning to count might be
her work more and more independently (p. 233). shown how to make notches on a stick or tie knots in a cord.
Interactions like this are most helpful when they take place
Zone of proximal development A term referring to the range of
within a child’s zone of proximal development. tasks that a child cannot yet master alone, but that she or he can
What did Vygotsky mean by that phrase? The word prox- accomplish with the guidance of a more capable partner.
imal means “close” or “nearby.” Vygotsky realized that at any Scaffolding The process of adjusting instruction so that it is respon-
sive to a beginner’s behavior and supports the beginner’s efforts to
given time, some tasks are just beyond a child’s reach. The
understand a problem or gain a mental skill.
child is close to having the mental skills needed to do these

MODULE

14 summary
14.1 How do children acquire language?
14.1.1 Language development proceeds from crying to 14.1.3 Prelanguage communication between parent and
cooing, then babbling, to the use of single words, child involves shared rhythms, nonverbal signals,
and then to telegraphic speech. and turn-taking.
14.1.2 The underlying patterns of telegraphic speech suggest 14.1.4 Motherese or parentese is a simplified, musical style
a biological predisposition to acquire language. This of speaking that parents use to help their children
innate tendency is augmented by learning. learn language.
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 MODU LE 1 4 H u man D eve lo p m e nt: lan g uag e an D C o g n itive D eve lo p m e nt i n C H i lD H o o D 125

14.2 How do children learn to think? 14.2.5 Learning principles provide an alternate explanation
14.2.1 Newborns begin to learn immediately and appear to that assumes that cognitive development is continu-
be aware of the effects of their actions. ous; it does not occur in stages.
14.2.2 A child’s intellect is less abstract than that of an 14.2.6 Studies of infants under the age of 1 year suggest
adult. Jean Piaget theorized that intellectual growth that they are capable of thought well beyond that
occurs through a combination of assimilation and observed by Piaget. Similarly, children begin to
accommodation. outgrow egocentrism as early as age 4.
14.2.3 Piaget also held that children go through a fixed 14.2.7 Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes
series of cognitive stages. The stages and their that a child’s mental abilities are advanced by interac-
approximate age ranges are sensorimotor (0–2), tions with more-competent partners. Mental growth
preoperational (2–7), concrete operational (7–11), takes place in a child’s zone of proximal development,
and formal operational (11–adult). where a more skillful person may scaffold the child’s
14.2.4 Caregivers should offer learning opportunities that are progress.
appropriate for a child’s level of cognitive development.

Knowledge Builder Human Development: Language and Cognitive

Development in Childhood

1. Simple two-word sentences are characteristic of from their own. In other words, they have developed a
speech. theory of mind. Is this ability uniquely Western, or might
2. Noam advanced the idea children from other cultures also develop a theory of
that language acquisition is built on innate patterns. mind?
3. Prelanguage turn-taking and social interactions are of
special interest to a psycholinguist. T or F? self-Reflect
See if you can name and imitate the language abilities that you
Recite had as you progressed from birth to age 2 years in order of
Match each item with one of the following Piagetian stages. occurrence.
a. Sensorimotor You are going to make cookies with children of various
b. Preoperational ages. See if you can name each of Piaget’s stages and give
c. Concrete operational an example of what a child in that stage might be expected
d. Formal operational to do.
4. egocentrism You have been asked to help a child learn to use a calcula-
5. abstract or hypothetical tor to do simple addition. How would you identify the child’s
6. purposeful movement zone of proximal development for this task? How would you
7. intuitive thought scaffold the child’s learning?
8. conservation
9. reversibility thought AN sW E R s
10. object permanence (Oberle, 2009).
11. nonverbal development
Pacific Ocean, also develop a theory of mind at around 4 years of age

12. Vygotsky called the process of providing a temporary frame-

ers. Thus, children from Micronesia, a group of small islands in the
on their understanding of the intentions, desires, and beliefs of oth-
work of supports for learning new mental abilities . A 12. scaffolding 13. All humans need to be able to base their actions
1. telegraphic 2. Chomsky 3. T 4. B 5. D 6. A 7. B 8. C 9. C 10. B 11.
Reflect
Think Critically
13. In Western cultures, children as young as age 4 can un-
derstand that other people have mental states that differ
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MODULE

15 Human Development
Adolescence and Adulthood

Never a Grownup
One common misconception of the idea of human develop-
ment is that it ends with childhood or in adolescence. At that
point, you have finished growing; you are a “grownup.” While
our individual development might be more obvious when
we are young, it is, in reality, never really over until the end
of our lives. Personality theorist Erik Erikson’s psychosocial
theory provides a good overview of the major psychological
stages of development that occur during a “typical” life.
Nevertheless, adolescence and young adulthood is a time
of exuberance and youthful searching. It also can also be a
time of worry and problems. During adolescence, a person’s
identity and moral values come into sharper focus even as
the transition to adulthood is occurring at ever-later ages. In
© michaeljung/Shutterstock.com

adulthood, we all face many additional challenges, including

physical aging. We must also face our own inevitable death.
Let’s trace Erikson’s stages with a focus on adolescence
and adulthood.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
15.1 What are the typical tasks and dilemmas through the 15.3 How do we develop morals?
lifespan? 15.4 What is involved in subjective well-being during
15.2 Why is the transition from adolescence to adulthood adulthood?
especially challenging? 15.5 How do people typically react to death?

The Story of a Lifetime—Rocky Road or Garden Path?

Survey Question 15.1 What are the typical tasks and
school, graduating from school, voting for the first time, get-
dilemmas through the lifespan?
ting married, watching a child leave home (or move back!),
Every life is marked by a number of developmental mile- burying a parent, becoming a grandparent, retiring, and, in
stones (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016). These are notable events, the end, dying. Thus far, we have traced progress through
markers, or turning points in personal development. Some the first few years of life. What are some of the challenges we
examples include being born, learning to speak, going to must face during adolescence and adulthood?

126
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 MODU LE 1 5 H u man D eve lo p m e nt: aD o les c e n c e an D aD u ltH o o D 127

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Table 15.1 erikson’s psychosocial Dilemmas

Perhaps the best way to get a preview of a life is to consid-
Age Characteristic Dilemma
er some of the major psychological milestones and chal-
lenges that we are likely to encounter. Broad similarities Birth to 1 year Trust versus mistrust
between people can be found in the life stages of infancy, 1–3 years Autonomy versus shame
childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adult- and doubt
hood, and late adulthood. Each developmental stage con-
3–5 years Initiative versus guilt
fronts a person with new developmental tasks, specific
challenges that must be mastered for optimal develop- 6–12 years Industry versus inferiority
ment. Examples are learning to read in childhood, adjust- Adolescence (12–19 years) Identity versus role confusion
ing to sexual maturity in adolescence, and establishing a
Young adulthood Intimacy versus isolation
vocation as an adult.
(20–34 years)
In a highly influential book entitled Childhood and
Society, Erik Erikson (1963) suggests that we face a specif- Middle adulthood Generativity versus stagnation
ic psychosocial dilemma, or “crisis,” at each stage of life. A (35–64 years)
psychosocial dilemma is a conflict between personal im- Late adulthood Integrity versus despair
pulses and the social world. Resolving each dilemma cre- (65 years and older)
ates a new balance between a person and society. A string of
“successes” produces healthy development and a satisfying
life. Unfavorable outcomes throw us off balance, making it Stage 2: 1–3 Years In stage 2, children develop
harder to deal with later crises. Life becomes a “rocky road,” autonomy or shame and doubt, as they express their grow-
and personal growth is stunted. ■ Table 15.1 lists Erikson’s ing self-control by climbing, touching, exploring, and try-
dilemmas. ing to do things for themselves. Jay and Gloria fostered little
What are the major developmental tasks and life crises? Joseph’s autonomy by encouraging him to try new skills.
A brief description of each psychosocial dilemma follows. However, his first efforts were sometimes crude, involving
spilling, falling, wetting himself, and other “accidents.” If
Stage 1: First Year of Life During the first year of life,
Jay and Gloria had ridiculed or overprotected Joseph, they
infants are completely dependent on others. Erikson
might have caused him to feel shameful about his actions,
believes that a basic attitude of trust or mistrust is formed
doubt his abilities, or both.
at this time. Trust is established when babies are given
warmth, touching, love, and physical care. Mistrust is Stage 3: 3–5 Years In stage 3, children move beyond sim-
caused by inadequate or unpredictable care and by parents ple self-control to develop initiative or guilt. Through play,
who are cold, indifferent, or rejecting. Basic mistrust may children learn to make plans and carry out tasks. Parents
cause insecurity, suspiciousness, or an inability to relate reinforce initiative by giving children freedom to play, ask
to others later. Notice that trust comes from the same questions, use imagination, and choose activities. Feelings of
conditions that help babies become securely attached to guilt about initiating activities are formed if parents criticize
their parents. severely, prevent play, or discourage a child’s questions.

Personality theorist Erik Erikson Developmental tasks Skills that must be mastered, or personal
(1903–1994) is best known for changes that must take place, for optimal development.
his life-stage theory of human Psychosocial dilemma A conflict between personal impulses and
development. the social world.
Trust or mistrust A conflict early in life about learning to trust
others and the world.
Autonomy or shame and doubt A conflict created when growing self-
control (autonomy) is pitted against feelings of shame or doubt.
Initiative or guilt A conflict between learning to take initiative and
overcoming feelings of guilt about doing so.

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128 P syCHOLO Gy m o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

Stage 4: 6–12 Years Many events of middle child- a person must broaden his or his concerns and energies to
hood are symbolized by that fateful day when you first include the welfare of others and society as a whole. Failure
entered school. With dizzying speed, your world ex- to do this is marked by a feeling of stagnation—concern with
panded beyond your family, and you faced a whole se- one’s own needs and comforts. Life loses meaning, and the
ries of new challenges. In school, children begin to learn person feels bitter, dreary, and trapped.
skills valued by society, and success or failure can affect a
Stage 8: Late Adulthood What does Erikson see as the
child’s feelings of industry or inferiority. Children learn
conflicts of old age? Late adulthood is a time of reflection,
a sense of industry if they win praise for productive ac-
leading to integrity or despair (Hearn et al., 2012). Accord-
tivities, such as building, painting, cooking, reading, and
ing to Erikson, when Joseph grows old, it would be better if
studying. If a child’s efforts are regarded as messy, child-
he were able to look back over his life with acceptance and
ish, or inadequate, feelings of inferiority result. For the
satisfaction. People who have lived richly and responsibly
first time, teachers, classmates, and adults outside the
develop a sense of integrity, or self-respect. This allows them
home become as important as parents in shaping atti-
to face aging and death with dignity. If previous life events
tudes toward oneself.
are viewed with regret, the elderly person experiences de-
Stage 5: Adolescence Adolescence can be a turbulent spair, or heartache and remorse. In this case, life seems like
time as adolescents develop identity or role confusion. a series of missed opportunities. The person feels like a fail-
Erikson considers answering the question “Who am I?” the ure, knowing that it’s too late to reverse what has been done.
primary task during this stage of life. As Joseph matures Aging and the threat of death then become sources of fear
mentally and physically, he will have new feelings, a new and depression.
body, and new attitudes. Like other adolescents, he will need
to build a consistent identity out of his talents, values, life The Whole Human To squeeze a lifetime into a few pages,
history, relationships, and the demands of his culture. His we had to leave out countless details. Although much is
conflicting experiences as a student, friend, athlete, worker, lost, the result is a clearer picture of an entire life cycle. Is
son, lover, and so forth must be integrated into a unified Erikson’s description, then, an exact map of anyone’s unique
sense of self. Persons who fail to develop a sense of identity past, present, and future? Probably not. Still, psychosocial
suffer from role confusion, an uncertainty about who they dilemmas are major events in many lives. Knowing about
are and where they are going. them may allow you to anticipate typical trouble spots in
your own life. You also may be better prepared to under-
Stage 6: Young Adulthood After establishing a stable stand the problems and feelings of friends and relatives at
identity, the young adult is challenged to share meaningful various points in the life cycle.
love or deep friendship with others (Beyers & Seiffge-Krenke,
2010). The result is intimacy or isolation. By intimacy,
Erikson means an ability to care about others and to share
experiences with them. And yet marriage or sexual involve-
ment is no guarantee of intimacy: many adult relationships
remain shallow and unfulfilling. Failure to establish inti-
macy with others leads to a deep sense of isolation—feeling
alone and uncared for in life. This often points the way to
later difficulties.
Stage 7: Middle Adulthood According to Erikson, an
interest in guiding the next generation results in genera-
tivity or stagnation. Erikson called this quality generativ-
ity. Emotional balance in middle adulthood is expressed by
caring about oneself, one’s children, and future generations.
Joseph may achieve generativity by guiding his own chil-
dren or by helping other children, as a teacher or coach,
for example (Hebblethwaite & Norris, 2011). Productive According to Erikson, an interest in future generations
or creative work also can express generativity. In any case, characterizes optimal adult development.

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 MODU LE 1 5 H u man D eve lo p m e nt: aD o les c e n c e an D aD u ltH o o D 129

Adolescence—The Best of Times, the Worst of Times

Survey Question 15.2 Why is the transition from are larger and heavier than their classmates (Deardorff
adolescence to adulthood especially challenging? et al., 2007). This is a growing problem (no pun intended . . . )
as more American girls are reaching puberty at earlier ages
Adolescence is the culturally defined period between child-
(Biro et al., 2010). By junior high, however, early develop-
hood and adulthood (Bjorklund & Hernández Blasi, 2012).
ment includes sexual features. This leads to a more posi-
Socially, the adolescent is no longer a child, yet not quite an
tive body image, greater peer prestige, and adult approval.
adult. Almost all cultures recognize this transitional status.
Early-maturing girls tend to date sooner and are more in-
However, the length of adolescence varies greatly from cul-
dependent and more active in school. However, like their
ture to culture. For example, most 14-year-old girls in North
male counterparts, they also are more often in trouble at
America live at home and go to school. In contrast, many
school and more likely to engage in early sex (Negriff &
14-year-old girls in rural villages of many less-developed
Trickett, 2010).
countries have gotten married and may have children. In
As you can see, early puberty has both costs and ben-
our culture, 14-year-olds are adolescents. In others, they
efits. One added cost of early maturation is that it may force
may be adults.
premature identity formation. When Joseph is a teenager
Is marriage the primary criterion for adult status in North
and he begins to look like an adult, he may be treated like
America? No—it’s not even one of the top three criteria. To-
an adult. Ideally, this change can encourage greater matu-
day, the most widely accepted standards are (1) taking re-
rity and independence. However, if the search for identity
sponsibility for oneself, (2) making independent decisions,
ends too soon, it may leave Joseph with a distorted, poorly
and (3) becoming financially independent. In practice, this
formed sense of self.
typically means breaking away from parents by getting a job
and setting up a separate residence (Arnett, 2010).
The search for Identity
Puberty Although problems of identity occur at other ages, too,
identity formation is a key challenge faced by adolescents
Many people confuse adolescence with puberty. However,
(McLean & Pasupathi, 2012). In a very real sense, puberty
puberty is a biological event, not a social status. During
signals that it’s time to begin forming a new, more mature
puberty, hormonal changes promote rapid physical growth
self-image (Rathus, 2014). Many problems stem from un-
and sexual maturity. Biologically, most people reach repro-
clear standards about the role that adolescents should play
ductive maturity in their early teens. Social and intellectual
within society. Are they adults or children? Should they be
maturity, however, may lie years ahead. Young adolescents
autonomous or dependent? Should they work or play? Such
often make decisions that affect their entire lives, even
ambiguities make it difficult for young people to form clear
though they are immature mentally and socially. The tragi-
images of themselves and how they should act.
cally high rates of teenage pregnancy and drug abuse are
prime examples. Despite such risks, most people manage
to weather adolescence without developing any serious psy- Industry or inferiority A conflict in middle childhood centered
chological problems (Rathus, 2014). around lack of support for industrious behavior, which can result
in feelings of inferiority.
How much difference does the timing of puberty make? Identity or role confusion A conflict of adolescence, involving the
For boys, maturing early is generally beneficial. It typically need to establish a personal identity.
enhances their self-image and gives them an advantage Intimacy or isolation The challenge of overcoming a sense of
isolation by establishing intimacy with others.
socially and athletically. Early-maturing boys tend to be more
Generativity or stagnation A conflict of middle adulthood in
relaxed, dominant, self-assured, and popular. However, early which self-interest is countered by an interest in guiding the
puberty carries some risks because early-maturing boys also next generation.
are more likely to get into trouble with drugs, sex, alcohol, Integrity or despair A conflict in late adulthood between feelings of
integrity and the despair of viewing previous life events with regret.
and antisocial behavior (Steinberg, 2001). Adolescence The culturally defined period between childhood and
For girls, the advantages of early maturation are less adulthood.
clear-cut. In elementary school, fast-maturing girls are less Puberty Biologically defined period during which a person matures
popular and have poorer self-images, perhaps because they sexually and becomes capable of reproduction.

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130 P syCHOLO Gy m o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

Identity and Ethnic Diversity Ethnic heritage is an im-

portant aspect of personal identity (Corenblum, 2013). For
adolescents of ethnic descent, the question often is not just
“Who am I?” Rather, it is “Who am I at home? Who am I at
school? Who am I with friends in my neighborhood?”
As ethnic minorities in the United States continue to
grow in status and prominence, adolescents are less and less
likely to feel rejected or excluded because of their ethnic
heritage as they try to find their place in society. This is
fortunate because ethnic adolescents have often faced de-
grading stereotypes concerning their intelligence, sexual-
ity, social status, manners, and so forth. The result can be
lowered self-esteem and confusion about roles, values, and
personal identity (Charmaraman & Grossman, 2010). At
the same time, the increasingly multicultural nature of con-
temporary American society raises new questions for ado-
lescents about what it means to be American.
In forming an identity, adolescents of ethnic descent
face the question of how they should think of themselves.
Is Lily an American, a Vietnamese American, or both? Is
Manny a Latino, an American, or a Columbian American?
The answer typically depends on how strongly adolescents
identify with their family and ethnic community. Teens
who take pride in their ethnic heritage have higher self-
esteem, a better self-image, and a stronger sense of per-
What identity will this teenager develop as he asks himself, sonal identity (Galliher, Jones, & Dahl, 2011; Williams et
“Who am I? al., 2013). They also are less likely to engage in drug use or
violent behavior (French, Kim, & Pillado, 2006; Marsiglia
Answering the question “Who am I?” is also spurred by et al., 2004).
cognitive development. After adolescents attain the stage Group pride, positive models, and a more tolerant soci-
of formal operations, they are better able to ask questions ety could do much to keep a broad range of options open to
about their place in the world and about morals, values, pol- all adolescents. In many ways, adolescence is more emotion-
itics, and social relationships. Being able to think about hy- ally turbulent than adulthood. One important aspect of this
pothetical possibilities allows the adolescent to contemplate period is the struggle with telling right from wrong—the
the future and ask more realistically. need to develop moral values—which is discussed next.

Moral Development—Growing a Conscience

Survey Question 15.3 How do we develop morals? How do you feel about Heinz’s theft? Do you think that
the husband should have done what he did? Was it wrong
Consider the following problem:
or right? Why? Finally, what would you do if it was up
A woman was near death from cancer, and there was only to you? These are moral questions, or questions of ethics
one drug that might save her. The druggist who discovered (Haidt, 2012).
it was charging 10 times what it cost to make the drug. The Like attitudes, morals have emotional and cognitive, as
sick woman’s husband, Heinz, could pay only $1,000, but
well as behavioral, dimensions (Shaffer & Kipp, 2014). (For
the druggist wanted $2,000. He asked the druggist to sell it
cheaper or to let him pay later. The druggist said no. So Heinz more on attitude formation and change, see Module 70).
became desperate and broke into the store and stole the drug Moral development begins in early childhood and con-
for his wife. [This scenario is adapted from Kohlberg (1969).] tinues into adulthood, as we acquire the specific values that,

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 MODU LE 1 5 H u man D eve lo p m e nt: aD o les c e n c e an D aD u ltH o o D 131

along with appropriate emotions and cognitions, guide re- a desire to please others or to follow accepted authority,
sponsible behavior (King, 2009). Moral values are especially rules, and values. For example, a person at this intermediate
likely to come into sharper focus during adolescence and level might say, “He shouldn’t steal the drug because oth-
the transition to adulthood as the capacities for reflection ers will think he is a thief. His wife would not want to be
and abstract thinking increase (Hart & Carlo, 2005). saved by thievery” (avoiding disapproval), or “Although his
wife needs the drug, he should not break the law to get it.
Moral Emotions Everyone has to obey the law. His wife’s condition does not
Did you get a “gut feeling” that what Heinz did was right or justify stealing” (traditional morality of authority). Conven-
wrong? According to psychologist Jonathan Haidt (2013), tional, group-oriented morals are typical of older children
our morals are, first and foremost, immediately and intui- and most adults. Some adults may not reach even the con-
tively felt. Even infants as young as 15 months of age notice ventional level. For instance, a significant number of men in
when toys are not being fairly shared, long before they can their first year of college think unwanted sexual aggression
explain the concept of fairness (Sommerville et al., 2013). is acceptable (Tatum & Foubert, 2009).
Fundamental moral intuitions about the wrongness of Postconventional Moral Reasoning At the highest,
harming others and the rightness of fairness may be, in part, postconventional moral reasoning level, moral behavior is
biologically innate, part and parcel of our evolved social na- directed by self-chosen ethical principles that tend to be gen-
ture (Hamlin, 2013). Nevertheless, moral intuitions also eral, comprehensive, or universal. People at this level place
develop, in part, through early childhood experiences. For ex- a high value on justice, dignity, and equality. For example,
ample, the children of authoritative parents who deal calmly a highly principled person might say, “He should steal the
with conflicts are likely to resist playing with a prohibited toy drug and then inform the authorities that he has done so. He
at a younger age (by the age of 3) than children of less calm will have to face a penalty, but he will have saved a human
and authoritative parents (Laible & Thompson, 2002). life” (self-chosen ethical principles).
Does everyone eventually reach the highest level?
Moral Thinking Kohlberg estimated that only about 20 percent of the adult
What is moral reasoning? Once we begin to experience moral population achieves postconventional morality, represent-
intuitions, we seek to explain them (Nucci & Gingo, 2011). ing self-direction and higher principles.
In an influential account, psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg Fairness or Caring? Carol Gilligan (1982) pointed out
(1981) held that we clarify our values through thinking and that Kohlberg’s theory is concerned mainly with fairness, or
reasoning. To study moral development, Kohlberg posed justice. Based on studies of women who faced real-life di-
dilemmas, like the one that Heinz faced, to children of dif- lemmas, Gilligan argued that there is also an ethic of harm,
ferent ages. Each child was asked what action the husband or caring about others. As one illustration, she presented the
should take. Kohlberg classified the reasons given for each following story to 11- to 15-year-old American children:
choice and identified three levels of moral development.
The Porcupine and the Moles
Each is based not so much on the choices made, but on the
Seeking refuge from the cold, a porcupine asked to share a
reasoning used to arrive at a choice. cave for the winter with a family of moles. The moles agreed.
Preconventional Moral Reasoning At the lowest, But because the cave was small, they soon found they were
being scratched each time that the porcupine moved. Finally,
preconventional moral reasoning level, moral thinking is
they asked the porcupine to leave. But the porcupine refused,
guided by the consequences of actions (punishment, reward, saying, “If you moles are not satisfied, I suggest that you leave.”
or an exchange of favors). For example, a person at this level
might reason: “The man shouldn’t steal the drug because he
Moral development The development of values that, along with ap-
could get caught and sent to jail” (avoiding punishment) or propriate emotions and cognitions, guide responsible behavior.
“It won’t do him any good to steal the drug because his wife Preconventional moral reasoning Moral thinking based on the
will probably die before he gets out of jail” (self-interest). The consequences of one’s choices or actions (punishment, reward, or
an exchange of favors).
preconventional level is most characteristic of young chil-
Conventional moral reasoning Moral thinking based on a desire to
dren and delinquents (Forney, Forney, & Crutsinger, 2005). please others or to follow accepted rules and values.
Postconventional moral reasoning Moral thinking based on care-
Conventional Moral Reasoning At the second, fully examined and self-chosen moral principles.
conventional moral reasoning level, thinking is based on

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132 P syCHOLO Gy m o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

Boys who read this story tended to opt for justice in that males may lag in achieving it (Lambert et al., 2009).
resolving the dilemma: “It’s the moles’ house. It’s a deal. Indeed, several studies have found little or no difference
The porcupine leaves.” In contrast, girls tended to look for in men’s and women’s overall moral reasoning abilities
solutions that would keep all parties happy and comfortable, (Glover, 2001). Both men and women may use caring and
such as “Cover the porcupine with a blanket.” justice to make moral decisions. The moral yardstick that
Gilligan’s point is that male psychologists have, for they use appears to depend on the situation that they face
the most part, defined moral maturity in terms of fair- (Wark & Krebs, 1996).
ness and autonomy. From this perspective, a woman’s con- Developing a “moral compass” is an important part of
cern with relationships can look like weakness rather than growing up. Many of the choices we make every day involve
strength. (A woman who is concerned about what helps or fundamental questions of right and wrong. The ability to
harms others would be placed at the conventional level in think clearly about such questions is essential to becoming a
Kohlberg’s system.) But Gilligan believes that caring also is responsible adult. (For more on the topic of moral develop-
a major element of moral development, and she suggests ment, see Module 16.)

Adulthood––You’re an Adult Now!

Survey Question 15.4 What is involved in subjective well- way, emerging adulthood is an unstable, in-between,
being during adulthood? self-focused period of time to explore identities and life
possibilities.
According to psychologist Ed Diener and his associates,
subjective well-being is high when people are generally sat- Careers The work that adults do—as homemakers, vol-
isfied with their lives, have frequent positive emotions, and unteers, hourly workers, or in their careers—is critical to
have relatively few negative emotions (Diener, 2013; Tay & feeling successful (Raymo et al., 2010). While peak earnings
Diener, 2011). Psychologist Gloria Ryff believes that subjec- commonly occur during these years, growing expenses may
tive well-being throughout adulthood involves six elements continue to create financial pressures, from child care to tu-
(Ryff & Singer, 2009; van Dierendonck et al., 2008): self- ition fees for children, and paying rent or a mortgage. This
acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy (per- is one reason that career difficulties and unemployment can
sonal freedom), environmental mastery, a purpose in life, pose such serious challenges to adult well-being. Another
and continued personal growth. reason, of course, is that many adults derive much of their
identity from their work (Sigelman & Rider, 2015).

Challenges of Adulthood Marriage, Children, and Parents Most adult Ameri-

Although Erikson’s dilemmas extend into adulthood, they cans identify their social relationships—especially with chil-
are not the only challenges that adults face. Most of the ad- dren, spouses, and parents—as another important aspect
ditional challenges to life satisfaction revolve around emerg- of adult life (Raymo et al., 2010). Creating and sustaining
ing adulthood, careers, marriage, children, and parents, social relationships can involve finding a life partner, work-
health, and ageism (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015; ing through the stresses of child-rearing, becoming “empty
Damman, Henkens, & Kalmijn, 2011). nesters” when children move away, becoming grandparents,
experiencing marital strife or divorce, living as singles or in
Emerging Adulthood Nowadays, many young people blended families, and seeing parents grow old, need sup-
are deferring adulthood, prolonging identity explorations port, and die, to mention some of the more common social
well into their twenties before they commit to life choices in challenges faced by adults.
work and love. Western industrialized societies, such as the
United States and Canada, have become increasingly toler- Health Joseph’s father, Jay, just came back from his
ant of emerging adulthood, a socially accepted period of physiotherapy appointment. He hurt his back while golf-
extended adolescence (Arnett, 2010, 2011). ing. Jay has encountered the obvious; he is getting older.
Are such people still adolescents who are struggling Although some adults face far more serious health issues,
to find their identity? Or are they self-indulgent young from heart attacks to cancer, every adult faces the rou-
adults trapped in a “maturity gap” (Smith, 2011)? Either tine wear and tear of aging. How an adult deals with the

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 MODU LE 1 5 H u man D eve lo p m e nt: aD o les c e n c e an D aD u ltH o o D 133

inevitable decline during adulthood strongly influences

that person’s degree of life satisfaction and can compli-
cate personal development, especially after the late fifties.
Fortunately, most of the time, declines happen slowly
enough that they can be offset by increased life experi-
ence (Sigelman & Rider, 2015).
Of course, people do experience a gradual loss of

D Dipasupil/FilmMagic/Getty Images
fluid intelligence (abilities requiring speed or rapid learn-
ing) as they age, but this can often be offset by crystal-
lized intelligence (abilities involving already learned
knowledge and skills), such as vocabulary and stored-up
facts, which may actually improve—at least into the six-
ties (Schaie, 2005). (Remember that infants show just the
opposite pattern, being high in fluid intelligence but low Betty White is shown here at the Saturday Night Live 40th
in crystallized intelligence). At work, little overall loss Anniversary Celebration show in 2015. At the age of 93, after
over 70 years as a popular entertainer, Betty White is proof that
of job performance need occur as workers grow older aging does not inevitably bring an end to engaging in challenging
(Agrigoroaei & Lachman, 2011). In the professions, wis- activities.
dom and expertise can usually more than compensate for
any loss of mental quickness (Cavanaugh & Blanchard- finding one’s own truths, and preparing for old age. Taking
Fields, 2015). stock may be especially valuable at midlife, but reviewing
past choices to prepare for the future is helpful at any age.
Ageism Discrimination or prejudice based on age, known
For some people, difficult turning points in life can serve
as ageism, can oppress the young as well as the old (Bodner,
as “wake-up calls” that create opportunities for personal
2009). For instance, a person applying for a job may just as
growth (Weaver, 2009).
well hear “You’re too young” as “You’re too old.” In some
societies, ageism is expressed as respect for the elderly. In successful Aging
Japan, for instance, aging is seen as positive, and greater age
How do people maintain a state of subjective well-being as
brings more status and respect. In most Western nations,
they run the gauntlet of modern life? Despite the emphasis
however, ageism tends to have a negative impact on older
on youth in our culture, middle age and beyond can be
individuals.
a rich period of life in which people feel secure, happy,
Ageism is often expressed through patronizing lan-
and self-confident (Lilgendahl, Helson, & John, 2013).
guage. Older people are frequently spoken to in an overly
For many adults, age-related declines are offset by posi-
polite, slow, loud, and simple way, implying that they are
tive relationships and greater mastery of life’s demands
infirm, even when they are not (Nelson, 2005). Popular ste-
(Lachman et al., 2008; Ryff & Singer, 2009; Wilhelm
reotypes of the “dirty old man,” “meddling old woman,” “se-
et al., 2010).
nile old fool,” and the like also help perpetuate myths about
Most elderly people are not sickly, infirm, or senile.
aging. But such stereotypes are clearly wrong: a tremendous
(Nowadays, 60 is the new 40—an idea with which both
diversity exists among the elderly—ranging from the infirm
of your authors wholeheartedly agree!) Only about 5 per-
to aerobic-dancing grandmothers.
cent of those older than 65 are in nursing homes. Mentally,
A Midlife Crisis? Don’t people face a “midlife crisis” at many elderly persons are at least as capable as the average
some point in their lives? Although adulthood brings its fair young adult. On intellectual tests, top scorers over the age
share of life’s challenges, only about a quarter of men and
women believe that they have experienced a midlife cri-
Subjective well-being General life satisfaction combined with fre-
sis (Wethington, Kessler, & Pixley, 2004). It is more com- quent positive emotions and relatively few negative emotions.
mon to make a “midcourse correction” at midlife than it is Emerging adulthood A socially accepted period of extended ado-
to survive a “crisis” (Freund & Ritter, 2009; McFadden & lescence now quite common in Western and Westernized
societies.
Rawson Swan, 2012). Ideally, the midlife transition in- Ageism Discrimination or prejudice based on a person’s age.
volves reworking old identities, achieving valued goals,

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134 P syCHOLO Gy m o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

of 65 match the average for men younger than 35. What and emotionally vital (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011; Mather,
sets these silver-haired stars apart? Typically they are peo- 2016). To sum it all up, “Those who live by their wit die
ple who have continued to work and remain intellectually with their wits.”

Death and Dying—The Final Challenge

Survey Question 15.5 How do people typically react this order. In general, one’s approach to dying will mirror his
to death? or her style of living (Yedidia & MacGregor, 2001) Note, as
well, that many of the same reactions accompany any major
We have seen throughout this module that it is valuable to
loss, be it divorce, loss of a home due to fire, death of a pet,
understand major trends in the course of development. With
or loss of a job.
this in mind, let’s explore emotional responses to death, the
How can I use this information? First, it can help both
inevitable conclusion of every life.
the dying and the survivors to recognize and cope with
Reactions to Impending Death periods of depression, anger, denial, and bargaining. Sec-
ond, it helps to realize that close friends or relatives may
A highly influential account of emotional responses to
feel many of the same emotions before or after a per-
death comes from the work of Elisabeth Kübler-Ross
son’s death because they, too, are facing a loss (Leming &
(1926–2004). Over the years, she spent hundreds of hours
Dickinson, 2016).
at the bedsides of the terminally ill, where she observed
Perhaps the most important thing to recognize is that
five basic emotional reactions to impending death (Kübler-
dying persons need to share their feelings and to discuss
Ross, 1975):
death openly (Corr, Nabe, & Corr, 2013). Too often, dying
1. Denial and isolation. A typical first reaction is to deny persons feel isolated and separated from others. If someone
death’s reality and isolate oneself from information con- in your life is dying, be genuine, be ready to listen, be re-
firming that death is really going to occur. Initially, the spectful, be aware of feelings and nonverbal cues, be com-
person may be sure that “it’s all a mistake.” She or he fortable with silence, and most of all, be there, no matter
thinks, “Surely the doctor made an error.” what (Dyer, 2001).
2. Anger. Many dying individuals feel anger and ask, “Why
me?” As they face the ultimate threat of having life torn
away, their anger may spill over into rage toward the
living.
3. Bargaining. In another common reaction, the termi-
nally ill bargain with themselves or with God. The dying
person thinks, “Just let me live a little longer and I’ll do
anything to earn it.”
4. Depression. As death draws near and the person begins
to recognize that it cannot be prevented, feelings of
futility, exhaustion, and deep depression may set in.
5. Acceptance. If death is not sudden, many people man-
age to come to terms with dying and accept it calmly.
John Mitterer

The person who accepts death is neither happy nor sad,

but at peace with the inevitable.
Death may be inevitable, but it can be faced with dignity and
Kübler-Ross’s list is best understood as describing typi-
sometimes even light-heartedly. While she was alive, nobody took
cal reactions to impending death. Not all terminally ill per- Pearl Roberts’s health complaints seriously because she always
sons display all these reactions, nor do they always occur in had such a sense of humor.

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 MODU LE 1 5 H u man D eve lo p m e nt: aD o les c e n c e an D aD u ltH o o D 135

MODULE

15 summary
15.1 What are the typical tasks and dilemmas 15.4 What is involved in subjective well-being dur-
through the lifespan? ing adulthood?
15.1.1 Erik Erikson identified a series of specific psychoso- 15.4.1 Subjective well-being during adulthood consists
cial dilemmas that occur as we age. These range from of six elements: self-acceptance, positive relations
a need to gain trust in infancy to the need to live with with others, autonomy, environmental mastery,
integrity in late adulthood. having a purpose in life, and continued personal
15.1.2 Successful resolution of the dilemmas produces growth.
healthy development, whereas unsuccessful out- 15.4.2 In Western industrialized societies, the transition
comes make it harder to deal with later crises. into adulthood is further complicated because it is
increasingly delayed until people reach well into
15.2 Why is the transition from adolescence to
adulthood especially challenging? their twenties (emerging adulthood).
15.4.3 Challenges in adulthood include managing
15.2.1 The timing of puberty can complicate the task of
careers, marriage, children, parents, health, and
identity formation, a major task of adolescence.
ageism.
Identity formation is even more challenging for
15.4.4 Ageism refers to prejudice, discrimination, and
adolescents of ethnic descent.
stereotyping on the basis of age. Most ageism is
15.3 How do we develop morals? based on stereotypes, myths, and misinformation.
15.3.1 Basic moral intuitions develop in young children 15.4.5 Every adult must find ways to successfully cope
before they become able to reason about those with aging. Only a minority of people have a
intuitions. Developing mature moral standards midlife crisis, but midlife course corrections are
also is an important task of adolescence. more common.
15.3.2 Lawrence Kohlberg identified preconventional, 15.4.6 Intellectual declines associated with aging are limit-
conventional, and postconventional levels of moral ed, at least through one’s seventies. This is especially
reasoning. true of individuals who remain mentally active.
15.3.3 Most people function at the conventional level 15.5 How do people typically react to death?
of morality, but some never get beyond the selfish,
15.5.1 Typical emotional reactions to impending death
preconventional level. Only a minority of people
include denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and
attain the highest, or postconventional level,
acceptance, but not necessarily in that order, nor do
of moral reasoning.
all of them appear in every case.
15.3.4 Carol Gilligan distinguished between Kohlberg’s
15.5.2 Death is a natural part of life. There is value in
fairness (justice) perspective and a harm (caring) per-
understanding it and accepting it.
spective. Mature adult morality likely involves both.

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136 P syCHOLO Gy m o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

Knowledge Builder Human Development: Adolescence and Adulthood

Recite self-Reflect
1. During middle adulthood, the crisis is generativity versus See if you can think of a person you know who is facing one of
. Erikson’s psychosocial dilemmas. Now see if you can think of
2. Identify formation is spurred by and specific people who seem to be coping with each of the other
. dilemmas.
3. According to Jeffrey Arnett, the trend in affluent West- To what extent does the concept of identity formation ap-
ernized cultures toward allowing young people to take ply to your own experience during adolescence?
longer to settle into their adult roles is best referred to as Do you think emerging adults (are you one?) are adoles-
a. emerging adulthood cents who are taking longer to find their identity or young
b. hurried childhood adults avoiding their need to establish themselves in the world
c. a maturity gap of adults?
d. extended adolescence Describe three instances of ageism you have witnessed.
4. Moral intuitions develop before moral reasoning. T or F?
5. After age 65, a large proportion of older people show AN sW E R s
significant signs of mental disability and most require (Arnett, 2011).
from culture to culture, indicating that it is really a matter of definition
special care. T or F?
the meanings of terms such as adolescence or adult vary considerably
6. In the reaction that Kübler-Ross describes as bargaining, 7. Environment, rather than heredity, is the better answer. Even better,
the dying individual asks, “Why me?” T or F? 1. Stagnation 2. puberty, cognitive development 3. a 4. T 5. F. 6. F

Reflect
Think Critically
7. Do labels like adolescent or young adult reflect heredity or
environment?

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 MODULE

Human Development Skills

in Action 16
Behaving Ethically

To Thine Own Self Be True

If you follow popular media, you don’t have to look far to find
a scandal. We’ve seen athletes who took illegal drugs doping to
win competitions, Hollywood stars who cheated on their part-
ners, business executives who engaged in illegal practices to
ensure larger profits, and politicians who misled people so that
they could win elections. This type of behavior isn’t just con-
fined to the rich and powerful, either: individuals download
illegal copies of music, movies, and software every day. They
also file misleading tax returns and fraudulent insurance claims
for items that were never stolen. And at school, roughly two-
© Antonio Guillem/Shutterstock.com

thirds of students admit to cheating in their courses (McCabe,

Butterfield, & Trevino, 2012).
Although a sense of right and wrong begins to emerge
in early childhood, the most important growth in this area
doesn’t occur until adolescence, when we develop the capac-
ity for abstract thought that’s so important in guiding our that’s important in guiding our ability to resist temptation—
values. This also fits with what we know about self-regulation is still developing well into the teens and early twenties. How
(see Module 11). The prefrontal cortex—the part of our brain “grown-up” are your ethics?

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
16.1 How is ethical behavior related to the study 16.2 How can behaving ethically help me in my personal
of psychology? and professional life?

Thinking About Ethics—Valuing Values

Survey Question 16.1 How is ethical behavior related to
else would ever know? Would you do any of them for free? How
the study of psychology?
about one hundred dollars? Ten thousand dollars? Is there any-
Check out the following list of behaviors. How much would thing on the list that you simply wouldn’t do for any amount of
someone have to pay you to do each of these things if no one money (adapted from Graham, Haidt, & Nosek, 2009)?

137
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138 p SycHolo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

1. Kick a dog in the head, hard. In particular, current ideas about ethical behavior go beyond
2. Sign a secret-but-binding pledge to hire only people of focusing on harm and fairness and emphasize the link be-
your race at your company. tween our moral values and both the groups we belong to
3. Burn your country’s flag in private. and our religious beliefs (Graham et al., 2011; Haidt, 2013).
4. Give a disrespectful hand gesture to your boss or For example, research on morality now includes discus-
professor. sions about how core beliefs can also be shaped by our feel-
5. Get a transfusion of disease-free, compatible blood from ings about loyalty. This aspect of morality is focused on our
a convicted child molester. connection to groups that are very important to us, and how
we respond to a betrayal of that group (such as burning your
For years, when psychologists wrote about moral values, country’s flag). Power also appears to be an important idea
they focused on ideas related to harm (which makes us care that shapes our values. For example, we’re very sensitive to
about suffering and cruelty) and fairness (which makes us signs of social status and can react strongly to people who
think about justice, and how cheaters should be punished). don’t act in line with their “position” in life (say, giving the fin-
(See Module 15.) The first two examples on the list above tap ger to your boss). Finally, psychologists have also found that
into these two values. More recently, psychologists have ex- our morals are related to our ideas about the purity/sanctity of
panded their thinking about morality, partly because diverse our bodies and environment (which is why some of you will
groups often have very different ideas about what it means have said that you wouldn’t want the blood of a child molester
to behave ethically in our everyday lives (Haidt, 2007, 2012). running through your veins for any amount of money).

Ethical Behavior––Truth or Consequences

Survey Question 16.2 How can behaving ethically help definitely is, and that it’s something we should all be think-
me in my personal and professional life? ing about. It’s important to realize that this does not mean
you have to change your values. Instead, she has outlined a
We’re all aware that there can be important consequences
number of ways in which you can try to create the conditions
for behaving in an unethical way. When the actions are ille-
that will help you in speaking and behaving in ways that are
gal, people can be arrested or fined large sums of money. But
in keeping with your core beliefs, even when the situation is
even when unethical behavior isn’t against the law, it can still
challenging. Her ideas can be summarized as follows:
result in severe consequences. For example, relationships
may come to an end, or people can be fired from their jobs Recognize Everyday Ethical Challenges If you con-
or expelled from college. Perhaps more important, though, sider some of the ethical dilemmas that make headlines in
is how these behaviors can affect how you think about your- the news, it might be tempting to think that challenges to
self. Research suggests that people want to behave with in- your integrity will only arise if you’re working in very se-
tegrity, and make an effort to resist temptation because they nior positions with large companies, or if you were involved
place a high value on being ethical. People are also prone in politics or Hollywood romances. In reality, though, each
to seeing themselves as moral, and are highly motivated to of us faces moral issues with surprising regularity because
preserve that image because an inability to do so has nega- they’re a very normal part of everyday life. They can arise
tive implications for their self-concept (Barkan et al., 2012; at school, on sports teams, while working, or in our rela-
Mazar, Amir, & Ariely, 2008). tionships with friends and family. For example, at school
you may be asked to cheat on a test or let a friend copy
preparing to Behave Ethically your homework assignment. At work you may be asked
Ok, so I can see it’s important to behave in line with my values, to “upsell,” convincing a client that they need to purchase
but is there any way that I can increase my chances of doing more from you than they need. Or imagine a friend asking
that? That’s a great question, because it focuses on whether you to cover for him with his girlfriend while he’s on a date
we can think of our own ethical behavior—and promoting with someone else. When we accept how frequently ethical
ethical behavior in others—as a skill that we can work on. challenges can arise, it allows us to consider, in advance, the
And while it might seem a bit strange to think about ethical possible ethical traps we may find ourselves in and—more
behavior as a skill, Mary Gentile (2010) has suggested that it importantly—how we might manage them.

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 MoDU lE 1 6 H u MAn d eve lo p M e nt s k i lls i n Acti o n: B e HAvi n g etH i cAlly 139

Anticipate Conditions Promoting or Interfering best explain the reasons that underlie your value-based deci-
with the Ability to Respond Ethically Once you have sion. The planning you do is likely to mean that you will be
become more aware of situations that are likely to present more confident when you present your views. Presenting your
challenges to your values, ask, “What conditions will either beliefs in a calm, clear way may be helpful in ensuring that you
promote (‘enablers’) or discourage (‘inhibitors’) behavior won’t engage in highly emotional “shaming and blaming,” and
that’s in line with my values?” For example, people may that other people will listen and take you seriously.
feel more comfortable speaking up in ethically challenging A third benefit that arises from practicing how you would
situations at work when there are enabling forces present, manage ethically challenging situations in advance is that it
such as having a like-minded colleague who’d be willing to gives you the opportunity to think about your audience. For
express support for your position. On the flip side, people example, is there any way to make the person you’re talking
may have more trouble being true to their values if they to feel more comfortable, or to improve the chances that she
feel that there are disabling forces at work. For example, it will listen to you with an open mind? What questions are
may be challenging to express your values and beliefs if you other people likely to ask about your position on this ethical
have a boss who is disinterested in the views of people she issue, and how you might respond to any arguments that are
supervises, or if you work at an organization that does not raised in opposition to your way of thinking?
encourage open communication. Being aware of these en- You should also anticipate how people might try to “ex-
abling and inhibiting forces can help you map out a strategy plain away” their support of nonethical choices and how you
that will help you to behave with integrity. can counteract this tendency. Recently, psychologists have
Predict Potential Ethical Challenges and Plan How offered three suggestions about how you can reduce the like-
to Manage Them Once you have a handle on the moral lihood that those around you will behave unethically (Ayal
dilemmas you might face and the conditions that would en- et al., 2015). The first suggestion is based on the finding that
able or inhibit your ability to act in line with your values, people are prone to justifying unethical behavior by taking
you can begin to anticipate how you might manage such sit- advantage of ambiguities or “gray areas” (“It’s not really the
uations. But Gentile argues that you should go much further company’s responsibility”; “It’s not written down anywhere”;
than just thinking about these situations. Instead, she sug- “Everyone does it”; “It may not be right, but it’s not really
gests that you should actively imagine possible scenarios in important enough to worry about”). To counteract this ten-
detail, and think about what you would like to say, and how dency, you can offer reminders—even subtle ones—that will
you would say it. She even suggests that it might be valuable make others think about their own moral character before
to practice what you’d say out loud, or run it by other people they have the opportunity to make an unethical choice. A
so that you can get feedback about your response. There are teacher whose goal is to reduce the likelihood of cheating
at least three reasons why this type of advance planning during an exam might remind students that she views them
can be helpful. as honest people, and that she knows that her students want
First, preparation makes it less likely that you will be put to behave with integrity.
in a position where you need to make a quick decision about A second suggestion for minimizing unethical behav-
what to do, without having time to think things through. In- ior involves providing cues that restrict any feelings of ano-
stead, formulating your thoughts (and your words!) ahead of nymity (“No one’s going to know”), since people are more
time makes it more likely that you’ll be able to speak up and likely to violate morals when they believe that their behav-
behave in keeping with your values when the time comes. ior is anonymous. During the exam, then, that same teacher
We’ve already seen that doing so has a positive impact on would be walking through the aisles and keeping an eye on
how you perceive yourself, but another important conse- each of her students, making eye contact if possible when
quence is that behaving with integrity early in a relationship they look up from their exams.
helps to set up other people’s expectations about you in a Finally, unethical behavior often results from the fact
positive way. That’s important because if the same situation that while values and morals are somewhat abstract, ethi-
arises again, people will expect you to behave as you have in cally questionable behaviors are typically concrete. As a re-
the past. More importantly, you’ll expect yourself to behave sult, it can be easy to avoid connecting the two. The third
as you have in the past. suggestion, then, is to reduce unethical behavior by creating
A second benefit of advance planning for ethically chal- the necessary connections between abstract moral values
lenging situations is that it allows you to consider how you can and more concrete behaviors. To this end, the teacher might

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140 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

have each of her students do something concrete, such as act with integrity. Consider your strengths and what feels
sign an “honor pledge” before the exam indicating that they most comfortable for you. Are you most effective in a group
understand what’s meant by cheating on the test (which can or one on one? Orally or in writing? If you have a strong
be a somewhat abstract idea). sense of what’s most comfortable for you, then when you
experience a values conflict, you can try to frame it in such
The Last Word What you’re saying makes sense, but what
a way as to play to your strengths. Remember, too, that if
if I find myself in an ethically challenging situation and I have
you feel that you’re just one lowly person and that no one
no time to prepare myself? It’s true that you can’t always pre-
will listen to your ethical concerns, it might be worth talking
dict when you’re going to find yourself in a situation that
to the people around you to see whether they feel the same
challenges your values. In those situations, Gentile’s best ad-
way—perhaps others would be willing to stand with you and
vice is simply to know yourself well, so if you do find your-
argue for doing the right thing!
self in a difficult situation, you’ll be in a stronger position to

MODULE

16 summary
16.1 how is ethical behavior related to the study 16.2.2 Ethically challenging situations happen frequently in
of psychology? everyday life.
16.1.1 Our core values are shaped by our ideas about harm, 16.2.3 Creating conditions that will allow you to behave
fairness, loyalty, power, and purity/sanctity. in line with your values requires that you anticipate
ethical challenges and try to prepare for them.
16.2 how can behaving ethically help me in my
16.2.4 People are more likely to behave unethically if they
personal and professional life?
feel their behavior falls in a “gray area,” if they think
16.2.1 People are motivated to see themselves as moral, that no one will know about their behavior, and
so behaving in an unethical way is damaging to the when they do not make the connection between
self-concept. their values, which are abstract, and their behavior.

Knowledge Builder human Development skills in Action: Behaving Ethically

Recite physician-assisted suicide—are often considered to be a

matter of ethics, and this is why people are so passionate
1. Psychologists interested in moral behavior initially
about them. Which of the five ideas that shape our values
focused on ideas about power and loyalty. T or F?
is most likely to be associated with our views on these
2. “Enablers” are conditions that help you to behave in ways
issues?
that are in keeping with your values. T or F?
3. Planning in advance what you would do in an ethically self-Reflect
challenging situation will help you to be true to your
Which of the five ideas that shape our values—harm, fairness,
values. T or F?
loyalty, power, and purity—is the most important in guiding
Reflect your own set of core beliefs?

Think critically
AN sW E R s
4. Many of the issues confronting the country— purity/sanctity.
abortion, same-sex marriage, stem cell research, and 1. F 2. T 3. T 4. Each of these issues is most closely associated with

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 MODULE

Sensation and Perception

Sensory Processes
17
The Trees Have Eyes
One of your authors was hiking in a beautiful rainforest when he had
the uncanny sensation he was being watched. For several minutes,
he searched fruitlessly, taking in the lush scene. There! Hanging not
more than a foot from his own head was the head of a snake, staring
straight at him. The snake was perfectly camouflaged, hanging mo-
tionless from an overhanging branch, looking for all the world like
just another green vine (this species isn’t called a green vine snake
for nothing).
As this story shows, sensing the world is just a first step in per-
ceiving the world. Even though his eyes picked up the basic visual
information he needed to perceive the snake, his brain couldn’t put
Minden Pictures/ Superstock
the perceptual puzzle together. Sensory information can be inter-
preted (and misinterpreted) in various ways, which is step two in
experiencing the world. This module addresses the first step, sensa-
tion. We explore the second step, perception, in Module 20.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
17.1 In general, how do sensory systems function? 17.2 Why are we more aware of some sensations than others?

Sensory Systems—The First Step

Survey Question 17.1 In general, how do sensory these physical energies into a form that your brain can un-
systems function? derstand, you will experience only a void of silence and
darkness. Before we examine specific senses in more de-
Right now, you are bathed in a swirling kaleidoscope of
tail, let’s explore how the senses and selective attention to-
electromagnetic radiation, heat, pressure, vibrations, mol-
gether reduce the amount of information the brain must
ecules, and mechanical forces. If some of this physical en-
process.
ergy (say in the form of light, heat, or sound) strikes your
The primary function of the senses is to act as biological
senses, an instant later, you may notice a bumblebee whiz
transducers, devices that convert one kind of energy into an-
past, the warmth of the sun on your face, or a catchy new
other (Fain, 2003; Goldstein & Brockmole, 2017). Through
tune on the radio. In that instant, a remarkable series of
events transpires as you detect, encode, and interpret sen- Transducers Devices that convert one kind of energy into another.
sory information. However, unless your senses translate

141
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142 P Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

the process of sensation, each sense converts a specific type sensation-perception process is unconscious; that is, we are
of physical energy from the environment into a pattern of usually aware only of the result, the percept. Think back to
response by the nervous system. Information arriving at the Module 2, where we learned that subjective introspection
brain from the sense organs creates sensory impressions. cannot help us understand much of our behavior. Pay close
When the brain selects, organizes, and interprets sen- attention to your experience as you look away from this
sory impressions into meaningful patterns, we speak of per- book, casting your gaze somewhere else in the room. Seem-
ception. Some brain areas receive visual information; others ingly in an instant, your eyes come to rest upon some other
receive auditory information, and still others receive taste aspect of your room: a lamp, a photo of a friend, a dirty sock,
or touch information (see Module 9). Knowing which brain or a pile of homework (yikes!). But how did you do that? Your
areas are active tells us, in general, what kinds of sensations introspection almost certainly offers no trace of how your
that you are feeling. This knowledge is beginning to make it eyes did the sensing, how the messages were streamed back
possible to artificially restore sight, hearing, or other senses. to your brain, or how your brain constructed your percept.
In one approach, researchers used a miniature televi- Fortunately, objective scientific methods, such as those
sion camera to send electrical signals directly to the brain, used by psychophysicists, enable us to better understand the
bypassing damaged eyes and optic nerves (➤ Figure 17.1) how of both sensation and perception.
(Dobelle, 2000; Warren & Normann, 2005). Using technolo-
gies such as these, people who have lost their vision are now Psychophysics
able to “see” letters, words, and some common objects such In the field of psychophysics, the physical properties of
as knives and forks (Nirenberg & Pandarinath, 2012). stimuli (such as sound waves or electromagnetic radiation)
It is fascinating to realize that “seeing” and “hearing” are measured and related to the resulting sensations that
take place in your brain, not in your eyes or ears. It is also our brain constructs (such as loudness or brightness) (Lu &
fascinating to realize that much, if not all, of this two-step Dosher, 2014).

Visual
cortex

Electrodes
Actual image

Cameras

Perceived image

➤ Figure 17.1
An artificial visual system. Video cameras translate light into electrical impulses that directly stimulate the visual cortex, resulting in
rudimentary visual experiences. What do you suppose this person would experience if the electrical impulses were sent to the auditory
cortex instead?

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 MoDU lE 17 s e n sAti o n An d P e r c e Pti o n: s e n s o ry P r o c es s es 143

How does sensory data selection take place? Considerable

selection occurs because sensory receptors do not transduce
all the energies that they encounter. For example, a gui-
tar transduces string vibrations into sound waves. Pluck a
string, and the guitar produces a sound. However, stimuli
that don’t cause the string to move have no effect. If you

BRIAN J. SKERRY/National Geographic Creative

shine a light on the string, or pour cold water on it, the gui-
tar remains silent. (The owner of the guitar, however, might
become quite loud at this point!) In a similar way, the eye
transduces electromagnetic radiation, the ear transduces
sound waves, and so on. Many other types of stimuli can-
not be sensed directly because we lack sensory receptors to
transduce their energy. For example, humans cannot sense
Absolute thresholds define the sensory worlds of humans and the bioelectric fields of living creatures, but many fish have
animals, sometimes with serious consequences. The endangered special organs that can (Caputi et al., 2013). (Do they hear
Florida manatee (sea cow) is a peaceful, plant-eating creature
the fields, feel them, or what?)
that can live for more than 60 years. Every year, many manatees
are injured or even killed by boats. The problem? Manatees have Further selection occurs because sense receptors trans-
poor sensitivity to the low-frequency sounds made by slow-moving duce only part of their target energy range (Fain, 2003). For
boats. Current laws require boats to slow down in manatee example, your eyes transduce only a tiny fraction of the entire
habitats, which may actually increase the risk to these gentle
creatures (Gerstein, 2002).
range of electromagnetic energies—the part that we call the
visible spectrum. The eyes of honeybees can transduce, and
It was psychophysicists who scientifically demonstrated therefore see, parts of the electromagnetic spectrum invis-
that energy above a certain minimum intensity is necessary ible to us humans. Likewise, bats shout at a pitch too high for
for a sensation impression to arise. The absolute threshold humans to transduce. But bats can hear their own reflected
for any sensory input is formally defined as the minimum echoes. This ability, called echolocation, allows bats to fly in
amount of physical energy that can be detected 50 percent total darkness, avoid collisions, and catch insects. As you
of the time. For example, very soft sounds (which could be can see, our rich sensory experiences are only a small part
heard if they were just a little louder) fall below the absolute of what could be sensed and what some animals can sense.
threshold for human hearing. Of course owls, who hunt at Doesn’t extrasensory perception allow us to override the
night, have much lower absolute thresholds for hearing. limits of our five senses? About half of the general public be-
Similarly, not every difference between two stimuli is lieves in the existence of extrasensory perception (ESP), the
experienced; instead, the difference must be sufficiently purported ability to perceive events in ways that cannot be
large. A psychophysicist studying difference thresholds explained by known sensory capacities (Wiseman & Watt,
will ask, “How different must two stimuli be before the dif- 2006). However, even after over 130 years of research into
ference becomes noticeable 50 percent of the time?” For ex- ESP, few psychologists share this belief (Shermer, 2011). A
ample, if you were to put one extra grain of sugar in your close look at ESP experiments often reveals serious problems
coffee, would you notice a difference? How much would it of evidence, procedure, and scientific rigor (Alcock, 2010;
take? A few grains? A half-spoonful? A spoonful? Alcock, Burns, & Freeman, 2003; Hyman, 2007). In fact,
Sensory Transduction and Selection Consider, for
example, vision, which gives us an amazingly wide window Sensation Conversion of energy from the environment into a pattern
on the world. In one instant, you can view a star light years of response by the nervous system; also, a sensory impression.
away; in the next, you can peer into the microscopic uni- Perception Selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory
input.
verse of a dewdrop. Yet psychophysical research has found Psychophysics Study of how the mind interprets the physical proper-
that vision also narrows what we can possibly observe. Like ties of stimuli.
the other senses, vision acts as a data selection system. It Absolute threshold Minimum amount of physical energy that can be
selects information in order to code and send to the brain detected 50 percent of the time.
Difference threshold Minimum difference in physical energy
only the most important sensory information for further between two stimuli that can be detected 50 percent of the time.
processing (Goldstein & Brockmole, 2017).

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144 P Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

professional magician and skeptic James Randi even offers to

award a $1 million prize to anyone who can demonstrate evi-
dence of psi events under standardized conditions. No one
has yet tried for the prize. (Go ahead—claim your cool mil-
lion by Googling the James Randi Educational Foundation.)
What would it take to scientifically demonstrate the ex-
istence of ESP? Quite simply, it would take a set of instruc-
tions that would allow any competent, unbiased observer
to produce evidence of ESP under standardized conditions
to rule out any possibility of fraud or chance (Schick &
Vaughn, 2014).
Sensory Adaptation and Selection The flow of sen-
sations to the brain is reduced in another way. Think about
walking into a house in which fried liver, sauerkraut, and
headcheese were just prepared for dinner. (Some dinner!)
Although you might pass out at the door, people who had
been in the house for some time wouldn’t be aware of the ➤ Figure 17.2
Visual pop-out. This pop-out is so basic that babies as young as
food odors. Why? Because sensory receptors respond less
3 months respond to it. (Adapted from Adler & Orprecio, 2006.)
to unchanging stimuli, a process called sensory adaptation.
Fortunately, the olfactory (smell) receptors adapt bugs flying nearby (Lettvin, 1961). But the insect (spot)
quickly. When exposed to a constant odor, they send fewer must be moving, or the frog’s “bug detectors” won’t work. A
and fewer nerve impulses to the brain until the odor is no frog could starve to death surrounded by dead flies.
longer noticed. Adaptation to pressure from a wristwatch, Although our sensitivity to perceptual features is an
waistband, ring, or glasses is based on the same principle. innate characteristic of the nervous system, it also is in-
Because there is usually little reason to keep reminding the fluenced by experiences early in life. For instance, Colin
brain that a sensory input is unchanged, sensory receptors Blakemore and Graham Cooper of Cambridge University
generally respond best to changes in stimulation. No one raised kittens in a room with only vertical stripes on the
wants or needs to be reminded 16 hours a day that his or her walls. Another set of kittens were raised seeing only hori-
shoes are on. zontal stripes. When returned to normal environments, the
Feature Detection and Selection As the senses collect “horizontal” cats could easily jump onto a chair, but when
information, feature detectors in the brain also reduce the walking on the floor, they bumped into chair legs. “Vertical”
flow of sensory input by dividing the world into important cats, on the other hand, easily avoided chair legs, but they
perceptual features, or basic stimulus patterns. A feature missed when they tried to jump to horizontal surfaces. The
detector is a cell, or collection of cells, in the cerebral cortex cats raised with vertical stripes were “blind” to horizontal
that responds to a specific attribute of an object. As a conse- lines, and the “horizontal” cats acted as if vertical lines were
quence, the brain need only further process the perceptual invisible (Blakemore & Cooper, 1970). Other experiments
feature rather than the underlying sensory pattern. show an actual decrease in brain cells that are tuned to the
The visual system, for example, has a set of feature detec- missing features (Grobstein & Chow, 1975).
tors that are attuned to specific stimuli, such as lines, shapes, How much control do people have over sensory data
edges, spots, colors, and other patterns (Hubel & Wiesel, selection? Is it anything like focusing attention on studying
2005). Look at ➤ Figure 17.2 and notice how eye-catching and deliberately ignoring other stuff going on around you?
the single vertical line is among a group of slanted lines. This Good question. We have little conscious control over what
effect, which is called visual pop-out, occurs because your energy ranges our senses can transduce or how the brain
visual system is highly sensitive to these perceptual features encodes perceptual features. Likewise, it is quite difficult
(Hsieh, Colas, & Kanwisher, 2011). to consciously control sensory adaptation. Selective atten-
Similarly, frog eyes are highly sensitive to small, dark, tion is a different capability, one that you can control. Pay
moving spots. In other words, they are “tuned” to detect attention now.

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 MoDU lE 17 s e n sAti o n An d P e r c e Pti o n: s e n s o ry P r o c es s es 145

Selective Attention—Tuning In and Tuning Out

Survey Question 17.2 Why are we more aware of some In a similar way, using a cellphone while driving can
sensations than others? cause inattentional blindness. Instead of ignoring a go-
rilla, you might miss seeing another car, a motorcyclist, or
Although the senses reduce a flood of sights, sounds, odors,
a pedestrian while your attention is focused on the phone.
tastes, and touch sensations to more manageable levels, the
It probably goes without saying, but the more engaged you
result is still too much for the brain to handle. That’s why
are with your cellphone while driving (like texting instead
the brain further filters sensory information through se-
of having a conversation), the greater the problem (Fougnie
lective attention. For example, as you sit reading this page,
& Marois, 2007).
receptors for touch and pressure in the seat of your pants are
You might find it helpful to think of selective attention
sending nerve impulses to your brain. Although these sen-
as a bottleneck, or narrowing in the information channel that
sations have been present all along, you were probably not
links the senses to perception. When one message enters the
aware of them until just now. This “seat-of-the-pants phe-
bottleneck, it seems to prevent others from passing through
nomenon” is an example of selective attention—voluntarily
(➤ Figure 17.3). Imagine, for instance, that you are driving
focusing on a specific sensory input. Selective attention ap-
a car and approaching an intersection. You need to be sure
pears to be based on the ability of brain structures to select
that the traffic light is still green. Just as you are about to
and divert incoming sensory messages (Mather, 2011). We
check, your passenger points to a friend at the side of the
are able to “tune in” on a single sensory message while ex-
road. If you then don’t notice that the light just changed to
cluding others.
red, an accident may be seconds away.
Another familiar example of this is the “cocktail party
Are some stimuli more attention-getting than others? Yes.
effect.” When you are in a group of people, surrounded by
Very intense stimuli usually command attention. Stimuli
voices, you can still select and attend to the voice of the per-
son that you are facing. Or if that person gets dull, you can
eavesdrop on conversations all over the room. (Be sure to
smile and nod your head occasionally!) However, no mat-
ter how interesting your companion may be, your attention
will probably shift if you hear your own name spoken some-
where in the room (Koch et al., 2011). We do find what oth-
ers say about us to be very interesting, don’t we?
At times, we can even suffer from inattentional blind-
ness, a failure to notice a stimulus because attention is fo-
cused elsewhere (Thakral, 2011). Not seeing something that
is plainly before your eyes most likely occurs when your at- ➤ Figure 17.3
tention is narrowly focused (Bressan & Pizzighello, 2008). Focusing attention. The attentional “bottleneck,” or “spotlight,” can
Inattentional blindness is vividly illustrated by a classic be widened or narrowed. If you focus on local details in this drawing,
study in which participants were shown a film of two basket- you will see the letter A repeated 13 times. If you broaden your field
of attention to encompass the overall pattern, you see the letter H.
ball teams, one wearing black shirts and the other wearing
white. Observers were asked to watch the film closely and
count how many times a basketball passed between mem- Sensory adaptation A decrease in sensory response to an unchang-
bers of one of the teams, while ignoring the other team. As ing stimulus.
observers watched and counted, a person wearing a gorilla Perceptual features Basic attributes of a stimulus, such as lines,
shapes, edges, or colors.
suit walked into the middle of the basketball game, faced the
Feature detector Cells in the cortex that respond to a specific at-
camera, thumped his chest, and walked out of view. Half the tribute of an object.
observers failed to notice this rather striking event (Simons Selective attention Giving priority to a particular incoming sensory
& Chabris, 1999). This effect probably explains why fans of message.
Inattentional blindness A failure to notice a stimulus because atten-
opposing sports teams often act as if they had seen two com- tion is focused elsewhere.
pletely different games.

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146 P Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

that are brighter, louder, or larger tend to capture attention: ATTENTION ALSO IS FREQUENTLY RELATED
A gunshot would be hard to ignore. If a brightly colored hot- TO contrast OR change IN STIMULATION. The con-
air balloon ever lands at your college campus, it almost cer- trasts between bold, italics, CAPITALS, and lowercase in
tainly will draw a crowd. the preceding sentence draw attention because they are
Repetitious stimuli, repetitious stimuli, repetitious stim- unexpected.
uli, repetitious stimuli, repetitious stimuli, repetitious stimuli Unconscious sensory data selection, together with re-
also are attention getting. A dripping faucet at night makes flective, conscious selective attention, usually reduce the
little noise by normal standards, but because of repetition, flow of sensory information to the brain to a manageable
it may grab as much of your attention as a single sound that level. But how do the individual senses actually function?
is many times louder. This effect is used repeatedly, so to We explore that topic shortly, but first, here’s a chance to pay
speak, in television and radio commercials. some attention to what you’ve learned.

MODULE

17 Summary
17.1 In general, how do sensory systems input. The main data selection processes are transduc-
function? tion, sensory adaptation, and feature detection.
17.1.1 The senses transduce physical energy into sensations 17.2 Why are we more aware of some sensations
that are sent to localized brain areas to be further than others?
processed into a percept.
17.2.1 Incoming sensations are affected by selective
17.1.2 Psychophysics studies how the senses and the brain
attention, a brain-based process that allows some
sense and perceive the physical world. Psychophysi-
sensory inputs to be selected for further processing
cists discovered absolute and difference thresholds.
while others are ignored.
17.1.3 The senses act as selective data selection systems to
17.2.2 Don’t use your cell phone while driving!
prevent the brain from being overwhelmed by sensory

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 MoDU lE 17 s e n sAti o n An d P e r c e Pti o n: s e n s o ry P r o c es s es 147

Knowledge Builder Sensation and Perception: Sensory Processes

Recite Reflect
1. Sensory receptors are biological ___________________, Think critically
or devices for converting one type of energy to another. 6. William James once said, “If a master surgeon were
2. As time passes, nerve endings in the skin under your to cross the auditory and optic nerves, we would hear
clothes send fewer signals to the brain, and you become lightning and see thunder.” Can you explain what James
unable to feel your clothes. This process is called meant?
a. transduction
b. difference threshold Self-Reflect
c. reverse attention What if, like some other animals, you could transduce other
d. sensory adaptation energies? How would the sensory world in which you live
3. Brain cells that divide the world into important features change? What would it be like to be a bat? A shark?
are known as feature As you sit reading this book, which sensory inputs have
a. transducers undergone adaptation? What new inputs can you become
b. detectors aware of by shifting your focus of attention?
c. pop-outs Can you pay attention to more than one sensory input
b. adapters at once?
4. The conscious ability to influence what sensations we will
receive is called AN SW E R S
a. sensory adaptation spiced chicken is pointy (Dixon, Smilek, & Merikle, 2004).
b. psychophysics experiences pain as the color orange, whereas for another, the taste of
c. selective attention sensory inputs in terms of other senses. For example, one synesthete
d. sensory biasing
is amazing that some people, called synesthetes, naturally experience
sent impulses to the visual area, a sensation of light would occur. It
5. Which of the following stimuli are more effective at get- sound sensation. Likewise, if the ears transduced a thunderclap and
ting attention? eyes to activate auditory areas of the brain, we would experience a
a. unexpected stimuli localization: if a lightning flash caused rerouted messages from the
b. repetitious stimuli 1. transducers 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. d 6. The explanation is based on sensory
c. intense stimuli
d. all of the above

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MODULE

18 Sensation and Perception

Vision

The Most Important Sense?

Most people agree that vision is their most important sense. And why
not? When you first open your eyes in the morning, you effortlessly
become aware of the visual richness of the world around you. That
visual richness obscures the fact that your eyes transduce only the
tiniest fraction of the entire range of electromagnetic energies—the
visible spectrum. You cannot “see” the vast majority of the electro-
magnetic spectrum, such as microwaves, cosmic rays, X-rays, or
radio waves.
Similarly, the effortlessness with which normally sighted people
can see obscures incredible complexity. How does sensory transduc-
© aastock/Shutterstock.com
tion in vision actually occur? What does it mean to need glasses?
How can we see in the dark? How can we see in color? Many ques-
tions have been answered, yet many remain. Regardless, vision is an
impressive sensory system, worthy of a detailed discussion.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
18.1 How does the visual system function?

Vision—Catching Some Rays

Survey Question 18.1 How does the visual system
or violet. Longer light waves successively produce blue,
function?
green, yellow, orange, and red, which has a wavelength of
What are the basic dimensions of light and vision? The visible 700 nanometers (➤ Figure 18.1).
spectrum—the spread of electromagnetic energies to which The term hue refers to the various colors of light: red,
the eyes respond—is made up of a narrow range of wave- orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. As just noted,
lengths of electromagnetic radiation. Visible light starts at various hues, or color sensations, correspond to the wave-
“short” wavelengths of 400 nanometers (nan-OM-et-ers), length of the light that reaches our eyes (Mather, 2011).
equal to one-billionth of a meter, which we sense as purple White light, in contrast, is a mixture of many wavelengths.

148
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 MODU LE 1 8 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: Vi S i o n 149

Wavelength in meters
➤ Figure 18.1
10–15 10–14 10–13 10–12 10–11 10–10 10–9 10–8 10–7 10–6 10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 101 102 103
The visible spectrum.

Visible
Cosmic rays Gamma X-rays Ultraviolet Infrared Microwaves Radar TV FM AM Short
rays Radio waves waves

VISIBLE SPECTRUM

400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

Wavelength in nanometers

Hues (colors) from a narrow band of wavelengths are very behind the pupil that bends light toward the retina, makes
saturated, or pure. (An intense fire-engine red is more satu- additional, smaller adjustments. Your eye’s focal point
rated than a muddy brick red.) A third dimension of vision, changes when muscles attached to the lens alter its shape.
brightness, corresponds roughly to the amplitude, or height, This process is called accommodation. In cameras, focus-
of light waves. Waves of greater amplitude are taller, carry ing is done more simply—by changing the distance between
more energy, and cause the colors that we see to appear the lens and the image sensor.
brighter or more intense. For example, the same brick red
Visual Problems Focusing also is affected by the shape
would look bright in intense, high-energy illumination and
of the eye. If your eye is too short, nearby objects will be
drab in dim light.
blurred, but distant objects will be sharp. This is called hy-
Structure of the Eye peropia (HI-per-OPE-ee-ah), or farsightedness. If your eye-
ball is too long, images fall short of the retina and you won’t
Although the visual system is much more complex than any
be able to focus on distant objects. This results in myopia
digital camera, both cameras and eyes have a lens to focus
(my-OPE-ee-ah), or nearsightedness. When the cornea or
light rays on a light-sensitive surface at the back of an enclosed
the lens is misshapen, part of vision will be focused and
space. In a camera, it is a layer of light-sensitive pixels in the
part will be fuzzy. In this case, the eye has more than one
digital image sensor. In the eye, it is a layer of photoreceptors
focal point, a problem called astigmatism (ah-STIG-mah-
(light-sensitive cells) in the retina, which is an area about the
tiz-em). All three visual defects can be corrected by placing
size and thickness of a postage stamp (➤ Figure 18.2).
glasses (or contact lenses) in front of the eye to change the
How does the eye focus? Most focusing is done at the front
path of light (➤ Figure 18.3).
of the eye by the cornea, a curved, transparent, protective
As people age, the lens becomes less flexible and accom-
layer that bends light inward. The lens, the clear structure
modating. The result is presbyopia (prez-bee-OPE-ee-ah),
from the Latin for “old vision,” or farsightedness due to ag-
Ciliary
muscle
ing. Perhaps you have seen a grandparent or older friend

Aqueous Hue Color of light, as determined by its wavelength.

humor Retina Surface at the back of the eye onto which the lens focuses
Fovea
Iris light rays.
Blind spot Cornea Curved, transparent, protective layer through which light
Pupillary
opening enters the eye.
Optic
Lens Clear structure behind the pupil that bends light toward the
nerve Cornea
retina.
Accommodation Changes in the shape of the lens of the eye to en-
able the seeing of close and far objects.
Retinal arteries
Lens Hyperopia Having difficulty focusing on focusing nearby objects
and veins
(farsightedness).
Myopia Having difficulty focusing distant objects (nearsightedness).
Retina Astigmatism Defects in the cornea, lens, or eye that cause some
areas of vision to be out of focus.
➤ Figure 18.2
Presbyopia Farsightedness caused by aging.
The human eye, a simplified view.

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150 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r actiVe lear n i n g

Point of
focus
Distant point Near point Misshapen cornea

Misshapen lens

Part of image is
focused; part is not

Concave Convex Nonsymmetrical

lens lens lens
(a) Nearsighted Eye (b) Farsighted Eye (c) Astigmatic Eye

➤ Figure 18.3
Visual defects and corrective lenses. (a) A myopic (longer than usual) eye. The concave lens spreads light rays just enough to increase
the eye’s focal length. (b) A hyperopic (shorter than usual) eye. The convex lens increases refraction (bending) to focus light on the retina.
(c) An astigmatic (lens or cornea that are not symmetrical) eye. In astigmatism, parts of vision are sharp and parts are unfocused. Lenses
that correct astigmatism are nonsymmetrical.

reading a newspaper at arm’s length because of presbyopia. and fine details. In contrast, the rods, numbering about
Eventually, many people need bifocals as they age. (Just like 120 million, can’t detect colors (➤ Figure 18.4). Pure rod
your authors. Sigh.) Bifocal lenses correct near vision and vision is black and white. However, rods are much more
distance vision. sensitive to light than cones. Rods therefore allow us to see
in very dim light.
Rods and cones It is hard to believe, but the retina has a “hole” in it: Each
The eye has two types of photoreceptors, called rods and retina has a blind spot because there are no photoreceptors at
cones (Mather, 2011). The 5 million cones in each eye work the location where the optic nerve exits the eye to convey vi-
best in bright light. They also produce color sensations sual information to the brain, and blood vessels enter (Lamb,

Direction of light

Fibers of the
optic nerve

Ganglion cell
Dire e impul

Amacrine cell
nerv

Retina
ctio

➤ Figure 18.4
n of es

Bipolar
s

neuron
Anatomy of the retina. Note that light does not
Horizontal
fall directly on the rods and cones. It must first pass cell
through the cornea, the lens, the vitreous humor Retina
(a jellylike substance that fills the eyeball), and the Photoreceptor
outer layers of the retina. Only about half of the light cells:
Cone
Optic
at the front of the eye reaches the rods and cones— Rod
nerve
testimony to the retina’s amazing sensitivity. The Pigment layer
lower-left photograph shows rods and cones as seen of retina
Choroid layer
through an electron microscope. In the photograph,
the cones are colored green and the rods blue. Sclera

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 MODU LE 1 8 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: Vi S i o n 151

(a)
F
L C
(b) B K E S T
(a) (b) (c)
➤ Figure 18.5
Experiencing the blind spot. (a) With your right eye closed, stare
at the upper-right cross. Hold the book about 1 foot from your eye
and slowly move it back and forth. You should be able to locate a
➤ Figure 18.6
position that causes the black spot to disappear. When it does, it Tests of visual acuity. Here are some common tests of visual
has fallen on the blind spot. With a little practice, you can learn to acuity. In (a), sharpness is indicated by the smallest grating that still
make people or objects you dislike disappear too (use your new can be seen as individual lines. The Snellen chart (b) requires that
power wisely)! (b) Repeat the procedure described, but stare at the you read rows of letters of diminishing size until you no longer can
lower cross. When the white space falls on the blind spot, the black distinguish them. The Landolt rings (c) require no familiarity with
bar will appear to be continuous. This may help you understand letters. Simply note which side has a break in it.
why you do not usually experience a blind spot in your visual field.
vision is not very high resolution, the rods are quite sensitive
2011; ➤ Figure 18.5a). The blind spot shows that vision de- to movement in peripheral vision (Yamamoto & Philbeck,
pends greatly on the brain. If you close one eye, some of the 2013). To experience this characteristic of the rods, look
incoming light will fall on the blind spot of your open eye. straight ahead and hold your hand beside your head, at
Why isn’t there a gap in your vision? The answer is that the about 90 degrees. Wiggle your finger and slowly move your
visual cortex of the brain actively fills in the gap with patterns hand forward until you can detect motion. You will become
from surrounding areas (➤ Figure 18.5b). By closing one aware of the movement before you can actually “see” your
eye, you can visually “behead” other people by placing their finger. Seeing “out of the corner of your eye” is important for
images on your blind spot. (Just a hint for some classroom sports, driving, and walking down dark alleys. People who
fun.) The brain also can “erase” distracting information. Roll suffer from tunnel vision (a loss of peripheral vision) feel as
your eyes all the way to the right and then close your right if they are wearing blinders (Godnig, 2003).
eye. You should clearly see your nose in your left eye’s field of The rods also are highly responsive to dim light.
vision. Now, open your right eye again and your nose nearly Because most rods are 20 degrees to each side of the fovea,
disappears because your brain disregards its presence. the best night vision comes from looking next to an object
that you want to see. Test this yourself some night by look-
Visual Acuity The rods and cones also affect visual acuity,
ing at, and next to, a dim star.
or sharpness (Pirson, Ie, & Langer, 2012). The cones lie mainly
at the center of the eye. In fact, the fovea (FOE-vee-ah), a tiny color Vision
spot in the center of the retina, contains only cones—about How do the cones produce color sensations? The trichromatic
50,000 of them. Like high-resolution digital sensors made theory of color vision (TRY-kro-MAT-ik) holds that there are
of many small pixels, the tightly packed cones in the fovea three types of cones, each most sensitive to either red, green,
produce the sharpest images. Normal acuity is designated as or blue. Other colors result from combinations of these three.
20/20 vision: At a distance of 20 feet, you can distinguish what
the average person can see at 20 feet (➤ Figure 18.6). If your
Cones Photoreceptors that are sensitive to color.
vision is 20/40, you can see at 20 feet only what the average Rods Photoreceptors for dim light that produce only black and
person can see at 40 feet. If your vision is 20/200, everything white sensations.
is a blur and you need glasses! Vision that is 20/12 means that Blind spot Area in the retina where the optic nerve exits that con-
tains no photoreceptor cells.
you can see at 20 feet what the average person must be 8 feet Optic nerve Structure that conveys visual information away from
nearer to see, indicating better than average acuity. the retina to the brain.
Visual acuity The sharpness of visual perception.
Peripheral Vision What is the purpose of the rest of the Fovea Tiny spot in the center of the retina, containing only cones,
retina? Areas outside the fovea also get light, creating a large where visual acuity is greatest.
region of peripheral (side) vision. The rods are most nu- Peripheral (side) vision Vision at the edges of the visual field.
Trichromatic theory of color vision A theory of color vision based
merous about 20 degrees from the center of the retina, so
on three cone types: red, green, and blue.
much of our peripheral vision is rod vision. Although rod
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152 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r actiVe lear n i n g

A basic problem with the trichromatic theory is that Firing rates of cones Color experienced
four colors of light—red, green, blue, and yellow—seem to
be primary (you can’t get them by mixing other colors). Also, Blue
why is it impossible to have a reddish green or a yellowish
blue? These problems led to the development of a second Green
view, known as the opponent-process theory of color vi-
sion, which states that vision analyzes colors into “either-or” Red
messages (Goldstein & Brockmole, 2017). That is, the visual
system can produce messages for either red or green, yellow Yellow
or blue, or black or white. Coding one color in a pair (red,
for instance) seems to block the opposite message (green) Orange
from coming through. As a result, a reddish green is impos-
sible, but a yellowish red (orange) can occur.
Purple
According to opponent-process theory, fatigue caused
by making one response produces an afterimage of the op-
White
posite color as the system recovers. Afterimages are visual
sensations that persist after a stimulus is removed—like see- B G R
ing a spot after a flashbulb goes off. To see an afterimage
of the type predicted by opponent-process theory, look at ➤ Figure 18.8

➤ Figure 18.7 and follow the instructions there. Firing rates of blue, green, and red cones in response to
different colors. The taller the colored bar, the higher the firing
Which color theory is correct? Both! The three-color theo- rates for that type of cone. As you can see, colors are coded by
ry applies to the retina, in which three different types of cones differences in the activity of all three types of cones in the normal
have been found. Each contains a different type of iodopsin eye. (Adapted from Goldstein & Brockmole, 2017.)
(i-oh-DOP-sin), a light-sensitive pigment that breaks down
when struck by light. This triggers action potentials and sends and the brain after information leaves the cones (Sanes &
neural messages to the brain. As predicted, each type of iodop- Masland, 2015). For example, some nerve cells in the brain
sin is most sensitive to light in roughly the red, green, or blue are excited by the color red and inhibited by the color green.
region. Other colors result from combinations of these three. So both theories are correct. One explains what happens
Thus, the three types of cones fire nerve impulses at different in the cones. The other explains how color information is
rates to produce various color sensations (➤ Figure 18.8). analyzed after messages leave the cones (Gegenfurtner &
In contrast, the opponent-process theory better explains Kiper, 2003).
what happens further along in the retina, the optic pathways, Color Blindness and Color Weakness Do you know
anyone who regularly draws hoots of laughter by wearing
clothes of wildly clashing colors? Or someone who sheep-
ishly tries to avoid naming the color of an object? If so, you
probably know someone who is color blind.
What is it like to be color blind? What causes color blind-
ness? A person with color blindness cannot perceive colors.
It is as if the world were a black-and-white movie. The col-
or-blind person either lacks cones or has cones that do not
function normally (Neitz & Neitz, 2011). Such total color
blindness is rare. In color weakness, or partial color blind-
➤ Figure 18.7 ness, a person can’t see certain colors (National Institutes of
Negative afterimages. Stare at the dot near the middle of the flag Health, 2016). Approximately 8 percent of Caucasian males
for at least 30 seconds. Then look immediately at a plain sheet of (but fewer Asian, African, and Native American males and
white paper or a white wall. You will see the U.S. flag in its normal fewer than 1 percent of women) are red–green color blind.
colors. Reduced sensitivity to yellow, green, and black in the visual
These people see reds and greens as the same color, usually
system, caused by prolonged staring, results in the appearance
of the complementary colors. Project the afterimage of the flag on a yellowish brown (➤ Figure 18.9). Another type of color
other colored surfaces to get additional effects. weakness, involving yellow and blue, is extremely rare.
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 MODU LE 1 8 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: Vi S i o n 153

➤ Figure 18.9 than the red. Also, red traffic signals have yellow light mixed
Color blindness and in with the red, and a green light is really blue-green.
color weakness.

© Adisa/Shutterstock.com
(a) Photograph illustrates Seeing in the Dark
normal color vision.
(b) Photograph is printed
What happens when the eyes adjust to a dark room? Dark
in blue and yellow and adaptation is the dramatic increase in the eye’s sensitivity to
gives an impression of light that occurs after a person enters the dark (Goldstein &
(a) what a red-green color- Brockmole, 2017). Consider walking into a movie theater. If
blind person sees.
(c) Photograph simulates you enter from a brightly lit lobby, you practically need to be
total color blindness. If led to your seat. Almost immediately, the pupil, the open-
you are totally color blind, ing surrounded by the colored iris, begins to open to allow
all three photos will look
more light to enter the eye. After a short time, you can see
nearly identical.
the entire room in detail (including the couple kissing over
in the corner). The retina, however, also becomes more sen-
sitive, taking about 30 to 35 minutes of complete darkness to
(b) reach maximum visual sensitivity (➤ Figure 18.11). At that
point, your eye will be 100,000 times more sensitive to light.

Low
Rods only

Cones only
Sensitivity to light

(c)

It is surprising that some people reach adulthood with-

out knowing that some colors are missing (Gündogan et al.,
2005). If you can’t see the number 5 or follow the dots from X
to X in ➤ Figure 18.10, you might be red–green color blind.
How can color-blind individuals drive? Don’t they have
High

trouble with traffic lights? Red–green color-blind individuals

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
have normal vision for yellow and blue, so the main problem
Time in the dark (minutes)
is telling red lights from green. In practice, that’s not difficult.
The red light is always on top, and the green light is brighter ➤ Figure 18.11
Typical time course of dark adaptation. The dark line shows
how the threshold for vision lowers as a person spends time in the
dark. (A lower threshold means that less light is needed for vision.)
The green line shows that the cones adapt first, but they soon cease
adding to light sensitivity. Rods, shown by the red line, adapt more
slowly. However, they continue to add to improved night vision long
after the cones are fully adapted.

Opponent-process theory of color vision Proposition that color

vision is based on coding things as red or green, yellow or blue, or
black or white.
Color blindness A total inability to perceive color.
Color weakness An inability to distinguish some colors.
Dark adaptation Increased light sensitivity of the eye under low-
light conditions.
➤ Figure 18.10
Pupil The black opening inside the iris that allows light to enter the eye.
Testing for red-green color blindness. A replica of two images Iris Colored structure on the surface of the eye surrounding the pupil.
from the widely used Ishihara test for red-green color blindness.
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154 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r actiVe lear n i n g

What causes dark adaptation? Like cones, which con- new bluish-white xenon lights. To restore light sensitivity,
tain iodopsin, rods contain a light-sensitive visual pig- the rhodopsin in the rods must recombine, which takes
ment, rhodopsin (row-DOP-sin), which allows them to see time.
in black and white. When struck by light, visual pigments The rods are insensitive to extremely red light. That’s
bleach, or break down chemically. The afterimages that why submarines, airplane cockpits, and ready rooms for
you see after looking at the explosion of a flashbulb are a fighter pilots are illuminated with red light. In each case,
result of this bleaching. In fact, a few seconds of exposure people can move quickly from a light place into a dark
to bright white light can completely wipe out dark adap- one without having to adapt. Because the red light doesn’t
tation. That’s why you should avoid looking at oncoming stimulate the rods, it is as if they had already spent time in
headlights when you are driving at night—especially the the dark.

MODULE

18 Summary
18.1 how does the visual system function? The cones specialize in color vision, acuity, and day-
18.1.1 The eye is part of a visual system, not a photographic light vision.
one. The entire visual system is structured to analyze 18.1.5 Color vision is explained by the trichromatic theory
visual information. in the retina and by the opponent-process theory in
18.1.2 Four common visual defects are myopia, hyperopia, the visual system beyond the eyes.
presbyopia, and astigmatism. 18.1.6 Total color blindness is rare, but 8 percent of males
18.1.3 The rods and cones are photoreceptors in the retina and 1 percent of females are red–green color blind or
of the eye. color weak.
18.1.4 The rods specialize in peripheral vision, night vision, 18.1.7 Dark adaptation is caused mainly by an increase in
seeing black and white, and detecting movement. the amount of rhodopsin in the rods.

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 MODU LE 1 8 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: Vi S i o n 155

Knowledge Builder Sensory and Perception: Vision

Recite Reflect
1. Match: Think critically
_____ Myopia A. Farsightedness 6. Sensory transduction in the eye takes place first in the cor-
_____ Hyperopia B. Elongated eye nea, then in the lens, and then in the retina. True or false?
_____ Presbyopia c. Misshapen cornea or lens
_____ Astigmatism D. Farsightedness due to aging Self-Reflect
2. In dim light, vision depends mainly on the Pretend that you are a beam of light. What will happen to you
____________________. In brighter light, color and fine at each step as you pass into the eye and land on the retina?
detail are produced by the ____________________. What will happen if the eye is not perfectly shaped? How will
3. The greatest visual acuity is associated with the ________ the retina know that you’ve arrived? How will it tell what color
and the __________. of light you are? What will it tell the brain about you?
a. trichromat, rods
b. vitreous humor, cones AN SW E R S
c. fovea, cones into nerve impulses.
d. nanometer, cones No change in the type of energy takes place until the retina converts light
4. Colored afterimages are best explained by them on the retina, they do not change light to another form of energy.

a. trichromatic theory
and lens prepare incoming light rays by bending them and focusing
1. B, A, D, C 2. rods, cones 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. False. Although the cornea
b. the effects of astigmatism
c. sensory localization
d. opponent-process theory
5. Dark adaptation is directly related to an increase in
a. rhodopsin
b. astigmatism
c. accommodation
d. iodopsin

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MODULE

19 Sensation and Perception

The Nonvisual Senses

Even Pain?
We depend so much on vision that we sometimes neglect the other
senses. But you need to wear earplugs for only a short time to appre-
ciate how much we rely on hearing for communication, navigation,
entertainment, and many other purposes. Similarly, skilled novelists
always include descriptions of odors and tastes in their writings. Per-
haps they intuitively realize that a scene is incomplete without smells
and tastes. Like the other senses, the body senses also are an essen-
tial part of our sensory world. It would be very difficult to move,
stay upright, or even stay alive without touch, balance, and other
body senses. Even pain, which few people welcome, has its place in
our lives. To appreciate pain, just imagine how much damage you
might do to yourself if, for example, you could not feel any pain even
© DmyTo/Shutterstock.com

though your foot was far too close to a burning campfire. Here’s to
the “other” senses.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
19.1 What are the mechanisms of hearing? 19.3 What are the somesthetic senses?
19.2 How do the chemical senses operate?

Hearing—Good Vibrations
Survey Question 19.1 What are the mechanisms of
What is the stimulus for hearing? If you throw a stone into
hearing?
a quiet pond, a circle of waves spreads in all directions. In
Rock, classical, jazz, blues, country, hip-hop—whatever your much the same way, sound travels as a series of invisible waves
musical taste, you have undoubtedly been moved by the of compression (peaks) and rarefaction (RARE-eh-fak-shun),
riches of sound. Hearing also collects information from all or valleys, in the air. Any vibrating object—a tuning fork, the
around the body, such as detecting the direction of approach string of a musical instrument, or the vocal cords—will pro-
of an unseen car (Johnstone, Nábĕlek, & Robertson, 2010). duce sound waves (rhythmic movement of air molecules).
Vision, in all its glory, is limited to stimuli in front of the eyes. Other materials, such as fluids or solids, also can carry sound.

156
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 MODU LE 1 9 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: th e n o nvi S ual S e n S eS 157

The frequency of sound waves (the number of waves per

Compression second) corresponds to the perceived pitch (higher or lower
Rarefaction tone) of a sound. The amplitude, or physical “height,” of a
sound wave tells how much energy it contains. Psychologi-
cally, amplitude corresponds to sensed loudness or sound
intensity (➤ Figure 19.1).

Amplitude How We Hear Sounds

How are sounds converted to nerve impulses? Hearing in-
volves a chain of events that begins with the pinna (PIN-
Time ah), the visible, external part of the ear. In addition to be-
Compression Wavelength
Rarefaction ing a good place to hang earrings or balance pencils, the
➤ Figure 19.1 pinna acts like a funnel to concentrate sounds. After they
Characteristics of sound waves. Waves of compression in the are guided into the ear canal, sound waves collide with the
air, or vibrations, are the stimulus for hearing. The frequency (or eardrum (tympanic membrane), setting it vibrating in re-
wavelength) of sound waves determines their pitch. The amplitude
sponse, thus transmitting them inward. This, in turn, causes
determines loudness.
three small middle ear ossicles (OSS-ih-kuls) or bones, the
malleus (MAL-ee-us) or hammer, incus or anvil, and sta-
pes (STAY-peas) or stirrup, to vibrate (➤ Figure 19.2). The

External Ear Inner Ear

(air conduction) (fluid conduction)

(bone conduction
Auditory by ossicles)
canal Vestibular
apparatus
Incus
Malleus Stapes
Auditory
nerve

Cochlea
Pinna Scala vestibuli
(with perilymph)
Cochlear
canal (with
Round endolymph)
window
Oval
Tympanic
window Scala tympani
membrane
(eardrum) (with perilymph)
➤ Figure 19.2
Anatomy of the ear. The entire Oval Cochlea in
ear is a mechanism for transducing window Cross Section
Stapes
waves of air pressure into
nerve impulses. The inset in the Cochlear
foreground (“Cochlea ‘Unrolled’”) canal
shows that as the stapes moves
the oval window, the round window Round Cochlea “Unrolled” Perilymph
bulges outward, allowing waves to window (fluid inside cochlea)
ripple through fluid in the cochlea.
The waves move membranes near
the hair cells, causing cilia, or
“bristles,” on the tips of the cells to
bend. The hair cells then generate
nerve impulses that are carried to Auditory nerve Basilar Hair cells
the brain. (See an enlarged cross fibers membrane
section of cochlea in Figure 19.3.) Organ of Corti

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158 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

ossicles link the eardrum with the cochlea (KOCK-lee-ah), Oval window Basilar
Stapes membrane
High frequency
a snail-shaped organ that makes up the inner ear. The stapes
is attached to a membrane on the cochlea called the oval
window. As the oval window moves back and forth, it makes
Round
waves in a fluid inside the cochlea. window Medium frequency
Inside the cochlea, the fluid waves trigger vibrations
in the basilar membrane, the “floor” of the organ of Corti
(KOR-tee). In turn, tiny hair cells embedded in the basilar
Low frequency
membrane are pushed up against the tectorial membrane.
As a consequence, a set of stereocilia (STER-ee-oh-SIL-
ih-ah), or “bristles,” atop each hair cell brush against the tec-
torial membrane whenever waves ripple through the fluid ➤ Figure 19.4
surrounding the organ of Corti. As the stereocilia are bent, Simplified side view of the cochlea “unrolled.” The basilar
membrane is the elastic “roof” of the lower chamber of the cochlea.
nerve impulses are triggered, which then flow to the brain
The organ of Corti, with its sensitive hair cells, rests atop the basilar
(➤ Figure 19.3). membrane. The colored line shows where waves in the cochlear
How are higher and lower sounds detected? The fluid cause the greatest deflection of the basilar membrane. (The
frequency theory of hearing states that as pitch rises, amount of movement is exaggerated in the drawing.) Hair cells
respond most in the area of greatest movement, which helps
nerve impulses of a corresponding frequency are fed into identify sound frequency.
the auditory nerve—that is, an 1,200-hertz tone produces
1,200 nerve impulses per second. (The term hertz refers to
Hearing Loss Are there different types of hearing loss?
the number of vibrations per second.) This explains how
Hearing loss afflicts some 37.5 million Americans (National
sounds up to about 4,000 hertz reach the brain. But what
Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders,
about higher tones? The place theory of hearing states
2015a) and over 270 million people worldwide (Tennesen,
that higher and lower tones excite specific areas of the co-
2007). There are two common types of hearing loss.
chlea. High tones register most strongly at the base of the
Conductive hearing loss occurs when the transfer of vi-
cochlea (near the oval window). Lower tones, on the other
brations from the outer ear to the inner ear weakens. For
hand, mostly move hair cells near the narrow outer tip of
example, the eardrums or ossicles may be damaged or im-
the cochlea (➤ Figure 19.4). Pitch is signaled by the area
mobilized by disease or injury. In many cases, conductive
of the cochlea that is most strongly activated. Place theory
hearing loss can be overcome with a hearing aid, which
also explains why hunters sometimes lose their hearing in
makes sounds louder and clearer.
a narrow pitch range. “Hunter’s notch,” as it is called, oc-
Sensorineural hearing loss results from damage to the
curs when hair cells are damaged in the area affected by the
inner ear hair cells or the auditory nerve. Many jobs, hob-
pitch of gunfire.
bies, and pastimes can cause noise-induced hearing loss,
a common form of sensorineural hearing loss that occurs
Stereocilia when very loud sounds damage fragile hair cells, as in hunt-
er’s notch (National Institute on Deafness and Other Com-
munication Disorders, 2015b).
Hair cells
If you work in a noisy environment or enjoy loud music,
motorcycling, snowmobiling, hunting, or similar pursuits,
you may be risking noise-induced hearing loss. Be fore-
warned: Dead hair cells are never replaced. When you abuse
them, you lose them. By the time you are 65, more than 40 per-
cent of them will be gone, mainly those that transduce high
Basilar membrane
pitches (Lin et al., 2011). This explains why younger students
are beginning to download very high-pitched ringtones for
➤ Figure 19.3
their cellphones: If their teacher has an aging ear, the students
Functioning of hair cells. A closer view of the hair cells shows
how movement of fluid in the cochlea causes the bristling “hairs,” or can hear the ringtone, but their teacher cannot. (Your authors
cilia, to bend, generating a nerve impulse. may have experienced this effect without knowing it!)

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 MODU LE 1 9 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: th e n o nvi S ual S e n S eS 159

Typical ➤ Figure 19.5

Decibel Level Dangerous Time Exposure Examples
Decibel scale. The loudness of sound is
180 Space Shuttle launch
measured in decibels. The faintest sound
170 that most people can hear is little more than
zero decibels. Sounds of 110 decibels are
160 Hearing loss certain Shotgun blast uncomfortably loud. Prolonged exposure to
150 Jet airplane sounds above 85 decibels may damage the inner
Siren at 50 feet ear. Some music concerts, which can reach 120
140 Any exposure dangerous
iPod-style earbuds (full volume) decibels, have caused hearing loss in musicians
Extremely loud 130 Threshold of pain and may affect audiences as well. Sounds of 130
Immediate danger Thunder, rock concert decibels pose an immediate danger to hearing.
120
Basketball or hockey crowd
110 Riveter
Factory noise, chain saw
100 Subway, tractor, power lawn mower
Very loud Less than 8 hours Screaming child
90 Bus, motorcycle, snowmobile
More than 8 hours Loud home stereo, food blender
80 Heavy traffic

70 Average automobile

60 Normal conversation

50 Quiet auto
Quiet
40 Quiet office

30
Very quiet Whisper at 5 feet
20 Broadcast studio when quiet
10 Studio for making sound pictures
Just audible
0

How loud must a sound be to be hazardous? Daily ex- to separate higher and lower tones into separate chan-
posure to 85 decibels or more may cause permanent hear- nels. This has allowed some formerly deaf persons to hear
ing loss (Mather, 2011). Decibels are a measure of sound human voices, music, and other higher-frequency sounds.
intensity. Every 20 decibels increases the sound pressure by About 60 percent of all multichannel implant patients
a factor of 10. In other words, a rock concert at 120 deci- can understand some spoken words and appreciate music
bels is 1,000 times stronger than a voice at 60 decibels. Short
periods at 120 decibels can cause temporary hearing loss,
and even one brief exposure to 150 decibels (a jet airplane Pitch How high or low a tone sounds.
Eardrum Membrane that vibrates in response to sound waves and
nearby) may cause permanent hearing loss. You might find
transmits them inward.
it interesting to check the decibel ratings of some of your Cochlea Snail-shaped organ in the inner ear that contains sensory
activities in ➤ Figure 19.5. Be aware that amplified music receptors for hearing.
concerts, iPod-style earbuds, and car stereos also can dam- Basilar membrane Structure in the cochlea containing hair cells
that convert sound waves into action potentials.
age your hearing. Hair cells Receptor cells within the cochlea that transduce vibra-
Artificial Hearing Hearing aids are no help in cases tions into nerve impulses.
Frequency theory of hearing Proposition that pitch is decoded
of sensorineural hearing loss because auditory messag- from the rate at which hair cells of the basilar membrane are
es are blocked from reaching the brain. In many cases, firing.
however, the auditory nerve is intact. This finding has Place theory of hearing Proposition that higher and lower tones
excite specific areas of the cochlea.
spurred the development of cochlear implants that by-
Conductive hearing loss Poor transfer of sounds from the eardrum
pass hair cells and stimulate the auditory nerves directly to the inner ear.
(➤ Figure 19.6). Wires from a microphone carry electri- Sensorineural hearing loss Loss of hearing caused by damage to the
cal signals to an external coil. A matching coil under the inner-ear hair cells or auditory nerve.
Noise-induced hearing loss Damage caused by exposing the hair
skin picks up the signals and carries them to one or more cells to excessively loud sounds.
areas of the cochlea. The latest implants use place theory

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160 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

Skin (Leal et al., 2003; Park et al., 2011). Some deaf children
Internal coil with implants learn to speak. Those who receive a cochle-
External
coil Receiver ar implant before age 2 have the best chance to learn spo-
circuitry ken language at a near normal rate (Ertmer & Jung, 2012;
Cochlea
Gordon et al., 2011).
At present, artificial hearing remains crude. All but
the most successful cochlear implant patients describe the
Eardrum sound as “like a radio that isn’t quite tuned in.” But cochlear
Electrode
to cochlea implants are improving. And even at the current level, it is
hard to argue with enthusiasts like Kristen Cloud. Shortly
To microphone and
sound processor
after Kristen received an implant, she was able to hear a si-
ren and avoid being struck by a speeding car. She says sim-
➤ Figure 19.6
ply, “The implant saved my life.”
A cochlear implant, or “artificial ear.”

Smell and Taste—The Nose Knows When the Tongue Can’t Tell
Survey Question 19.2 How do the chemical senses operate? instance, almost died because he couldn’t smell the smoke
when his apartment building caught fire. Besides, olfaction and
Unless you are a wine taster, a perfume blender, a chef (Ram-
gustation add pleasure to our lives. Let’s see how they work.
say?), or a gourmet, you may think of olfaction, or smell, and
gustation, or taste, as minor senses. You could probably sur-
vive without these chemical senses—receptors that respond The Sense of Smell
to chemical molecules (Di Lorenzo & Youngentob, 2013). Smell receptors respond to airborne molecules. As air enters
But don’t be deceived—life without these senses can be diffi- the nose, it flows over roughly 5 million nerve fibers embed-
cult (Drummond, Douglas, & Olver, 2007). One person, for ded in the lining of the upper nasal passages (➤ Figure 19.7).

Afferent fibers of
olfactory nerve Olfactory bulb

To cerebral cortex

Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone

Olfactory nerve fibers Steve Gschmeissner/SPL /Getty Images

Basal cell
Supporting cell

Receptor cell (bipolar)

Cilia

Nasal mucous membrane

Nasal cavity
(a) (b) (c)

➤ Figure 19.7
Receptors for the sense of smell (olfaction). (a) Olfactory nerve fibers respond to gaseous molecules. Receptor cells are shown in cross
section to the left. (b) Olfactory receptors are located in the upper nasal cavity. (c) On the right, an extreme close-up of an olfactory receptor
shows fibers that sense gaseous molecules of various shapes.

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 MODU LE 1 9 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: th e n o nvi S ual S e n S eS 161

Receptor proteins on the surface of the fibers are sensitive to generally most sensitive to bitter and sour. This may have
various airborne molecules. When a fiber is stimulated, it helped prevent poisonings when most humans foraged for
sends signals to the brain (Dalton & Lomvardas, 2015). food because bitter and sour foods are more likely to be
How are different odors detected? This is still an un- inedible.
folding mystery. One hint comes from a type of anosmia Umami? The Japanese word umami (oo-MAH-me)
(an-OZE-me-ah), a sort of “smell blindness” to a single describes a pleasant savory or “brothy” taste associated
odor. Loss of sensitivity to specific types of odors sug- with certain amino acids in chicken soup, some meat ex-
gests the presence of receptors for specific odors. Indeed, tracts, kelp, tuna, human milk, cheese, and soybeans. The
the molecules that produce a particular odor are quite receptors for umami are sensitive to glutamate, a substance
similar in shape. Specific shapes produce the following found in monosodium glutamate (MSG) (Nakamura
types of odors: floral (flowerlike), camphoric (camphor- et al., 2011).
like), musky (have you ever smelled a sweaty musk ox?— If there are only five tastes, how can there be so many
it’s like that), minty (mintlike), and etherish (like ether or different flavors? Flavors seem more varied because we in-
cleaning fluid). clude sensations of texture, temperature, smell, and even
Does this mean that there are five different types of pain (“hot” chili peppers) with taste. Smell is particularly
olfactory receptors? Although humans carry genes for important in determining flavor (Doty, 2012). If you plug
about 1,000 types of smell receptors, only about 400 of your nose and eat small bits of apple, potato, and onion,
them are expressed (Sela & Sobel, 2010). It appears that they will “taste” almost exactly alike. So do gourmet jelly
different-shaped “holes,” or “pockets,” exist on the sur- beans! That’s why food loses its “taste” when you have
face of olfactory receptors. Like a piece fits into a puz- a cold. It is probably fair to say that subjective flavor is
zle, chemicals produce odors when part of a molecule half smell.
matches a hole of the same shape. This is the lock-and- MSG’s reputation as a “flavor enhancer” likely arose be-
key theory of olfaction. cause of the combination of savory odors of, say, chicken
Furthermore, molecules trigger activity in different soup, with the taste of glutamate (which does not taste pleas-
combinations of odor receptors. Thus, humans can detect ant by itself) (Vandenbeuch et al., 2010). At the very least,
at least 10,000 different odors. Just as you can make hun- we may finally know why chicken soup is such a “comfort
dreds of thousands of words in English from the 26 let- food.” But remember to smell it first!
ters of the Roman alphabet, many combinations of the 400 Taste buds, clusters of taste-receptor cells, are lo-
types of receptors are possible, resulting in many different cated mainly on the top side of the tongue, especially
odors. Scents also are identified, in part, by the location of around the edges. However, a few are found elsewhere
the receptors in the nose that a particular odor activates. inside the mouth (➤ Figure 19.8). As food is chewed,
And finally, the number of activated receptors tells the brain it dissolves and enters the taste buds, where it sets off
the strength of an odor (Bensafi et al., 2004). The brain nerve impulses to the brain (Vandenbeuch et al., 2010).
uses these distinctive patterns of messages it gets from the Much like smell, sweet, bitter, and umami tastes appear
olfactory receptors to recognize particular scents (Sela & to be based on a lock-and-key match between molecules
Sobel, 2010). and intricately shaped receptors. Saltiness and sourness,
What causes anosmia? Five people out of 100 experi- however, are triggered by a direct flow of charged atoms
ence some degree of anosmia, including the total loss of into the tips of taste cells (Dalton & Lomvardas, 2015;
smell (Bramerson et al., 2004). Risks include infections, Lindemann, 2001).
allergies, and blows to the head (which may tear the olfacto- If smell and taste are seen as minor senses, then the
ry nerves). Exposure to chemicals such as ammonia, paints, somesthetic senses are the unnoticed senses. Let’s see why
solvents, and hairdressing “potions” also can cause anosmia. they merit our careful attention.
If you value your sense of smell, be careful what you sniff
(Drummond, Douglas, & Olver, 2007).
Olfaction Sense of smell.
Gustation Sense of taste.
Taste and Flavors Lock-and-key theory of olfaction A theory holding that odors are
related to the shapes of chemical molecules.
There are at least five basic taste sensations: sweet, salt, sour, Taste buds Receptor cells for taste.
bitter, and umami (Dalton & Lomvardas, 2015). We are

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162 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

Circular papilla Filamentous papilla

Taste
bud

Hairlike
ending
of taste
(a) receptor

Sensory nerve
(b) (c) (d)

➤ Figure 19.8
Receptors for the sense of taste. (a) The tongue is covered with small protrusions called papillae. (b) Most taste buds are found around
the top edges of the tongue (shaded area). However, some are located elsewhere, including under the tongue. Stimulation of the central part
of the tongue causes no taste sensations. All five primary taste sensations occur anywhere that taste buds exist. (c) An enlarged drawing
shows that taste buds are located near the base of papillae. (d) Detail of a taste bud. These receptors also occur in other parts of the
digestive system, such as the lining of the mouth.

The Somesthetic Senses—Flying by the Seat of Your Pants

Survey Question 19.3 What are the somesthetic senses? the skin has about 200,000 nerve endings for temperature,
500,000 for touch and pressure, and 3 million for pain.
A gymnast “flying” through a routine on the uneven bars
Does the number of receptors in an area of skin relate to its
may rely as much on the somesthetic senses as on vision
sensitivity? Yes. Your skin can be “mapped” by applying heat,
(soma means “body,” esthetic means “feel”). Even the most
cold, touch, pressure, or pain to points all over your body
routine activities, such as walking, running, or passing a
(Hollins, 2010). Such testing would show that the number of
sobriety test, would be impossible without the skin senses
skin receptors varies and that sensitivity generally matches
(touch), the kinesthetic senses (receptors in muscles and
the number of receptors in a given area. Broadly speaking,
joints that detect body position and movement), and the
important areas such as the lips, tongue, face, hands, and gen-
vestibular senses (receptors in the inner ear for balance,
itals have a higher density of receptors. Of course, the sensa-
gravity, and acceleration). Because of their importance, let’s
tion that you ultimately feel will depend on brain activity.
begin with the skin senses.
Pain Does the number of pain receptors also vary? Yes—like
The Skin Senses the other skin senses, pain receptors vary in their distribu-
It’s difficult to imagine what life would be like without the tion. About 230 pain points per square centimeter (about a
sense of touch, but the plight of Ian Waterman gives a hint. half-inch) are found behind the knee, 180 per centimeter on
After an illness he suffered at 19, Waterman permanently the buttocks, 60 on the pad of the thumb, and 40 on the tip
lost all feeling below his neck. Now, in order to know the of the nose. (Is it better, then, to be pinched on the nose or
position of his body, he must be able to see it. If he moves behind the knee? It depends on what you like!)
with his eyes closed, he has no idea where he is going. If the Pain carried by large nerve fibers is sharp, bright, and
lights go out in a room, he’s in big trouble (Gallagher, 2004). fast and seems to come from specific body areas (McMahon
Skin receptors produce at least five different sensations: & Koltzenburg, 2013). This is the body’s warning system.
light touch, pressure, pain, cold, and warmth. Receptors with Give yourself a small jab with a pin and you will feel this
particular shapes appear to specialize somewhat in various type of pain. As you do this, notice that warning pain
sensations (➤ Figure 19.9). However, free nerve endings alone quickly disappears. Much as we may dislike warning pain,
can produce all five sensations (Carlson, 2013). Altogether, it is usually a signal that the body has been, or is about to

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 MODU LE 1 9 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: th e n o nvi S ual S e n S eS 163

➤ Figure 19.9
Receptors for the skin senses. The skin senses include
touch, pressure, pain, cold, and warmth. This drawing
shows different forms that the skin receptors can take. The
functions of these receptors are likely as follows: Merkel’s
Hairy skin Glabrous skin disks sense pressure on the skin; free nerve endings sense
warmth, cold, and pain; Meissner’s corpuscles sense
pressure; hair follicle receptors sense hair movement;
Pacinian corpuscles sense pressure and vibration; and
Ruffini’s endings sense skin stretching (Freberg, 2016;
Kalat, 2016). The feeling of being touched is likely made up
of a combination of varying degrees of activity in all these
receptors.
Epidermis
Merkel’s
disk
Free nerve
ending Dermis
Meissner’s
corpuscle
Hair follicle
Subcutaneous
receptor
tissue
Pacinian
corpuscle
Ruffini’s
ending

be, damaged. Without warning pain, we would be unable to How is the gate closed? Messages carried by large, fast
detect or prevent injury. Children who are born with a rare nerve fibers seem to close the spinal pain gate directly. Doing
inherited insensitivity to pain repeatedly burn themselves, so can prevent slower, “reminding system” pain from reach-
break bones, bite off parts of their tongues, and become ill ing the brain. Messages from small, slow fibers seem to take
without knowing it (Erez et al., 2010). As you might imag- a different route. After going through the pain gate, they con-
ine, it’s also hard for people with congenital pain insensitivity tinue to a “central biasing system” in the brain. Under some
to have empathy for the pain of others (Danziger, Prkachin, circumstances, the brain then sends a message back down
& Willer, 2006). the spinal cord, closing the pain gates (➤ Figure 19.10).
A second type of somatic pain is carried by small nerve Melzack believes that gate control theory may explain
fibers. This type of pain is slower, nagging, aching, wide- the painkilling effects of acupuncture, the Chinese medical
spread, and very unpleasant (McMahon & Koltzenburg, art of relieving pain and illness by inserting thin needles into
2013). It gets worse if the pain stimulus is repeated. This is the body. As the acupuncturist’s needles are twirled, heated,
the body’s reminding system, which reminds the brain that or electrified, they activate small pain fibers. These relay
the body has been injured. For instance, lower-back pain of- through the biasing system to close the gates to intense or
ten has this quality. Sadly, the reminding system can cause
agony long after an injury has healed, or in terminal illness- Somesthetic senses Sensations produced by the skin, muscles,
es, when the reminder is useless. joints, viscera, and organs of balance.
Skin senses The senses of touch, pressure, pain, heat, and cold.
The Pain Gate You may have noticed that one type of Kinesthetic senses The senses of body movement and positioning.
Vestibular senses Perception of balance, gravity, and acceleration.
pain sometimes cancels another. Ronald Melzack’s (1999)
Warning system Pain based on large nerve fibers; warns that bodily
gate control theory suggests that pain messages from the damage may be occurring.
different nerve fibers pass through the same neural “gate” in Reminding system Pain based on small nerve fibers; reminds the
the spinal cord. If the gate is “closed” by one pain message, brain that the body has been injured.
Gate control theory A theory proposing that pain messages pass
other messages may not be able to pass through (Melzack & through neural “gates” in the spinal cord.
Katz, 2006; Moayedi & Davis, 2013).

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164 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

yourself, or digging a fingernail into a knuckle, while the

dentist is working. Focus your attention on the pain that
Pain you are creating, and increase it anytime the dentist’s work
sensation becomes more uncomfortable or painful. This strategy may
seem strange, but it works. Generations of children have
used it to take the edge off a spanking.
In some cultures, people endure tattooing, stretching, cut-
ting, and burning with little apparent pain. How do they do it?
Central biasing Very likely, the answer lies in relying on psychological factors
mechanism
that anyone can use to reduce pain, such as anxiety reduction,
control, and attention (Jegindø et al., 2013). In general, un-
Spinal cord Brainstem
pleasant emotions such as fear and anxiety increase pain; pleas-
Sensory gate ant emotions decrease it (Kerns, Sellinger, & Goodin, 2011).
Large nerve Anytime you can anticipate pain (such as a trip to the
Small nerve fibers
fibers doctor, dentist, or tattoo parlor), you can lower your anxi-
ety by making sure you are fully informed. Be sure that ev-
➤ Figure 19.10 erything that will happen is explained to you. In general,
A sensory gate for pain. A series of pain impulses going through the more control that you feel over a painful stimulus, the
the gate may prevent other pain messages from passing through. less pain you experience (Vallerand, Saunders, & Anthony,
Alternatively, pain messages may relay through a “central biasing
mechanism” that exerts control over the gate, closing it to other 2007). To apply this principle, you might arrange a signal
impulses. so your doctor, dentist, or body piercer will know when to
start and stop a painful procedure. Finally, distraction also
chronic pain. Studies have shown that acupuncture produc- reduces pain. Instead of listening to the whirr of a dentist’s
es short-term pain relief (Hopton, Thomas, & MacPherson, drill, for example, you could imagine that you are lying in
2013; Witt et al., 2011). (However, its ability to cure illness is the sun at a beach, listening to the roar of the surf. Or take an
much more debatable.) iPod along and crank up your favorite MP3 tunes (Bushnell,
Villemure, & Duncan, 2004). At home, music also can be
Pain Control Gate con-
a good distractor from chronic pain (Mitchell et al., 2007).
trol theory also helps ex-
plain counterirritation, Phantom Limb Pain and the Neuromatrix Gate
one widely used pain- control theory, however, cannot explain phantom limb sen-
control technique. Pain sations, including pain, for months or years after losing a
clinics use it by applying a limb (Longo, Long, & Haggard, 2012; Murray et al., 2007).
mild electrical current to Because the phantom limb feels so “real,” a patient with a
the skin. This causes only recently amputated leg may inadvertently try to walk on it,
a mild tingling, but it can risking further injury. Sometimes phantom limbs feel like
greatly reduce more ago- they are stuck in awkward positions. For instance, one man
iStockphoto.com/RuslanDashinsky

nizing pain (Köke et al., can’t fall asleep on his back because his missing arm feels
2004). For more extreme like it is twisted behind him.
pain, the electrical current What causes the experience of phantom limbs? Gate con-
can be applied directly to trol theory cannot explain phantom limb pain because pain
the spinal cord (Linderoth can’t be coming from the missing limb (after all, it’s miss-
& Foreman, 2006). ing!) and, therefore, cannot pass through pain gates to the
Thin, stainless steel needles
are inserted into areas identified
You can use counter- brain (Hunter, Katz, & Davis, 2003). Instead, according to
by ancient Chinese medicine. irritation to control your Ronald Melzack (Melzack, 1999; Melzack & Katz, 2006),
Modern research has begun to own pain (Schmelz, 2010). over time, the brain creates a body image called the neuro-
explain the painkilling effects
For instance, if you are matrix. This internal model of the body generates our sense
of acupuncture. Acupuncture’s
claimed ability to cure diseases is having a tooth filled, try of bodily self. Although amputation may remove a limb, it
more debatable. scratching or pinching still exists as far as the neuromatrix is concerned.

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 MODU LE 1 9 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: th e n o nvi S ual S e n S eS 165

In fact, amputees dream of intact, fully functional limbs

without any phantom limb experiences. Evidently, during Inner Ear

sleep, sensory inputs from the area of the missing limb are
suppressed. In contrast, when amputees are awake, sensory
inputs from the area of the missing limb conflict with the Ampulla Enlarged
and Opened
neuromatrix, which interprets the conflict as a phantom
limb, complete with phantom limb pain (Alessandria et al., Fluid Crista
Semicircular canals
2011; Giummarra et al., 2007). Functional magnetic reso-
nance imaging (fMRI) confirms that sensory and motor ar-
eas of the brain are more active when a person feels a phan- Nerve fibers
tom limb (MacIver et al., 2008).
Sometimes the brain gradually reorganizes to adjust
for the sensory loss (Schmalzl et al., 2011). For example, a Ampullae
person who loses an arm first may sense a phantom arm Otolith
and hand. After many years, the phantom may shrink, until organs
only a hand is felt at the shoulder. Perhaps more vividly than Cochlea
others, people with phantom limbs are reminded that the ➤ Figure 19.11
sensory world that we experience is constructed, moment The vestibular system.
by moment, by our own brain activity.
Within the vestibular system, fluid-filled sacs called otolith
The Vestibular System (OH-toe-lith) organs are sensitive to movement, accelera-
Although space flight might look like fun, the likelihood tion, and gravity (➤ Figure 19.11). The otolith organs con-
of you throwing up during your first experience in orbit is tain tiny crystals in a soft, gelatinlike mass. The tug of grav-
about 70 percent. ity or rapid head movements can cause the mass to shift.
Why? Weightlessness and space flight affect the ves- This, in turn, stimulates hairlike receptor cells, allowing us
tibular system, which often causes severe motion sickness. to sense gravity, acceleration, and movement through space
(Lackner & DiZio, 2005).
Three fluid-filled tubes—called the semicircular
canals—are the sensory organs for balance. If you could
climb inside these tubes, you would find that head move-
ments cause the fluid to swirl about. As the fluid moves, it
bends a small “flap,” or “float,” called the crista, that detects
movement in the semicircular canals. The bending of each
crista again stimulates hair cells and signals head rotation.
What causes motion sickness? According to sensory
conflict theory, dizziness and nausea occur when sensa-
tions from the vestibular system don’t match sensations
from the eyes and body (Holly & Harmon, 2012). On solid
ground, information from the vestibular system, vision, and
NASA

kinesthesis usually matches. However, in a heaving, pitching

Weightlessness presents astronauts with a real challenge in boat, car, or airplane, or even playing a video game, a serious
sensory adaptation. In 2007, world-famous physicist Stephen
mismatch can occur—causing disorientation and heaving of
Hawking, who suffers from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, or
Lou Gehrig’s disease), fulfilled a lifelong dream of experiencing another kind (Chang et al., 2012).
weightlessness. He took a flight on the “Weightless Wonder,”
the official nickname that the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) gives to the high-flying airplane that Sensory conflict theory A theory explaining motion sickness as the
provides short periods of weightlessness to train astronauts. (Its result of a mismatch among information from vision, the vestibu-
unofficial nickname, which stems from its unfortunate side effects, lar system, and kinesthesis.
is the “Vomit Comet.”)

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166 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

Why does sensory conflict cause nausea? You can reaction, however, may be little comfort to anyone who
probably thank (or blame) evolution. Many poisons dis- has ever been “green” and miserable with motion sick-
turb the vestibular system, vision, and the body. There- ness. To minimize such conflicts, try to keep your head
fore, we may have evolved so that we react to sensory still, fix your vision on a distant immobile object, and lie
conflict by vomiting to expel poison. The value of this down if you can.

MODULE

19 Summary
19.1 What are the mechanisms of hearing? 19.3 What are the somesthetic senses?
19.1.1 Sound waves are the stimulus for hearing. They are 19.3.1 The somesthetic senses include the skin senses, ves-
amplified and directed by the eardrum, auditory tibular senses, and kinesthetic senses (receptors that
ossicles, and oval window to the cochlea, where they detect muscle and joint positioning).
are transduced by the hair cells. 19.3.2 The skin senses are touch, pressure, pain, cold,
19.1.2 Frequency theory explains how we hear tones up to and warmth. Sensitivity to each is related to the num-
4,000 hertz; place theory explains it for tones above ber of receptors found in an area of skin.
4,000 hertz. 19.3.3 Distinctions can be made between warning pain and
19.1.3 Two basic types of hearing loss are conductive reminding pain.
hearing loss and sensorineural hearing loss. Noise- 19.3.4 Selective gating of pain messages takes place in the
induced hearing loss is a common form of sensori- spinal cord, as explained by gate control theory. Gate
neural hearing loss caused by exposure to loud noise. control theory also explains acupuncture and why
pain can be reduced through counterirritation and by
19.2 How do the chemical senses operate?
controlling anxiety and attention.
19.2.1 Olfaction (smell) and gustation (taste) are chemical 19.3.5 Phantom limb pain cannot be explained by gate con-
senses that respond to airborne or liquefied molecules. trol theory; instead the neuromatrix, a brain-based
19.2.2 The lock-and-key theory of olfaction partially explains body image, may be the cause.
smell. In addition, the location of the olfactory recep- 19.3.6 According to sensory conflict theory, motion sick-
tors in the nose helps identify various scents. ness is caused by a mismatch of visual, kinesthetic,
19.2.3 There are five basic tastes: sweet, salt, sour, bitter, and and vestibular sensations. Motion sickness can be
umami. Sweet, bitter, and umami tastes are based on avoided by minimizing sensory conflict.
a lock-and-key coding of molecule shapes. Salty and
sour tastes are triggered by a direct flow of ions into
taste receptors.

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 MODU LE 1 9 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: th e n o nvi S ual S e n S eS 167

Knowledge Builder Sensation and Perception: The Nonvisual Senses

Recite 9. Drivers are less likely to become carsick than passengers.

Why do you think that drivers and passengers differ in
1. The frequency of a sound wave corresponds to how loud
susceptibility to motion sickness?
it is. T or F?
2. Sensorineural hearing loss occurs when the auditory os- Self-Reflect
sicles are damaged. T or F?
Close your eyes and listen to the sounds around you. As you
3. Daily exposure to sounds with a loudness of _______
do, try to mentally trace the events necessary to convert vibra-
decibels may cause permanent hearing loss.
tions in the air into the sounds that you hear.
4. Olfaction appears to be at least partially explained by the
What is your favorite food aroma? What is your favorite
____________ _____________ ______________ theory
taste? Explain how you are able to sense the aroma and taste
of molecule shapes and receptor sites.
of foods.
5. Which of the following is a somesthetic sense?
Stand on one foot with your eyes closed. Now touch the tip
a. gustation
of your nose with your index finger. Which of the somesthetic
b. olfaction
senses did you use to perform this feat?
c. rarefaction
Imagine you are on a boat ride with a friend who starts to feel
d. kinesthesis
queasy. What would you explain to your friend about the causes
6. Warning pain is carried by ______________ nerve
of motion sickness and what she or he can do to prevent it?
fibers.
7. Head movements are detected primarily in the semicir-
AN SW E R S
cular canals and gravity by the otolith organs. T or F? and to coordinate their head and eye movements with those of the car.
trol the car’s motion. This allows them to anticipate the car’s movements
Reflect of your skull. 9. Drivers experience less sensory conflict because they con-

Think critically
You hear not only that sound but also vibrations conducted by the bones
cochlea? Other people hear your voice only as it is carried through the air.
8. Why do you think your voice sounds so different to you another question: how else might vibrations from the voice reach the
when you hear a recording of your speech? 1. F 2. F 3. 85 4. lock-and-key 5. d 6. large 7. T 8. The answer lies in

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MODULE

20 Sensation and Perception

Perceptual Processes

Is That a Deer?
While driving at night, a woman slams on her brakes to avoid
hitting a deer. As she skids to a stop, she realizes that the “deer”
is actually a bush on the roadside. Such misperceptions are
common. The brain must continuously find patterns in a wel-
ter of sensations. If you look closely at this photomosaic by

Joe Sohm/Visions of America, LLC/Alamy Stock Photo

Robert Silver, you may see that it is made up entirely of small
individual photos. An infant or newly sighted person looking
closely at the same photomosaic might well see only a jumble
of meaningless colors. But because the photos form a familiar
pattern, you should easily see the Statue of Liberty.
How do we organize sensations into perceptions? Visu-
al perception involves finding meaningful patterns in com-
plex stimuli. Our brain creates our perceptions by using grouping and perceptual constancies to help us make sense
preexisting knowledge such as the principles of perceptual out of sensations.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
20.1 In general, how do we construct our perceptions? 20.2 How is it possible to see depth and judge distance?

Perception—The Second Step

Survey Question 20.1 In general, how do we construct our
perceptions?
Mr. S. B. soon learned to tell time from a large clock
Aren’t you born with the ability to create perceptions out of and to read block letters that he previously had known
sensations? Imagine what it would be like to have your vision only from touch. At a zoo, he recognized an elephant
restored after a lifetime of blindness. Actually, a first look from descriptions that he had heard. However, handwrit-
at the world could be disappointing because the newfound ing meant nothing to him for more than a year after he
ability to sense (see) the world does not guarantee that it can regained sight, and many objects were meaningless until
be perceived. Newly sighted persons must learn to identify he touched them. Thus, Mr. S. B. slowly learned to or-
objects, to read clocks, numbers, and letters, and to judge ganize his sensations into meaningful perceptions. Cases
sizes and distances. For instance, Mr. S. B. was a cataract such as those of Mr. S. B. show that your experiences are
patient who had been blind since birth. After an operation perceptual constructions, or mental models of external
finally restored his sight at age 52, Mr. S. B. struggled to use events, that are actively created by your brain (Goldstein &
his vision (Gregory, 2003). Brockmole, 2017).
168
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 MODU LE 20 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: P e r c e Ptual P r o c eS S eS 169

Peephole

Phil Schermeister/Corbis
➤ Figure 20.1
The Ames room. From the front, the room looks normal; in reality, the right corner is very short, and the left corner is very tall. In addition,
the left side of the room slants away from viewers. The diagram shows the shape of the room and reveals why people appear to get bigger
as they cross the room toward the nearer, shorter right corner.

While the brain automatically and continuously seeks a box, we habitually construct perceptions based on this
meaningful patterns in a welter of sensations, it cannot assumption. This need not be true, however. An Ames room
possibly “get it right” all the time. Perceptual misconstruc- is a lopsided space that appears square when viewed from a
tions happen often. Sometimes they are mundane, such as certain angle (➤ Figure 20.1). This illusion is achieved by
misperceiving a deer while driving at night. Sometimes they carefully distorting the proportions of the walls, floor, ceil-
are more dramatic. For example, one of your authors was ing, and windows. Because the left corner of the Ames room
once approached in a supermarket by a young girl scream- is farther from a viewer than the right, a person standing in
ing, “Help! Someone is killing my father.” He followed her to that corner looks very small; one standing in the nearer,
see two men struggling. The guy on top had his victim by the shorter right corner looks very large. A person who walks
throat. Blood was everywhere. It was a murder in progress! from the left to the right corner will seem to “magically”
Soon, however, it turned out that the “guy on the bottom” grow larger.
had passed out, hit his head, and was bleeding. The “guy on Notice that illusions are distorted perceptions of stimuli
top” saw the first man fall and was loosening his collar. that actually exist. In a hallucination, people perceive
Obviously, the girl misperceived what was happening to objects or events that have no external reality (Moseley,
her father. Because of the dramatic influence of her words, Fernyhough, & Ellison, 2013). For example, they hear voices
so did your author. As this story shows, sensory information that are not there (Plaze et al., 2011). If you think that you
can be interpreted in various ways. The girl’s description are experiencing an illusion or a hallucination, try engaging
completely shaped his own initial perceptions. This perhaps in some reality testing.
is understandable. But he’ll never forget the added shock
Reality Testing What do you mean by reality testing? In
that he felt when he met the “murderer.” The man whom
any situation having an element of doubt or uncertainty,
he had seen a few moments before as vicious and horrible-
reality testing involves obtaining additional information
looking was not even a stranger. He was a neighbor whom
to check your perceptions (Landa et al., 2006). To detect
your author had seen dozens of times before. Clearly, we
an illusion, you may have to measure a drawing or apply
don’t just believe what we see. We also see what we believe.

Illusions Perceptual construction A mental model of external events.

Perceptual misconstruction is responsible for many illu- Illusion A misleading or misconstructed perception.
sions. In an illusion, length, position, motion, curvature, Hallucination Perception with no basis in reality.
Reality testing Obtaining additional information to check on the
or direction is misjudged consistently. For example, be- accuracy of perceptions.
cause we have seen thousands of rooms shaped roughly like

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170 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

a straightedge to it. ➤ Figure 20.2 shows a powerful il- Curiously, “sane hallucinations” also occur. Charles Bonnet
lusion called Fraser’s spiral. What appears to be a spiral syndrome is a rare condition that afflicts mainly older people
is actually made of a series of closed circles. Most people who are partially blind, but not mentally disturbed (Hughes,
cannot see this reality spontaneously. Instead, they must 2013). Animals, buildings, plants, people, and other objects
trace one of the circles carefully to confirm what is “real” may seem to appear and disappear before their eyes. One older
in the design. man suffering from partial blindness and leukemia complained
Even hallucinations can be confronted through reality of seeing animals in his house, including cattle and bears
testing. In contrast with illusions, hallucinations are a major (Jacob et al., 2004). However, people experiencing sane halluci-
symptom of psychosis, dementia, epilepsy, migraines, alco- nations can more easily tell that their hallucinations aren’t real
hol withdrawal, and drug intoxication (Plaze et al., 2011). because their capacity for reality testing is not impaired.
They also are one of the clearest signs that a person has “lost Such unusual experiences show how powerfully the
touch with reality.” Even so, if you think you see a 3-foot-tall brain seeks meaningful patterns in sensory input and the
butterfly, you can confirm that you are hallucinating by try- role that reality testing plays in our normal perceptual expe-
ing to touch its wings. rience. Let’s explore the process of perceptual construction
This is precisely what mathematician John Nash did and some factors that shape or even distort it.
(Nash was the subject of A Beautiful Mind, the winner of
the 2002 Oscar for best film). Even though Nash suffered Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing
from schizophrenia, he eventually learned to use his reality
Moment by moment, our perceptions are typically con-
testing to sort out which of his experiences were perceptions
structed in both bottom-up and top-down fashion. Think
and which were hallucinations. Unlike John Nash, however,
about the process of building a house: Raw materials, such
most people who experience full-blown hallucinations also
as lumber, doors, tiles, carpets, screws, and nails, must be
have a limited ability to engage in reality testing (Hohwy &
painstakingly fitted together. At the same time, a building
Rosenberg, 2005).
plan guides how the raw materials are assembled.
Our brain builds perceptions in similar ways. In bottom-
up processing, we start constructing at the “bottom” with
raw materials—that is, we begin with small sensory units
(features) and build upward to a complete perception. The
reverse also occurs. In top-down processing, prior knowl-
edge or expectations are used to rapidly guide the percep-
tion of meaningful wholes (Goldstein & Brockmole, 2017).
If you put together a picture puzzle that you’ve never seen
before, you are relying mainly on bottom-up processing:
You must assemble small pieces until a recognizable pattern
begins to emerge. Top-down processing is like putting to-
gether a puzzle that you have solved many times: after only
a few pieces are in place, your past experience gives you the
plan to quickly fill in the final picture.
Both types of processing are illustrated by ➤ Figure 20.3.
© David Spieth/Shutterstock.com

Also, look ahead to Figure 20.6. The first time that you see
this photo, you will probably process it from the bottom-up,
picking out features until it becomes recognizable. The next
time you see it, because of top-down processing, you should
recognize it instantly.
➤ Figure 20.2 Two excellent examples of top-down perceptual con-
The limits of pure perception. Even simple designs are easily struction are found in the Gestalt organizing principles
misperceived. Fraser’s spiral is actually a series of concentric
and the perceptual constancies. Without these abilities, we
circles. The illusion is so powerful that even people who try to trace
one of the circles sometimes follow the illusory spiral and jump from would have a much harder time making perceptual sense
one circle to the next. out of our sensations.

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 MODU LE 20 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: P e r c e Ptual P r o c eS S eS 171

➤ Figure 20.4
The Rubin vase. Do you see two faces in profile, or a vase?

& Hayden, 2008). Thus, if three people stand near each

other and a fourth person stands 10 feet away, the adja-
cent three will be seen as a group and the distant person
➤ Figure 20.3
as an outsider (see Figure 20.5a).
Bottom-up vs. top-down processing. Check out this abstract
design. If you process it “bottom-up,” likely all that you will see are 2. Similarity. “Birds of a feather flock together,” and stim-
three small, dark, geometric shapes near the edges. Would you like uli that are similar in size, shape, color, or form tend
to try some top-down processing? Knowing the title of the design to be grouped together (see Figure 20.5b). Picture two
will help you apply your knowledge and see it in an entirely different
way. The title? It’s Special K. Can you see it now?
bands marching side by side. If their uniforms are dif-
ferent colors, the bands will be seen as two separate
groups, not as one large group.
Gestalt Organizing Principles 3. Continuation, or continuity. Perceptions tend toward
How are sensations organized into perceptions? The Gestalt simplicity and continuity. In Figure 20.5c, it is easier to
psychologists (see Module 3 for a brief history of Gestalt psy- visualize a wavy line on a squared-off line than it is to
chology) proposed that the simplest organization involves see a complex row of shapes.
grouping some sensations into an object, or figure, that 4. Closure. Closure refers to the tendency to complete a
stands out against a plainer background. Figure-ground figure so that it has a consistent overall form. Each of the
organization is probably inborn because it is the first per- drawings in Figure 20.5d has one or more gaps, yet each
ceptual ability to appear after cataract patients like Mr. S. B. is perceived as a recognizable figure. The “shapes” that
regain sight. In normal figure-ground perception, only one appear in the two drawings on the right in Figure 20.5d
figure is easily seen. In reversible figures, however, figure and are illusory figures (implied shapes that are not bounded
ground can be switched. In ➤ Figure 20.4, it is equally pos- by an edge or an outline). Even young children see these
sible to see either a wineglass on a dark background or two shapes, even though they know that they are “not really
facial profiles on a light background. As you shift from one
pattern to the other, you should get a clear sense of what Bottom-up processing Organizing perceptions by beginning with
figure-ground organization means. low-level features.
The Gestalt psychologists identified several other princi- Top-down processing Perception guided by prior knowledge or
expectations.
ples that bring some order to your perceptions (➤ Figure 20.5): Figure-ground organization Organizing a perception so that part
of a stimulus appears to stand out as an object (figure) against a
1. Nearness. All other things equal, stimuli that are near
less prominent background (ground).
each other tend to be grouped together (Quinn, Bhatt,

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172 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

(a) Principle of nearness

Notice how differently a group of six
objects can be perceptually organized,
depending on their spacing.

(b) Principle of similarity

In these examples, organization
.
depends on similarity of color

Similarity and nearness can

be combined to produce a
new organization.

(c) Principle of continuity

This?
plus
or
This?

(d) Principle of closure

(e) Principle of common region

➤ Figure 20.5
Some Gestalt organizing principles.

there.” Illusory figures reveal that our tendency to form

shapes—even with minimal cues—is powerful. the movements of his visible hand. This leads to the
irresistible perception that his head is made of wood.
5. Common region. As you can see in Figure 20.5e, stimuli
that are found within a common area tend to be seen as Clearly, the Gestalt principles offer us some basic
a group (Palmer & Beck, 2007). On the basis of similar- “plans” for organizing parts of our day-to-day perceptions
ity and nearness, the stars in Figure 20.5e should be one in top-down fashion. Take a moment and look for the cam-
group and the dots another. However, the colored back- ouflaged creature pictured in ➤ Figure 20.6 (no, it’s not a
grounds define regions that create three groups of objects green vine snake). Because camouflage patterns break up
(four stars, two stars plus two dots, and four dots). figure-ground organization, Mr. S. B. would have been at a
6. Contiguity. A principle that can’t be shown in total loss to find meaning in such a picture.
Figure 20.5 is contiguity, or nearness in time and space. In a way, we are all detectives seeking patterns in what
Contiguity often is responsible for the perception that we see. In this sense, a meaningful pattern represents a
one thing has caused another (Buehner & May, 2003). perceptual hypothesis, or an initial plan or guess about
A psychologist friend of ours demonstrates this prin- how to organize sensations. Have you ever seen a “friend” in
ciple in class by knocking on his head with one hand the distance, only to have the person turn into a stranger as
while knocking on a wooden table (out of sight) with you drew closer? Preexisting ideas and expectations actively
the other. The knocking sound is perfectly timed with guide our interpretation of sensations (Intaitė et al., 2013).

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 MODU LE 20 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: P e r c e Ptual P r o c eS S eS 173

➤ Figure 20.8

© Dr. Morley Read/Shutterstock.com

An impossible figure. The “three-pronged widget.”

In some instances, a stimulus may offer such conflicting

information that perceptual organization becomes impossi-
ble. For example, the tendency to make a three-dimensional
(3-D) object out of a drawing is frustrated by the “three-
➤ Figure 20.6
pronged widget” (➤ Figure 20.8), an impossible figure. Such
A challenging example of perceptual organization. Once the
camouflaged insect (known as a leaf mimic katydid) becomes patterns cannot be organized into stable, consistent, or
visible, it is almost impossible to view the picture again without meaningful perceptions. If you cover either end of the draw-
seeing the insect. Go ahead, try! ing in Figure 20.8, it makes sense perceptually. However, a
problem arises when you try to organize the entire drawing.
Then, the conflicting information that it contains prevents
The active, constructive nature of perception is perhaps
you from constructing a stable perception.
most apparent for ambiguous stimuli (patterns allowing
Learning to organize his visual sensations was only one
more than one interpretation). If you look at a cloud, you
of the hurdles that Mr. S. B. faced in learning to see. In the
may discover dozens of ways to organize its contours into
next section, we consider some others.
fanciful shapes and scenes. Even clearly defined stimuli may
permit more than one interpretation. Look at the Necker Perceptual Constancies
cube in ➤ Figure 20.7 if you doubt that perception is an
When Mr. S. B. first regained his vision, he could judge dis-
active process. Visualize the top cube as a wire box. If you
tance only in familiar situations (Gregory, 1990). One day,
stare at the cube, its organization will change. Sometimes it
he was found crawling out of a hospital window to get a
will seem to project upward, like the lower-left cube; other
closer look at traffic on the street. It’s easy to understand his
times it will project downward. The difference lies in how
curiosity, but he had to be restrained—his room was on the
your brain interprets the same information. To reiterate, we
fourth floor!
actively construct meaningful perceptions; we do not pas-
Why would Mr. S. B. try to crawl out of a fourth-story
sively record the events and stimuli around us (Intaitė et al.,
window? Couldn’t he at least tell distance from the size of the
2013; Rolls, 2008).
cars? No. You must be visually familiar with objects to use
their size to judge distance. Try holding your left hand a few
inches in front of your nose and your right hand at arm’s
length. Your right hand should appear to be about half the
size of your left hand. Still, you know that your right hand
did not suddenly shrink because you have seen it many
times, at various distances. We call this size constancy: The
perceived size of an object remains the same, even though
the size of its image on the retina changes (Wagner, 2012).

Perceptual hypothesis An initial guess regarding how to organize

(perceive) a stimulus pattern.
Size constancy The principle that the perceived size of an object
➤ Figure 20.7
remains constant, despite changes in its retinal image.
The Necker cube.

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174 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

➤ Figure 20.9
Shape constancy. (a) When a door is

© Nada’s Images/Shutterstock.com
open, its image actually forms a trapezoid.
Shape constancy is indicated by the fact
that it is still perceived as a rectangle. (b)
With great effort, you may be able to see
this design as a collection of flat shapes.
However, if you maintain shape constancy,
the distorted squares strongly suggest the
surface of a sphere. (a) (b)

To perceive your hand accurately, you had to draw on adding to the accident rate among drunk drivers (Goldstein
past experience to provide a top-down plan for constructing & Brockmole, 2017).
your perception. Some of these plans are so basic that they Let’s say that you are outside in bright sunlight. Beside
seem native, or inborn. An example is the ability to see a line you, a friend is wearing a gray skirt and a white blouse.
on a piece of paper. Likewise, even newborn babies show Suddenly a cloud shades the sun. It might seem that the
some evidence of size constancy (Granrud, 2006). However, blouse would grow dimmer, but it still appears to be bright
many of our perceptions are empirical, or based on prior white. This happens because the blouse continues to reflect
experience. For instance, cars, houses, and people look like a greater proportion of light than nearby objects. Bright-
toys when seen from a great distance or from an unfamiliar ness constancy refers to the fact that the relative brightness
perspective, such as from the top of a skyscraper. This sug- of objects appears to stay the same as lighting conditions
gests that although some size constancy is innate, it also is change. However, this holds true only if the blouse and oth-
affected by learning (Granrud, 2009). er objects are all illuminated by the same amount of light.
In shape constancy, the shape of an object remains You could make an area on your friend’s gray skirt look
stable, even though the shape of its retinal image changes. whiter than the shaded blouse by shining a bright spotlight
You can demonstrate shape constancy by looking at this on the skirt.
page from directly overhead and then from an angle. Obvi- To summarize, the energy patterns reaching our senses
ously, the page is rectangular, but most of the images that change constantly, even when they come from the same ob-
reach your eyes are distorted. Yet though the book’s im- ject. Size, shape, and brightness constancy rescue us from a
age changes, your perception of its shape remains constant confusing world in which objects would seem to shrink and
(for additional examples, see ➤ Figure 20.9). On the high- grow, change shape as if made of rubber, and light up or fade
way, alcohol intoxication impairs size and shape constancy, like neon lamps.

Depth Perception—What If the World Were Flat?

Survey Question 20.2 How is it possible to see depth and
hold your head very still, and stare at a single point across
judge distance?
the room. Your surroundings may appear to be almost flat,
One particularly interesting example of perceptual con- like a two-dimensional (2-D) painting or photograph. This
struction is the brain’s ability to construct a 3-D experience is the world that neuroscientist Susan Barry, cross-eyed
of the world around us (Howard, 2012). Cross your eyes, from birth, lived with until, at the age of 48, she learned to

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 MODU LE 20 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: P e r c e Ptual P r o c eS S eS 175

Glass over
Glass only patterned surface

Deep side Shallow side

Mark Richards/PhotoEdit

Floor pattern
seen through
glass

➤ Figure 20.10
The visual cliff. Human infants and newborn animals refuse to go over the edge of the visual cliff.

see in 3-D (Barry & Sacks, 2009). Now, uncross your eyes. suggesting that it depends on both brain maturation and in-
Suddenly, the 3-D perceptual world returns. What mecha- dividual experience (Nawrot, Mayo, & Nawrot, 2009).
nisms underlie our ability to perceive depth and space? But don’t some older babies crawl off tables or beds? Why
Depth perception is the ability to see space and to would that happen? As soon as infants become active crawl-
accurately judge distances. Without 3-D depth perception, a ers, they refuse to cross the deep side of the visual cliff. How-
form of perceptual construction, the world would look like ever, older infants who have just learned to walk must relearn
a flat surface. You would have great difficulty driving a car to avoid the “deep” side of the visual cliff (Witherington et
or riding a bicycle, shooting baskets, threading a needle, or al., 2005). Besides, even babies who perceive depth may not
simply navigating a room (Harris & Jenkin, 2011). be able to catch themselves if they slip. A lack of coordina-
Mr. S. B. had trouble with depth perception after his sight tion—not an inability to see depth—probably explains most
was restored. Is depth perception learned? Studies done with “crash landings” after about 4 months of age.
a visual cliff suggest that depth perception is partly learned We learn to construct our perception of 3-D space by in-
and partly innate (Witherington et al., 2005). Basically, tegrating information from a variety of depth cues (Schiller
a visual cliff is a glass-topped table (➤ Figure 20.10). On et al., 2011). Depth cues are features of the environment
one side, a checkered surface lies directly beneath the glass. and messages from the body that supply information about
On the other side, the checkered surface is 4 feet below the distance and space. Some cues require two eyes (binocu-
tabletop. This makes the glass look like a tabletop on one lar depth cues), whereas others will work with just one eye
side and a cliff, or drop-off, on the other. (monocular depth cues).
To test for depth perception, 6- to 14-month-old
infants were placed in the middle of the visual cliff. This
gave them a choice of crawling to the shallow side or the Shape constancy The principle that the perceived shape of an object
deep side. (The glass prevented them from doing any “sky- is unaffected by changes in its retinal image.
Brightness constancy The principle that the apparent (or relative)
diving” if they chose the deep side.) Most infants chose brightness of objects remains the same, so long as they are illumi-
the shallow side. In fact, most refused the deep side even nated by the same amount of light.
when their mothers tried to call them toward it (Gibson Depth perception The ability to see 3-D space and to judge dis-
tances accurately.
& Walk, 1960).
Depth cues Features of the environment and messages from the
More recent research has shown that depth perception body that supply information about distance and space.
begins to develop as early as 2 weeks of age (Yonas, Elieff, & Binocular depth cues Perceptual features that impart information
Arterberry, 2002). It is very likely that at least a basic level about distance and 3-D space that require two eyes.
Monocular depth cues Perceptual features that impart information
of depth perception is innate. Yet the development of depth about distance and 3-D space that require just one eye.
perception is not complete until about 6 months of age,

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176 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

➤ Figure 20.11
Stereoscopic vision. (a) The geometry of
stereoscopic vision. (b) The photographs show what
the right and left eyes would see when viewing this
person. Hold the page about 6 to 8 inches from
your eyes. Allow your eyes to cross and focus on
the overlapping image between the two photos.
Then try to fuse the person into one image. If you
Stereoscopic: optic nerve Binocular: both eyes Allows depth perception are successful, the third dimension will appear like
transmissions from each eye are have overlapping with accurate distance magic.
relayed to both sides of brain fields of vision estimation
(a)

tached to the eyeball feed information on eye position to the

brain to help it judge distance (➤ Figure 20.12).
You can feel convergence by exaggerating it: Focus on
your fingertip and bring it toward your eyes until they almost
cross. You can feel the muscles that control eye movement
working harder and harder as your fingertip gets closer.
Can a person with one eye perceive depth? Yes, but not
nearly as well as a person with two eyes. Try driving a car or
© MarcelClemens/Shutterstock.com

riding a bicycle with one eye closed (not for long, please).
You will find yourself braking too soon or too late, and you
will have difficulty estimating your speed. (“But officer, my
psychology text said to. . . .”) Despite this, you will be able
to drive, although it will be more difficult than usual. You
can drive because your single eye can still use monocular
(b) depth cues.

Monocular Depth cues

Binocular Depth cues As their name implies, monocular depth cues can be per-
The most basic source of depth perception is retinal ceived with just one eye. One such cue is accommodation,
disparity (the difference between the images projected onto bending of the lens to focus on nearby objects. Sensations
each eye). Retinal disparity is based on the fact that the eyes from muscles attached to each lens flow back to the brain.
are about 2.5 inches apart. Because of this, each eye receives Changes in these sensations help us judge distances within
a slightly different view of the world. Try this: Put a finger in
front of your eyes and as close to your nose as you can. First,
close one eye and then the other, over and over again. You
should notice that your finger seems to jump back and forth
as you view the different images reaching each eye. How-
ever, when the two different images are fused into one over-
all image, stereoscopic vision (3-D sight) occurs (Harris &
Jenkin, 2011). The result is a powerful sensation of depth
➤ Figure 20.11).
Convergence, the degree to which the eyes turn in to fo-
cus on a close object, is a second binocular depth cue. When
you look at a distant object, the lines of vision from your
eyes are almost parallel. You normally are not aware of it,
➤ Figure 20.12
but whenever you estimate a distance under 50 feet (as when
Convergence. The eyes must converge, or turn in toward the
you play catch or shoot trash can hoops with the first draft nose, to focus on close objects. The eyes shown here are viewed
of your essay), you are using convergence. How? Muscles at- from above the head.

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 MODU LE 20 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: P e r c e Ptual P r o c eS S eS 177

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

➤ Figure 20.13
Pictorial depth cues. (a) Linear perspective. (b) Relative size. (c) Light and shadow. (d) Overlap. (e) Texture gradients. Drawings in the top
row show fairly “pure” examples of each pictorial depth cue. In the bottom row, the pictorial depth cues are used to assemble a more realistic
scene.

about 4 feet of the eyes. This information is available even if rapidly changing the image size of planets, airplanes,
you are using only one eye, so accommodation is a monocu- monsters, or what have you.
lar cue. Beyond 4 feet, accommodation has limited value. 3. Height in the plane. Objects that are placed higher
Obviously, accommodation is more important to a watch- (i.e., closer to the horizon line) in a drawing tend to be
maker or a person trying to thread a needle than it is to a perceived as more distant. In the upper frame of Figure
basketball player or someone driving an automobile. Other 20.13b, the black columns look like they are receding
monocular depth cues are referred to as pictorial depth cues into the distance partly because they become smaller
because a good movie, painting, or photograph can create a but also because they move higher in the drawing.
convincing sense of depth where none exists. 4. Light and shadow. Most objects are lighted in ways that
How is the illusion of depth created on a 2-D surface? create clear patterns of light and shadow. Copying such
Pictorial depth cues are features found in paintings, draw- patterns of light and shadow can give a 2-D design a 3-D
ings, and photographs that impart information about space, appearance (see ➤ Figure 20.13c). (Also, look ahead
depth, and distance. To understand how these cues work, to ➤ Figure 20.14 for more information on light and
imagine that you are looking outdoors through a window. If shadow.)
you trace everything you see onto the glass, you will have an 5. Overlap. Overlap (or interposition) occurs when one
excellent drawing, with convincing depth. If you then ana- object partially blocks another object. Hold your hands
lyze what is on the glass, you will find the following features: up and ask a friend across the room which is nearer.
1. Linear perspective. This cue is based on the apparent Relative size will give the answer if one hand is much
convergence of parallel lines in the environment. If you
stand between two railroad tracks, they appear to meet Retinal disparity Difference between the images projected onto
near the horizon, even though they actually remain par- each eye.
allel. Because you know that they are parallel, their con- Stereoscopic vision Perception of space and depth as a result of
each eye receiving different images.
vergence implies great distance (➤ Figure 20.13a). Convergence Degree to which the eyes turn in to focus on a close
2. Relative size. If an artist wants to depict two objects of object.
the same size at different distances, the artist makes the Pictorial depth cues Monocular depth cues found in paintings,
drawings, and photographs that impart information about space,
more distant object smaller (➤ Figure 20.13b). Special depth, and distance.
effects in films create sensational illusions of depth by

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178 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

➤ Figure 20.14
Shading and depth. (Left) When judging depth, we usually assume that
light comes mainly from one direction, usually from above. Squint a little

The M. C. Escher Company BV

to blur the image that you see here. You should perceive a collection of
globes projecting outward. If you turn this page upside down, the globes
should become cavities. (After Ramachandran, 1995.) (Right) The famed
Dutch artist M. C. Escher violated our assumptions about light to create
the dramatic illusions of depth found in his 1953 lithograph Relativity,
shown here. In this print, light appears to come from all sides of the scene.

nearer to your friend than the other. But if one hand is Is motion parallax really a pictorial cue? Strictly speak-
only slightly closer than the other, your friend may not be ing it is not, except in the world of 2-D movies, television,
able to tell—until you slide one hand in front of the other. or animated cartoons. However, when parallax is present, we
Overlap then removes any doubt (see ➤ Figure 20.13d). almost always perceive depth (Yoonessi & Baker, 2011). Much
6. Texture gradients. Changes in texture also contrib- of the apparent depth in movies comes from relative motion
ute to depth perception. If you stand in the middle of captured by the camera. ➤ Figure 20.15 illustrates the defin-
a cobblestone street, the street looks coarse near your ing feature of motion parallax. Imagine that you are on a bus
feet. However, its texture will get smaller and finer as and watching the passing scenery (with your gaze at a right
you look into the distance (see ➤ Figure 20.13e).
7. Aerial perspective. Smog, fog, dust, and haze add to Table 20.1 Summary of visual depth cues
the apparent distance of an object. Because of aerial Binocular Depth Cues
perspective, distant objects tend to be hazy, washed out
in color, and lacking in detail. Aerial haze is often most ◗ Retinal disparity
noticeable when it is missing. If you have ever seen a ◗ Convergence
distant mountain range on a crystal-clear day, it might
Monocular Depth Cues
have looked like it was only a few miles away. In reality,
you could have been viewing the mountains through ◗ Accommodation
50 miles of crystal-clear air. ◗ Pictorial depth cues (listed below)
8. Relative motion. Relative motion, also known as
Linear perspective
motion parallax (PAIR-ah-lax), can be seen by looking
out a window and moving your head from side to side. Relative size
Notice that nearby objects appear to move a sizable dis- Height in the picture plane
tance as your head moves. Trees, houses, and telephone
poles that are farther away appear to move slightly in Light and shadow
relation to the background. Distant objects such as hills, Overlap
mountains, or clouds don’t seem to move at all. Texture gradients
When combined, pictorial cues can create a powerful illu- Aerial perspective
sion of depth. (See ■ Table 20.1 for a summary of all the
Relative motion (motion parallax)
depth cues that we have discussed here.)

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 MODU LE 20 S e n Sati o n an d P e r c e Pti o n: P e r c e Ptual P r o c eS S eS 179

angle to the road). Under these conditions, nearby objects will

appear to rush backward. Those farther away, such as distant
mountains, will seem to move very little, or not at all. Objects
that are more remote, such as the sun or moon, will appear to
move in the same direction you are traveling. (That’s why the
sun appears to “follow” you when you take a stroll.)

➤ Figure 20.15
Motion parallax. The apparent motion of objects viewed during
travel depends on their distance from the observer. Apparent
motion also can be influenced by an observer’s point of fixation. At
middle distances, objects closer than the point of fixation appear
to move backward; those beyond the point of fixation appear to
move forward. Objects at great distances, such as the Sun or Moon,
Direction of travel always appear to move forward.

MODULE

20 Summary
20.1 In general, how do we construct our percep- 20.1.6 In vision, the image projected on the retina is
tions? constantly changing, but the external world appears
20.1.1 Perception is an active process of constructing sensa- stable and undistorted because of size, shape, and
tions into a meaningful mental representation of the brightness constancy.
world.
20.2 how is it possible to see depth and judge
20.1.2 Perceptions are based on simultaneous bottom-up distance?
and top-down processing. Complete perceptions are
20.2.1 A basic, innate capacity for depth perception is
assembled from small sensory features in “bottom-up”
present soon after birth.
fashion, guided by preexisting knowledge applied
20.2.2 Depth perception depends on binocular cues of
“top-down” to help organize features into a meaning-
retinal disparity and convergence.
ful whole.
20.2.3 Depth perception also depends on the monocular
20.1.3 Separating figure and ground is the most basic
cue of accommodation.
perceptual organization.
20.2.4 Monocular “pictorial” depth cues also underlie depth
20.1.4 The following Gestalt principles also help organize
perception. They are linear perspective, relative size,
sensations: nearness, similarity, continuity, closure,
height in the picture plane, light and shadow, overlap,
contiguity, and common region.
texture gradients, aerial haze, and motion parallax.
20.1.5 A perceptual organization may be thought of as a
hypothesis held until evidence contradicts it.

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180 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

Knowledge Builder Sensation and Perception: Perceptual Processes

Recite Reflect
1. In top-down processing of information, individual Think critically
features are analyzed and assembled into a meaningful 7. People who have taken psychedelic drugs, such as lyser-
whole. T or F? gic acid diethylamide (LSD) or mescaline, often report
2. At times, meaningful perceptual organization represents that the objects and people that they see appear to be
a(n) __________________________, or “guess,” which is changing in size, shape, and brightness. This suggests
held until the evidence contradicts it. that such drugs disrupt which perceptual process?
3. The design known as the Necker cube is a good example
of an impossible figure. T or F? Self-Reflect
4. Which among the following are subject to basic percep- As you look around the area where you are now, how are the
tual constancy? Gestalt principles helping organize your perceptions? Try to
a. figure-ground organization find a specific example for each principle.
b. size Why are the constancies important for maintaining a stable
c. ambiguity perceptual world?
d. brightness Part of the rush of excitement produced by action movies
e. continuity and video games is based on the sense of depth that they
f. closure create. Return to the list of pictorial depth cues. What cues
g. shape have you seen used to portray depth? Try to think of specific
h. nearness examples in a movie or game that you have seen recently.
5. The visual cliff is used to test for infant sensitivity to
linear perspective. T or F?
6. Write an M or a B after each of the following to indicate AN SW E R S
whether it is a monocular or binocular depth cue. brightness).
accommodation _____ convergence _____ retinal dis- overlap (M), relative size (M) 7. Perceptual constancies (size, shape, and
parity _____ linear perspective _____ motion parallax (B), retinal disparity (B), linear perspective (M), motion parallax (M),
_____ overlap _____ relative size _____
1. F 2. hypothesis 3. F 4. b, d, g 5. F 6. accommodation (M), convergence

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 MODULE
Sensation and Perception
Perception and Objectivity 21
Finding Lost Balls
One of your authors (a terrible golfer) occasionally spent the day
golfing with his father (a great golfer). Imagine watching your oppo-
nent hit the ball right down the middle of the fairway over and over,
while you spend much of your day looking for your lost golf ball
(in the rough, forest, desert, lake—geez!). Now imagine that your
opponent is always the one to find your lost ball. And so it was for
your author.
In many sports, expert players are much better than beginners
at paying attention to key information. Compared with novices, ex-
perts scan actions and events more quickly, and they focus on only

Comstock/Stockbyte/Getty Images
the most meaningful information. This helps experts make deci-
sions and react more quickly. In fact, various processes shape our
perceptions, which are a far-from-perfect model of the world. Let’s
investigate some factors that affect the accuracy of our perceptual
experiences.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
21.1 How do motives, emotions, expectations, learning, 21.2 How can I perceive events more accurately?
and culture alter perceptions?

Perception and Experience—Believing Is Seeing

Survey Question 21.1 How do motives, emotions, expec- emotions, and perceptual expectancies; and in the long run
tations, learning, and culture alter perceptions? by perceptual habits and culture.
We use Gestalt organizing principles, perceptual constan-
cies, and depth cues to construct our visual perceptions (see Motives, Emotions, and Perception
Module 20). All these processes, as well as others, make up Did you know that if you are hungry, food (and even
the common, partly inborn, core of our perceptual abilities. food-related words) are more likely to gain your attention
In addition, we each have specific life experiences that can, than non–food-related words (Werthmann et al., 2011)?
in top-down fashion, affect our perceptions. For instance, Advertisers do. They are especially likely to take advantage
what you perceive can be altered in the short run by motives, of two motives that are widespread in our society: anxiety

181
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182 P SychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

and sex. Everything from automobile tires to cosmetic surgery are very likely to apply to a stimulus—even if applying it is
is merchandised by using sex to gain attention (Hennink- inappropriate.
Kaminski & Reichert, 2011). Other ads combine sex with Perceptual sets often lead us to see what we expect to see.
anxiety. Deodorant, soaps, toothpaste, and countless other For example, let’s say while driving, you just made an illegal
products are pushed in ads that play on our desires to be lane change (or texted on your cellphone!?). You then see a
attractive, to have “sex appeal,” or to avoid embarrassment. flashing light. For an instant, you think, “Rats, busted,” and
Our emotions also can also shape our perceptions expect the police car to pull you over. But then you realize
(Yiend, 2010). According to psychologist Barbara Fred- that it was just a car with a vivid turn signal. Most people have
erickson, negative emotions generally narrow our percep- had similar experiences in which expectations altered their
tual focus, or “spotlight,” which increases the likelihood of perceptions. To observe perceptual expectancies firsthand,
inattentional blindness. In contrast, positive emotions can perform the demonstration described in ➤ Figure 21.1.
broaden the scope of attention (Huntsinger, 2013). For ex- Perceptual expectancies are frequently created by sugges-
ample, positive emotions can affect how well people recog- tion. In one study (wine snobs, take note), participants given a
nize people from other races. In recognizing faces, a consis- taste of a $90 wine reported that it tasted better than a $10 wine.
tent other-race effect occurs. This is a sort of “They all look In fMRI testing of the subjects, the images confirmed that
alike to me” bias in perceiving persons from other racial and brain areas related to pleasure were indeed more active when
ethnic groups. In tests of facial recognition, people are much participants tasted the more expensive wine (Plassmann et al.,
better at recognizing faces of their own race than others. 2008). The twist is that the same wine was served in both cases.
But when people are in a positive mood, their ability to Suggesting that the wine was expensive created a perceptual
recognize people from other races improves (Johnson & expectancy that it would taste better. And so it did (advertis-
Fredrickson, 2005). ers, also take note). In the same way, labeling people as “gang
members,” “mental patients,” “queers,” “illegal immigrants,”
Perceptual Expectancies “bitches,” and so on, is likely to distort perceptions.
What is a perceptual expectancy? If you are a runner in the
starting blocks at a track meet, you are set to respond in a Perceptual learning: Do They See What
certain way. If a car backfires, runners at a track meet may We See?
jump the gun. Likewise, past experience, motives, context, Britain is one of the few countries in the world where people
or suggestions may create a perceptual expectancy (set) drive on the left side of the road. As you might suspect, Brit-
that prepares you to perceive in a certain way. As a matter ons become used to this. In contrast, because of this reversal,
of fact, we all frequently jump the gun when perceiving. In it is not unusual for visitors from other countries to step off
essence, an expectancy is a perceptual hypothesis that we curbs in front of cars—after carefully looking for traffic in

View I View II View III

➤ Figure 21.1
Creating perceptual expectancies. These “young woman/old woman” illustrations can be used to demonstrate perceptual expectancy.
Show view I and view II to some of your friends (while covering all other views). Next, show them view III and ask them what they see.
Those who saw view I should see the old woman in view III; those who saw view II should see the young woman in view III. Can you see
both? (After Leeper, 1935.)

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 MODU lE 21 s e n sAti o n An d P e r c e Pti o n: P e r c e Pti o n An d o bj ectivity 183

the wrong direction. As this example suggests, learning has Culture and Perception The main reason for the other-
a powerful impact on top-down processing in perception. race effect we just discussed is that we typically have more
How does learning affect perception? The term experience with people from our own race. As a result, we
perceptual learning refers to changes in the brain that al- developed perceptual habits that help us recognize different
ter how we construct sensory information into perception persons. For other groups, we lack the perceptual expertise
(Moreno et al., 2009). For example, to use a computer, you needed to accurately separate one face from another (Me-
must learn to pay attention to specific stimuli, such as icons greya, White, & Burton, 2011; Sporer, 2001).
and cursors. We also learn to tell the difference between Okay, so maybe members of different races or ethnic
stimuli that seemed identical at first. An example is the nov- groups have developed perceptual habits that lead them to see
ice chef who discovers how to tell the difference between in-group faces differently, but we all see everything else the
dried basil, oregano, and tarragon. In other situations, we same, right? Maybe not. According to psychologist Richard
learn to focus on just one part of a group of stimuli. This Nisbett and his colleagues, based on their cultures, people
saves us from having to process all the stimuli in the group. often construct different perceptions of the world around
For instance, a football linebacker may be able to tell if the them. European Americans are individualistic people who
next play will be a run or a pass by watching one or two tend to focus on themselves and their sense of personal con-
key players, rather than the entire opposing team (Gorman, trol. In contrast, East Asians are collectivist people who tend
Abernethy, & Farrow, 2011; Seitz & Watanabe, 2005). to focus on their interpersonal relationships and social
In general, learning creates perceptual habits— responsibilities. As a consequence, European Americans tend
ingrained patterns of organization and attention—that to perceive actions in terms of internal factors (“She did it be-
affect our daily experience. Stop for a moment and look at cause she chose to do it”). In comparison, East Asians tend
➤ Figure 21.2. The face on the left looks somewhat unusual, to perceive actions in terms of their social context (“He did
to be sure. But the distortion seems mild—until you turn it because it was his responsibility to his family”) (Henrich,
the page upside down. Viewed normally, the face looks quite Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010; Norenzayan & Nisbett, 2000).
grotesque. Why is there a difference? Apparently, most peo- In one study, American and Japanese participants were
ple have little experience with upside-down faces. Percep- shown drawings of everyday scenes, such as a farm. Later, they
tual learning, therefore, has less impact on our perceptions saw a slightly changed version of the scene and were asked to
of an upside-down face. With a face in the normal position, identify the differences. Some of the changes were made to
you know what to expect and where to look. Also, you tend the focal point, or figure, of the scene. Other changes altered
to see the entire face as a recognizable pattern. When a face the surrounding context, or ground, of the scene. Americans,
is inverted, we are forced to perceive its individual features it turns out, were better at detecting changes in the figure of
separately (Caharel et al., 2006). a scene, while Japanese participants were better at finding
alterations in the background (Nisbett & Miyamoto, 2005).
To explain this difference, Chua, Boland, and Nisbett
(2005) presented American and Chinese participants with
pictures of a figure (such as a tiger) placed on the ground (such
as in a jungle) and monitored their eye-movement patterns.
The Americans focused their eye movements on the figure;
Chinese participants directed more eye movements around
The Gallery Collection/Fine Art Premium/Corbis

the ground. In other words, Westerners have a relatively nar-

row focus of attention, whereas Easterners have a broader
focus of attention (Boduroglu, Shah, & Nisbett, 2009).

Perceptual expectancy (set) A readiness to perceive in a particular

manner, induced by strong expectations.
Perceptual learning Changes in perception that can be attributed to
prior experience; a result of changes in how the brain processes
➤ Figure 21.2
sensory information.
The effects of prior experience on perception. The doctored Perceptual habits Ingrained patterns of organization and attention
face looks far worse when viewed right side up because it can be that affect our daily experience.
related to past experience.

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184 P SychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

➤ Figure 21.3
Some interesting
perceptual
illusions. Such
illusions reveal
that perceptual
misconstructions
(a) Which of the horizontal (b) Is the diagonal a single (c) Is this a drawing of a stair- (d) Are these lines parallel?
are a normal lines is longer? straight line? Check it with case descending from upper Cover some of the slash
part of visual a ruler. left to lower right . . . or is it marks to see.
perception. the view of the underneath of
a staircase from lower right to
upper left?

(e) Which line is longer, (f) Notice how the background (g) Which quadrilateral is (h) Which column is
horizontal or vertical? distorts the square. larger? shortest? Which is
longest?

Apparently, the society in which we live indeed can influ- the horizontal line with arrowheads appears shorter than
ence even our most basic perceptual habits (Hedden et al., the line with Vs. A quick measurement will show that they
2008). This difference in perceptual style even influences are the same length. How can we explain this illusion?
the artistic and aesthetic preferences expressed in Eastern Evidence suggests that it is based on a lifetime of ex-
and Western art (Masuda et al., 2008). perience with the edges and corners of rooms and build-
ings (Deręgowski, 2013). Richard Gregory (2000) believes
Perceptual Learning and Perceptual Misconstruc-
that you see the line with the arrowheads as if it were the
tion Perceptual habits even play a role in explaining some
nearby corner of a room joining two walls receding from
illusions. In general, size and shape constancy, habitual eye
it (➤ Figure 21.4a). The line with the Vs (➤ Figure 21.4b),
movements, continuity, and perceptual habits combine
on the other hand, suggests the farther corner of a room or
in various ways to produce the illusions in ➤ Figure 21.3.
building joining two walls coming closer. (If these two lines
Rather than attempt to explain all of them, let’s focus on one
were belly buttons, (a) would be an “outie” and (b) would
deceptively simple example.
be an “innie.”) In other words, cues that suggest a 3-D space
Consider the drawing in Figure 21.3a. This is the fa-
alter our perception of a 2-D design.
miliar Müller-Lyer illusion (MEOO-ler-LIE-er) in which

➤ Figure 21.4
The Müller-Lyer
illusion. Why does line
(b) in the Müller-Lyer illusion
look longer than line (a)?
Probably because it looks
more like a distant corner
than a nearer one. Because
the vertical lines form
images of the same length,
the more “distant” line must
be perceived as larger. As
you can see in the drawing (a) (b)
on the right, additional depth
cues accentuate the
Müller-Lyer illusion.
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 MODU lE 21 s e n sAti o n An d P e r c e Pti o n: P e r c e Pti o n An d o bj ectivity 185

If two objects make images of the same size, the more with a “carpentered” culture is important. Fortunately, a
distant object must be larger. This is known formally as size- few San bushmen, a culture from the Kalahari Desert in
distance invariance (the size of an object’s image is precisely Africa, still live a traditional hunting-gathering life in the
related to its distance from the eyes). Gregory believes that “round.” Traditional San rarely encounter straight lines
his concept explains the Müller-Lyer illusion. If the V-tipped in their daily lives: Their temporary dwellings are semi-
line looks farther away from you than the arrowhead-tipped circular, and the area has few straight roads or square
line, you must compensate by seeing the V-tipped line as buildings.
longer. This explanation presumes that you have had years What happens if a San looks at the Müller-Lyer design?
of experience with straight lines, sharp edges, and corners— The typical traditional San does not experience the illusion.
a pretty safe assumption in our culture. In other words, we At most, she or he sees the V-shaped line as slightly longer
misconstruct the Müller-Lyer lines because of perceptual than the other (Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010). This
habits we acquired because we live in a “carpentered world” seems to confirm the importance of perceptual habits in de-
(Deręgowski, 2013). termining our view of the world.
Is there any way to show that past experience causes the Can perception ever be “illusion-free”? Probably not.
illusion? If we could test someone who saw only curves But the next section offers some ideas on how to perceive
and wavy lines as a child, we would know if experience events more accurately.

Becoming a Better Eyewitness to Life —Pay Attention!

Survey Question 21.2 How can I perceive events more have sworn in court that he had seen a murder taking place
accurately? at the supermarket—if he hadn’t received more information
to correct his misperceptions.
In the courtroom, eyewitness testimony can be a key to
What about witnesses who are certain that their percep-
proving guilt or innocence. The claim “I saw it with my own
tions were accurate? Should juries believe them? While highly
eyes” still carries a lot of weight with a jury. Too many jurors
confident witnesses are generally more accurate than less
(unless they have taken a psychology course) tend to assume
confident eyewitnesses, even witnesses who are completely
that eyewitness testimony is nearly infallible (Odinot, Wolt-
certain are frequently wrong (Lindsay et al., 2013).
ers, & van Giezen, 2013). Even U.S. judges are vulnerable
Unfortunately, perception rarely provides an “instant
to overoptimism about eyewitness testimony (Wise et al.,
replay” of events. Impressions formed when a person is sur-
2010; Wise & Safer, 2010). But, to put it bluntly, eyewitness
prised, threatened, or under stress are especially prone to
testimony is frequently wrong (Shermer, Rose, & Hoffman,
distortion (Yuille & Daylen, 1998). One study of eyewitness
2011). Recall, for instance, that one of your authors would
cases found that the wrong person was chosen from police
lineups 25 percent of the time (Levi, 1998).
Since DNA testing became available, more than 330
people who were convicted in the United States of major
crimes have been exonerated after serving an average of
over 13 years in prison. About 75 percent of these innocent
AP Images/John-Marshall Mantel

people were convicted mainly on the basis of eyewitness tes-

timony (Innocence Project, 2016). Psychologists are gradu-
ally convincing lawyers, judges, and police that eyewitness
errors are common (Yarmey, 2010). Even so, thousands of
people have been wrongfully convicted.
Even in broad daylight, eyewitness testimony is untrustworthy. In
2001, an airliner crashed near Kennedy International Airport in
Wouldn’t the victim of a crime remember more than a
New York. Hundreds of people saw the plane go down. Half of mere witness? Not necessarily. A classic study found that
them said the plane was on fire. Flight recorders showed there eyewitness accuracy is virtually the same for witnessing a
was no fire. One witness in five saw the plane make a right turn.
An equal number saw it make a left turn! As one investigator noted,
the best witness may be a “kid under 12 years old who doesn’t Müller-Lyer illusion Two equal-length lines tipped with inward or
have his parents around.” Adults, it seems, are swayed easily by outward pointing Vs appear to be of different lengths.
their expectations.
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186 P SychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

crime (seeing a pocket calculator stolen) as it is for being a perceptions, you have fallen into a subtle trap. Personal objec-
victim (seeing one’s own watch stolen) (Hosch & Cooper, tivity is an elusive quality, requiring frequent reality testing to
1982). Placing more weight on the testimony of victims maintain. At the very least, it pays to ask a person what she or
may be a serious mistake. In many crimes, victims fall prey he is feeling when you are in doubt. Clearly, most of us could
to weapon focus, a form of inattentional blindness. Under- learn to be better “eyewitnesses” to daily events (Siegel, 2010).
standably, they fix their entire attention on the knife, gun, or
other weapon that an attacker used. In doing so, they fail to The Whole human: Perceptual Accuracy
notice details of appearance, dress, or other clues to identity Do some people perceive things more accurately than others?
(Fawcett et al., 2013). Additional factors that lower eyewit- Humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow (1969) believed
ness accuracy consistently are summarized in ■ Table 21.1. that some people perceive themselves and others with un-
usual accuracy. Maslow characterized these people as espe-
Implications cially alive, open, aware, and mentally healthy. He found that
How often are everyday perceptions as inaccurate or distort- their perceptual styles were marked by immersion in the
ed as those of an emotional eyewitness? The answer that we present; a lack of self-consciousness; freedom from select-
have been moving toward is, very frequently. Bearing this in ing, criticizing, or evaluating; and a general “surrender” to
mind may help you be more tolerant of the views of others experience. The kind of perception that Maslow described
and more cautious about your own objectivity. It also may is like that of a mother with her newborn infant, a child at
encourage more frequent reality testing on your part. Disneyland, or two people in love.
If you have ever concluded that someone was angry, In daily life, sensation, perception, and even selec-
upset, or unfriendly without checking the accuracy of your tive attention often occur without conscious awareness.

TablE 21.1 factors Affecting the Accuracy of eyewitness Perceptions

Sources of Error Summary of Findings

Wording of questions An eyewitness’s testimony about an event can be affected by the wording of questions that the
witness is asked.
Postevent information Eyewitness testimony about an event often reflects not only what was actually seen, but also
information obtained later on.
Attitudes, expectations An eyewitness’s perception and memory for an event may be affected by his or her attitudes and
expectations.
Drug intoxication Drug (including alcohol) intoxication impairs witnesses’ ability to recall events after they occur.
Cross-racial perceptions Eyewitnesses are better at identifying members of their own race than they are at identifying
people of other races.
Weapon focus The presence of a weapon impairs an eyewitness’s ability to identify the culprit’s face and other
personal details.
Accuracy-confidence An eyewitness’s confidence is not a good predictor of his or her accuracy.
Exposure time The less time that an eyewitness has to observe an event, the less correctly that she or he will
perceive and remember it.
Unconscious transference Eyewitnesses sometimes identify as a culprit someone whom they have seen in another situation
or context.
Color perception Judgments of color made under monochromatic light (such as an orange streetlight) are highly
unreliable.
Stress High levels of stress impair the accuracy of eyewitness perceptions.
Source: Adapted from Wells & Olson, 2003; Yarmey, 2010.

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 MODU lE 21 s e n sAti o n An d P e r c e Pti o n: P e r c e Pti o n An d o bj ectivity 187

Furthermore, we quickly habituate, or respond less, to pre- 1. Remember that perceptions are constructions of real-
dictable and unchanging stimuli. Habituation is a type of ity. Learn to regularly question your own perceptions.
learning—basically, we learn to cease paying attention to fa- Are they accurate? Could another interpretation fit the
miliar stimuli. For instance, when you download a new song facts? What assumptions are you making? How might
from iTunes, the music initially holds your attention all the your assumptions be distorting your perceptions?
way through. But when the song becomes “old,” it may play 2. Break perceptual habits and interrupt habituation. Each
without you really attending to it. When a stimulus is repeat- day, try to get away from habitual, top-down processing
ed without change, our response to it habituates, or decreas- and do some activities in new ways. For example, take
es. It is interesting that creative people habituate more slowly a different route when you travel to work or school. Do
than average. We might expect that they would rapidly be- routine activities, such as brushing your teeth or comb-
come bored with a repeated stimulus. Instead, it seems that ing your hair, with your nonpreferred hand. Try to look
creative people actively attend to stimuli, even those that are at friends and family members as if they are persons you
repeated (Colin, Moore, & West, 1996; Runco, 2012). just met for the first time.
3. Seek out-of-the-ordinary experiences. The possibilities
The Value of Paying Attention here range from trying foods that you don’t normally
Whereas the average person has not reached perceptual re- eat to reading opinions very different from your own.
striction of the “if you’ve seen one tree, you’ve seen them Experiences ranging from a quiet walk in the woods to a
all” variety, the fact remains that most of us look at a tree trip to an amusement park may be perceptually refreshing.
and classify it in the perceptual category of “trees in general” 4. Beware of perceptual sets. Any time you pigeonhole peo-
without appreciating the miracle standing before us. How, ple, objects, or events, there is a danger that your per-
then, can we bring about dishabituation—a reversal of ceptions will be distorted by expectations or preexisting
habituation—on a day-to-day basis? Does perceptual clar- categories. Be especially wary of labels and stereotypes.
ity require years of effort? Fortunately, a more immediate Try to see people as individuals and events as unique,
avenue is available. The deceptively simple key to dishabitu- one-time occurrences.
ation is this: be reflective by paying mindful attention. The 5. Be aware of the ways that motives and emotions influence
following story summarizes the importance of attention: perceptions. It is difficult to avoid being swayed by your
One day, a man of the people said to Zen Master Ikkyu: own interests, needs, desires, and emotions. But be aware
“Master, will you please write for me some maxims of the of this trap and actively try to see the world through the
highest wisdom?” eyes of others. Taking the other person’s perspective is
Ikkyu immediately took his brush and wrote the word especially valuable in disputes or arguments. Ask your-
“Attention.” self, “How does this look to her or him?”
“Is that all?” asked the man. “Will you not add something 6. Make a habit of engaging in reality testing. Actively look
more?” for additional evidence to check the accuracy of your
perceptions. Ask questions, seek clarifications, and
Ikkyu then wrote twice running: “Attention. Attention.”
find alternate channels of information. Remember that
“Well,” remarked the man rather irritably, “I really don’t see perception is not automatically accurate. You could be
much depth or subtlety in what you have just written.”
wrong—we all are, frequently.
Then Ikkyu wrote the same word three times running: 7. Pay attention. Make a conscious effort to pay atten-
“Attention. Attention. Attention.” Half-angered, the man
tion to other people and your surroundings. Don’t drift
demanded, “What does that word ‘attention’ mean, anyway?”
through life in a haze. Listen to others with full concen-
And Ikkyu answered gently: “Attention means attention.” tration. Watch their facial expressions. Make eye con-
(Kapleau, 1966)
tact. Try to get in the habit of approaching perception as
if you are going to have to testify later about what you
how to Become a Better saw and heard.
“Eyewitness” to life
Here’s an overview of some ideas from this module (and the
Habituation A decrease in perceptual response to a repeated stimulus.
other modules on sensation and perception) to help mindfully Dishabituation A reversal of habituation.
maintain and enhance perceptual awareness and accuracy:

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188 P SychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

MODULE

21 Summary
21.1 how do motives, emotions, expectations, 21.2 how can I perceive events more accurately?
learning, and culture alter perceptions? 21.2.1 Eyewitness testimony is surprisingly unreliable.
21.1.1 Motives, emotions, suggestion, and prior experience Eyewitness accuracy is further damaged by weapon
combine in various ways to create more or less focus and several similar factors.
long-lived perceptual sets, or expectancies. 21.2.2 When a stimulus is repeated without change, our
21.1.2 Personal motives and emotions often alter response to it undergoes habituation.
perceptions by changing the evaluation of what is 21.2.3 Perceptual accuracy is enhanced by reality testing,
seen or by altering attention to specific details. dishabituation, and conscious efforts to pay attention.
21.1.3 Perceptual learning and culture influences the top- 21.2.4 It also is valuable to break perceptual habits, to
down organization and interpretation of sensations. broaden frames of reference, to beware of perceptual
21.1.4 Some illusions, like the Müller-Lyer illusion, seem to sets, and to be aware of the ways motives and
be related to perceptual learning. emotions influence perceptions.

Knowledge Builder Sensation and Perception: Perception and Objectivity

Recite Self-Reflect
1. When a person is prepared to perceive events in a You have almost certainly misperceived a situation at some
particular way, it is said that a perceptual expectancy or time because of a perceptual expectancy or the influence
____________________ exists. of your motives and emotions. How were your perceptions
2. Perceptual habits may become so ingrained that they lead influenced?
us to misperceive a stimulus. T or F? How has perceptual learning affected your ability to safely
3. People around the world perceive in the same way re- drive a car? For example, where do you habitually look as you
gardless of culture. T or F? are driving?
4. Inaccuracies in eyewitness perceptions obviously occur Because perceptions are constructions or models of
in “real life,” but they cannot be reproduced in psychol- external events, we should all engage in more frequent
ogy experiments. T or F? reality testing. Can you think of a recent event when a
5. Victims of crimes are more accurate eyewitnesses than little reality testing would have saved you from misjudging
impartial observers. T or F? a situation?
6. Reality testing is another term for dishabituation. T or F?
7. A good antidote to perceptual habituation can be found AN SW E R S
in conscious efforts to
warnings.
primary focus of attention. This further distracts readers from seeing the
a. reverse sensory gating camouflaged. Finally, the main images in ads are designed to be the
b. pay attention the labels are often placed on “busy” backgrounds so they are partially
c. achieve visual accommodation the corners of ads, where they attract the least possible attention. Also,
d. counteract shape constancy 1. set 2. T 3. F 4. F 5. F 6. F 7. b 8. Advertisers place health warnings in

Reflect
Think critically
8. Cigarette advertisements in the United States are re-
quired to carry a warning label about the health risks of
smoking. How have tobacco companies made these labels
less visible?
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 MODULE

Sensation and Perception

Skills in Action 22
Communication

Are You Listening?

To get a sense of just how much good communication matters, con-
sider the Global Gossip Game, run each year by several libraries
around the world. A recent version of the game included more than
800 participants from all seven continents speaking six different lan-
guages. The goal of the game is to take an initial message (a recent
example was “Play is training for the unexpected”) and pass it along
to players at the next participating library, translating the message as
necessary. After starting in Melbourne Australia, five versions of the
original statement arrived at libraries across the United States the
next day. Somehow, though, after travelling for 30 hours and across
95,000 miles, the initial message had become “I love the world,”
“Zombie,” “Clouds travel around the world,” “Glow, glow, peanut
butter jelly,” and “Ian needs help.”
While the results of the Global Gossip Game are funny, they also
© nmedia/Shutterstock.com

highlight the importance of clear communication. This is obviously

true when messages are moving between people who may not share
the same language, but it’s equally important in a marriage, a social
media campaign, or between coworkers in an office in Nebraska.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
22.1 How is communication related to the study of 22.2 How can communicating well help me in my personal
psychology? and professional life?

Tell Me!
Survey Question 22.1 How is communication related to
around them. For that reason, sensory and perceptual sys-
the study of psychology?
tems play an important role in our ability to communicate
We saw in Modules 17–21 that sensation and perception are with others, both nonverbally and verbally. Nonverbal com-
important in determining how people see and hear the world munication refers to our perception of other people’s voice,

189
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190 P SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

eye contact, and body language. Humans are very sensitive to Table 22.1
nonverbal cues (Siegman & Feldstein, 2014). In this module,
we focus on verbal communication, which is connected more Providing Receiving
closely to the words that people use when they write or speak. Information Information
Communication is an important skill because it serves a Oral/spoken communication Speaking skills Listening skills
number of purposes that are valuable in connecting us with
Written communication Writing skills Reading skills
others. For example, we use communication to persuade
people to give us what we need (or want). We also use it to
provide others with information or to gather information ideas together, you’ll see that there are four communication-
that we need. The information that’s exchanged may include based skills that are important to master (■ Table 22.1).
facts or explanations, but it can also be more personal, relat- Mastering these skills also requires an appreciation of the
ing to our thoughts, opinions, and feelings. many channels we now use for verbal communication, which
When you think about using verbal communication include more traditional forms (written letters, books, tele-
skills to meet these goals, there are two things to consider. phone conversations, and lectures) and those that have become
First, there are two main communication methods that we popular more recently (email, texting, and social media). These
use: oral (or spoken) and written. Second, there are two channels differ in terms of the level of formality that is typically
communication points of view: either we’re providing infor- considered acceptable when communicating, as well as the type
mation or we’re receiving information. If you put those two of information that is appropriate for sharing and discussion.

Say What You Mean

Survey Question 22.2 How can communicating well help ◗ Show the speaker that you are listening through your non-
me in my personal and professional life? verbal cues. You should make eye contact and nod your
head occasionally, and avoid nonverbal signs of disin-
Given the purposes that it serves, communication is critical
terest such as checking your phone for new texts.
in developing and maintaining positive personal and pro-
fessional relationships. On the personal side, for example, ◗ Keep an open mind while you are listening. Try to listen
researchers have demonstrated that conflict in marriages without judging and without jumping to conclusions.
and parent-child relationships can often be traced back ◗ Ask clarifying questions to ensure that you understand
to difficulties with communication (Flora & Segrin, 2015; the point that’s being made.
Gottman, 1994). In terms of your professional life, many ◗ Focus on what’s being said. Don’t be distracted by the
employers are interested in hiring people who have good speaker’s mannerisms, his hair, his accent, or the movie
teamwork and leadership skills, both of which are depen- that you’re going to see after dinner.
dent on being able to communicate well (Lussier & Achua,
2015). Let’s take a closer look at how the four verbal commu- Providing Information: Writing
nication skills—reading, listening, writing and speaking— and Speaking
help to create positive home and work environments, and When you have to convey information to other people, it’s
how you can improve on your own abilities in this area. important to think carefully about the message that you
want to send, and the words that you’ll use to make that
Receiving Information: Reading
message clear. One of the easiest ways to avoid miscommu-
and listening
nication is to ensure that you don’t use vague language. For
Good communication depends on our ability to accurately example, if a friend says to you that he’s just stepping out and
understand the information that other people are provid- won’t be long, when would you expect to see him? Actual
ing. We’ve already spent some time talking about how to im- answers to that question range from 10 minutes to 3 hours,
prove reading skills in Module 1. But what about listening suggesting that written and spoken communication is much
skills? Aamodt (2016) has summarized a number of things less likely to be misinterpreted if you are concrete in your
that we should be aware of when listening to others. Some of choice of words.
the most important ones include: However, even when you carefully choose your words,
◗ Don’t interrupt the speaker. Let her finish speaking, communication problems can still occur when people are
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 MoDU lE 22 s e n sAti o n An d P e r c e Pti o n s k i lls i n Acti o n : c o M M u n i cAti o n 191

not sensitive to the fact that communication styles can differ. without trying to “sugarcoat”—things has important
Tannen (1995) describes communication style as a person’s implications for conversations, particularly those that in-
characteristic speaking (or writing) style, and it can include volve making requests or providing criticism or feedback to
features such as directness, pacing, and the extent to which others. Requests that are presented in an indirect way (“How
we tend to use jokes, questions, or apologies when we write would you like to help Sue with those reports?”) rather than
or speak. These styles are learned early in life and are typi- more directly (“Please help Sue with the reports”) may be
cally guided by two important elements: the need to dem- viewed as being more collegial, since they downplay power
onstrate power and the need to foster positive relationships. relationships. However, it’s also possible that when a request
The communication challenges that result from differing is framed as a question in this way, people will not under-
styles are not limited to misunderstandings about what has stand that they aren’t really being given a choice.
been said. To understand the far-reaching implications of Similar issues can arise when feedback is being provid-
communication styles, consider the following characteris- ed on work that has been done. For example, people whose
tics of our speech and how they can influence people’s per- conversational style is focused more on promoting relation-
ceptions of one another and the work that they do: ships may feel that it is important to begin a feedback session
with praise that’s aimed at what was done well, followed by
The Tendency to Say “I” vs. “We” People interested in
areas for improvement. This approach allows the speaker to
promoting relationships are more likely to speak in terms of
buffer the criticism that’s to come. Unfortunately, it’s pos-
the group (“we”) rather than themselves (“I”), even when they
sible that if the person receiving this type of feedback has a
are describing work that they did for the team on their own.
more direct approach to communicating, she will downplay
When describing work that has been done with others, it may
the need for improvement (since it wasn’t offered until the
seem trivial whether you have a tendency to use “I” rather
very end) and assume that the main point that’s being made
than “we.” In reality, though, Tannen suggests that this element
is that everything is going well (since that’s how the feedback
of conversational style can have important consequences for
session began).
things such as who gets credit for a job, and whether people
are perceived as being “arrogant” or “a team player.”
What’s the Best Communication Style?
The Tendency to Ask Questions In some environ- Having seen that communication styles can have impor-
ments, there’s a lot of value placed on asking questions be- tant implications for how people are perceived by others, it’s
cause doing so can stimulate productive discussions and tempting to ask “What’s the best communication style?” As
helps to ensure that people have a good understanding of you may have guessed from reading this section, though, the
the material. In other places, though, asking questions can answer depends to some extent on the impression that you’re
have more negative consequences, including being taken as trying to convey. For example, are you trying to present the
a sign of ignorance or being overly dependent. impression of being in command, or are you more focused
on building relationships? In addition, because communi-
The Tendency to Apologize or Admit Fault For
cation is always two-sided, you also need to recognize that
some, apologies of any sort are seen as a demonstration
the communication style of your partner may differ from your
of weakness and something to be avoided at all costs. For
own, and will color his or her interpretation of your commu-
others, though, a communication style that demonstrates a
nication cues. As a result, the “best” communication style has
willingness to take responsibility is very positive and dem-
to take into account what you know about the person you’re
onstrates a sign of maturity. It’s noteworthy, though, that in
speaking with. Will they see your tendency to ask questions
some communication styles, “apologies” are really a reflec-
as a sign of engagement or incompetence? Will your direct
tion of concern rather than an admission of guilt. For ex-
style of speaking be viewed as callous or clear?
ample, “I’m sorry” can often mean “I’m sorry that happened
An important communication skill, then, is not just the
to you,” rather than “I apologize for what I did.” While these
ability to understand our own style, but to recognize that other
“ritual apologies” may help to build good relationships, Tan-
people will have different tendencies and to consider whether
nen has noted that people who apologize frequently (even
it might be necessary to adjust the way we express ourselves to
when it is an expression of concern) can be viewed as weak-
ensure that our goals can be met. Recognizing and respond-
er and less confident than others.
ing to the diverse communication styles of others will help to
The Tendency to Be Direct The extent to which we minimize misunderstandings and ensure that you are being
speak in a direct manner—that is, in a fairly blunt way, perceived by others in the way that you’d like to be seen.
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192 P SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

MODULE

22 Summary
22.1 how is communication related to the study 22.2.2 Good listening skills can be improved by being
of psychology? mindful of the speaker and being self-aware of
22.1.1 Two types of communication are nonverbal and your own cues.
verbal. Nonverbal communication refers to the 22.2.3 Writing and speaking skills can be improved by
perceptions of other’s actions, such as people’s tone using words that are clear and concrete.
of voice, body language, and eye contact. Verbal 22.2.4 Communication styles are guided by the extent
communication refers to written or spoken words. to which people want to demonstrate power vs.
22.1.2 There are two communication methods we use to foster positive relationships. Communication
transmit ideas (oral and written) and two commu- styles include things such directness and pacing,
nication points of view (providing information or as well as the tendency to use jokes, questions,
receiving information). and apologies.
22.1.3 The four verbal communication skills that can be 22.2.5 Choosing an optimal communication style takes
developed depending on your method and point of into account involves taking into account the style
view are: speaking, listening, writing, and reading. of the person to whom you are writing or speaking.
22.2 how can communicating well help me in my
personal and professional life?
22.2.1 The ability to communicate well assists in develop-
ing personal and professional relationships.

Knowledge Builder Sensation and Perception Skills in Action: Communication

Recite work—when your communication style has worked well?

What about a situation when your communication style has
1. The two types of communication are _____________
been less effective?
and ____________.
Can you remember a situation when you have experienced
2. The two methods of communication are _____________
a “communication breakdown” with someone? What hap-
and ____________.
pened to cause the miscommunication?
3. What are the four main verbal communication skills?

Reflect AN SW E R S
responsible for, which can exhibit weakness and less confidence.
Think Critically bility. It would be less effective if you apologize for something are not
4. In what situation would the tendency to apologize be in a situation that demonstrates you are mature and taking responsi-
beneficial? In what situations would it be less effective? ing, reading 4. It would be beneficial to have the tendency to apologize
1. nonverbal and verbal 2. oral and written 3. speaking, listening, writ-
Self-Reflect
Reflect on your current communication style. Can you
think of a situation—either in your personal life or at

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 MODULE
Consciousness
States of Consciousness 23
Grand, Indeed!
◗ At Yosemite, a hang glider enters a fully conscious state of mind-
fulness meditation.
◗ In Brisbane, a graduate student drifts into a pleasant daydream
while sitting at the back of class.
◗ In Boston, an aspiring actor is hypnotized to help reduce her
stage fright.
◗ In a Paris hospital, a man lies in a deep coma after falling down
a flight of stairs.
◗ In Iowa, a college student downs some Ritalin to help her stay
awake while studying for an important exam.
◗ In Tucson, Arizona, one of your authors brews himself another
cup of cappuccino.

Each of these people is experiencing a different state of con-

sciousness. Some have no choice, and others are deliberately seeking
© Celso Diniz/Shutterstock.com

to bend their minds—to alter consciousness—in different ways, to

different degrees, and for different reasons. As these examples sug-
gest, consciousness can take many forms, some grand and some not
so grand. Let’s explore the varieties of conscious experience.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
23.1 What is consciousness? 23.3 Do meditation and mindfulness have any
23.2 What is hypnosis? benefits?

States of Consciousness—The Many Faces of Awareness

Survey Question 23.1 What is consciousness? 2008). Take, for example, one hang glider’s profound mo-
To be conscious means to be aware. Consciousness consists ment at Yosemite. As Donnie floated by Nevada Falls, he was
of your awareness of external events in the environment “blown away” by deep feelings of insignificance and awe.
around you, as well as your awareness of your mental pro-
Consciousness An organism’s awareness of its external environment
cesses, including thoughts, memories, and feelings about and internal mental processes.
your experiences and yourself (Morin, 2006; Robinson,

193
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194 p SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

In that instant, he also was fully aware that he was expe- disorders of consciousness while also shedding light on con-
riencing a deeply moving moment. (For more about meta- sciousness itself. In one study, normal individuals and pa-
cognition, the state of awareness of your own awareness, see tients in a persistent vegetative state—a longer-term waking
Module 26.) state without any signs of awareness—were administered a
Although this definition of consciousness may seem mildly painful stimulus. Normal individuals consciously re-
obvious, it is based on your own introspective experience. ported feeling pain while vegetative patients did not, as ex-
While you may be the expert on what it feels like to be you, pected. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans revealed
your subjective experience almost certainly offers no insight brain activity in the midbrain, thalamus, and somatosensory
into how your brain gives rise to your consciousness or why cortex of both normal individuals and vegetative patients.
you are conscious in the first place. Mind you, no one can However, only the normal individuals in this study showed
yet satisfactorily explain the how or why of consciousness activity in the frontal cortical regions, implying that these
(Allen et al., 2013; Schwitzgebel, 2011). brain regions must be functional in order for someone to
One way to appreciate the limitations of our subjective have a conscious experience of pain (Laureys et al., 2002).
experience is to ask about other people. What does it feel In light of findings such as these, doctors can be more
like to be your mother? Or someone in a coma? What runs confident that patients diagnosed in a persistent vegetative
through a dog’s mind when it sniffs other dogs? You sim- state who also show no frontal cortical activity in response
ply can’t answer these questions about other minds through to pain are likely feeling no pain. At the same time, results
your own subjective perspective. The difficulty of knowing such as these suggest that frontal lobe activity is central to
other minds is one reason that the early behaviorists dis- conscious experience. Echoing Kate Adamson’s experience
trusted introspection (see Module 3). of being locked-in, an fMRI investigation of patients in a
A key challenge for psychology is to use objective stud- persistent vegetative state showed varying degrees of frontal
ies of the brain and behavior to help us understand the mind cortical activity in some patients. Some of them, for exam-
and consciousness, which are basically subjective phenom- ple, showed a frontal cortex response to hearing their own
ena. Objectivity makes it possible to identify various states names (Bick et al., 2013).
of consciousness and explore the role they play in our lives. There can be little doubt that studies such as these are
This module, and the three that follow, summarize some of beginning to improve diagnostic accuracy while illuminat-
what we have learned about different states of consciousness. ing the complex brain circuitry underlying our conscious ex-
perience (Askenasy & Lehmann, 2013; Långsjö et al., 2012).
Disorders of Consciousness
We spend most of our lives in waking consciousness, a state Altered States of Consciousness
of clear, organized alertness. In waking consciousness, we Many other states of conscious also differ from normal aware-
perceive times, places, and events as real and can respond ness, including states of consciousness related to fatigue, de-
to external stimuli. But many other states of consciousness lirium, hypnosis, drugs, and euphoria (Chalmers, 2010). Ev-
are possible. For example, brain injury can result in any- eryone experiences at least some altered states, such as sleep,
thing from a short-lived disorientation to a disorder of dreaming, and daydreaming. In everyday life, changes in
consciousness—a long-term lack of consciousness and consciousness may even accompany long-distance running,
responsiveness (Monti, 2012; Schnakers & Laureys, 2012). listening to music, making love, or other circumstances.
Disorders of consciousness have traditionally been dif- How are altered states distinguished from normal aware-
ficult to accurately diagnose (Singh et al., 2013). You can’t ness? During an altered state of consciousness (ASC),
simply ask someone in a coma—a state of total unrespon- changes occur in the quality and pattern of mental activ-
siveness—if he or she can hear you or feel pain. But does ity. Typically, distinct shifts happen in our perceptions,
the lack of responsiveness mean that a person is brain dead? emotions, memories, time sense, thoughts, feelings of self-
What if the person is locked-in, like Kate Adamson, whom control, and suggestibility (Hohwy & Fox, 2012). Definitions
we met in Module 10? (Recall that a damaged brain stem left aside, most people know when they have experienced an
Kate fully aware, but almost totally unresponsive.) ASC. In fact, heightened self-awareness is an important
Newer brain imaging methods, such as positron emis- feature of many ASCs (Revonsuo, Kallio, & Sikka, 2009).
sion tomography (PET) and functional magnetic reso- Are there other causes of ASCs? In addition to the ones
nance imaging (fMRI), promise to improve the diagnosis of mentioned, we could add sensory overload (a rave, Mardi

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 MoDU lE 23 c o n s c i o us n es s: stAtes o f c o n s c i o us n es s 195

Gras crowd, or mosh pit), monotonous stimulation (such as

“highway hypnotism” on long drives), unusual physical con-
ditions (high fever, hyperventilation, dehydration, sleep loss,
near-death experiences), restricted sensory input (extended
periods of isolation), and many other possibilities.
Consciousness and Culture In some instances, al-
tered states have important cultural meanings. Throughout
history, people everywhere have found ways to alter their
consciousness (Siegel, 2005). One dramatic example is the
regular consumption of a mind-altering potion called aya-
huasca. Considered a psychedelic sacrament by members
of Uniao do Vegetal (UDV), a Brazilian religion, twice-
monthly consumption of ayahuasca is believed to foster
a deeper connection with nature, improving physical,
emotional, and spiritual wellbeing.

John Mitterer
Like Buddhists engaging in meditation practices,
Turkish whirling dervishes entranced by their twirling
dance, or New Zealand Maori priests performing nightlong In many cultures, rituals of healing, prayer, meditation, purification,
rituals to communicate with the mythical period that the or personal transformation at sites like this Buddhist temple near
Aborigines call “Dreamtime,” the ritual use of ayahuasca is Hong Kong are accompanied by altered states of consciousness.
meant to cleanse the mind and body. When they are espe-
cially intense, such experiences can bring altered awareness varies greatly—from signs of “madness” and “possession”
and personal revelation (de Rios & Grob, 2005). by spirits to life-enhancing breakthroughs. Thus, cultural
People seek some altered states purely for pleasure or conditioning greatly affects what altered states we recognize,
escape, as is often true of drug intoxication. Yet as the UDV seek, consider normal, and attain (Cardeña et al., 2011).
illustrates, many cultures regard altered consciousness as Let’s continue with a more detailed look at two interest-
a pathway to personal enlightenment. Indeed, all cultures ing altered states, hypnosis and meditation, before turning
and most religions recognize and accept some alterations of our attention to sleep, dreams, and drug use and abuse in the
consciousness. However, the meaning given to these states sections that follow.

Hypnosis—Look into My Eyes

Survey Question 23.2 What is hypnosis? theories of “animal magnetism” were rejected, and he was
branded a fraud.
“Your body is becoming heavy. You can barely keep your
Ever since, stage hypnotists have entertained us with a
eyes open. You are so tired you can’t move. Relax. Let go.
combination of little or no hypnosis and a bit of deception.
Close your eyes and relax.” These are the last words that a
On stage, people are unusually cooperative because they don’t
textbook should ever say to you, and the first a hypnotist
want to “spoil the act.” As a result, they readily follow almost
might say. What do you know about hypnosis? Which of
any instruction given by the entertainer. After volunteers loos-
your beliefs are true? Which are myths? Is hypnosis real?
en up and respond to a few suggestions, they find that they are
Does it have any value?
suddenly the stars of the show. Audience response to the antics
Interest in hypnosis began in the 1700s with Austrian
on stage brings out the “ham” in many people. No hypnosis is
doctor Franz Mesmer, whose name gave us the term mes-
required; all the “hypnotist” needs to do is direct the action.
merize (to hypnotize). Mesmer believed that he could cure
disease with magnets. Mesmer’s strange “treatments” are
related to hypnosis because they relied on the power of Waking consciousness A state of clear, organized alertness.
Altered state of consciousness (ASC) A condition of awareness dis-
suggestion, not magnetism (Hammond, 2013). For a time, tinctly different in quality or pattern from waking consciousness.
Mesmer enjoyed quite a following. In the end, however, his

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196 p SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Like stage magicians, stage hypnotists also make liberal The best-known state theory of hypnosis was proposed
use of deception. One of the more impressive stage tricks by Ernest Hilgard (1904–2001), who argued that hypnosis
is to rigidly suspend a person between two chairs. This is causes a dissociative state, or “split” in awareness. To illus-
astounding only because the audience does not question it. trate, he asked hypnotized participants to plunge one hand
Anyone can do it, as is shown in the photographs and in- into a painful bath of ice water. Participants told to feel no
structions in ➤ Figure 23.1. Try it! pain said they felt none. The same participants were then
Entertainment aside, hypnosis is a real phenomenon. asked if any part of their mind did feel pain. With their free
The term hypnosis was coined by English surgeon James hand, many wrote, “It hurts,” or “Stop it, you’re hurting me,”
Braid. The Greek word hypnos means “sleep,” and Braid while they continued to act pain-free (Hilgard, 1977, 1994).
used it to describe the hypnotic state. Today, we know that Thus, one part of the hypnotized person says there is no pain
hypnosis is not sleep. Confusion about this point remains and acts as if there is none. Another part, which Hilgard calls
because some hypnotists give the suggestion, “Sleep, sleep.” the hidden observer, is aware of the pain but remains in the
However, brain activity recorded during hypnosis is differ- background. The hidden observer is a detached part of the
ent from that observed when a person is asleep or pretend- hypnotized person’s awareness that silently watches events.
ing to be hypnotized (Del Casale et al., 2012; Kihlstrom, In contrast, nonstate theorists argue that hypnosis is
2013; Oakley & Halligan, 2010). not a distinct state at all. Instead, it is merely a blend of
conformity, relaxation, imagination, obedience, and role-
Theories of hypnosis playing (Kirsch, 2005; Lynn & O’Hagen, 2009). For ex-
If hypnosis isn’t sleep, then what is it? That’s a good question. ample, many theorists believe that all hypnosis is really
Hypnosis is often defined as an altered state of conscious- self-hypnosis (autosuggestion). From this perspective, a
ness, characterized by focused attention, deep relaxation, hypnotist merely helps another person follow a series of
and an increased openness to suggestion (Kallio & Revonsuo, suggestions. These suggestions, in turn, alter sensations,
2003). Notice that this definition assumes that hypnosis is a perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Lynn &
distinct state of consciousness.

John Mitterer
Dennis Coon

To gain insight into autosuggestion, tie a string to a ring and hold

the ring at eye level, near your face. Don’t intentionally swing
the ring. Instead, concentrate and mentally push the ring ever
➤ Figure 23.1 so slightly away from you. Then release it and let it swing back
The chair suspension trick. Arrange three chairs as shown. toward you. Continue to mentally push and release the ring until it
Have someone recline as shown. Ask him or her to lift slightly is swinging freely. If the ring seems to move on its own, you used
while you remove the middle chair. Accept the applause gracefully! autosuggestion to influence your own behavior. Suggestions that
(Concerning hypnosis and similar phenomena, the moral, of course, the ring would swing caused your hand to make tiny micromuscular
is “Suspend judgment until you have something solid to stand on.”) movements. These, in turn, caused the ring to move.

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 MODU LE 23 C o n s C i o us n es s: states o f C o n s C i o us n es s 197

Kirsch, 2006). Autosuggestion also plays a role in many not act out hypnotic suggestions that they consider immoral
forms of self-therapy (Yapko, 2011). or repulsive, such as disrobing in public or harming some-
Regardless of which theoretical approach finally pre- one (Kirsch & Lynn, 1995).
vails, both views suggest that hypnosis can be explained
Hypnotic Susceptibility Can everyone be hypnotized? About
scientifically.
75 percent of people can be hypnotized, but only 40 percent will
The Reality of Hypnosis be good hypnotic participants. People who are imaginative and
prone to fantasy are often highly responsive to hypnosis (Hoeft
How is hypnosis done? Could I be hypnotized against my will?
et al., 2012; Kallio & Revonsuo, 2003). But people who lack
Hypnotists use many different methods. Still, all techniques
these traits also may be hypnotized. If you are willing to be hyp-
encourage a person to (1) focus attention on what is being
notized, chances are good that you could be. Hypnosis depends
said, (2) relax and feel tired, (3) “let go” and accept sugges-
more on the efforts and abilities of the hypnotized person than
tions easily, and (4) use a vivid imagination (Barabasz &
the skills of the hypnotist. But make no mistake: people who are
Watkins, 2005). Basically, you must cooperate to become
hypnotized are not merely faking their responses.
hypnotized.
Hypnotic susceptibility refers to how easily a person
What does it feel like to be hypnotized? You might be
can become hypnotized. It is measured by giving a series
surprised at some of your actions during hypnosis. You
of suggestions and counting the number of times a person
also might have mild feelings of floating, sinking, anes-
responds. A typical hypnotic test is the Stanford Hypnotic
thesia, or separation from your body. Personal experi-
Susceptibility Scale, shown in ■ Table 23.1. In the test,
ences vary widely. A key element in hypnosis is the basic
suggestion effect—a tendency of hypnotized persons to
Hypnosis Altered state of consciousness characterized by focused
carry out suggested actions as if they were involuntary.
attention, deep relaxation, and heightened suggestibility.
Hypnotized persons feel like their actions and experiences Hidden observer A detached part of the hypnotized person’s aware-
are automatic—they seem to happen without effort. ness that silently watches events.
Contrary to how hypnosis is portrayed in movies, hyp- Basic suggestion effect The tendency of hypnotized persons to carry
out suggested actions as if they were involuntary.
notized people generally remain in control of their behavior Hypnotic susceptibility One’s capacity for becoming hypnotized.
and aware of what is going on. For instance, most people will

Table 23.1 stanford Hypnotic susceptibility scale

Suggested Behavior Criterion of Passing

1. Postural sway Falls without forcing

2. Eye closure Closes eyes without forcing
3. Hand lowering (left) Lowers at least 6 inches by end of 10 seconds
4. Immobilization (right arm) Arm rises less than 1 inch in 10 seconds
5. Finger lock Incomplete separation of fingers at end of 10 seconds
6. Arm rigidity (left arm) Less than 2 inches of arm bending in 10 seconds
7. Hands moving together Hands at least as close as 6 inches after 10 seconds
8. Verbal inhibition (name) Name unspoken in 10 seconds
9. Hallucination (fly) Any movement, grimacing, acknowledgment of effect
10. Eye catalepsy Eyes remain closed at end of 10 seconds
11. Posthypnotic (changes chairs) Any partial movement response
12. Amnesia test Three or fewer items recalled
Adapted from Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard (1959).

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198 p SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

various suggestions are made, and the person’s response is deliberate attempt to avoid thinking about specific ideas.
noted. For instance, you might be told that your left arm is However, brief memory loss of this type does seem to
becoming more and more rigid and that it will not bend. If occur (Barnier, McConkey, & Wright, 2004).
you can’t bend your arm during the next 10 seconds, you 4. Pain relief. Hypnosis can relieve pain (Baad-Hansen
have shown susceptibility to hypnotic suggestions. et al., 2013; Hammond, 2008; Kohen, 2011). It can
Effects of Hypnosis What can (and cannot) be achieved be especially useful when chemical painkillers are
with hypnosis? Many abilities have been tested during hyp- ineffective. For instance, hypnosis can reduce phantom
nosis, leading to the following conclusions: limb pain (Oakley, Whitman, & Halligan, 2002). (As dis-
cussed in Module 19, amputees sometimes feel phantom
1. Physical ability. Hypnosis may improve some physical pain that seems to come from a missing limb.)
abilities in some sports (Tramontana, 2011), although 5. Sensory changes. Hypnotic suggestions concerning
it has no more effect on physical strength than instruc- sensations are among the most effective. Given the
tions that encourage a person to make his or her best proper instructions, a person can be made to smell a
effort (Chaves, 2000). small bottle of ammonia and respond as if it were a won-
2. Memory. Some evidence shows that hypnosis can derful perfume. It also is possible to alter color vision,
enhance memory (Wester & Hammond, 2011). hearing sensitivity, time sense, perception of illusions,
However, it frequently increases the number of false and many other sensory responses.
memories as well. For this reason, many states now bar
persons from testifying in court if they were hypnotized Like meditation, which we explore next, hypnosis is a valu-
to improve their memory of a crime that they witnessed. able tool in a variety of settings (Yapko, 2011). It can help
(For more information, see Module 32.) people relax, feel less pain, and make better progress in
therapy (Lynn, Kirsch, & Rhue, 2010). Generally, hypnosis
3. Amnesia. A person told not to remember something
is more successful at changing subjective experience than
heard during hypnosis may claim not to remember.
it is at modifying behaviors such as smoking or overeating.
In some instances, this may be nothing more than a

Meditation and Mindfulness—Chilling, the Healthy Way

Survey Question 23.3 Do meditation and mindfulness mindfulness meditation is “open,” or expansive. In this case,
have any benefits? you widen your attention to embrace a total, nonjudgmental
awareness of the world (Hölzel et al., 2011). An example is
Throughout history, meditation has been widely used as a
losing all self-consciousness while walking in the wilderness
means of altering consciousness through deep relaxation.
with a quiet and receptive mind. Although it may not seem
Let’s see how meditation works.
so, mindfulness meditation is more difficult to attain than
Meditation concentrative meditation. For this reason, we will discuss
concentrative meditation as a practical self-control method.
Meditation is a mental exercise used to alter consciousness.
In general, meditation heightens awareness and produc- Performing Concentrative Meditation How is con-
es relaxation by interrupting the typical flow of thoughts, centrative meditation done? The basic idea is to sit still and
worries, and analysis. People who use meditation to reduce quietly focus on some external object or on a repetitive
stress often report less daily physical tension and anxiety internal stimulus, such as your own breathing or humming.
(Hosemans, 2014; Vago & Nakamura, 2011). Brain scans Alternatively, you can silently repeat a mantra (a word used
(such as PET and fMRI) reveal changes in brain activity dur- as the focus of attention in concentrative meditation). Typi-
ing meditation, including the frontal lobes, which suggests cal mantras are smooth, flowing sounds that are easily re-
that it may be a distinct state of consciousness (Brewer et al., peated. A widely used mantra is the word om. A mantra
2011; Cahn & Polich, 2013). also could be any pleasant word or a phrase from a familiar
Meditation takes two major forms. In concentrative song, poem, or prayer. If other thoughts arise as you repeat
meditation, you attend to a single focal point, such as an a mantra, just return attention to it as often as necessary to
object, a thought, or your own breathing. In contrast, maintain meditation.

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 MoDU lE 23 c o n s c i o us n es s: stAtes o f c o n s c i o us n es s 199

The Relaxation Response Medical researcher Herbert

Benson believes that the core of meditation is the relaxation
response—an innate physiological pattern that opposes
your body’s fight-or-flight mechanisms (Chang, Dusek, &
Benson, 2011). Benson feels, quite simply, that most of us
have forgotten how to relax deeply. People in his experi-
ments learned to produce the relaxation response by follow-
ing instructions such as these:
Sit quietly and comfortably. Close your eyes. Relax your mus-
cles, beginning at your feet and progressing up to your head.
Relax them deeply. Become aware of breathing through your
nose. As you breathe out, say a word like “peace” silently to
yourself. Don’t worry about how successful you are in relax-
ing deeply. Just let relaxation happen at its own pace. Don’t
be surprised by distracting thoughts. When they occur, ig-
nore them and continue repeating “peace.” (Adapted from
Chang, Dusek, & Benson, 2011; Hölzel et al., 2011)

Meditation may be a good stress-control technique for

people who find it difficult to “turn off ” upsetting thoughts
when they need to relax. In one study, a group of college
students who received just 90 minutes of training in the re-
laxation response experienced greatly reduced stress levels
(Deckro et al., 2002). The physical benefits of meditation
include lowered heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension,
Pixtal/SuperStock

and other signs of stress (Zeidan et al., 2010), as well as im-

proved immune system activity (Davidson et al., 2003).
According to Shauna Shapiro and Roger Walsh (2006),
A sensory-deprivation chamber. Psychologists have used small
meditation has benefits beyond relaxation. Practiced regu- flotation tanks like this one to study the effects of mild sensory
larly, meditation may foster mental well-being and positive deprivation. Participants float in darkness and silence. The shallow,
mental skills such as clarity, concentration, and calm. In this body-temperature water contains hundreds of pounds of Epsom
salts, so participants float near the surface. Mild sensory deprivation
sense, meditation may share much in common with psy-
produces deep relaxation.
chotherapy. Indeed, research has shown that mindfulness
meditation relieves a variety of psychological disorders, drivers, and radar operators. When faced with limited or
from insomnia to excessive anxiety. It also can reduce ag- monotonous stimulation, people sometimes have bizarre
gression and the use of psychoactive drugs (Brewer et al., sensations, dangerous lapses in attention, and wildly distort-
2011; Shapiro & Walsh, 2006). Regular meditation may ed perceptions. Intense or prolonged sensory deprivation is
even help people develop better control over their attention, stressful and disorienting.
heightened self-awareness, and maturity (Hodgins & Adair, Yet, oddly enough, brief periods of sensory restriction
2010; Travis, Arenander, & DuBois, 2004). can produce a strong relaxation response (Bood et al., 2006).
Sensory Deprivation and Relaxation: Tranquility An hour or two spent in a flotation tank can cause a large
in a Tank Imagine floating in a tank of warm water, for a
short while, without the least bit of muscle tension.You can- Meditation Mental exercise for producing relaxation or heightened
awareness.
not hear anything, and it is pitch dark. You are experiencing
Concentrative meditation Mental exercise based on attending to a
brief sensory deprivation, a major reduction in the amount single object or thought.
or variety of sensory stimulation. Mindfulness meditation Mental exercise based on widening attention
What happens when stimulation is greatly reduced? A hint to become aware of everything experienced at any given moment.
Relaxation response The pattern of internal bodily changes that
comes from reports by prisoners in solitary confinement, occurs at times of relaxation.
Arctic explorers, high-altitude pilots, long-distance truck

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200 p SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

drop in blood pressure, muscle tension, chronic pain, and The Whole human: Mindfulness
other signs of stress (Bood et al., 2006; Kjellgren, Buhrkall, and Well-Being
& Norlander, 2011).
Did you “space out” anytime today? Most of us have occa-
Like other forms of meditation, mild sensory depri-
sional moments of reduced awareness. Mindfulness is the
vation also may help with more than relaxation. Deep
opposite of such mindless moments: It involves an open,
relaxation makes people more open to suggestion, and
nonjudgmental awareness of current experience. In other
sensory deprivation interrupts habitual behavior pat-
words, mindfulness is similar to the state that people who
terns. This can loosen belief systems, making it easi-
practice receptive meditation are trying to achieve. A person
er for people to quit smoking, lose weight, and reduce
who is mindful is fully present, moment by moment (Hölzel
their use of alcohol and drugs (Suedfeld & Borrie, 1999;
et al., 2011). She or he is acutely aware of every thought,
van Dierendonck & Te Nijenhuis, 2005). Mild sensory
emotion, or sensation, but does not judge it or react to it.
deprivation even shows promise as a way to stimulate
The person is fully “awake” and attuned to immediate real-
creative thinking and enhance sports and music perfor-
ity, just like Donnie that day at Yosemite.
mance skills (Norlander, Bergman, & Archer, 1998, 1999;
Psychologists interested in positive mental states have
Vartanian & Suedfeld, 2011).
begun to study the effects of mindfulness. For example, can-
Summary To summarize, research suggests that medita- cer patients who are taught mindfulness meditation have
tion, including mild sensory deprivation, is a way to elicit lower levels of distress and a greater sense of well-being
the relaxation response. For many people, sitting quietly (Jones et al., 2013). Similarly, being mindful makes it easier
and “resting” can be as effective. Similar stress reduction to quit smoking (Brewer et al., 2011). Such benefits apply
occurs when people set aside time daily to engage in other to healthy people, too. In general, mindfulness is associated
restful activities, such as muscle relaxation, positive day- with self-knowledge and well-being (Ameli, 2014; Friese,
dreaming, and even leisure reading. However, if you are Messner, & Schaffner, 2012). Anyone who has a tendency
the type of person who finds it difficult to ignore upsetting to sleepwalk through life—and that’s most of us at times—
thoughts, then concentrative meditation might be a good would be wise to be mindful of the value of mindfulness.
way to promote relaxation. Practiced regularly, meditation
and mild sensory isolation may even help improve overall
Mindfulness A state of open, nonjudgmental awareness of current
mental health—something almost everyone could use in experience.
our fast-paced society.

MODULE

23 Summary
23.1 What is consciousness? 23.1.3 Cultural conditioning greatly affects what altered
23.1.1 Consciousness is a core feature of mental life consist- states a person recognizes, seeks, considers normal,
ing of sensations and perceptions of external events and attains.
as well as self-awareness of mental events, including 23.2 What is hypnosis?
thoughts, memories, and feelings about experiences
23.2.1 Although not all psychologists agree, hypnosis is
and the self.
usually defined as an altered state characterized by
23.1.2 States of awareness that differ from normal, alert,
narrowed attention and increased suggestibility.
waking consciousness are called altered states of
23.2.2 Hypnosis appears capable of producing relaxation,
consciousness (ASCs). Altered states are especially
controlling pain, and altering perceptions. It also
associated with sleep and dreaming, hypnosis,
is more capable of changing subjective experiences
meditation, and psychoactive drugs.
than of changing habits, such as smoking.

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 MoDU lE 23 c o n s c i o us n es s: stAtes o f c o n s c i o us n es s 201

23.3 Do meditation and mindfulness have any 23.3.2 Major benefits of meditation are its ability to inter-
benefits? rupt anxious thoughts and to elicit the relaxation
23.3.1 Concentrative meditation can be used to focus response.
attention, alter consciousness, and reduce stress. 23.3.3 Mindfulness is a positive mental state that involves
Mindfulness meditation widens attention to achieve an open, nonjudgmental awareness of current
similar outcomes. experience.

Knowledge Builder Consciousness: States of Consciousness

Recite Reflect
1. Changes in the quality and pattern of mental activity Think Critically
define a(n) 7. Regular meditators report lower levels of stress and a
a. EEG greater sense of well-being. What other explanations
b. REM must we eliminate before this effect can be regarded as
c. SIDS genuine?
d. ASC
2. In Ernest Hilgard’s dissociative state theory of hypnosis, Self-Reflect
awareness is split between normal consciousness and Make a quick list of some altered states of consciousness that
a. disinhibition you have experienced. What do they have in common? How
b. autosuggestion are they different? What conditions caused them?
c. memory How have your beliefs about hypnosis changed after read-
d. the hidden observer ing the preceding section? Can you think of specific examples
3. Which of the following is most likely to be achieved via in which hypnosis was misrepresented—for example, in
hypnosis? movies or on television?
a. unusual strength Various activities can produce the relaxation response.
b. pain relief When do you experience states of deep relaxation, coupled
c. improved memory with a sense of serene awareness?
d. sleeplike brain waves
4. The focus of attention in concentrative meditation is AN SW E R S
“open,” or expansive. T or F? population.
5. Mantras are words said silently to oneself to end a session learn meditation may not be a representative sample of the general
of meditation. T or F? control for the placebo effect and the fact that those who choose to

6. The most immediate benefit of meditation appears to be

1. d 2. d 3. b 4. F 5. F 6. T 7. Studies on the effects of meditation must

its capacity for producing the relaxation response. T or F?

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MODULE

24 Consciousness
Sleep and Dreams

To Sleep, Perchance to Dream

Not all animals sleep, but like humans, those that do have power-
ful sleep needs. For example, dolphins must voluntarily breathe air,
which means they face the choice of staying awake or drowning. A
dolphin solves this problem by sleeping on just one side of its brain
at a time! The other half of the brain, which remains awake, controls
breathing.
Sleep is a necessity for dolphins, but how about humans? Of
course, sleep will give way temporarily, especially at times of great

Pacific Stock/Design Pics/Superstock

danger. As comedian and filmmaker Woody Allen once put it, “The
lion and the lamb shall lie down together, but the lamb will not
be very sleepy.” What is sleep? Why do we have to sleep, anyway?
What are dreams? Why do some people have trouble sleeping?
Let’s find out.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
24.1 What are the basic rhythms of sleep? 24.4 What are some sleep disorders and unusual sleep
24.2 Why do we sleep? events?
24.3 Do dreams have meaning?

Sleep Patterns and Stages—The Nightly Roller Coaster

Survey Question 24.1 What are the basic rhythms of Let’s begin to explore sleep (while awake, of course) by
sleep? tackling the most basic misunderstanding of all.
Each of us will spend some 25 years of life asleep. Because
sleep is familiar, many people think they know all about it. Sleep Patterns
But many commonsense beliefs about sleep are false. For ex- You sleep, dream occasionally, and wake up. What’s to know?
ample, you are not totally unresponsive during sleep. A sleep- Sleep is not as simple as it might seem. Scientific investiga-
ing mother may ignore a jet thundering overhead but wake tion has revealed a complex and still not completely under-
at the slightest whimper of her child. It’s even possible to do stood phenomenon. Sleep is an innate biological rhythm
simple tasks while asleep. In one experiment, people learned that never can be entirely ignored (Luyster et al., 2012).
to avoid an electric shock by touching a switch each time a Rhythms of sleep and waking are usually so steady that
tone sounded, without waking. (This is much like the basic they continue for many days, even when clocks and light–
survival skill of turning off your alarm clock without waking.) dark cycles are removed. However, under such conditions,

202
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 MODU LE 24 C o n s C i o us n es s: s le e p an d d r eam s 203

sleep to six hours awake—often can’t get to sleep when the

cycle calls for it. Adapting to longer-than-normal days is
more promising. Such days can be tailored to match natural
sleep patterns, which have a ratio of 2 to 1 between time
awake and time asleep (16 hours awake and 8 hours asleep).
For instance, one study showed that 28-hour “days” work
for some people. Overall, sleep patterns may be bent and

Keystone-France/Gamma-Keystone/Getty Images
stretched, but they rarely yield entirely to human whims
(Kaida et al., 2008; Åkerstedt, 2007).

Sleep Stages
Recordings of changes in electrical activity in the brain
(brain waves) reveal that sleep also progresses through sev-
eral stages every night (Pagel, 2012). When you are awake
and alert, the electroencephalograph (EEG) (eh-LEK-
Frenchman Michel Siffre has spent months at a time living in caves
deep underground without the usual external markers of night and
tro-en-SEF-uh-lo-graf) reveals a pattern of small, fast waves
day. He found that without these markers, his sleep cycles tended called beta waves (➤ Figure 24.1). Immediately before
to get longer. During one such stay, he settled into a 48-hour sleep– sleep, the pattern shifts to larger and slower waves called
waking cycle.
alpha waves. (Alpha waves also occur when you are relaxed
and allow your thoughts to drift.) As the eyes close, breathing
humans eventually shift to sleep–waking cycles that aver-
becomes slow and regular, the pulse rate slows, and body
age more than 24 hours (Czeisler et al., 1999; Eastman et al.,
temperature drops. Soon after, we descend into slow-wave
2012). This suggests that external time markers, especially
sleep through four distinct sleep stages.
light and dark, help tie our sleep rhythms to days that are ex-
actly 24 hours long. Otherwise, many of us would drift into Stage 1 As you enter light sleep (Stage 1 sleep), your
our own unusual sleep cycles (Kovrov et al., 2012). (Daily heart rate slows even more. Breathing becomes more
sleep cycles can also be disrupted by shift work and by rapid irregular. The muscles of your body relax. This may trigger
travel across time zones—jet lag. See Module 42.) a reflex muscle twitch called a hypnic (HIP-nik: sleep) jerk.
What is the normal range of sleep? The majority of us (This is quite normal, so have no fear about admitting to
sleep on a familiar seven-to eight-hour-per-night schedule. your friends that you fell asleep with a hypnic jerk.) In Stage 1
Only a small percentage of the population are short sleep- sleep, the EEG is made up mainly of small, irregular waves,
ers, averaging five hours of sleep or fewer per night. On the with some alpha waves. Persons awakened at this time may
other end of the scale, we find long sleepers, who doze nine or may not say that they were asleep.
hours or more (Grandner & Kripke, 2004). A few rare indi-
Stage 2 As sleep deepens, body temperature drops fur-
viduals can even get by on an hour or two of sleep a night—
ther. Also, the EEG begins to include sleep spindles, which
and feel perfectly fine. Urging everyone to sleep eight hours
are short bursts of distinctive brain-wave activity generated
would be like advising everyone to wear medium-size shoes.
We sleep less as we get older, right? Yes, total sleep time de- Biological rhythm Any repeating cycle of biological activity, such as
clines throughout life. Those older than 50 average only six sleep and waking cycles or changes in body temperature.
hours of sleep a night. In contrast, infants spend up to 20 hours Electroencephalograph (EEG) Device that records electrical activ-
ity in the brain.
a day sleeping, usually in two- to four-hour cycles. As they ma- Beta waves Small, fast brain waves associated with being awake and
ture, most children go through a nap stage and eventually settle alert.
into a steady cycle of sleeping once a day. Perhaps we should all Alpha waves Large, slow brain waves associated with relaxation and
falling asleep.
continue to take an afternoon siesta. Midafternoon sleepiness is
Sleep stages Levels of sleep identified by brain-wave patterns and
a natural part of the sleep cycle. Brief, well-timed naps can help behavioral changes.
maintain alertness in people such as truck drivers and hospital Light sleep (Stage 1 sleep) Marked by small, irregular brain waves
interns, who often must fight to stay alert (Ficca et al., 2010). and some alpha waves.
Sleep spindles Distinctive bursts of brain-wave activity that indicate
Busy people may be tempted to sleep less. However, a person is asleep.
people on shortened cycles—for example, three hours of

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204 P SyChOLO Gy m o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

by the thalamus (Caporro et al., 2012). Sleep spindles may

help prevent the sleeping brain from being aroused by exter-
nal stimuli, thus marking the true boundary of sleep (Dang-
Vu et al., 2010). Within a few minutes after spindles appear,
most people will say they were asleep.
Stage 3 In Stage 3, very large and slow delta waves begin
to appear. They signal a move to deeper slow-wave sleep and
a further loss of consciousness.

ASTIER-CHRU LILLE/BSIP
Stage 4 Most people reach deep sleep (Stage 4 sleep)—
the deepest level of normal sleep—in about an hour. Stage 4
brain waves are almost pure slow-wave delta, and the sleeper
is in a state of oblivion. If a sleeper hears a loud noise during
(a) Stage 4, he or she will wake up in a state of confusion and
may not remember the noise.
Awake Beta waves
REM Sleep, Dreaming, and REM Rebound There is
Eyes closed,
much more to a night’s sleep, however, than a simple descent
Alpha waves
relaxed into Stage 4. Fluctuations in sleep hormones cause four or
Small, irregular five recurring cycles of deeper and lighter sleep through-
Stage 1 waves out the night (Steiger, 2007; ➤ Figure 24.2). During these
repeated periods of lighter sleep, a curious thing happens:
Stage 2 Sleep spindles
the sleeper’s eyes occasionally move under the eyelids. If you
Delta waves ever get a chance to watch a sleeping child, roommate, or
Stage 3 appear spouse, you may see these rapid eye movements (REMs).
In addition, REM sleep is marked by a return of high-
Stage 4 Mostly delta
frequency brain waves similar to Stage 1 sleep. In fact, the
brain is so active during REM sleep that it looks as if the
(b)
person is awake.
➤ Figure 24.1
In particular, brain areas associated with imagery and
Stages of sleep. (a) Photograph of an EEG recording session. The
emotion become more active (Gujar et al., 2011). It is, there-
boy in the background is asleep. (b) Changes in brain-wave patterns
associated with various stages of sleep. Most wave types are present at fore, likely no coincidence that REM sleep is also associated
all times, but they occur more or less frequently in various sleep stages. with dreaming. Although not all people remember their

Hours of sleep
24 Hours
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Awake

1 REM
NREM
Sleep stages

NREM 2

Awake REM NREM 3

NREM 4

Dreams

(a) (b)

➤ Figure 24.2
REM and NREM sleep. (a) Average proportion of time that adults spend daily in REM sleep and NREM sleep. REM periods add up to about
20 percent of total sleep time. (b) Typical changes in stages of sleep during the night. Note that dreams mostly coincide with REM periods.

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 MODU LE 24 C o n s C i o us n es s: s le e p an d d r eam s 205

dreams upon awakening in the morning, people awakened some hilarious—and dangerous—nighttime escapades.
during REMs report vivid dreams roughly 85 percent of the When it fails, some people thrash violently, leap out of bed,
time. In fact, “nondreamers” are often surprised by their and may attack their bed partners. A lack of muscle paralysis
dreams when first awakened during REM sleep. during REM sleep is called REM behavior disorder (Neikrug
REM dreaming is often accompanied by eye move- & Ancoli-Israel, 2012). One patient suffering from the disor-
ments. Dream that you are watching a tennis match, and you der tied himself to his bed every night. That way, he couldn’t
will probably move your eyes from side to side. REM sleep jump up and crash into furniture or walls (Shafton, 1995).
is easy to observe in pets, such as dogs and cats. Watch for How important are REM sleep and dreaming? To answer
eye and face movements and irregular breathing. (You can this question, sleep expert William Dement awakened vol-
forget about your pet iguana, though. Reptiles show no signs unteers each time they entered REM sleep. Soon, their need
of REM sleep.) for “dream time” grew more urgent. By the fifth night, many
What else happens to the body when a person dreams? had to be awakened 20 or 30 times to prevent REM sleep.
REM sleep is a time of high emotion (Gujar et al., 2011). The When the volunteers were finally allowed to sleep undis-
heart beats irregularly. Blood pressure and breathing waver. turbed, they dreamed extra amounts. This effect, called a
Both males and females appear to be sexually aroused. This REM rebound, explains why alcoholics have horrible night-
occurs for all REM sleep, so it is not strictly related to erotic mares after they quit drinking. Alcohol reduces sleep qual-
dreams. ity by suppressing REM sleep, thus setting up a powerful
Paradoxically, during REM sleep, your body becomes rebound when it is withdrawn (Stein & Friedmann, 2005).
quite still, as if you were paralyzed. To understand why, The two most basic states of sleep, then, are non-REM
imagine for a moment the results of acting out some of your (NREM) sleep, which occurs during all four sleep stages,
recent dreams. Very likely, REM-sleep paralysis prevents and REM sleep, with its associated dreaming (Rock, 2004).

Functions of Sleep—Catching a Few ZZZs

Survey Question 24.2 Why do we sleep? remember clearly, or name common objects (Coren, 1996).
Sleep loss also typically causes trembling hands, drooping
It has long been thought that sleep helps keep the body, in-
eyelids, inattention, irritability, staring, increased pain
cluding the brain, healthy by regulating its temperature and
sensitivity, and general discomfort (Doran, Van Dongen,
immune system, conserving energy, and aiding develop-
& Dinges, 2001).
ment and repair (Faraut et al., 2011; Ingiosi, Opp, & Krueger,
Most people experience hypersomnia (hi-per-SOM-
2013; Irwin, 2015). According to repair/restorative theories
nee-ah), or excessive daytime sleepiness, after even a few
of sleep, lowering body and brain activity and metabolism
hours of sleep loss (Centers for Disease Control, 2012).
during sleep may help replenish and conserve energy and
Hypersomnia is a common problem during adolescence
lengthen life.

The Need for Sleep

Delta waves Large, slow brain waves that occur in deeper sleep
How important is the need for sleep? Very important. For ex- (Stages 3 and 4).
ample, a rare genetic disease that prevents sleep (known as Deep sleep (Stage 4 sleep) The deepest form of normal sleep.
fatal familial insomnia) always ends with stupor, coma, and Rapid eye movements (REMs) Swift eye movements during sleep.
REM sleep Stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, high-
death (Zhang et al., 2010). With few exceptions, four days or frequency brain waves, and dreaming.
more without sleep becomes hell for everyone. The world REM rebound The occurrence of extra rapid eye movement sleep
record is held by Randy Gardner, who at age 17 went about following REM sleep deprivation.
11 days without sleep. Surprisingly, Randy needed only Non-REM (NREM) sleep Non–rapid eye movement sleep charac-
teristic of sleep Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4.
14 hours of sleep to recover. As Randy found, most of the Repair/restorative theories of sleep Proposals that lowering body
symptoms of sleep deprivation, or sleep loss, are reversed and brain activity and metabolism during sleep may help con-
by a single night’s rest (Sallinen et al., 2008). serve energy and lengthen life.
Sleep deprivation Being prevented from getting desired or needed
What are the costs of sleep loss? At various times,
amounts of sleep.
Randy’s speech was slurred, and he couldn’t concentrate,

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206 P SyChOLO Gy m o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

(Carskadon, Acebo, & Jenni, 2004; Kotagal, 2012). Rapid help you remember what you learned the day before (Holz
physical changes during puberty increase the need for sleep et al., 2012; Saxvig et al., 2008).
even though the quality and quantity of sleep time tends to
The Function of NREM Sleep NREM sleep is dream
decrease during the teen years.
free about 90 percent of the time and is deepest early in the
Most people who have not slept for a day or two can
night during the first few Stage 4 periods. Your first period
still do interesting or complex mental tasks. But they have
of Stage 1 sleep also usually lacks REMs and dreams. Later
trouble paying attention, staying alert, and doing simple
Stage 1 periods typically include a shift into REM sleep.
or boring routines (Trujillo, Kornguth, & Schnyer, 2009).
Dreamless, slow-wave NREM sleep increases after physical
They also are susceptible to microsleeps, which are brief
exertion and may help us recover from bodily fatigue. It also
shifts in brain activity to the pattern normally recorded
appears to calm the brain, in part to begin memory consoli-
during sleep. Imagine placing an animal on a moving
dation during the earlier part of a night’s sleep (Diekelmann
treadmill, over a pool of water. Even under these condi-
& Born, 2010; Holz et al., 2012).
tions, animals soon drift into repeated microsleeps. For a
The basic idea is that we are bombarded by informa-
pilot or machine operator, this can spell disaster (Hard-
tion throughout the day, which causes our neural networks
away & Gregory, 2005; Kaida et al., 2008). If a task is mo-
to become more and more active. As a result, your brain
notonous (such as factory work or air traffic control), no
requires more and more energy to continue functioning.
amount of sleep loss is safe.
Slow-wave sleep early in the night brings overall brain ac-
When you drive, remember that microsleeps can lead
tivation levels back down, allowing a fresh approach to the
to macro-accidents. Even if your eyes are open, you can fall
next day.
asleep for a few seconds. About 72,000 crashes every year are
Consider for a moment the rich jumble of events that
caused by sleepiness (Centers for Disease Control, 2015b).
make up a day. Some experiences are worth remembering
Although coffee helps (Kamimori et al., 2005), if you are
(like what you are reading right now, of course), and oth-
struggling to stay awake while driving, you should stop, quit
ers are not so important (like which sock you put on first
fighting it, and take a short nap.
this morning). As slow-wave sleep reduces overall activation
Severe sleep loss can even cause a temporary sleep-
in the brain, less important experiences may fade away and
deprivation psychosis—a loss of contact with reality.
be forgotten. If you wake up feeling clearer about what you
Confusion, disorientation, delusions, and hallucinations are
studied the previous night, it might be because your brain
typical of this reaction. Fortunately, such “crazy” behavior
doesn’t “sweat the small stuff ”!
is uncommon. Hallucinations and delusions rarely appear
before 60 hours of wakefulness (Naitoh, Kelly, & Englund, The Function of REM Sleep What role does REM sleep
1989; Szpak & Allen, 2012). play in memory formation? Whereas NREM sleep may calm
How can I tell how much sleep I really need? Pick a day the brain, REM sleep appears to sharpen or complete the
when you feel well rested. Then sleep that night until you consolidation of our memories of the previous day’s more
wake without an alarm clock. If you feel rested when you important experiences (Diekelmann & Born, 2010; Saxvig
wake up, that’s your natural sleep need. If you’re sleeping et al., 2008). During the day, when information is stream-
fewer hours than you need, you’re building up a sleep debt ing in, the brain may be too busy to efficiently select use-
(Basner & Dinges, 2009). ful memories. When the conscious brain is “off-line,” we
may be better able to identify and solidify important new
memories. Daytime stress tends to increase REM sleep,
Sleep and Memory which may rise dramatically when there is a death in the
Why do we keep cycling between NREM and REM sleep family, trouble at work, a marital conflict, or other emo-
throughout the night? According to one theory, NREM tionally charged events. The value of more REM sleep, then,
and REM sleep together play a role in memory formation may be that it helps us sort and retain memories, especially
by calming the brain and sharpening important memories memories about strategies for solving problems (Walker &
(Cipolli, Mazzetti, & Plazzi, 2013). Don’t expect to learn math, Stickgold, 2006; Stickgold, 2013). This is why, after study-
a foreign language, or other complex skills while asleep— ing for a long period, you may remember more if you go to
especially if the snooze takes place in class (González-Vallejo sleep rather than pulling an all-nighter. (REMember to get
et al., 2008). But do expect that a good period of sleep will some REM!)

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 MODU LE 24 C o n s C i o us n es s: s le e p an d d r eam s 207

Dreams—A Separate Reality?

Survey Question 24.3 Do dreams have meaning?

Here’s what we know so far: Most people go into REM sleep

and, hence, dream four or five times a night, at roughly
90-minute intervals. We also know that REM sleep may
help us consolidate important memories. To conclude our
discussion of sleep, let’s consider an age-old question about
dreaming: How meaningful are dreams?

Dream Theories
Some theorists believe that dreams have deeply hidden
meanings. Others regard dreams as nearly meaningless.
Yet others hold that dreams reflect our waking thoughts,
fantasies, and emotions (Hartmann, 2011). Let’s examine all

© Bruce Rolff/Shutterstock.com
three views.
Psychodynamic Dream Theory Psychodynamic
theories of dreaming emphasize internal conflicts and un-
conscious forces (Fischer & Kächele, 2009). Sigmund Freud’s
(1900) landmark book, The Interpretation of Dreams, first According to psychodynamic theory, dream imagery often has
advanced the idea that many dreams are based on wish symbolic meaning. How would you interpret this dreamlike image?
The fact that dreams don’t have a single unambiguous meaning is
fulfillment—an expression of unconscious desires. One of one of the shortcomings of Freudian dream theory.
Freud’s key proposals was that dreams express unconscious
desires and conflicts as disguised dream symbols—images are blocked from reaching the body (remember sleep pa-
that have deeper symbolic meaning. Understanding a dream, ralysis?), so no movement occurs. Nevertheless, the cen-
then, requires analyzing the dream’s manifest content, ters continue to tell higher brain areas of their activities.
or obvious, visible meaning, to uncover its latent content, Struggling to interpret this random information, the brain
or hidden, symbolic meaning. searches through stored memories and manufactures (syn-
For instance, a woman who dreams of stealing her best thesizes) a dream. Because frontal areas of the cortex, which
friend’s wedding ring and placing it on her own hand may control higher mental abilities, are mostly shut down dur-
be unwilling to consciously admit that she is sexually attracted ing REM sleep, the resulting dreams are more primitive and
to her best friend’s husband. Similarly, a journey might more bizarre than daytime thoughts (Hobson, 2000, 2005).
symbolize death, and horseback riding or dancing could
symbolize sexual intercourse. (Interpreting dreams is an
important part of Freudian psychoanalysis. See Module 66). Microsleep A brief shift in brain-wave patterns to those of sleep.
Sleep-deprivation psychosis A major disruption of mental and
Do all dreams have hidden meanings? Probably not. emotional functioning brought about by sleep loss.
Freud realized that many dreams are trivial “day residues” Psychodynamic theory Any theory of behavior that emphasizes
or carryovers from ordinary waking events. On the other internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces.
hand, dreams do tend to reflect a person’s current concerns, Wish fulfillment Freudian belief that many dreams express uncon-
scious desires.
so Freud wasn’t entirely wrong. Dream symbols Images in dreams that serve as visible signs of hid-
den ideas, desires, impulses, emotions, relationships, and so forth.
The Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis Psychiatrists
Manifest content (of dreams) The surface, “visible” content of a
Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley have a radically dif- dream; dream images as the dreamer remembers them.
ferent view of dreaming, called the activation-synthesis Latent content (of dreams) The hidden or symbolic meaning of a
hypothesis. They believe that during REM sleep, several dream, as revealed by dream interpretation and analysis.
Activation-synthesis hypothesis Proposition that dreams are how
lower brain centers are “turned on” (activated) in more or brains process the random electrical discharges of REM sleep.
less random fashion. However, messages from those centers

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208 P SyChOLO Gy m o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

How does that help explain dream content? According Wilkinson, 2006). A striking example is provided by Dr. Otto
to the activation-synthesis hypothesis, dreams are usually Loewi, a Nobel Prize winner. Loewi had spent years study-
meaningless. Let’s use the classic chase dream as an exam- ing the chemical transmission of nerve impulses. A tremen-
ple. In such dreams, we feel that we are running but not go- dous breakthrough in his research came when he dreamed
ing anywhere. This occurs because the brain is told that the of an experiment three nights in a row. On the third night,
body is running, but it gets no feedback from the motion- he got up after having the dream, went straight to his labora-
less legs. To try to make sense of this information, the brain tory, and performed the crucial experiment. Loewi later said
creates a chase drama. A similar process probably explains that if the experiment had occurred to him while awake, he
dreams of floating or flying. would have rejected it.
So dreams have no meaning? The activation-synthesis
hypothesis rejects the idea that dreams are deliberate, mean- Dreams and Creativity Loewi’s experience suggests
ingful messages from our unconscious. However, it does not that it is possible to use dreams for your own purposes
rule out the possibility that we can find meaning in some (Stickgold & Walker, 2004). The ability to take advantage
dreams. Because dreams are created from memories and of dreams for problem solving is improved if you “set”
past experiences, parts of dreams can sometimes reflect yourself before retiring for the night. Before you go to bed,
each person’s mental life, emotions, and concerns (Hobson, try to visualize or think intently about a problem that you
2000). want to solve. Steep yourself in the problem by stating it
clearly and reviewing all relevant information. Although
Neurocognitive Dream Theory Can’t dreams just be this method is not guaranteed to lead to dreams about
about everyday stuff? Yes, they can. According to William a novel solution or a new insight, it is certain to be an
Domhoff ’s neurocognitive dream theory, dreams have adventure.
much in common with waking thoughts and emotions.
Domhoff believes this is true because many brain areas that Lucid Dreaming Creative dreaming can be further en-
are active when we are awake remain active during dream- hanced if you learn lucid dreaming, a relatively rare but
ing (Domhoff, 2003, 2011). From this perspective, our fascinating experience (Stumbrys et al., 2012). During a
dreams are a conscious expression of REM sleep process- lucid dream, a person feels as if she or he is fully awake
es that are sorting and storing daily experiences (Levin & within the dream world and capable of normal thought
Nielsen, 2009; Klinger, 2013). Speaking very loosely, it’s as and action. If you ask yourself, “Could this be a dream?”
if the dreaming brain were reviewing messages left on voice and answer “Yes,” you are having a lucid dream (Dresler
mail to decide which are worth keeping. Thus, we shouldn’t et al., 2012). A lucid dreamer can actually change a dream
be surprised if a student who is angry at a teacher dreams of while dreaming, potentially transforming dreaming into a
embarrassing the teacher in class, a lonely person dreams of “research laboratory” of sorts (LaBerge, 2014; Paulsson &
romance, or a hungry child dreams of food. It is not neces- Parker, 2006).
sary to seek deeper symbolic meanings to understand these For example, a woman who kept dreaming that she
dreams. was being swallowed by a giant wave decided to try swim-
ming the next time the wave engulfed her. She did, with
Dream Worlds great determination, and the dream evaporated. More
Which dream theory is the most widely accepted? Each theo- importantly, her revised dream made her feel that she
ry has strengths and weaknesses (Hobson & Schredl, 2011; could cope with life again. For reasons such as this, people
MacDuffie & Mashour, 2010). However, studies of dream who have lucid dreams tend to feel a sense of emotional
content tend to support neurocognitive theory’s focus on well-being (Taitz, 2011). Dream expert Allan Hobson be-
the continuity between dreams and waking thought. Rather lieves that learning to voluntarily enter altered states of
than seeming exotic or bizarre, most dreams reflect every- consciousness (through lucid dreaming or self-hypnosis,
day events (Domhoff & Schneider, 2008; Pesant & Zadra, for example) has allowed him to have enlightening expe-
2006). For example, athletes tend to dream about the previ- riences without the risks of taking mind-altering drugs
ous day’s athletic activities (Erlacher & Schredl, 2004). (Hobson, 2009).
Nevertheless, many psychologists continue to believe We will now turn our attention to a survey of some ad-
that some dreams have deeper meanings (Halliday, 2010; ditional sleep problems—if you are still awake.

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 MODU LE 24 C o n s C i o us n es s: s le e p an d d r eam s 209

Sleep Troubles—The Sleepy Time Blues

Survey Question 24.4 What are some sleep disorders and Types and Causes of Insomnia Worry, stress, and
unusual sleep events? excitement can cause temporary insomnia and a self-
defeating cycle. First, excess mental activity (“I can’t stop
Sleep quality has taken a beating in North America. Arti-
turning things over in my mind”) and heightened arousal
ficial lighting, frenetic schedules, exciting pastimes, smok-
block sleep. Then, frustration and anger over not being able
ing, drinking, overstimulation, and many other factors have
to sleep cause more worry and arousal. This further delays
contributed to a near epidemic of sleep problems. Sleep-
sleep, which causes more frustration, and so on (Sunnhed &
wake disorders include difficulties falling asleep, staying
Jansson-Fröjmark, 2014). A good way to interupt this cycle
asleep, waking up, or any combination of these. They range
is to avoid fighting it. Get up and do something useful or
from daytime sleep attacks to sleepwalking and terrifying
satisfying when you can’t sleep. (Reading a textbook might
nightmares (■ Table 24.1). Let’s explore a few of the sleep
be a good choice of useful activities.) Return to bed only
problems that some people face.
when you begin to feel that you are struggling to stay awake.
If sleeping problems last for more than three weeks, then a
Insomnia Disorder diagnosis of chronic insomnia can be made.
No one wants to lie awake staring at the ceiling at 2 a.m. Yet,
about 40 million Americans have chronic insomnia, while
Neurocognitive dream theory Proposal that dreams reflect everyday
another 20 million have occasional problems with sleep
waking thoughts and emotions.
(National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Lucid dream A dream in which the dreamer feels awake and capable
2014). Insomnia includes difficulty in getting to sleep or of normal thought and action.
staying asleep (such as frequent nighttime awakenings or Sleep–wake disorders Difficulties falling asleep, staying asleep, wak-
ing up, or any combination of these, such as insomnia disorder.
waking too early). Insomnia can harm people’s work, health, Insomnia Difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep.
and relationships (Ebben & Spielman, 2009).

Table 24.1 sleep disturbances—some of the Things That Go Wrong in the night

Insomnia disorder Difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep; also, not feeling rested after sleeping.
Hypersomnolence disorder Excessive daytime sleepiness. This can result from depression, insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep
apnea, sleep drunkenness, periodic limb movements, drug abuse, and other problems.
Narcolepsy Sudden, irresistible, daytime sleep attacks that may last anywhere from a few minutes to a half-
hour. Victims may fall asleep while standing, talking, or even driving.
Sleep apnea During sleep, breathing stops for 20 seconds or more until the person wakes a little, gulps in air,
and settles back to sleep; this cycle may be repeated hundreds of times per night.
Circadian rhythm sleep–wake A mismatch between the sleep–wake schedule demanded by a person’s bodily rhythm and that
disorders demanded by the environment.
Sleep walking During NREM sleep, a person engages in activities that are normally engaged in while awake.
Sleep terrors The repeated occurrence of night terrors that significantly disturb sleep.
Nightmare disorder Vivid, recurrent nightmares that significantly disturb sleep.
REM sleep behavior disorder A failure of normal muscle paralysis, leading to violent actions during REM sleep.
Restless legs syndrome An irresistible urge to move the legs to relieve sensations of creeping, tingling, prickling, aching,
or tension.
Source: American Psychiatric Association (2013).

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210 P SyChOLO Gy m o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

1. Stimulus control. Insisting on a regular schedule helps

establish a firm body rhythm, greatly improving sleep.
This is best achieved by exercising stimulus control,
which refers to linking a response with specific stimuli.
It is important to get up and go to sleep at the same time

Barbara Smaller/The New Yorker Collection /Cartoon Bank.Com

each day, including weekends (Vincent, Lewycky, &
Finnegan, 2008). In addition, insomniacs should avoid
doing anything but sleeping when they are in bed. They
are not to study, eat, watch television, read, pay the bills,
worry, or even think in bed. (Lovemaking is okay, how-
ever.) In this way, only sleeping and relaxation become
associated with going to bed at specific times.
2. Sleep restriction. Even if an entire night’s sleep is
missed, it is important not to sleep late in the morn-
ing, nap more than an hour, sleep during the evening, or
go to bed early the following night. Instead, restricting
sleep to normal bedtime hours avoids fragmenting sleep
rhythms (Vincent, Lewycky, & Finnegan, 2008).
Drug-dependency insomnia (sleep loss caused by with- 3. Paradoxical intention. Another helpful approach is to
drawal from sleeping pills) also can occur. There is real remove the pressures of trying to go to sleep. Instead, the
irony in the billion dollars a year that North Americans goal becomes trying to keep the eyes open (in the dark)
spend on sleeping pills. Nonprescription sleeping pills and stay awake as long as possible (Nau & Lichstein,
such as Sominex, Nytol, and Sleep-Eze have little sleep- 2005). This allows sleep to come unexpectedly and low-
inducing effect. Barbiturates are even worse. These pre- ers performance anxiety (Taylor & Roane, 2010).
scription sedatives decrease both Stage 4 sleep and REM 4. Relaxation. Some insomniacs lower their arousal before
sleep, drastically lowering sleep quality. In addition, sleep by using a physical or mental strategy for relaxing,
many users become “sleeping-pill junkies” who need an such as progressive muscle relaxation (see Module 67
ever-greater number of pills to get to sleep. Victims must for more information), meditation, or blotting out wor-
be painstakingly weaned from their sleep medicines. ries with calming images. It also is helpful to schedule
Otherwise, terrible nightmares and rebound insomnia may time in the early evening to write down worries or con-
drive them back to drug use. cerns and plan what to do about them the next day in
It’s worth remembering that although alcohol and other order to set them aside before going to bed.
depressant drugs may help a person get to sleep, they greatly 5. Exercise. Strenuous exercise during the day promotes
reduce sleep quality (Nau & Lichstein, 2005). Even newer sleep (Brand et al., 2010). However, exercise within three
drugs, such as Ambien and Lunesta, which induce sleep, to six hours of sleep is helpful only if it is very light.
have drawbacks. Possible side effects include amnesia, im- 6. Food intake. What you eat can affect how easily you get
paired judgment, increased appetite, decreased sex drive, to sleep. Eating starchy foods increases the amount of
depression, and even sleepwalking, sleep eating, and sleep tryptophan (TRIP-tuh-fan: an amino acid) reaching the
driving, making these drugs a temporary remedy at best. brain. More tryptophan, in turn, increases the amount
Behavioral Remedies for Insomnia If sleeping pills are of serotonin in the brain, which is associated with relax-
a poor way to treat insomnia, what can be done? It is usually ation, a positive mood, and sleepiness (Silber & Schmitt,
better to treat insomnia with lifestyle changes and behav- 2010). Thus, to promote sleep, try eating a starchy snack,
ioral techniques (McGowan & Behar, 2013; Montgomery such as bread, pasta, or dry cereal. If you really want to
& Dennis, 2004). Treatment for chronic insomnia usually drop the bomb on insomnia, try eating a baked potato
begins with a careful analysis of a patient’s sleep habits, life- (which may be the world’s largest sleeping pill!).
style, stress levels, and medical problems. All the approaches 7. Stimulant avoidance. Stimulants, such as coffee and ciga-
discussed in the following list are helpful for treating insom- rettes, should be avoided. It also is worth remembering that
nia (Ebben & Spielman, 2009; Nau & Lichstein, 2005): alcohol, although not a stimulant, impairs sleep quality.

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 MODU LE 24 C o n s C i o us n es s: s le e p an d d r eam s 211

Sleepwalking, Sleeptalking, How to Eliminate a Nightmare Is there any way to stop

and Sleepsex a recurring nightmare? A bad nightmare can be worse than
any horror movie. It’s easy to leave a theater, but we often
Sleepsex? As strange as it may seem, many waking behaviors
remain trapped in terrifying dreams. Frequently occurring
can be engaged in while asleep, such as driving a car, cooking,
nightmares (one a week or more) are associated with higher
playing a musical instrument, and eating (Plazzi et al., 2005).
levels of psychological distress (Levin & Fireman, 2002).
The most common, sleepwalking, is eerie and fascinating in
Nevertheless, most nightmares can be banished by follow-
its own right (Banerjee & Nisbet, 2011). Somnambulists
ing three simple steps. First, write down your nightmare, de-
(som-NAM-bue-lists: those who sleepwalk) avoid obstacles,
scribing it in detail. Next, change the dream any way you wish,
descend stairways, and on rare occasions may step out of
making sure to spell out the details of the new dream. The third
windows or in front of automobiles. Sleepwalkers have been
step is imagery rehearsal, in which you mentally rehearse the
observed jumping into lakes, urinating in garbage pails or
changed dream before you fall asleep again (Krakow & Zadra,
closets (phew!), shuffling furniture around, and even bran-
2006). Imagery rehearsal may work because confronting upset-
dishing weapons (Schenck & Mahowald, 2005).
ting dreams may reduce their impact. Or perhaps it mentally
The sleepwalker’s eyes are usually open, but a blank face
“reprograms” future dream content. In any case, the technique
and shuffling feet reveal that the person is still asleep. If you
has helped many people (Hansen et al., 2013; Harb et al., 2012).
find someone sleepwalking, you should gently guide the
person back to bed. Awakening a sleepwalker does no harm,
but it is not necessary. Sleep Apneas
Does sleepwalking occur during dreaming? No. Remem- Some sage once said, “Laugh and the whole world laughs
ber that people are normally immobilized during REM with you; snore and you sleep alone.” While frequent snor-
sleep. EEG studies have shown that somnambulism occurs ing is often harmless, it can signal a serious problem. A per-
during NREM Stages 3 and 4 (Kalat, 2016; Stein & Ferber, son who snores loudly, with short silences and loud gasps
2001). Sleeptalking also occurs mostly during NREM sleep. or snorts, may suffer from apnea (AP-nee-ah: interrupted
The link with deep sleep explains why sleeptalking makes breathing). In sleep apnea, breathing stops for periods of
little sense and why sleepwalkers are confused and remem- 20 seconds to 2 minutes. As the need for oxygen becomes
ber little when awakened. intense, the person wakes a little and gulps in air. She or he
Oh, yes, you’re curious about sleepsex. Sexsomnia then settles back to sleep. But soon, breathing stops again.
is not as exciting as it might sound. Just imagine being This cycle is repeated hundreds of times a night. As you
startled wide awake by your bed partner, who is asleep, at- might guess, apnea victims are extremely sleepy during the
tempting to have sex with you (Andersen et al., 2007; Klein day. They also can have a harder time functioning during
& Houlihan, 2010). the day (Grenèche et al., 2011) and, in the long run, may suf-
fer damage to their oxygen-hungry brains (Joo et al., 2010).
Nightmare Disorder and Night Terrors What causes sleep apnea? Central sleep apnea occurs
Stage 4 sleep is also the realm of night terrors. These fright- because the brain stops sending signals to the diaphragm
ening episodes are quite different from ordinary night- to maintain breathing. Obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea
mares. A nightmare is simply a bad dream that takes syndrome is blockage of the upper air passages. One of the
place during REM sleep. During a Stage 4 night terror, a most effective treatments is the use of a continuous posi-
person suffers total panic and may hallucinate frightening tive airway pressure (CPAP) mask to aid breathing during
dream images into the bedroom. An attack may last 15 or sleep. The resulting improvement in sleep is often followed
20 minutes. When it is over, the person awakens drenched in by improved daytime function (Ferini-Strambi et al., 2013;
sweat but only vaguely remembers the terror. Because night Tregear et al., 2010). Other treatments include weight loss
terrors occur during NREM sleep (when the body is not and surgery for breathing obstructions.
immobilized), victims may sit up, scream, get out of bed,
or run around the room. Victims remember little afterward. Stimulus control Linking a particular response with specific stimuli.
(Other family members, however, may have a story to tell.) Somnambulists People who sleepwalk; occurs during NREM sleep.
Although night terrors are more common in childhood, Nightmare A bad dream that occurs during REM sleep.
Night terror A state of panic during NREM sleep.
they are not uncommon in adulthood (Belicki, Chambers, Sleep apnea Disorder in which a person stops breathing during sleep.
& Ogilvie, 1997; Kataria, 2004).

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212 P SyChOLO Gy m o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

SIDS Sleep apnea is suspected as one cause of sudden Narcolepsy

infant death syndrome (SIDS), or “crib death.” In the “typi-
Narcolepsy (NAR-koe-lep-see), or sudden, irresistible sleep
cal” crib death, a slightly premature or small baby with some
attacks, is one of the most dramatic sleep problems. Victims
signs of a cold or cough is put to bed. A short time later,
may fall asleep anywhere for a few minutes to a half-hour,
parents find the child has died. A baby deprived of air will
during alert, daytime activities such as standing, talking,
normally struggle to begin breathing again. However, SIDS
or even driving. Emotional excitement, especially laughter,
babies seem to have a weak arousal reflex. This prevents
commonly triggers narcolepsy. (Tell an especially good joke
them from changing positions and resuming breathing af-
and a narcoleptic may fall asleep.) Many victims also suf-
ter an episode of apnea. SIDS is the leading cause of death
fer from cataplexy (CAT-uh-plex-see), a sudden temporary
in children between 1 month and 1 year of age (National
paralysis of the muscles, leading to complete body collapse
Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2013b).
(Ingravallo et al., 2012). Sleep attacks and paralysis appear
Babies at risk for SIDS must be carefully watched for
to occur when REM sleep intrudes into the waking state
the first 6 months of life. To aid parents, a monitor may be
(Kalat, 2016). It’s easy to understand why narcolepsy can
used that sounds an alarm when breathing or pulse becomes
devastate careers and relationships.
weak. Babies at risk for SIDS are often premature; have a
Fortunately, narcolepsy is rare. It runs in families, which
shrill, high-pitched cry; engage in “snoring,” breath-holding,
suggests that it is hereditary (Chabas et al., 2003). This has
or frequent awakening at night; breathe mainly through an
been confirmed by breeding several generations of narco-
open mouth; or remain passive when their face rolls into a
leptic dogs. (These dogs, by the way, are simply outstanding
pillow or blanket. For this reason, it is wise to avoid bun-
at learning the trick “Roll over and play dead.”) There is no
dling newborns or covering them with blankets or pillows.
known cure for narcolepsy, but a variety of drugs help re-
Sleeping position is another major risk factor for SIDS.
duce the frequency and intensity of attacks (Ferini-Strambi
Healthy infants are best off sleeping on their backs (sides are
et al., 2013; Lammers et al., 2010).
not as good, but it’s much better than facedown) (Shapiro-
Mendoza et al., 2009). (However, premature babies, those hypnopompic hallucinations
with respiratory problems, and those who often vomit may
Let’s close this module on sleep and dreaming with a curious
need to sleep facedown. Ask a pediatrician for guidance.)
story about aliens.
Remember, “back to sleep” is the safest position for most in-
Sometimes sleep paralysis can go a little too far. While
fants (Hauck et al., 2002).
it normally prevents us from moving during REM sleep,
it can occur just as you begin to wake up. During such
episodes, people sometimes have hypnopompic (hip-neh-
POM-pik: “upon awakening”) hallucinations, including
bizarre experiences, such as sensing that an alien being
is in your bedroom; feeling something pressing on your
chest, suffocating you; or feeling like you are floating out of
your body (D’Agostino & Limosani, 2010; McCarthy-Jones
et al., 2011).
Although most of us
shrug off these weird ex-
periences, some people
try to make sense of them.
Michael Newman/PhotoEdit

Earlier in history, people

SuperStock/SuperStock

interpreted these halluci-

nated intruders as angels,
demons, or witches and
Infants at risk for SIDS are often attached to devices that monitor believed that their out-of-
breathing and heart rate during sleep. An alarm sounds to alert
parents if either pulse or respiration falters. SIDS rarely occurs after
body experiences were real Swiss artist Henry Fuseli drew
on hypnopompic imagery as an
an infant is 1 year old. Babies, especially those at risk for SIDS, (Cheyne & Girard, 2009). inspiration for his famous painting
should be placed on their backs. However, as our culture The Nightmare.

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 MODU LE 24 C o n s C i o us n es s: s le e p an d d r eam s 213

changes, so do our interpretations of sleep experiences. To- natural explanations for many experiences that might
day, for example, some people who have sleep-related hal- otherwise seem supernatural or paranormal (Cheyne &
lucinations believe they have been abducted by space aliens Girard, 2009).
or sexually abused (McNally & Clancy, 2005).
Superstitions and folklore often develop as attempts to Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) The sudden, unexplained
explain human experiences, including some of the stranger death of an apparently healthy infant.
Narcolepsy Rare disorder in which a person falls asleep during alert,
aspects of sleep. By studying unusual experiences such as daytime activities.
hypnopompic hallucinations, psychologists hope to offer

MODULE

24 Summary
24.1 What are the basic rhythms of sleep? 24.3.2 The activation-synthesis model portrays dreaming as
24.1.1 Sleep is an innate biological rhythm essential for a physiological process.
survival. 24.3.3 The neurocognitive view of dreams holds that
24.1.2 Sleep patterns show some flexibility, but seven to dreams are continuous with waking thoughts and
eight hours remains average. The amount of daily emotions. Supporting the neurocognitive view, most
sleep decreases steadily from birth to old age. dream content is about familiar settings, people, and
24.1.3 NREM Sleep occurs in four stages. Stage 1 is light actions.
sleep, and Stage 4 is deep sleep. The sleeper alternates 24.3.4 Dreams may be used for creative problem solving,
between Stages 1 and 4 (passing through Stages 2 especially when dream awareness is achieved through
and 3) several times each night. lucid dreaming.
24.1.4 Periods of REM sleep are strongly associated with 24.4 What are some sleep disorders and unusual
rapid eye movements and dreaming. sleep events?
24.2 Why do we sleep? 24.4.1 Insomnia may be temporary or chronic. Behavioral
approaches to managing insomnia, such as sleep
24.2.1 Lowered body and brain activity and metabolism
restriction and stimulus control, are quite effective.
during sleep may help conserve energy and
24.4.2 Sleepwalking, sleeptalking, and sleepsex occur during
lengthen life.
NREM sleep.
24.2.2 Moderate sleep loss affects mainly vigilance and
24.4.3 Night terrors occur in NREM sleep, whereas night-
performance on routine or boring tasks.
mares occur in REM sleep.
24.2.3 Higher animals and people deprived of sleep experi-
24.4.4 Sleep apnea (interrupted breathing) is one
ence involuntary microsleeps.
source of insomnia and daytime hypersomnia
24.2.4 Extended sleep loss can (somewhat rarely) produce
(sleepiness).
a temporary sleep-deprivation psychosis.
24.4.5 Apnea is suspected as one cause of SIDS. In general,
24.2.5 According to one theory, non-REM (NREM) sleep
healthy infants should sleep on their backs.
“refreshes” the body and brain, and rapid eye move-
24.4.6 Narcolepsy (sleep attacks) and cataplexy are caused
ment (REM) sleep helps form lasting memories.
by a sudden shift to Stage 1 REM patterns during
24.2.6 NREM sleep brings overall brain activation levels
normal waking hours.
down, thus calming the brain.
24.4.7 If sleep paralysis occurs when awakening, hypno-
24.2.7 REM sleep and dreaming help us store important
pompic hallucinations can result.
memories.

24.3 Do dreams have meaning?

24.3.1 The Freudian, or psychodynamic, view is that dreams
express unconscious wishes, frequently hidden by
dream symbols.

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214 P SyChOLO Gy m o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

Knowledge Builder Consciousness: Sleep and Dreaming

Recite Reflect
1. Alpha waves are to presleep drowsiness as Think Critically
______________ waves are to Stage 4 sleep. 8. The possibility of having a lucid dream raises an interest-
2. Rapid eye movements indicate that a person is in deep ing question: If you were dreaming right now, how could
sleep. T or F? you prove it?
3. Sharpening memories and facilitating their storage is one
function of Self-Reflect
a. activation-synthesis cycles As a counselor at a sleep clinic, how would you explain the
b. REM sleep basics of sleep and managing sleep to a new client?
c. deep sleep Do you think your dreams have symbolic meaning or reflect
d. NREM sleep everyday concerns? Can dreams increase self-awareness?
4. Which of the following is not a behavioral remedy for Almost everyone suffers from insomnia at least occasionally.
insomnia? Which of the techniques for combating insomnia are similar
a. daily hypersomnia to strategies that you have discovered on your own?
b. stimulus control How many sleep disturbances can you name (including those
c. progressive relaxation listed in Table 25.1)? Have you experienced any of them?
d. paradoxical intention
5. Night terrors, sleepwalking, and sleeptalking all occur AN SW E R S
during Stage 1, NREM sleep. T or F? a wall or doing similar tests would reveal if you were dreaming.
6. According to the activation-synthesis hypoth- back. Dreams lack such external feedback. Thus, trying to walk through
esis of dreaming, dreams are constructed from our actions have consequences that produce immediate sensory feed-

__________________________ to explain messages

1. delta 2. F 3. b 4. a 5. F 6. memories 7. F 8. In waking consciousness,

received from lower brain centers.

7. Recent research shows that lucid dreaming occurs pri-
marily during NREM sleep or micro-awakenings. T or F?

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 MODULE
Consciousness
Psychoactive Drugs 25
Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds?
Many artists, writers, and musicians have celebrated the
use of psychoactive drugs. Others have attributed their
creativity to drug-induced experiences. Here, the artist de-
picts visual experiences he had while under the influence
of LSD.
Unfortunately, positive images and songs about
drug use obscure another, darker reality. Prescription
drugs that can ease pain, induce sleep, or end depres-
sion also have a high potential for abuse. So do freely
available legal drugs, such as nicotine and alcohol. Add © Isaac Abrams/Cengage Learning

to the mix the destruction wrought by illicit drugs,

and it’s little wonder that so many lives are damaged
by drug abuse. This module provides an overview of
commonly abused psychoactive substances.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
25.1 What are the effects of the more commonly used 25.3 What are some common depressants?
psychoactive drugs? 25.4 What is a hallucinogen?
25.2 What are some common stimulants?

Drug-Altered Consciousness—The High and Low of It

Survey Question 25.1 What are the effects of the more A stimulant, or upper, is a substance that increases activity
commonly used psychoactive drugs? in the body and nervous system. A depressant, or downer,
One common way to alter human consciousness is to does the reverse.
administer a psychoactive drug—a substance capable
of altering attention, emotion, judgment, memory, time
Psychoactive drug Any substance that can alter a person’s state of
sense, self-control, or perception. In fact, most Americans consciousness.
regularly use consciousness-altering drugs (don’t forget, Stimulant A substance that increases activity in the body and ner-
caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine are mildly psychoactive). vous system.
Depressant A substance that decreases activity in the body and
Many psychoactive drugs can be placed on a scale rang- nervous system.
ing from stimulation to depression (➤ Figure 25.1).

215
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216 P syCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Drug Effects STIMULATION Drug Groups such as using the codeine in a cough medication to get high,
Death is another (Prus, 2014).
Isn’t that just drug abuse? The term drug abuse is usu-
Strychnine ally reserved for cases when drug misuse causes some sort
Convulsions
of harm. Many recreational users can be classified as experi-
Extreme nervousness,
tremors Amphetamines mental users (short-term use based on curiosity) or social-
Anxiety, palpitations Cocaine (large dose) recreational users (occasional social use for pleasure or
Antidepressants
Feeling of well-being, Cocaine (small dose) relaxation). While these may be examples of misuse, harm is
euphoria
Distortion of time Hallucinogens (LSD, more typically associated with intensive use (daily use with
and space mescaline, marijuana)
Increased alertness
Nicotine elements of dependence) or compulsive use (intense use and
Caffeine
NEUTRAL AREA extreme dependence), in which case the person may be di-
Anxiety relief Tranquilizers agnosed with a substance use and addictive disorder.
Feeling of well-being, Narcotics, barbiturates, The problem, of course, is that drug misuse can easily
euphoria alcohol (small dose)
Loss of pain
Narcotics (medium dose) become drug abuse (Everitt & Robbins, 2016). The key is
Drowsiness Barbiturates, alcohol moderation. Some people remain social drinkers for life,
Sleep (medium dose)
Loss of consciousness Hypnotics whereas others become alcoholics within weeks of tak-
Narcotics, barbiturates, ing their first drink (Robinson & Berridge, 2003). Because
alcohol (large dose)
Convulsions Anesthetics drugs such as pain killers, sleep aids, and antidepressants
are easy to abuse, the more powerful psychoactive drugs are
Death controlled substances (Goldberg, 2014). Regardless, in 2014,
DEPRESSION
almost 27 million Americans used illicit drugs (Center for
➤ Figure 25.1 Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2015). Drug abuse
Spectrum and continuum of drug action. Many drugs can be rated has been one of the most persistent of all social problems in
on a stimulation–depression scale according to their effects on the
central nervous system. Although LSD, mescaline, and marijuana Western nations.
are listed here, the stimulation–depression scale is less relevant to Why is drug abuse so common? People seek drug experi-
these drugs. The principal characteristic of such hallucinogens is ences for many reasons, ranging from curiosity and a desire
their mind-altering quality.
to belong to a group to a search for meaning or an escape
from feelings of inadequacy. One study found that many ad-
Patterns of Psychoactive Drug Use olescents who abuse drugs tend to be maladjusted, alienated,
In general, psychoactive drug use falls into two categories. impulsive, and emotionally distressed (Masse & Tremblay,
Using a drug to address a particular issue, such as taking 1997). Antisocial behavior, school failure, and risky sexual
a pain killer for a headache, a cup of coffee to stay awake, behavior also are commonly associated with drug abuse
or an antidepressant to treat depression is instrumental use. (Boyd, Harris, & Knight, 2012). Such patterns make it clear
The medical uses of psychoactive drugs are almost always that taking drugs is a symptom, rather than a cause, of per-
instrumental. In contrast, recreational users focus on expe- sonal and social maladjustment (Hart, Ksir, & Ray, 2013).
riencing the psychoactive effects of a drug. Getting high on Many abusers turn to drugs in a self-defeating attempt to
OxyContin (oxycodone) or heroin, even though you are not cope with life. All the frequently abused drugs produce im-
in physical pain, is an example. mediate feelings of pleasure. The negative consequences fol-
Most, if not all, of the drugs discussed in this chapter have low much later. This combination of immediate pleasure and
instrumental uses (Hart, Ksir, & Ray, 2013). For example, the delayed punishment allows abusers to feel good on demand.
main instrumental use for morphine is to control pain. Some In time, of course, most of the pleasure goes out of drug
have been used for centuries in various cultures, in search of abuse and the abuser’s problems get worse. But if an abuser
insight. Others were developed specifically to treat various merely feels better (however briefly) after taking a drug, drug
mental illnesses. Still others have a variety of health benefits. taking can become compulsive (Wood & Rünger, 2016).
Psychoactive Drug Misuse and Abuse Psychoactive Polydrug Abuse One more pattern of drug abuse bears
drugs are often misused. Failing to comply with a doctor’s mentioning: the abuse of more than one drug at the same
prescription, such as overmedicating oneself, is one exam- time. According to the Florida Medical Examiners Commis-
ple. Using a drug recreationally rather than instrumentally, sion (2014), polydrug abuse accounts for the “vast majority”

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 MoDU lE 25 c o n s c i o us n es s: Psyc h oActive d r u g s 217

Regardless, nearly all addictive drugs stimulate the brain’s

reward circuitry, producing feelings of pleasure (Kalat, 2016;
Prus, 2014). In particular, addictive drugs stimulate a brain
region called the nucleus accumbens to release dopamine
(DOPE-ah-meen), a neurotransmitter that results in inten-
sified feelings of pleasure (➤Figure 25.2; Floresco, 2015). As
a result, the reward pathway signals, “That felt good. Let’s
do it again. Let’s remember exactly how we did it.” This cre-
ates a compulsion to repeat the drug experience. It’s the
hook that eventually snares the addict (National Institute

Christopher Beyer/Getty Images

on Drug Abuse, 2014). In the end, the addictive drug physi-
cally changes the brain’s reward circuitry, making it even
harder for the addict to overcome addiction (Henry et al.,
2010; Niehaus, Cruz-Bermúdez & Kauer, 2009). At the same
time, addiction may damage the prefrontal cortex, the brain
In 2014, Academy Award–winning actor Phillip Seymour Hoffman
was found dead with heroin, cocaine, benzodiazepines, and
system involved in self-control (Everitt & Robbins, 2016).
amphetamine in his system. Speedballing, the injection of a Adolescents, it should be noted, are especially susceptible to
combination of heroin and cocaine, has been particularly popular addiction because the prefrontal brain systems that restrain
form of polydrug abuse among celebrities, claiming the lives of
their risk taking are not as mature as those that reward plea-
Chris Kelly, John Belushi, River Phoenix, Chris Farley, Layne
Staley, and Hillel Slovak. sure seeking (Boyd, Harris, & Knight, 2012).

Drug Dependence
of deaths due to drug overdose. When mixed, the effects of
Another reason that drug abuse is so common is that tak-
different drugs can be multiplied by a drug interaction—one
ing most psychoactive drugs tends to create dependen-
drug enhances the effect of another—which are responsible
cies. Once you get started, it can be very hard to stop (Ca-
for thousands of fatal drug overdoses every year (Goldberg,
labria et al., 2010). Drug dependence falls into two broad
2014). This is true whether the mixed drugs were legally or
categories (Maisto, Galizio, & Connors, 2015). When a per-
illegally obtained.
son compulsively uses a drug to maintain bodily comfort, a
Psychoactive Drugs and the Brain
Psychoactive drugs alter consciousness by directly influ-
encing brain activity (Maisto, Galizio, & Connors, 2015; Dopamine
projections
Prus, 2014). Typically, these drugs imitate or alter the to prefrontal
cortex
effects of neurotransmitters, the chemicals that carry
messages between brain cells. Some drugs, such as Ecstasy
(or MDMA), amphetamines, and some antidepressants, Nucleus
cause more neurotransmitters to be released, increasing accumbens

the activity of brain cells. Other drugs, such as cocaine, Medial forebrain bundle
(a path of axons that
slow the removal of neurotransmitters after they are re- release dopamine)
Area in midbrain
leased. This prolongs the action of the neurotransmit-
ter and typically has a stimulating effect. Other drugs, ➤ Figure 25.2
such as nicotine and opiates, directly stimulate brain Addiction and dopamine. Addictive drugs increase dopamine activity
cells by mimicking neurotransmitters. Another possibil- in the medial forebrain bundle and the nucleus accumbens, stimulating
the frontal cortex and giving rise to intensified feelings of pleasure.
ity is illustrated by alcohol and tranquilizers. These drugs
affect certain types of brain cells that cause relaxation and
relieve anxiety. Some drugs fill receptor sites on brain cells Substance use and addictive disorder Abuse of, or dependence on,
and block incoming messages. Other possibilities also a mood- or behavior-altering drug or equivalent.
Drug interaction A combined effect of two drugs that exceeds the
exist, which is why drugs can have such a wide variety of addition of one drug’s effects to the other.
effects on the brain (Julien, 2011).

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218 P syCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 25.1 comparison of Psychoactive drugs

Name Classification Medical Use Duration of Effect

Alcohol Sedative-hypnotic Solvent, antiseptic, 1–4 hours
sedative
Amphetamines Stimulant Relief of mild depression, control of narcolepsy 4 hours
and hyperactivity
Barbiturates Sedative-hypnotic Sedation, relief of high blood pressure, anticon- 1–16 hours
vulsant, antianxiety
Benzodiazepines Anxiolytic Tranquilizer 10 minutes–8 hours
(antianxiety drug)
Caffeine Stimulant Counteract depressant drugs, treatment of mi- Varies
graine headaches
Cocaine Stimulant, local anesthetic Local anesthesia Varied, 1–4 hours
Codeine Narcotic Ease pain and 3–6 hours
coughing
GHB Sedative-hypnotic Experimental treatment of narcolepsy, alcoholism 1–3 hours

Heroin Narcotic Pain relief 3–6 hours

LSD Hallucinogen Experimental study of mental function, 8–12 hours

alcoholism
Marijuana (THC) Relaxant, euphoriant; in high Treatment of glaucoma and side effects 2–4 hours
doses, hallucinogen of chemotherapy
MDMA Stimulant/hallucinogen None 4–6 hours

Mescaline Hallucinogen None 8–12 hours

Methadone Narcotic Pain relief 12–24 hours

Morphine Narcotic Pain relief 3–6 hours

PCP Anesthetic None 4–6 hours, plus 12-hour

recovery

Psilocybin Hallucinogen None Varies

Tobacco (nicotine) Stimulant Emetic (nicotine) Varies

Question marks indicate conflict of opinion. It should be noted that illicit drugs are frequently mixed with unknown and possibly dangerous substances and
thus pose possible hazards to the user.

physical dependence (addiction) exists. Addiction occurs

most often with drugs that cause withdrawal symptoms—the Persons who develop a psychological dependence feel
physical illness and discomfort that follows removal of a drug. that a drug is necessary to maintain their comfort or well-be-
Withdrawal from drugs such as alcohol, barbiturates, and ing. Usually, they intensely crave the drug and its rewarding
opiates can cause violent, flulike symptoms, including nausea, qualities. Psychological dependence can be just as powerful
vomiting, diarrhea, chills, sweating, and cramps. Addiction is as physical addiction. That’s why some psychologists define
often accompanied by a drug tolerance—a progressive de- addiction as any repetitively compulsive pattern. By this
crease in a person’s responsiveness to a drug. This leads users definition, a person who has lost control over drug use, for
to take larger and larger doses to get the desired effect. whatever reason, is addicted.
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 MoDU lE 25 c o n s c i o us n es s: Psyc h oActive d r u g s 219

Physical Psychological organic

Dependence Dependence Damage
Effects sought long-Term symptoms Potential Potential Potential
Sense alteration, anxiety re- Cirrhosis, toxic psychosis, neurologic damage, Yes Yes Yes
duction, sociability addiction
Alertness, activeness, relieve Loss of appetite, delusions, hallucinations, toxic Yes Yes Yes
fatigue psychosis
Anxiety reduction, euphoria Addiction with severe withdrawal symptoms, pos- Yes Yes Yes
sible convulsions, toxic psychosis
Anxiety relief Irritability, confusion, depression, sleep disorders Yes Yes No, but can
affect fetus
Wakefulness, alertness Insomnia, heart arrhythmias, high No? Yes Yes
blood pressure
Excitation, talkativeness Depression, convulsions Yes Yes Yes
Euphoria, prevent withdrawal Addiction, constipation, loss of appetite Yes Yes No
discomfort
Intoxication, euphoria, relaxation Anxiety, confusion, insomnia, hallucinations, seizures Yes Yes No?
Euphoria, prevent withdrawal Addiction, constipation, loss of appetite Yes Yes No*
discomfort
Insightful experiences, exhila- May intensify existing psychosis, panic reactions No No? No?
ration, distortion of senses
Relaxation; increased eupho- Possible lung cancer, other health risks Yes Yes Yes?
ria, perceptions, sociability
Excitation, euphoria Personality change, hyperthermia, liver damage No Yes Yes
Insightful experiences, exhila- May intensify existing psychosis, panic reactions No No? No?
ration, distortion of senses
Prevent withdrawal discomfort Addiction, constipation, loss of appetite Yes Yes No
Euphoria, prevent withdrawal Addiction, constipation, loss of appetite Yes Yes No*
discomfort
Euphoria Unpredictable behavior, suspicion, Debated Yes Yes
hostility, psychosis
Insightful experiences, exhila- May intensify existing psychosis, panic reactions No No? No?
ration, distortion of senses
Alertness, calmness, sociability Emphysema, lung cancer, mouth and throat can- Yes Yes Yes
cer, cardiovascular damage, loss of appetite
*Persons who inject drugs under nonsterile conditions run a high risk of contracting AIDS, hepatitis, abscesses, or circulatory disorders.

Drugs of Abuse ■ Table 25.1 reveals that the drugs most

likely to lead to physical dependence are alcohol, amphet- Physical dependence (addiction) Compulsive use of a drug to
amines, barbiturates, cocaine, codeine, heroin, metha- maintain bodily comfort as indicated by the presence of drug
done, morphine, and nicotine (tobacco). Using most of the tolerance and withdrawal symptoms.
Withdrawal symptoms Physical illness and discomfort after an ad-
drugs listed in Table 25.1 also can result in psychological dict stops taking a drug.
dependence. Note also that people who take drugs intrave- Drug tolerance Progressive decrease in a person’s responsiveness to
nously are additionally at high risk for developing hepati- a drug.
Psychological dependence Drug dependence that is based primar-
tis and AIDS (see Module 48). The discussion that follows
ily on emotional or psychological needs.
focuses on the drugs most often abused by students.
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220 P syCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Uppers—Amphetamines, Cocaine, MDMA, Caffeine, and Nicotine

Survey Question 25.2 What are some common stimulants? that amphetamines speed up the use of the body’s resources;
they do not magically supply energy. After an amphetamine
Some of the most common uppers are amphetamines, cocaine,
binge, people suffer from crippling fatigue, depression, confu-
MDMA, caffeine, and nicotine.
sion, uncontrolled irritability, and aggression. Repeated am-
Amphetamines phetamine use damages the brain. Amphetamines also can
cause amphetamine psychosis, a loss of contact with reality. Af-
Amphetamines are synthetic stimulants. Some common street
fected users have paranoid delusions that someone is out to get
names for amphetamine are speed, bennies, dexies, amp, and
them. Acting on these delusions, they may become violent, re-
uppers. These drugs were once widely prescribed for weight
sulting in suicide, self-injury, or injury to others (Scott, 2012).
loss or depression. Today, the main legitimate medical use of
A potent, smokable form of crystal methamphetamine
amphetamines is to treat childhood hyperactivity and over-
has added to the risks of stimulant abuse. This drug, known
doses of depressant drugs. Illicit use of amphetamines is wide-
as ice on the street, is highly addictive. Like crack, the smok-
spread, however, especially by people seeking to stay awake
able form of cocaine, it produces an intense high. But also
and by those who rationalize that such drugs can improve
like crack (which we’ll discuss shortly), crystal metham-
mental or physical performance (DeSantis & Hane, 2010).
phetamine very rapidly leads to compulsive abuse and se-
For example, Adderall and Ritalin, two popular “study
vere drug dependence.
drugs,” are both mixes of amphetamines used to treat
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). People
with ADHD have difficulty controlling their attention and Cocaine
are prone to displaying hyperactive and impulsive behavior Cocaine (also known as coke, snow, blow, snuff, and flake) is
(National Institute of Mental Health, 2013a). Increasing a powerful central nervous system stimulant extracted from
numbers of normal college students are illegally taking these the leaves of the coca plant. Cocaine produces feelings of
drugs in the hope that they also will be able to focus better alertness, euphoria, well-being, power, boundless energy,
while doing schoolwork (Dodge et al., 2012). and pleasure (Julien, 2011). At the turn of the twentieth cen-
Is it true that those drugs actually can help students study? tury, dozens of nonprescription potions and cure-alls con-
Taking “study drugs” may produce slight improvements in tained cocaine. It was during this time that Coca-Cola was
problem-solving performance; however, this may be offset indeed the “real thing.” From 1886 until 1906, when the U.S.
by a slight loss of creativity (Farah et al., 2009). Most impor- Pure Food and Drug Act was passed, Coca-Cola contained
tant, all amphetamines have side effects that are worrisome, cocaine (since then, it has been replaced with caffeine).
as we will see shortly. How does cocaine differ from amphetamines? The two
Methamphetamine is a more potent variation of am- are very much alike in their effects on the central nervous
phetamine. It can be snorted, injected, or eaten. Of the vari- system. The main difference is that amphetamine effects
ous types of amphetamine, methamphetamine has created typically last longer than those of cocaine, which is more
the largest drug problem. Bergs, glass, meth, crank, or crystal, quickly metabolized.
as it is known on the street, can be made cheaply in backyard
Abuse How dangerous is cocaine? Cocaine’s capacity for
labs and sold for massive profits. In addition to ruining lives
abuse and social damage rivals that of heroin. Rats and mon-
through addiction, it has fueled a violent criminal subculture.
keys given free access to cocaine find it irresistible. Many,
Amphetamines rapidly produce a drug tolerance. Most
in fact, end up dying of convulsions from self-administered
abusers quickly end up taking ever-larger doses to get the
overdoses of the drug. Even casual or first-time users risk
desired effect. Eventually, some users switch to injecting
having convulsions, a heart attack, or a stroke. Cocaine
methamphetamine directly into the bloodstream. True
increases the chemical messengers dopamine (DOPE-
“speed freaks” typically go on binges lasting several days,
ah-meen) and noradrenaline (nor-ah-DREN-ah-lin).
after which they “crash” from lack of sleep and food.
Noradrenaline arouses the brain, and dopamine produces
Abuse How dangerous are amphetamines? Large doses can a “rush” of pleasure. This combination is so powerfully
cause nausea, vomiting, extremely high blood pressure, fatal rewarding that cocaine users run a high risk of becoming
heart attacks, and disabling strokes. It is important to realize compulsive abusers (Ridenour et al., 2005).

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 MoDU lE 25 c o n s c i o us n es s: Psyc h oActive d r u g s 221

of MDMA include dilated pupils, elevated blood pressure,

jaw clenching, loss of appetite, and elevated body temper-
ature (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2013). Although
some users believe that Ecstasy increases sexual pleasure, it
actually diminishes sexual performance, impairing erection
in 40 percent of men and delaying orgasm in both men and
women (Zemishlany, Aizenberg, & Weizman, 2001).

National Library of Medicine

Abuse In 2014, over 600,000 Americans tried Ecstasy for
the first time (Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and
Quality, 2015). Every year, emergency room doctors see
many MDMA cases, including MDMA-related deaths. Some
Cocaine was the main ingredient in many nonprescription of these incidents are caused by elevated body temperature
elixirs before the turn of the twentieth century. Today, cocaine is
(hyperthermia) or heart arrhythmias, which can lead to col-
recognized as a powerful and dangerous drug. Its high potential for
abuse has damaged the lives of countless users. lapse. Ecstasy users at “rave” parties try to prevent overheat-
ing by drinking water to cool themselves. This may help to
A person who stops using cocaine does not experience a small degree, but the risk of fatal heat exhaustion is real.
heroin-like withdrawal symptoms. Instead, the brain adapts MDMA also can cause severe liver damage, which can
to cocaine abuse in ways that upset its chemical balance, be fatal (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2013). In addi-
causing depression when cocaine is withdrawn. First, there tion, Ecstasy users are more likely to abuse alcohol and other
is a jarring “crash” of mood and energy. Within a few days, drugs, to neglect studying, to party excessively, and to en-
the person enters a long period of fatigue, anxiety, paranoia, gage in risky sex (Strote, Lee, & Wechsler, 2002). Ironically,
boredom, and anhedonia (an-he-DAWN-ee-ah), an in- Ecstasy use at “rave” parties does intensify the impact of the
ability to feel pleasure. Before long, the urge to use cocaine music. We say “ironically” because the end result is often
becomes intense. So, although cocaine does not fit the overstimulation of the brain, which can lead to a rebound
classic pattern of addiction, it is ripe for compulsive abuse. depression (Iannone et al., 2006).
Even a person who gets through withdrawal may crave co- Ecstasy use also has long-term effects. Feelings of anxi-
caine months or years later (Washton & Zweben, 2009). If ety or depression can persist for months after a person stops
cocaine were cheaper, nine out of ten users would progress taking Ecstasy. In addition, heavy users typically do not per-
to compulsive abuse. In fact, rock cocaine (crack, rock, or form well in tests of learning and memory and show some
roca), which is cheaper, produces very high abuse rates. signs of underlying brain damage (National Institute on
Anyone who thinks she or he has a cocaine problem Drug Abuse, 2013; Quednow et al., 2006). Fortunately, how-
should seek advice at a drug clinic or a Cocaine Anonymous ever, the long-term consequences are not as severe as once
meeting. Although quitting cocaine is extremely diffi- feared (Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs, 2009).
cult, three out of four abusers who remain in treatment
succeed in breaking their coke dependence (Sinha et al., Caffeine
2006). Hope also is on the horizon in the form of a vaccine Caffeine is the most frequently used psychoactive drug in
currently undergoing clinical trials that prevents cocaine North America. (Good night, Seattle!) Many people have
from stimulating the nervous system (Kosten et al., 2012). a hard time starting a day (or writing another paragraph)
without a cup of coffee or tea because caffeine suppresses
MDMA (“Ecstasy”) drowsiness and increases alertness, especially when com-
The drug MDMA (methylenedioxymethamphetamine, or Ec- bined with sugar (Adan & Serra-Grabulosa, 2010; Smith,
stasy) also is chemically similar to amphetamine. While Ec- Christopher, & Sutherland, 2013). Physically, caffeine can
stasy is technically a stimulant, it is sometimes classified as a cause sweating, talkativeness, tinnitus (ringing in the ears),
hallucinogen since it can produce hallucinations (Prus, 2014).
It also produces a rush of energy, and users say it makes them Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A behavioral
feel closer to others and heightens sensory experiences. problem characterized by short attention span, restless move-
ment, and impaired learning capacity.
Ecstasy causes brain cells to release extra amounts of se- Anhedonia An inability to feel pleasure.
rotonin, as well as prolonging its effects. The physical effects

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222 P syCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

and hand tremors (Nehlig, 2004). Caffeine stimulates the is unfortunate because young people are even more vulner-
brain by blocking chemicals that normally inhibit or slow able to addiction than are adults (Counotte et al., 2011).
nerve activity (Maisto, Galizio, & Connors, 2015). Its effects Although 35 million Americans each year want to quit
become apparent with doses as small as 50 milligrams, the smoking, more than 85 percent of them relapse, many
amount found in about one-half cup of brewed coffee. within a week (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2012). As
How much caffeine did you consume today? It is com- humorist Mark Twain once whimsically lamented, “Giving
mon to think of coffee as the major source of caffeine, but up smoking is the easiest thing in the world. I know because
there are many others. Caffeine is found in tea, many soft I’ve done it thousands of times.”
drinks (especially colas and the so-called “energy drinks”), This should come as no surprise because withdrawal
chocolate, and cocoa. Thousands of nonprescription drugs from nicotine causes headaches, sweating, cramps, insom-
also contain caffeine, including stay-awake pills, cold rem- nia, digestive upset, irritability, and a sharp craving for ciga-
edies, and many name-brand aspirin products. rettes. These symptoms may last from two to six weeks and
may even be worse than heroin withdrawal. Just a few puffs
Abuse Are there any serious drawbacks to using caffeine?
will make that all go away until the next time the smoker
Overuse of caffeine may result in an unhealthy dependence
works up the courage to quit.
known as caffeinism. Insomnia, irritability, loss of appetite,
chills, racing heart, and elevated body temperature are all Impact on Health How serious are the health risks of
signs of caffeinism. Many people with these symptoms drink smoking? Smoking is the leading cause of preventable deaths
15 or 20 cups of coffee a day. However, even as few as 2.5 cups worldwide. Every year, 6 million people around the globe,
of coffee a day (or the equivalent) can intensify anxiety and including about 440,000 Americans, die from tobacco use
other psychological problems (Hogan, Hornick, & Bouchoux, (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2012; World Health Or-
2002). People who consume even such modest amounts may ganization, 2013). Tens of millions more live diminished
experience anxiety, depression, fatigue, headaches, and flu- lives because they smoke.
like symptoms during withdrawal (Juliano & Griffiths, 2004). A burning cigarette releases a large variety of potent carcin-
Caffeine poses a variety of other health risks. Caffeine ogens (car-SIN-oh-jins: cancer-causing substances). Smoking
encourages the growth of breast cysts in women, and it causes widespread damage to the body, leading to an increased
may contribute to bladder cancer, heart problems, and high risk of many cancers (such as lung cancer), cardiovascular dis-
blood pressure. Pregnant women who consume as little as eases (such as stroke), respiratory diseases (such as chronic
2 cups of coffee a day increase the risk of having a miscar- bronchitis), and reproductive disorders (such as decreased fer-
riage (Cnattingius et al., 2000). It is wise to remember that tility). Together, these health risks combine to reduce the life
caffeine is a drug and to use it in moderation. expectancy of the average smoker by 10 to 15 years.
By the way, urban cowboys and Skoal bandits, the same
Nicotine applies to chewing tobacco and snuff. A 30-minute exposure
Next to caffeine and alcohol, nicotine is the most widely to one pinch of smokeless tobacco is equivalent to smoking
used psychoactive drug (Julien, 2011). A natural stimulant three or four cigarettes. Along with all the health risks of
found mainly in tobacco, nicotine is so toxic that it is some- smoking, users of smokeless tobacco also run a higher risk
times used to kill insects! In large doses, it causes stomach of developing oral cancer (Oral Cancer Foundation, 2016).
pain, vomiting and diarrhea, cold sweats, dizziness, confu- Smokers don’t just risk their own health; they also en-
sion, and muscle tremors. In very large doses, nicotine may danger those who live and work nearby. Secondhand smoke
cause convulsions, respiratory failure, and death. For a non- causes about 7,300 lung cancer deaths and as many as 34,000
smoker, 50 to 75 milligrams of nicotine taken in a single heart disease deaths each year in the United States alone. It is
dose could be lethal. (Chain-smoking a pack of cigarettes particularly irresponsible of smokers to expose young chil-
can produce this dosage.) Most first-time smokers get sick dren, who are especially vulnerable, to secondhand smoke
on one or two cigarettes. In contrast, regular smokers build (American Lung Association, 2016).
a tolerance for nicotine. A heavy smoker may inhale several
packs a day without feeling ill. Quitting Smoking If it is so hard to quit, how do some
people manage to succeed? Whatever approach is taken,
Abuse How addictive is nicotine? A vast array of evidence quitting smoking is not easy. It is especially difficult to try
confirms that nicotine is very addictive (Dani & Balfour, quitting alone, without any support. Many people find that
2011). Most smokers begin when they are teenagers, which using nicotine patches or gum and/or other medications,
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 MoDU lE 25 c o n s c i o us n es s: Psyc h oActive d r u g s 223

such as bupropion, helps them suppress their cravings during

the withdrawal period (Bolt et al., 2012). The best chance of
success comes when the smoker combines the desire to quit
with both medication and some sort of counseling (Centers
for Disease Control, 2015g).
Many smokers succeed in quitting by quitting abruptly
(Lindson-Hawley et al., 2016). However, going “cold turkey”
may work best for those completely committed to quit-

© Marc Bruxelle/Shutterstock.com
ting since it makes quitting an all-or-nothing proposition.
Smokers who smoke even one cigarette after “quitting for-
ever” tend to feel they’ve failed. Many figure they might just
as well resume smoking. Others succeed by tapering down
gradually. Those who quit gradually accept that success may
take many attempts, spread over several months. Either way, Vaping. E-cigarettes are electrical devices that look and feel like
cigarettes because they vaporize a smokeless mist that can mimic
you will have a better chance of success if you decide to quit tobacco smoke. When they deliver no nicotine, or a reduced dose,
now rather than at some time in the future, and don’t delay they may help people quitting smoking by allowing the smoker
your quit date too often (Hughes & Callas, 2011). to enjoy the ritual of smoking while withdrawing from nicotine.
However, when they are glamorized as a smokeless way to deliver
If you choose to taper off, the best way is scheduled
the usual dose, they become just another delivery device that must
gradual reduction (Riley et al., 2002). The key is to delib- be medically regulated (Cobb & Abrams, 2011).
erately schedule and then gradually stretch the length of
time between cigarettes. For example, the smoker might (1) favorite smoking chair can give a smoker pleasure. For this
delay having a first cigarette in the morning and then try to reason, behavioral self-management techniques can be
delay a little longer each day or (2) gradually reduce the total very useful for breaking habits such as smoking (see Mod-
number of cigarettes smoked each day. ule 31). In recent years, e-cigarettes have become popular as
It is also worth noting that smoking is more than a nic- a way to simulate smoking either with or without deliver-
otine delivery system for most smokers. The entire ritual ing any nicotine. Anyone trying to quit should be prepared
of smoking has become a positive experience. Just holding to make several attempts before succeeding. But the good
a cigarette, dangling it between the lips, or even seeing a news is that tens of millions of people have quit.

Downers—Narcotics, Sedatives, Tranquilizers, and Alcohol

Survey Question 25.3 What are some common narcotics are highly addictive also has long been recognized;
depressants? heroin (big H, dope, horse), derived by further refining mor-
phine, is widely thought to be the most addictive drug of all.
While narcotics, like heroin and morphine, may be more
Narcotics can produce a powerful feeling of euphoria
powerful, both as drugs of abuse and as painkillers, the most
(“rush”) accompanied by a reduction of anxiety, relaxation,
widely used depressants are alcohol, barbiturates, gamma-
and, of course, pain relief. At higher doses, breathing can be
hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), and benzodiazepine (ben-zoe-
impaired, leading to death. Most current narcotics addicts
die-AZ-eh-peen) tranquilizers. These drugs are much alike
abuse prescription pain killers such as oxycodone (Oxycon-
in their effects. In fact, barbiturates and tranquilizers are
tin), an opioid (synthetic opium-like compound) (Center
sometimes referred to as “solid alcohol.” Let’s examine the
for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2015; Kolodny
properties of each.
et al., 2015).
Another opioid, methadone, also bears mention-
Narcotics ing. Narcotics addicts are often treated with methadone,
Raw opium, secreted by poppy seedpods, has been used for
centuries to produce sleep and pain relief (Dikotter, Laa-
Opiates Substances that produce sleep-inducing and pain-relieving
mann, & Xun, 2008). Morphine and codeine, two opiates re- effects.
fined from opium, are now widely used for those purposes. That

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224 P syCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

which reduces a narcotic’s “rush,” making it much easier In 2000, the U.S. government classified GHB as a con-
to go through withdrawal. Methadone is often freely given trolled substance, making possession a felony. Evidence
to addicts as part of a harm-reduction strategy meant to increasingly suggests that GHB is addictive and a serious
reduce the negative consequences of addiction without danger to users. Two out of three frequent users have lost
requiring drug abstinence (McKeganey, 2012). Harm-re- consciousness after taking GHB. Chronic use leads to brain
duction programs are controversial because it can seem as damage (Pedraza, García, & Navarro, 2009). Heavy users
if they merely support substance abusers in their addiction who stop taking GHB have withdrawal symptoms that in-
(supplying clean needles for drug injections is another ex- clude anxiety, agitation, tremor, delirium, and hallucina-
ample). In reality, they are often the only hope for addicts tions (Miotto et al., 2001).
who would otherwise cause more harm to themselves and
to others (Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 2012). Tranquilizers
Tranquilizers lower anxiety and reduce tension. Doctors
Barbiturates prescribe benzodiazepine tranquilizers to alleviate nervous-
Barbiturates are sedative drugs that depress brain activity. ness and stress. Valium is the best-known drug in this fam-
Common barbiturates include amobarbital, pentobarbital, ily; others are Xanax, Halcion, and Librium. Even at normal
secobarbital, and tuinal. On the street, they are known as dosages, these drugs can cause drowsiness, shakiness, and
downers, blue devils, yellow jackets, lows, goofballs, reds, pink confusion. When used at too high a dosage or for too long,
ladies, rainbows, or tooies. Medically, barbiturates are used to benzodiazepines are addictive (McKim, 2013).
calm patients or to induce sleep. At mild dosages, barbiturates A drug sold under the trade name Rohypnol (ro-HIP-
have an effect similar to alcohol intoxication. Higher dosages nol) has added to the problem of tranquilizer abuse. This
can cause severe mental confusion or even hallucinations. Bar- drug, which is related to Valium, is cheap and 10 times more
biturates are often taken in excess amounts because a first dose potent. It lowers inhibitions and produces relaxation or
may be followed by others, as the user becomes uninhibited or intoxication. Large doses induce short-term amnesia and sleep.
forgetful. Overdoses first cause a loss of consciousness. Then Roofies, as they are known on the street, are odorless and taste-
they severely depress brain centers that control heartbeat and less. They have occasionally been used to spike drinks, which
breathing. The result is often death (Grilly & Salamone, 2012). are given to the unwary. Victims of this “date rape” drug are
then sexually assaulted or raped while they are unconscious
GhB (Nicoletti, 2009). (Be aware, however, that drinking too much
Would you swallow a mixture of degreasing solvent and drain alcohol is by far the most common prelude to date rape.)
cleaner to get high? Apparently, a lot of people would. A mini-
Abuse Repeated use of barbiturates can cause physical
epidemic of GHB use has taken place in recent years, especially
dependence. Some abusers suffer severe emotional depres-
at nightclubs and raves. GHB (also known as goop, scoop, max,
sion that may end in suicide. Similarly, when tranquilizers
and Georgia Home Boy) is a central nervous system depres-
are used at too high a dosage or for too long, addiction can
sant that relaxes and sedates the body. Users describe its ef-
occur. Many people have learned the hard way that their
fects as similar to those of alcohol (Johnson & Griffiths, 2013).
legally prescribed tranquilizers are as dangerous as many
Mild GHB intoxication tends to produce euphoria, a desire to
illicit drugs (Goldberg, 2014).
socialize, and a mild loss of inhibition. GHB’s intoxicating ef-
fects typically last a few hours, depending on the dosage. Alcohol
Abuse At lower dosages, GHB can relieve anxiety and Alcohol is the common name for ethyl alcohol, the intoxi-
produce relaxation. However, as the dose increases, its cating element in fermented and distilled liquors. Con-
sedative effects may result in nausea, a loss of muscle con- trary to popular belief, alcohol is not a stimulant. The noisy
trol, and either sleep or a loss of consciousness. Potentially animation at drinking parties is due to alcohol’s effect as a
fatal doses of GHB are only three times the amount typi- depressant. Small amounts of alcohol reduce inhibitions,
cally taken by users. This narrow margin of safety has led to consequently producing feelings of relaxation and eupho-
numerous overdoses, especially when GHB was combined ria. Larger amounts cause greater impairment of the brain
with alcohol. An overdose causes coma, breathing failure, until the drinker loses consciousness. Alcohol also is not an
and death. GHB also inhibits the gag reflex, so some users aphrodisiac. Rather than enhancing sexual arousal, it usu-
choke to death on their own vomit. ally impairs performance, especially in males. As William

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 MoDU lE 25 c o n s c i o us n es s: Psyc h oActive d r u g s 225

Shakespeare observed long ago, drink “provokes the desire, defined as downing five or more drinks (four drinks for
but it takes away the performance.” women) in a short time. Apparently, many students think
Some people become relaxed and friendly when they are it’s entertaining to get completely wasted and throw up on
drunk. Others become aggressive and want to argue or fight. their friends (Norman, Conner, & Stride, 2012). However,
How can the same drug have such different effects? Some binge drinking is a serious sign of alcohol abuse (Beseler,
people drink for pleasure. Others drink to cope with nega- Taylor, & Leeman, 2010). It is responsible for 1,800 U.S. col-
tive emotions, such as anxiety and depression. That’s why lege student deaths each year and thousands of trips to the
alcohol abuse increases with the level of stress in people’s emergency room (Mitka, 2009).
lives. People who drink to relieve bad feelings are at great Binge drinking is of special concern because the brain
risk of becoming alcoholics (Roberto & Koob, 2009). continues to develop into the early twenties. Research has
When a person is drunk, thinking and perception become shown that teenagers and young adults who drink too much
dulled or shortsighted, a condition that has been called alco- may lose as much as 10 percent of their brain power—
hol myopia (my-OH-pea-ah) (Giancola et al., 2010). Only especially their memory capacity (Brown et al., 2000). Such
the most obvious and immediate stimuli catch a drinker’s at- losses can have a long-term impact on a person’s chances for
tention. Worries and “second thoughts” that would normally success in life. In short, getting drunk is a slow but sure way
restrain behavior are banished from the drinker’s mind. That’s to get stupid (Le Berre et al., 2012).
why many behaviors become more extreme when a person is
At Risk Children of alcoholics and those who have other
drunk. On college campuses, drunken students tend to have
relatives who abuse alcohol are at greater risk for becoming
accidents, get into fights, sexually assault others, or engage in
alcohol abusers themselves. The increased risk appears to be
risky sex. They also destroy property and disrupt the lives of
partly genetic (Starkman, Sakharkar, & Pandey, 2012). It is
students who are trying to sleep or study (Brower, 2002).
based on the fact that some people have stronger cravings for
Abuse Alcohol, the world’s favorite depressant, breeds our alcohol after they drink (Hutchison et al., 2002). Women also
biggest drug problem. More than 20 million people in the face some special risks. For one thing, alcohol is absorbed
United States and Canada have serious drinking problems.
One American dies every 20 minutes in an alcohol-related
car crash. Significant percentages of Americans of all ages
abuse alcohol (➤ Figure 25.3).
It is especially worrisome to see binge drinking among
adolescents and young adults. Binge drinking is usually
50
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com
Percent using in past month

40

30

20

10 Binge drinking and alcohol abuse have become serious problems

among college students (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and
0
Alcoholism, 2015).
12–17 18–25 26+
Age in years
Harm-reduction strategy A treatment approach to drug addic-
Binge use (not heavy) Heavy alcohol use tion that seeks to reduce the negative consequences of addiction
without necessarily requiring drug abstinence.
➤ Figure 25.3
Tranquilizer A drug that lowers anxiety and reduces tension.
Alcohol use in the United States. Many Americans of all ages Alcohol myopia Shortsighted thinking and perception that occurs
abuse alcohol. According to this 2014 survey, almost 50 percent of during alcohol intoxication.
young adults aged 18–25 admitted to heavy alcohol use or binge Binge drinking Consuming five or more drinks in a short time
drinking in the month before the survey was administered (Center (four for women).
for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2015).

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226 P syCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

faster and metabolized more slowly by women’s bodies. As And remember that research has shown that you are
a result, women get intoxicated from less alcohol than men. likely to overestimate how much your fellow students are
Women who drink also are more prone to liver disease, drinking (Maddock & Glanz, 2005). So don’t let yourself be
osteoporosis, and depression. Each extra drink per day adds lured into overdrinking just because you have the (probably
7 percent to a woman’s risk of breast cancer (Aronson, 2003). false) impression that other students are drinking more than
you. Limiting your own drinking may help others as well.
Recognizing Problem Drinking What are the signs of
When people are tempted to drink too much, their main
alcohol abuse? Because alcohol abuse is such a common prob-
reason for stopping is that “other people were quitting and
lem, it is important to recognize the danger signals. If you
deciding they’d had enough” (Johnson, 2002).
can answer yes to even one of the following questions, you
may have a problem with drinking (adapted from the College Treatment Treatment for alcohol dependence begins
Alcohol Problems Scale, revised, in Maddock et al., 2001): with cutting off the supply and sobering up the person. This
AS A RESULT OF DRINKING ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, I . . . phase is referred to as detoxification (literally, “to remove
1. engaged in unplanned sexual activity. poison”). It frequently produces all the symptoms of drug
2. drove under the influence. withdrawal and can be extremely unpleasant. The next step
3. did not use protection when engaging in sex. is to try to restore the person’s health. Heavy abuse of alco-
4. engaged in illegal activities associated with drug use. hol usually causes severe damage to body organs and the
5. felt sad, blue, or depressed. nervous system. After alcoholics have “dried out” and some
6. was nervous or irritable. degree of health has been restored, they may be treated with
7. felt bad about myself. tranquilizers, antidepressants, or psychotherapy. Unfortu-
8. had problems with appetite or sleeping.
nately, the success of these procedures has been limited.
Moderated Drinking Almost everyone has been to a par- One mutual-help approach that has been fairly suc-
ty spoiled by someone who drank too much too fast. Those cessful is Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). AA takes a spiri-
who avoid overdrinking have a better time, and so do their tual approach while acting on the premise that it takes
friends. But how do you avoid drinking too much? After a former alcoholic to understand and help a current
all, as one wit once observed, “The conscience dissolves in alcoholic. Participants at AA meetings admit that they
alcohol.” It takes skill to regulate drinking in social situa- have a problem, share feelings, and resolve to stay “dry”
tions, where the temptation to drink can be strong. If you one day at a time. Other group members provide sup-
choose to drink, here are some guidelines that may be help- port for those struggling to end dependency (Teresi &
ful (adapted from Miller & Munoz, 2005; National Institute Haroutunian, 2011). (Other “12-step” programs, such as
on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2016): Cocaine Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous, use the
same approach.)
MODERATED DRINKING GUIDELINES
Other groups offer a rational, nonspiritual approach to
1. Be reflective about your drinking beforehand, plan how you
will manage it, and keep track of how much you drink. alcohol abuse that better fits the needs of some people. Exam-
2. Drink slowly (no more than one drink an hour), eat while ples include Rational Recovery and Secular Organizations
drinking or drink on a full stomach, and make every other for Sobriety (SOS). Other alternatives to AA include medi-
drink (or more) a nonalcoholic beverage. cal treatment, group therapy, mindfulness meditation,
3. Limit drinking primarily to the first hour of a social event or and individual psychotherapy (Huebner & Kantor, 2011;
party. Jacobs-Stewart, 2010). There is a strong tendency for abusive
4. Practice how you will politely but firmly refuse drinks.
drinkers to deny that they have a problem. The sooner they
5. Learn how to relax, meet people, and socialize without rely-
seek help, the better.
ing on alcohol.

Hallucinogens—Tripping the Light Fantastic

Survey Question 25.4 What is a hallucinogen?
at odds with reality. The most common hallucinogens in-
Although a hallucinogen (hal-LU-sin-oh-jen) is generally clude LSD, PCP, mescaline, psilocybin, and marijuana.
a mild stimulant, its main effect is to stimulate perceptions In fact, marijuana is by far the most popular illicit drug

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 MoDU lE 25 c o n s c i o us n es s: Psyc h oActive d r u g s 227

in America (Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and

Quality, 2015).
Prefrontal cortex

lsD and PCP

The drug LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide, or acid) is per- Globus pallidus

haps the best-known hallucinogen. Even when taken in tiny

amounts, LSD can produce hallucinations and psychotic-
like disturbances in thinking and perception. Two other
Hippocampus
common hallucinogens are mescaline (peyote) and psilocy-
bin (magic mushrooms, or shrooms). Incidentally, the drug ➤ Figure 25.4
PCP (phencyclidine, or angel dust) can have hallucinogenic Endocannabinoid receptors. The red and yellow areas in this
effects. However, PCP, which is an anesthetic, also has stim- PET scan show some of the areas where the brain is rich in
ulant and depressant effects. This potent combination can endocannabinoid receptors. The prefrontal cortex plays a role in
human consciousness, the globus pallidus is involved in the control
cause extreme agitation, disorientation, violence, and—too of coordinated movement, and the hippocampus plays a role in
often—tragedy. Like other psychoactive drugs, all halluci- memory. This may explain why marijuana use negatively affects
nogens, including marijuana, typically affect neurotransmit- memory and coordination.
ter systems that carry messages between brain cells (Maisto, THC may also help us better understand the functioning of
Galizio, & Connors, 2015). the endocannabinoid system (Piomelli, 2014).

Marijuana Abuse Does marijuana produce physical dependence? Yes,

according to recent studies (Filbey et al., 2009; Lichtman
Marijuana and hashish are derived from the hemp plant
& Martin, 2006). Frequent users of marijuana can find
Cannabis sativa. Marijuana (also called pot, grass, reefer,
it very difficult to quit, so dependence is a risk (Budney
and MJ) consists of the dried leaves and flowers of the
& Hughes, 2006). But marijuana’s potential for abuse lies
hemp plant. Hashish is a resinous material scraped from
primarily in the realm of psychological dependence, not
cannabis buds. The main active chemical in marijuana is
physical addiction.
tetrahydrocannabinol (tet-rah-hydro-cah-NAB-ih-nol), or
THC for short. Health Risks For about a day after a person smokes marijua-
Marijuana’s psychological effects include a sense of eu- na, his or her attention, coordination, and short-term memory
phoria or well-being, relaxation, altered time sense, and per- are impaired. Frequent marijuana users show small declines in
ceptual distortions. At very high dosages, however, paranoia, learning, memory, attention, and thinking abilities (Solowij et
hallucinations, and delusions can occur (Hart, Ksir, & Ray, al., 2002). Accordingly, they score lower on IQ tests (Kuehn,
2013). All considered, marijuana intoxication is relatively 2012). In fact, many people who have stopped using marijuana
subtle by comparison to drugs such as LSD or alcohol. De- say that they quit because they were bothered by short-term
spite this, driving a car while high on marijuana can be haz- memory loss and concentration problems. Fortunately, IQ
ardous (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2015). As a mat- scores and other cognitive measures rebound about a month
ter of fact, driving under the influence of any intoxicating after a person quits using marijuana (Grant et al., 2001).
drug is dangerous. When surveyed, nonusers are healthier, earn more, and
How does marijuana work? Researchers have recently are more satisfied with their lives than people who smoke
discovered the endocannabinoid system, which is widely marijuana regularly (Allen & Holder, 2013; Ellickson,
distributed throughout the brain (Julien, 2011). Neurons Martino, & Collins, 2004). In fact, marijuana use is associat-
in this system communicate via neurotransmitters (such as ed with a variety of mental health problems (Buckner, Ecker,
anandimide) called endocannabinoids (the prefix endo- means & Cohen, 2010; National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2015).
endogenous, or “originating from within”). It turns out that For example, chronic marijuana users are more prone to
THC, the main cannabinoid in marijuana, can also activate develop psychosis (Castle et al., 2012).
neurons with endocannabinoid receptors (➤ Figure 25.4).
Understanding how the endocannabinoid system af- Detoxification In the treatment of drug abuse, including alcohol-
ism, the withdrawal of the patient from the drug(s) in question.
fects behavior, then, may well help us better understand the
Hallucinogen Substance that stimulates perceptions at odds with reality.
effects of THC. Conversely, understanding the effects of

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228 P syCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Marijuana’s long-term effects include a number of to chemotherapy for cancer, promoting weight gain, and
health risks. Smoking marijuana may increases the risk of even lessening immune system inflammation (Prus, 2014).
a variety of cancers, including lung, prostate, and cervical Although evidence such as this may suggest that the case in
cancer (Callaghan, Allebeck, & Sidorchuk, 2013; Hashibe favor of medical marijuana is beyond question, it is worth
et al., 2005). THC may interfere with menstrual cycles and briefly considering the role marijuana plays in the treatment
ovulation, as well as cause a higher rate of miscarriages. It of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
also can reach the developing fetus: children whose mothers PTSD is a debilitating stress reaction to traumatic events
smoked marijuana during pregnancy show a lowered ability that can leave an affected person unable to function nor-
to succeed in challenging, goal-oriented activities (National mally. Every year, over a million Americans will suffer from
Institute on Drug Abuse, 2015; Noland et al., 2005). As is PTSD, including many military veterans (National Institute
true for so many other drugs, marijuana should be avoided of Mental Health, 2016a). We already know that the amyg-
during pregnancy. dala plays a key role in PTSD (Lamprecht et al., 2009) and
that the endocannabinoid system moderates the function-
Medical Marijuana Is marijuana a dangerous drug or
ing of the amygdala (Piomelli, 2014). It follows, then, that
not? On the one hand, as we have just read, marijuana
marijuana may help people with PTSD.
appears to pose a range of health risks. The U.S. govern-
But the actual link may not be so straightforward, as
ment has long labeled marijuana a Schedule 1 prohibited
suggested by research showing that people with PTSD may
substance. Classified in the most dangerous category, along
be vulnerable to developing a cannabis use disorder (Corne-
with drugs such as heroin and LSD, marijuana was as-
lius et al., 2010). In other words, while casual use may make
sumed to pose serious potential for abuse, while offering
coping with PTSD easier in the short term, it may leave a
no medical benefits.
person’s PTSD untreated while adding a drug abuse prob-
On the other hand, almost half of all states have legal-
lem over the long term.
ized some instrumental uses of marijuana as a medicine,
Fortunately, other research suggests that the key to over-
and a few, like Washington, Oregon, and Colorado, have
coming PTSD is facing your fear (what behavior therapists
even legalized recreational use (Newhart, 2013). While the
call extinction). Marijuana makes it easier to face those fears
legal status of marijuana is a social policy matter best ad-
and desensitize them in the long run (Rabinak et al., 2013).
dressed by governments, it can nevertheless be helpful to
Combining existing therapies with marijuana use may turn
examine the relevant scientific evidence that marijuana can
out to be the most effective approach to treating PTSD. (See
be medically useful.
Module 63 for more information about PTSD).
Okay, what does the evidence tell us? While the endo-
In summary, marijuana is just like any other drug. Used
cannabinoid system is not yet fully understood, it has been
indiscriminately, it may do more harm than good. Used in
shown to influence the impact of stress and pain (Piomelli,
medically appropriate circumstances, it may do more good
2014). Understandably, then, recent evidence suggests that
than harm. Hopefully, research will continue to point the
THC is helpful in treating some forms of pain due to surgery
way to additional effective medical uses of marijuana.
or trauma to the body, reducing vomiting and nausea due

MODULE

25 summary
25.1 What are the effects of the more commonly social-recreational, intensive, or compulsive. Drug
used psychoactive drugs? abuse is most often associated with the last two.
25.1.1 Psychoactive drugs affect the brain in ways that 25.1.3 Psychoactive drugs are highly prone to abuse. Drug
alter consciousness. Most psychoactive drugs can abuse is related to personal maladjustment, the rein-
be placed on a scale ranging from stimulant to forcing qualities of drugs, peer group influences, and
depressant. expectations about drug effects.
25.1.2 Drug use can be classified as instrumental or rec- 25.1.4 Drugs may cause a physical dependence (addiction), a
reational. Recreational use may be experimental, psychological dependence, or both. Physically addicting

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 MoDU lE 25 c o n s c i o us n es s: Psyc h oActive d r u g s 229

drugs are alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates, co- 25.3.2 Barbiturates and tranquilizers are depressant drugs
caine, codeine, GHB, heroin, marijuana, methadone, whose action is similar to that of alcohol. The over-
morphine, nicotine, and tranquilizers. All psychoactive dose level for barbiturates and GHB is close to the
drugs can lead to psychological dependence. intoxication dosage, making them dangerous drugs.
Mixing barbiturates, tranquilizers, or GHB and
25.2 What are some common stimulants?
alcohol may result in a fatal drug interaction.
25.2.1 Stimulant drugs are readily abused because of the 25.3.3 Alcohol is the most heavily abused drug in common
period of depression that often follows stimulation. use today. Binge drinking is a problem among college
The greatest risks are associated with amphetamines students. It is possible to pace the consumption of
(especially methamphetamine), cocaine, MDMA, and alcohol.
nicotine, but even caffeine can be a problem.
25.2.2 Nicotine includes the added risk of lung cancer, heart 25.4 What is a hallucinogen?
disease, and other health problems. 25.4.1 Hallucinogens such as PSD, PCP, and marijuana alter
sensory impressions.
25.3 What are some common depressants?
25.4.2 Studies have linked chronic marijuana use with
25.3.1 Narcotics are highly addictive because they produce cancer, various mental impairments, and other health
intense feelings of euphoria. Narcotics addiction is problems.
often treated with a harm reduction strategy.

Knowledge Builder Consciousness: Psychoactive Drugs

Recite 6. College students may overdrink as they try to keep up

with how much they falsely imagine that their peers
1. Addictive drugs stimulate the brain’s reward circuitry by
drink. T or F?
affecting
a. neurotransmitters c. tryptophan levels Reflect
b. alpha waves d. delta spindles
2. Which of the following drugs are known to cause physi- Think Critically
cal dependence? 7. Why do you think there is such a contrast between the
a. heroin g. marijuana laws regulating marijuana and those regulating alcohol
b. morphine h. amphetamines and tobacco?
c. codeine i. nicotine
self-Reflect
d. methadone j. cocaine
e. barbiturates k. GHB What legal drugs did you use in the last year? Did any have
f. alcohol psychoactive properties? How do psychoactive drugs differ
3. Amphetamine psychosis is similar to extreme from other substances in their potential for abuse?
_____________________, in which the individual feels
threatened and suffers from delusions. AN sW E R s
4. Cocaine is very similar to which of the following in its
risks, or abuse potential.
in the law often cannot be justified on the basis of pharmacology, health
effects on the central nervous system? eties reflect cultural values and historical patterns of use. Inconsistencies
a. Seconal c. cannabis 1. a 2. All of them 3. paranoia 4. d 5. F 6. T 7. Drug laws in Western soci-
b. codeine d. amphetamine
5. MDMA and GHB are classified as depressants. T or F?

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MODULE

26 Consciousness Skills in Action

Metacognition

What Do You Think of … You?

For 15 seasons, millions of Americans watched as men and women
tried to achieve fame on American Idol. Some of the people who audi-
tioned were outstanding singers and went on to successful careers in
show business. But some of the auditions were truly awful. What were
these people thinking when they decided to perform in public? Some
of them were obviously just having fun, and were well aware of their
inability to carry a tune. But it seemed that others simply had no idea
that they lacked musical talent. In one famous example, one of the
judges asked a young woman to rate her singing on a scale of one to
ten. After she quite sincerely awarded herself an eight, he proceeded
to tell her it was one of the worst auditions he’d ever heard in his
life, and the other judges were inclined to agree. Psychologists who
watched this unfold on television would likely say that the woman
FOX/Getty Images

was lacking a skill called metacognition (as well as musical ability).

How are metacognitive skills related to success? Let’s find out.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
26.1 How is metacognition related to the study of 26.2 How can metacognitive skills help me in my personal
psychology? and professional life?

Thinking About Thinking––The Examined Life

Survey Question 26.1 How is metacognition related to the
as well as your self-awareness of mental events, including
study of psychology?
thoughts, memories, and feelings about your experiences
Metacognition is a term used to describe the ability to and yourself ” (Morin, 2006; Robinson, 2008).
“think about thinking” (note that psychologists often refer Metacognition is also closely connected to the self-
to thoughts as cognitions). It includes the ability to monitor regulation skills that were discussed in Module 11, particularly
and evaluate your thought processes, understanding, and
performance across different situations. In this respect it’s
Metacognition The conscious experience of thinking about your
related to consciousness, which was described in Module own thinking.
23 as “your sensations and perceptions of external events

230
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 MODU LE 26 C o n s C i o us n es s s k i lls i n ACti o n: M etAC o g n iti o n 231

the executive functions (Roebers & Feurer, 2015). Recall that complicated, or the idea that you have a bias toward spending
executive functions are important in helping people to reach too much time reading when preparing to do a paper (be-
their goals, and one key element in that process is being able cause that part seems easy, and you can convince yourself that
to make plans (see also Module 9). Metacognition is critical you’re making progress) and that you tend to procrastinate on
in helping you to develop effective plans and in evaluating actually writing papers (because that task is more difficult).
your progress as you carry them out. As a result, it’s a skill Metacognitive knowledge can also be important in your
that’s important in helping people to achieve their personal personal life. For example, if you want to have good relation-
and professional goals. ships with others, it would be helpful for you to be aware of
the fact that that you have a tendency to talk too much when
Do You Know What You Don’t Know? you’re nervous, that you’re very quick to judge other people,
Psychology has a long history of examining how accurate or that you have trouble seeing things from other people’s
people are when they try to assess their thinking and be- points of view. These types of strategies, biases, and abilities
havior (Zell & Krizan, 2014). Unfortunately, the news from (and many others) are important in determining relation-
researchers isn’t too good: In general, people are quite poor ship quality, so it’s important that you use this metacognitive
at evaluating the quality of their thinking, their understand- knowledge when you’re interacting with others.
ing of material, and their skill level. To make matters worse, Wow. I really should give more thought to my own think-
this inability to properly monitor what we know and how ing! It’s true! Actively accessing metacognitive knowledge
we’re doing is far-reaching, influencing everything from as- about how you relate to other people or perform work-related
sessments about our social, academic, and athletic skills to tasks is important because an awareness of this information
our judgments about how much we have understood from a can help as you work toward building good relationships, or
textbook chapter or how long it will take to complete a task plan the work that’s needed to complete a school project or
(Dunning, Heath, & Suls, 2004). write a test (Zepeda et al., 2015). Of course, simply consider-
You may be asking yourself how people could be so ing metacognitive knowledge isn’t enough. Once you’ve got
poor at evaluating their own thinking. In tackling this ques- that information, you need to work with it, and that’s where
tion, researchers have shown that there are many things that metacognitive monitoring and control come in.
get in the way of the ability to carry out an accurate self-
Monitoring and Control Metacognitive monitoring re-
assessment. According to Serra and Metcalfe (2009), the
fers to the idea that you need to track your thought pro-
problems that we face are related to each of the three ele-
cesses and behaviors as they unfold, and evaluate whether
ments of metacognition: knowledge, monitoring, and control.
they’re going to allow you to meet your goals. In contrast,
Knowledge We think about a lot of things every day. Our metacognitive control refers to a situation in which you alter
thought processes can include things that are as diverse as or redirect your thinking and behavior because metacogni-
forming an impression of a new acquaintance, considering an tive knowledge and monitoring suggests that your current
essay you have to write, or comparing two options on a restau- path will not allow you to meet your goals.
rant menu. Serra and Metcalfe (2009) describe metacognitive If we return to the sleep deprivation paper you’re sup-
knowledge as the information we consult when considering posed to be writing, for example, you might ask whether
our thought processes. It can include what you know about you’re moving too slowly with reading the research (moni-
your abilities, the biases you have, and what you know about toring) and might need to alter your work schedule in order
the strategies that will help you achieve your goals. to finish on time (control). Or perhaps you catch yourself
For example, let’s say that you were thinking about an es- when you seem to be making a snap judgment about some-
say on sleep deprivation that’s due next week. Your metacog- one you have just met (monitoring), and recognize that
nitive knowledge might include the idea that you need to get perhaps you should investigate their personal characteris-
online and search for journal articles, because you understand tics further (control). And if you were planning to audition
that this general “paper-writing strategy” is more likely to re- for a reality show, you should be able to assess your own
sult in an essay that meets your instructor’s standards than performance relative to a reasonable standard (monitoring),
simply reviewing Wikipedia pages. Metacognitive knowledge and recognize that if you’re doing poorly, you may need ad-
might also involve an understanding that you find the topic ditional practice time (control) before you go on television.

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232 p SYChOLO GY M o d u les fo r ACtive leAr n i n g

The Examined Life––Worth Living?

Survey Question 26.2 How can metacognitive skills help So if metacognitive skills are that important, how can I
me in my personal and professional life? improve on mine? There are a number of things that you can
do to develop your metacognitive awareness. Some of most
You may be wondering at this point whether poor meta-
effective strategies include the following:
cognitive skills are really a big deal. In fact, difficulties with
metacognition can lead to problems in many areas of your ◗ Develop your metacognitive knowledge. Try to become
academic, personal, and professional life. For example, con- more aware of the strategies, assumptions, and biases
sider how Aysha might plan out her studying when she’s pre- that guide your thinking and decision-making at
paring for a major exam. What strategies should she use to school, work, and in your relationships with oth-
ensure that she learns the material? At what point should she ers. Think carefully about how these tendencies can
leave the chapter she’s working on and move on to study the influence your behavior in particular situations, and
next one? whether there might be better ways of responding.
The answers to these questions are important in secur- Make sure that your thinking and decision-making
ing a good result on the exam, and they rely on Aysha’s make use of all of the information that you have avail-
metacognitive skills (Zepeda et al., 2015). In all likelihood, able. Just as important, however, is that you carefully
she’ll use study strategies that she thinks will be helpful, consider the information you don’t have, but that
and she’ll move on when she thinks she’s mastered the ma- would be useful for the task at hand. Remember that
terial in the chapter she’s currently studying. But what if understanding what you know is only one half of the
she’s wrong? What if her metacognitive skills are poor, and story—understanding the limits of what you know is
she doesn’t know that her study strategies aren’t as effec- the other half.
tive as those outlined in Module 1? What if she doesn’t ◗ Develop your metacognitive monitoring processes.
recognize that she has a very limited understanding of the When your metacognitive knowledge suggests that
textbook material? you’re in a situation that is connected to particular
You can probably see where this type of poor metacog- strategies, biases, or assumptions, take care to moni-
nitive awareness leads: Aysha will be using strategies that tor your thought processes and behaviors to ensure
are not helpful when studying, and will be likely to think— that they aren’t interfering with the goals you’ve set for
incorrectly! —that she has mastered the material that will be yourself.
tested. As a result, she won’t feel the need to spend any ad- ◗ Develop metacognitive control strategies. When your
ditional time studying and is likely to be very disappointed metacognitive monitoring suggests that you’re not on
with her results. track to meet your goals, change course by altering your
Poor metacognitive skills have important consequences thought processes or your behavior.
for our personal relationships as well (Myers & Wells,
2015). At one time or another, you have likely met people We’ve seen lots of evidence to suggest that metacog-
who don’t seem to have any sense of how their behavior is nition can be important across many areas of our lives.
impacting others. These are the people who often wind up And although the psychological research demonstrates
either frustrating or intimidating those that they interact that people aren’t always very good at evaluating their own
with because they don’t seem able to monitor the thinking thinking, the positive news is that metacognition is a skill
that is behind their actions, or the signals that others are that we can improve on with practice. There are several
sending them. A lack of self-awareness makes it difficult modules in this book that offer insight into the biases and
to forge close and supportive relationships with family, situations that are likely to hamper the ability to judge
friends, and co-workers because positive interactions with our thinking and behavior. As you read, try to take note
others require that you consider how your thinking impacts of them and incorporate them into your metacognitive
your behavior, and assess social cues so that you can alter knowledge base so that you’ll be aware of them in the fu-
your thinking and behavior if it seems necessary (Rivers ture. After all, no one needs more information about you
et al., 2012). than, well . . . you.

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 MODU LE 26 C o n s C i o us n es s s k i lls i n ACti o n: M etAC o g n iti o n 233

MODULE

26 Summary
26.1 how is metacognition related to the study as you are thinking about the impact of your
of psychology? behaviors.
26.1.1 Metacognition is the ability to think about our 26.2.2 Improving on and practicing your skills in metacog-
thinking, which includes the ability to monitor and nitive knowledge, monitoring processes, and control
evaluate our thought processes. strategies are important in personal and professional
26.1.2 The three elements of metacognition include knowl- settings, and can help you with such things as build-
edge (about skills, biases, and strategies), monitor- ing relationships or assessing how you might best
ing (through tracking and evaluating thoughts and complete a big project.
behaviors), and control (changing or redirecting
thoughts and behaviors).

26.2 how can metacognitive skills help me in my

personal and professional life?
26.2.1 Being more aware of your thoughts can result in
more positive outcomes in personal relationships,

Knowledge Builder Consciousness Skills in Action: Metacognition

Recite he is using. Using the tips for developing better metacog-

nitive abilities, discuss some ways you could help your
1. People are good at evaluating their own thinking. True or
friend approach this problem.
False?
2. What are the three self-assessment elements within Self-Reflect
metacognition?
Reflect on your current metacognitive abilities. What are
3. Label the following examples as metacognitive knowl-
some ways you could improve these abilities in your personal
edge, monitoring, or control.
and professional life?
a. You set aside additional time for studying after recog-
Do you have any current habits that may be holding you
nizing that you won’t have enough time to get through
back from academic success? Are there any areas in your per-
all of the chapters before your test next week.
sonal relationships that require more metacognitive thought?
b. You know that you find it difficult to write tests with-
out sufficient sleep.
AN SW E R S
c. You notice that people tend to disengage from conver- tice some breathing exercises in a quiet place to calm down.
sations with you when you begin complaining about example, if he begins to feel anxious, he could excuse himself and prac-
how much you hate work. how to respond to his anxiety on a date (metacognitive control); for
ety and respond poorly to it. Finally, you could also help him to consider
Reflect monitoring); for example, the people he dates may pick up on his anxi-
how the anxiety may be affecting his dating experiences (metacognitive
Think Critically You might also help him to consider how important it is to be aware of
4. A friend who experiences social anxiety has just begun about his social anxiety and what triggers it (metacognitive knowledge).
using an online dating website in the hopes of meeting help your friend, including helping him to become more knowledgeable
a partner. However, after a few dates, he has had little c) monitoring 4. There might be several steps that you could take to
1. F 2. knowledge, monitoring, and control 3. a) control b) knowledge
success, but feels that it must be because of the dating site

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MODULE

27 Conditioning and Learning

Associative and Cognitive Learning

Rats!
Larry still vividly remembers the day he learned to fear rats. At the
age of six, he overheard his mother tearfully describe how, as a little
girl, she was terrified by a rat scampering out of a woodpile.
As an adult, Larry read about irrational fears and realized that
a form of associative learning called vicarious classical conditioning
helped explain his dread of rats. Armed with this knowledge, he
tried to hold a rat in a local pet store and was shocked to discover
that his newfound knowledge was no help at all. Larry had bumped
into a strange truth: all his abstract “book learning,” a form of cogni-

© lculig/Shutterstock.com
tive learning, was powerless to protect him in the presence of a rat.
Larry eventually went to a therapist who used classical conditioning
to help him overcome his fear. He now has a pet rat named Einstein.
Different forms of learning reach into every corner of our lives.
Are you ready to learn more?

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
27.1 What is learning? 27.3 What are some types of cognitive learning?
27.2 What are some types of associative learning? 27.4 Does learning occur by imitation?

Learning—One Way or Another

Survey Question 27.1 What is learning?
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
Most behavior is learned. Imagine if you suddenly lost ev- due to experience (Powell, Honey, & Symbaluk, 2017). No-
erything you had ever learned. What could you do? You tice that this definition excludes both temporary changes
would be unable to read, write, or speak. You couldn’t feed
yourself, find your way home, drive a car, play the clarinet,
Learning Any relatively permanent change in behavior that can be
or “party.” Needless to say, you would be totally incapaci- attributed to experience.
tated. (Dull, too!)

234
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 MODU LE 27 C o n d iti o n i n g an d Lear n i n g: as s o C iative an d C o g n itive Lear n i n g 235

and more permanent changes caused by motivation, fatigue, Is all learning just an association between stimuli and re-
maturation, disease, injury, or drugs. Each of these can alter sponses? Much behavior can be explained by associative learn-
behavior, but none qualifies as learning. ing. But humans also engage in cognitive learning, which refers
As Larry’s rat experience illustrates, there are different to understanding, knowing, anticipating, or otherwise using
types of learning (Shanks, 2010). Associative learning oc- information-rich higher mental processes. In contrast with as-
curs whenever a person or an animal forms a simple associ- sociative learning, more complex forms of cognitive learning,
ation among various stimuli, behaviors, or both. Associative such as learning from written language, are unique to humans
learning requires little or no awareness or thought (Everitt & and involve a relatively greater awareness (think reflective cog-
Robbins, 2016). Regardless, we humans share the important nition). However, some animals do engage in simpler forms of
capacity for associative learning with many other species. cognitive learning, as we will see later on in this module.

Associative Learning—About Dogs, Rats, and Humans

Survey Question 27.2 What are some types of associative stimulus) just before each puff of air hits your eye. If the horn
learning? and the air puff occur together many times, what happens?
Soon, the horn alone will make you blink. Clearly, you’ve
For early psychologists, such as Ivan Pavlov, John Watson,
learned something. Before, the horn didn’t make you blink.
and Edward Thorndike (see Module 3), associative learning
Now it does.
was a fairly mechanical process of “stamping in” associations
In classical conditioning, an antecedent stimulus that
between objective stimuli and objective responses, or behav-
doesn’t produce a response is linked with one that does
iors (Hergenhahn & Henry, 2014). No subjective “thinking”
(a horn is associated with a puff of air to the eye, for example).
was thought to be required.
We can say that learning has occurred when the new stimu-
lus also will elicit (bring forth) responses (➤ Figure 27.1).
Types of Associative Learning
The other form of associative learning, operant
There are two main types of associative learning: in Rus- conditioning, is based on the consequences of responding.
sia, Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning, and in A behavior may be followed by a positive consequence, or
North America, Edward J. Thorndike discovered what reinforcer, such as food; or by a negative consequence, or
is today called operant conditioning. It is well worth un- punisher, such as a scolding; or by nothing. These results
derstanding both forms of associative learning because determine whether the behavior is likely to happen again
they help us make sense of much animal and human (Figure 27.1). For example, if you wear a particular hat and
behavior. get lots of compliments (reward or reinforcement), you are
Unlocking the secrets of associative learning begins with likely to wear it more often. If people snicker or insult you,
noting what happens before and after a particular behavior. you will probably wear it less often.
Events that precede a behavior are antecedents. For exam- Because these forms of learning powerfully influence all
ple, Ashleigh, who is three, runs to the front door whenever of our lives, we will look in more detail at classical condi-
Daddy gets home. She has recently begun running as soon tioning in Module 28 and operant conditioning in Modules
as she hears his truck pull into the driveway. She has associ- 29 and 30.
ated running to the door with the antecedent sound of the
truck. Effects that follow a behavior are consequences. The
Associative learning The formation of simple associations between
hug that she gets from her father has strengthened Ashleigh’s various stimuli and responses.
tendency to run to the door. Cognitive learning Higher-level learning involving thinking, know-
Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning ing, understanding, and anticipation.
Antecedents Events that precede a response.
based on what happens before we respond. It begins with a
Consequences Effects that follow a response.
stimulus that reliably triggers a behavior as a response. Imag- Reflex Innate, automatic response to a stimulus.
ine, for example, that a puff of air (the stimulus) is aimed at Classical conditioning A form of learning in which reflex responses
your eye. The air puff will make you blink (a response) every are associated with new stimuli.
Operant conditioning Learning based on the positive or negative
time. The eyeblink is a reflex (an innate, automatic response consequences of responding.
to a stimulus). Now, assume that we sound a horn (another

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236 p syChOLO Gy M o d u Les fo r aCtive Lear n i n g

Classical Conditioning Result: Horn Eyeblink make their way through the maze when released. Rats in
Key the second group were unrewarded and showed no signs of
relationship learning. But later, when the “uneducated” rats were given
food, they ran the maze as quickly as the rewarded group
Stimulus Stimulus Response
Horn Air puff Eyeblink (Tolman & Honzik, 1930). Although there was no outward
sign of it, the unrewarded animals had nevertheless learned
their way around the maze (➤ Figure 27.2). This was latent
Operant Conditioning Result: Whistle Sit up
learning, learning not immediately observable in an organ-
Key
relationship ism’s behavior (Gilroy & Pearce, 2014; Horne et al., 2012).
How did the rats learn without any reinforcement? We
Stimulus Response Reinforcer now know that many animals (and, of course, humans) learn
Whistle Sit up Food
just to satisfy their curiosity (Harlow & Harlow, 1962). In
humans, latent learning also is related to cognitive abilities,
Antecedents Response Consequences such as anticipating future reward. For example, even if you
Time are not being reinforced for it, if you give an attractive class-
mate a ride home, you may make mental notes about how to
➤ Figure 27.1
get to his or her house, even if a date is only a remote future
Classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, a stimulus
that does not produce a response is paired with a stimulus that possibility.
does elicit a response. After many such pairings, the stimulus
that previously had no effect begins to produce a response. In the Cognitive Maps Tolman’s research made it hard to dis-
example shown, a horn precedes a puff of air to the eye. Eventually
the horn alone will produce an eyeblink. In operant conditioning, a
agree that even the lowly rat—not exactly a mental giant
response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence becomes (well, except for our Einstein)—can form cognitive maps
more likely to occur on future occasions. In the example shown, a to remember where food is found in a maze, not just which
dog learns to sit up when it hears a whistle.
turns to make to reach
the food (Tolman,
Latent Learning Ritchie, & Kalish, 1946).
As stated previously, a core assumption of early theories of A cognitive map is a
associative learning was that learning did not require any mental representation
thinking, or cognition. Animals, it was widely assumed, did of the environment
not have “minds” and certainly could not “think” in any way (such as a maze, city, or
that resembles how we humans think. A classic series of campus).
studies conducted in the 1930s by University of California, How do you navi-

Paul Kinsella/CartoonStock Ltd

Berkeley, psychologist Edward Tolman began to challenge gate the town in which
this assumption (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). you live? Have you sim-
In one of Tolman’s experiments, two groups of rats were ply learned to make a
allowed to explore a maze. The animals in one group found series of right and left
food at the far end of the maze. Soon, they learned to rapidly turns to get from one

28 Reinforced starting
on eleventh day
24
Always reinforced
➤ Figure 27.2 20
Time

Latent learning. (a) The maze used by Tolman 16

and Honzik to demonstrate latent learning by 12
rats. (b) Results of the experiment. Notice the 8
rapid improvement in performance that occurred
4
when food was made available to the previously
unreinforced animals. This indicates that learning Food
Start 1 5 10 15 20
had occurred, but that it remained hidden or box
unexpressed. (Adapted from Tolman & Honzik, Days
1930.) (a) (b)

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 MODU LE 27 C o n d iti o n i n g an d Lear n i n g: as s o C iative an d C o g n itive Lear n i n g 237

point to another? More likely, you have an overall mental of what constitutes a cognitive map. In a sense, cognitive
picture of how the town is laid out. This cognitive map acts maps also apply to other types of knowledge. For instance,
as a guide even when you must detour or take a new route it could be said that you have been developing a “map” of
(Schiller et al., 2015; Schinazi et al., 2013). psychology while reading this book. That’s why students
If you have ever learned your way through some of the sometimes find it helpful to draw pictures or diagrams of
levels found in many video games, you will have a good idea how they envision concepts fitting together.

Cognitive Learning—Beyond Conditioning

Survey Question 27.3 What are some types of cognitive feedback that you achieved a desired result can be rein-
learning? forcing in its own right.
The adaptive value of feedback helps explain why much
After Edward Tolman’s trailblazing maze studies, the focus
human learning occurs in the absence of obvious reinforc-
of psychology began to shift from mechanical, associative
ers, such as food or water. Humans readily learn responses
theories to theories that accepted that not all learning re-
that merely have a desired effect or that bring a goal closer.
quires external reinforcement or punishment. As humans,
Let’s explore this idea further.
we are greatly affected by information, expectations, percep-
tions, mental images, and the like. Today, there is no doubt Knowledge of Results (KR) Imagine that you are
that human learning includes a large cognitive, or mental, asked to throw darts at a target. Each dart must pass over
dimension (Lefrançois, 2012; Sternberg, 2017). a screen that prevents you from telling if you hit the target.
As noted earlier, cognitive learning extends beyond If you threw 1,000 darts, we would expect little improve-
basic conditioning into the realms of memory, thinking, ment in your performance because no feedback is provided.
problem solving, and language. Because these topics are Nikki’s video game did not explicitly reward her for correct
covered in later modules, our discussion here is limited to responses. Yet, because it provided feedback, rapid learning
a first look at learning beyond conditioning. Consider, for took place.
example, the cognitive concept of feedback. How can feedback be applied? Increased feedback—also
called knowledge of results (KR)—almost always improves
Feedback learning and performance (Snowman & McCown, 2015;
Vojdanoska, Cranney, & Newell, 2010). If you want to learn
Her eyes are driven and blazing, and her body contorts. One
to play a musical instrument, to sing, to speak a second lan-
hand jerks up and down while the other one furiously spins
guage, or to deliver a speech, recorded feedback can be very
in circular motions. Does this describe some strange neuro-
helpful. In sports, video replays are used to provide feed-
logical disorder? Actually, it depicts little Nikki as she plays
back on everything from tennis serves to pick-off moves in
a Wii animated fishing adventure.
baseball. Whenever you are trying to learn a complex skill,
How did Nikki learn the complex movements needed
it pays to get more feedback (Eldridge, Saltzman, & Lahav,
to excel at virtual fishing? After all, she was not rewarded
2010; Jaehnig & Miller, 2007).
with food or money. The answer lies in the fact that Nikki’s
video game provides feedback, a key element that underlies Learning Aids How can feedback be applied? Because
cognitive learning. Feedback—information about the effect increased feedback almost always improves learning and
a response had—is particularly important in human cogni- performance, it makes sense to design learning aids to
tive learning (Lefrançois, 2012). supply effective feedback (Snowman & McCown, 2015).
Every time a player does something, a video game Feedback is most effective when it is frequent, immediate,
responds instantly with sounds, animated actions, and a
higher or lower score. The machine’s responsiveness and
Latent learning Acquisition of knowledge or skills not immediately
the information flow that it provides can be very moti- observable in an organism’s behavior.
vating if you want to win. The same principle applies to Cognitive map Mental representation of the environment.
many other learning situations: if you are trying to learn Feedback Information returned to a person about the effects a
response has had; also known as knowledge of results (KR).
to use a computer, to play a musical instrument, to cook, Knowledge of results (KR) Informational feedback.
to play a sport, or to solve math problems, receiving

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238 p syChOLO Gy M o d u Les fo r aCtive Lear n i n g

and detailed. Programmed instruction teaches students in

a format that presents information in small amounts, gives
immediate practice, and provides continuous feedback to
learners. Frequent feedback keeps learners from practicing
errors. It also lets students work at their own pace.

Fredrik von Erichsen/dpa/picture-alliance/Newscom

To get a sense of the programmed instruction format,
finish reading this module and complete the Knowledge
Builder when you encounter it (just like you do with all of
the Knowledge Builders you come across, right?). Work
through the Recite questions one at a time, checking your
answer before moving on. In this way, your correct (or
incorrect) responses will be followed by immediate feedback.
Today, programmed instruction is often presented via
computer (Mayer, 2011). You may know it as computer- ➤ Figure 27.4
Boeing 747 Airline Training Simulator. Student pilots can learn
assisted instruction (CAI). In addition to giving learners im- all the ins and outs of flying a jumbo jet in this flight simulator.
mediate feedback, the computer can give hints about why an Aren’t you glad they don’t have to do that with real planes (and
answer was wrong and what is needed to correct it (Jaehnig passengers)? Your authors sure are!
& Miller, 2007). MindTap, the online resource associated with
this textbook, includes programmed instruction components.
Increasingly, CAI programs called serious games are us- Discovery Learning
ing game formats such as stories, competition with a part- Much of what is meant by cognitive learning is summarized
ner, sound effects, and rich computer graphics to increase by the word understanding. Each of us has, at times, learned
interest and motivation (Connolly et al., 2012; Romero, ideas by rote learning—mechanical repetition and memo-
Usart, & Ott, 2015; see ➤ Figure 27.3). rization. Although rote learning can be efficient, many psy-
Educational simulations, the most complex serious
chologists believe that learning is more lasting and flexible
games, allow students to explore an imaginary situation
when people discover facts and principles on their own. In
or “microworld” to learn to solve real-world problems
discovery learning, skills are gained by insight and under-
(➤ Figure 27.4). By seeing the effects of their choices, stu-
standing instead of by rote (Snowman & McCown, 2015).
dents discover basic principles in a variety of subjects (Helle
Gain more insight into insight by turning to Module 39.
& Säljö, 2012; Herold, 2010).
So long as learning occurs, what difference does it make
if it is by discovery or by rote? ➤ Figure 27.5 illustrates the
difference. Two groups of students were taught to calculate
the area of a parallelogram by multiplying the height by
the length of the base. Some were encouraged to see that a
“piece” of a parallelogram could be “moved” to create a rect-
angle. Later, they were better able to solve unusual problems
in which the height-times-base formula didn’t seem to work.
Students who simply memorized a rule were confused by
similar problems (Wertheimer, 1959). As this implies, dis-
covery can lead to a better understanding of new or unusual
problems.
When possible, people should try new strategies and
➤ Figure 27.3
discover new solutions during learning. However, this
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI). To increase interest and
motivation, this math game allows students to compete in a Jet Ski doesn’t mean that students should stumble around trying
race rather than just complete a series of subtraction problems. The to rediscover the principles of math, physics, or chemistry.
more quickly correct answers are selected, the faster the player’s The best teaching strategies are based on guided discovery, in
Jet Ski speeds toward the finish line. (Screenshot from “Island
which students are given enough freedom to actively think
Chase Subtraction.” http://www.arcademicskillbuilders.com/games
/island_chase/island_chase.html. Copyright © 2012, Arcademics. about problems and enough guidance so that they gain use-
Reprinted by permission.) ful knowledge (Mayer, 2004, 2011).
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 MODU LE 27 C o n d iti o n i n g an d Lear n i n g: as s o C iative an d C o g n itive Lear n i n g 239

Typical Problem Solution

➤ Figure 27.5
Learning by understanding and
Learning by discovery or
by rote. For some types of learning,
understanding: Using scissors
and drawings, students are understanding may be superior, although
encouraged to see that the both types of learning are useful. (After
area of a parallelogram is the Wertheimer, 1959.)
same as that of a rectangle.

Learning by rote: Students

Height learn that the area is found by
multiplying base times height.
90°

Base
Area = B × H

Unusual Solution by Solution by

Problem Understanding Rote

90°

Observational Learning—Do as I Do, Not as I Say

Survey Question 27.4 Does learning occur by imitation? on what happens to the model for doing the same thing), or
(3) learn a general rule that can be applied to various situa-
Many skills are learned by what Albert Bandura (1971) calls
tions (Lefrançois, 2012).
observational learning—watching and imitating the actions
For observational learning to occur, several things must
of another person or noting the consequences of those actions.
take place. First, the learner must pay attention to the model
We humans share the capacity for observational learning with
and remember what was done. (A beginning surgeon might
many mammals (Zentall, 2011; Tennie et al., 2010). In fact,
be interested enough to watch an operation but unable to
learning by imitation is so important to so many mammals
remember all the steps.) Next, the learner must be able to
that the brain dedicates special neurons to this function. (For
reproduce the modeled behavior. (Sometimes this is a matter
more information about mirror neurons, see Module 9.)
of practice, but it may be that the learner will never be able
The value of learning by observation is obvious: imag-
to perform the behavior. We may admire the feats of world-
ine trying to tell someone how to tie a shoe, do a dance step,
class musicians, but most of us could never reproduce them,
or play a piano. Bandura believes that anything that can be
learned from direct experience can be learned by observa- Programmed instruction Any learning format that presents infor-
tion. Often, this allows a person to skip the tedious trial- mation in small amounts, gives immediate practice, and provides
and-error stage of learning. continuous feedback to learners.
Rote learning Learning that takes place mechanically, through rep-
etition and memorization, or by learning rules.
Modeling Discovery learning Learning based on insight and understanding.
It seems obvious that we learn by observation, but how does Observational learning Acquiring information on how to perform
it occur? By observing a model—someone who serves as an new behaviors by watching others.
Model (in learning) A person who serves as an example in observa-
example—a person may (1) learn new responses, (2) learn to tional learning.
carry out or avoid previously learned responses (depending
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240 p syChOLO Gy M o d u Les fo r aCtive Lear n i n g

whether the model was rewarded or punished for what was

done. Nevertheless, when parents tell a child to do one thing
but model a completely different response, children tend to
imitate what the parents do, not what they say.
Consider a typical situation: little Raymond has just been
irritated by his older brother, Robert. Angry and frustrated, he
swats Robert. This behavior interrupts his father, Frank, who is
watching television. Father promptly spanks little Raymond, say-

© Antoniodiaz/Shutterstock.com
ing, “This will teach you to hit your big brother.” And it will. The
message Frank has given the child is clear: “You have frustrated
me; therefore, I will hit you.” The next time little Raymond is
frustrated, it won’t be surprising if he imitates his father and hits
his brother. (So why does everybody love Raymond, anyway?)
Observational learning often imparts large amounts of information Thus, through modeling, children learn not only attitudes,
that would be difficult to obtain by reading instructions or
memorizing rules. gestures, emotions, and personality traits but fears, anxieties,
and bad habits as well. For example, adolescents are much
more likely to begin smoking if their parents, siblings, and
no matter how much we practiced.) If a model is success- friends smoke (Wilkinson & Abraham, 2004). More tragical-
ful at a task or rewarded for a response, the learner is more ly, children who witness domestic violence are more likely to
likely to imitate the behavior. Finally, once a new response is commit it themselves (Murrell, Christoff, & Henning, 2007).
tried, normal reinforcement or feedback determines whether
it will be repeated thereafter. (Notice the similarity to latent Modeling and the Media
learning, described previously.)
Much of what we learn comes from media. Today’s children
Imitating Models Modeling has a powerful effect on be- and young adults spend less time in the classroom than they
havior. In a classic experiment, children watched an adult at- do engaged with various media, including television, video
tack a large blow-up “Bo-Bo the Clown” doll. Some children games, movies, the Internet, music, and print (Rideout,
saw an adult sit on the doll, punch it, hit it with a hammer, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010). Furthermore, children tend to imi-
and kick it around the room. Others saw a movie of these tate what they observe in all media (Kirsh, 2010).
actions. A third group saw a cartoon version of the aggres- From professional wrestling (Bernthal, 2003) to rap mu-
sion. Later, the children were frustrated by having some at- sic (Wingood et al., 2003) to video games (Carnagey & An-
tractive toys taken away from them. Then they were allowed derson, 2004), children have plenty of opportunities to ob-
to play with the Bo-Bo doll. Most imitated the adult’s attack serve and imitate both the good and the bad (and the ugly?).
(➤ Figure 27.6). Some even added new aggressive acts of The Internet is of special concern because it not only allows
their own. It is interesting that the cartoon was only slightly children to vicariously experience violence, it also allows
less effective in encouraging aggression than the live adult them to directly engage in electronic aggression through bul-
model and the filmed model (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963). lying or harassment of others (Centers for Disease Control,
Then, do children blindly imitate adults? No. Remember 2015b). It should come as no surprise, then, that many par-
that observational learning only prepares a person to dupli- ents and educators have worried about the effects of experi-
cate a response. Whether it is actually imitated depends on encing high levels of media violence.
Courtesy of Albert Bandura/
Stanford University

➤ Figure 27.6
Imitating aggression. A nursery school child imitates the aggressive behavior of an adult model he has just seen in a movie.
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 MODU LE 27 C o n d iti o n i n g an d Lear n i n g: as s o C iative an d C o g n itive Lear n i n g 241

task, college students who played the violent game were no

more likely to be aggressive than those who played the non-
violent game (Adachi & Willoughby, 2011b). In other words,
it is entirely possible that the competitiveness, difficulty, or
pacing of a game influences aggression levels just as much, if
not more, than the violent content of the game. Until further
research can more definitively disentangle these issues, the

Moviestore collection Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo

question of whether playing violent video games triggers ag-
gression toward others remains unresolved.
How might media violence increase aggressive behavior?
We have already suggested that experiencing media vio-
lence may teach people how to be more aggressive in real
life (Kirsh, 2010; Unsworth & Ward, 2001). In addition to
teaching new antisocial actions, media may disinhibit dan-
Media regularly portray violent and often incredible feats.
Fortunately, only a few “jackasses” actually try to imitate them gerous impulses that viewers already have. Disinhibition—
despite the usual warning: “Do not try this at home.” the removal of inhibition—results in acting out behavior
that normally would be restrained. Another possibility
Media Violence By the time the average American has is that repeated exposure to media violence may result in
graduated from high school, she or he will have “witnessed” desensitization—a reduction in emotional sensitivity—
thousands of murders and countless acts of robbery, arson, making them less likely to react negatively to violence and,
bombing, torture, and beatings. But does all of this media may- hence, more prone to engage in it (Carnagey, Anderson, &
hem promote the observational learning of aggression? Early Bushman, 2007; Krahé et al., 2011).
studies appeared to confirm that children who watch a great How much does media violence actually affect chil-
deal of televised violence are more prone to behave aggres- dren and adolescents? According to clinical psychologist
sively (Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2007; Miller et al., 2012). Christopher Ferguson, experiencing media violence does
Does the same conclusion apply to video games? Many not invariably “cause” any given person to become more
reviews have concluded that violent video games increase aggressive. At best, it can make aggression more likely
aggressive behavior in children and young adults (Krahé & (Ferguson & Dyck, 2012). Many other factors, such as per-
Möller, 2010; Miller et al., 2012). As with television, younger sonality characteristics, family conflict, depression, and
children appear to be especially susceptible to fantasy vio- negative peer influences, also affect the chances that hostile
lence in video games (Anderson et al., 2003; Bensley & Van thoughts will be turned into actions (Ferguson, Miguel, &
Eenwyk, 2001). In fact, the more personalized, intimate ex- Hartley, 2009; Valkenburg, Peter, & Walther, 2016).
perience of video games may heighten their impact (Fischer, Parents and educators who worry that violent media are
Kastenmüller, & Greitemeyer, 2010). turning young people into a generation of sadistic crimi-
Unfortunately, much of the early research may have led nals can take heart from the correlational data shown in
to overly strong conclusions (Adachi & Willoughby, 2011a; ➤ Figure 27.7. In recent years, the violent crime rate among
Valadez & Ferguson, 2012). For example, in one earlier youth has declined, even as sales of violent video games
study, college students played a violent (Mortal Kombat) or have risen. However, none of this is to say that we should
nonviolent (PGA Tournament Golf) video game. Next, they be unconcerned about the long-term effects of experienc-
competed with another “student” (actually an actor) in a ing violent media, including imitation, desensitization, and
task that allowed aggression and retaliation to take place. vicarious traumatization. This is especially true for younger
Students who played the violent game were much more children, who are more likely to be influenced because they
likely to aggress by punishing their competitor (Bartholow don’t always fully recognize that media characters and sto-
& Anderson, 2002). However, these two games differed not ries are fantasies (McKenna & Ossoff, 1998).
only in their degree of violence, they also differed in degree
of competitiveness, difficulty, and pace of action.
A more recent study compared a violent action game Disinhibition The removal of inhibition; results in acting out that
normally would be restrained.
(Conan) and a nonviolent racing game (Fuel) that were Desensitization A reduction in emotional sensitivity to a stimulus.
equally competitive, difficult, and fast-paced. In a subsequent
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242 p syChOLO Gy M o d u Les fo r aCtive Lear n i n g

➤ Figure 27.7 9000 40

Video game violence and youth violence rates. This

Societal exposure to violent videogames

8000

Per capita youth violence victimization

35
graph shows that the rate of violent crimes among youth
declined between the years 1996 to 2011. Yet, during 7000
30
the same period, exposure to violent video games
6000
increased. While correlational data such as these are not 25
by themselves conclusive, they do help us put the issue 5000
of violence in video games into broader perspective. 20
(Adapted from Ferguson, 2015.) 4000
15
3000
10
2000

1000 5

0 0

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Video game violence consumption Youth violence

MODULE

27 summary
27.1 What is learning? 27.3 What are some types of cognitive
27.1.1 Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
learning?
due to experience. 27.3.1 Feedback, or knowledge of results, also aids learning
27.1.2 Associative learning is a simple type of learning that and improves performance. It is most effective when
affects many aspects of daily life. it is immediate, detailed, and frequent.
27.1.3 Cognitive learning involves higher mental 27.3.2 Programmed instruction breaks learning into a series
processes, such as understanding, knowing, or of small steps and provides immediate feedback.
anticipating. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) has the added
advantage of providing alternative exercises and
27.2 What are some types of associative information when needed.
learning?
27.3.3 Discovery learning emphasizes insight and under-
27.2.1 Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are standing, in contrast to rote learning.
two basic types of associative learning.
27.2.2 In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is fol- 27.4 Does learning occur by imitation?
lowed by an unconditioned stimulus. With repeated 27.4.1 Learning can occur by merely observing and imitat-
pairings, the neutral stimulus begins to elicit a ing the actions of another person or by noting the
response. consequences of the person’s actions.
27.2.3 In operant conditioning, responses that are followed 27.4.2 Observational learning is influenced by the personal
by reinforcement occur more frequently. characteristics of the model and the success or failure
27.2.4 In latent learning, learning remains hidden or of the model’s behavior. Aggression can be learned
unseen until a reward or incentive for performance and released by modeling.
is offered. 27.4.3 Media characters can act as powerful models
27.2.5 Even in relatively simple learning situations, animals for observational learning. Media violence can
and people seem to form cognitive maps (internal increase the likelihood of aggression by viewers.
representations of relationships).

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 MODU LE 27 C o n d iti o n i n g an d Lear n i n g: as s o C iative an d C o g n itive Lear n i n g 243

Knowledge Builder Conditioning and Learning: Associative

and Cognitive Learning

Recite Reflect
1. The concept of forming an association applies to both Think Critically
a. associative and cognitive learning 7. Can you imagine different forms of feedback?
b. latent and discovery learning
c. classical and operant conditioning self-Reflect
d. imitation and modeling Try to think of at least one personal example of each of these
2. Learning that suddenly appears when a reward or incen- concepts: cognitive map, latent learning, discovery learning,
tive for performance is given is called modeling.
a. discovery learning What entertainment or sports personalities did you
b. latent learning identify with when you were a child? How did it affect your
c. rote learning behavior?
d. reminiscence
3. Knowledge of results also is known as AN sW E R s
_________________________. (Jaehnig & Miller, 2007).
4. Psychologists use the term ____________________ to or some elaboration is more effective than knowledge of results alone
describe observational learning. tion of the correct answer. Adding knowledge of correct response and/

5. If a model is successful, or rewarded, the model’s behav-

Elaboration feedback adds additional information, such as an explana-
response also tells you what the correct response should have been.
ior is you find out if your response was right or wrong. Knowledge of correct
a. less difficult to reproduce 1. c 2. b 3. feedback 4. modeling 5. c 6. F 7. Knowledge of results means
b. less likely to be attended to
c. more likely to be imitated
d. more subject to positive transfer
6. Children who observed a live adult behave aggressively
became more aggressive; those who observed movie and
cartoon aggression did not. T or F?

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MODULE

28 Conditioning and Learning

Classical Conditioning

The Nobel Drool

At the beginning of the twentieth century, something hap-
pened in the lab of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov that
gained him the Nobel Prize: his subjects drooled at him.
Actually, Pavlov was studying digestion by putting dogs in
harnesses and placing a food tidbit on their tongues. By
arranging for a tube to carry saliva from the dogs’ mouths
to a lever that activated a recording device, he was able to
measure the resulting flow of saliva.
However, after repeating his procedure many times,
Pavlov noticed that his dogs began salivating before the
food reached their mouths. Later, the dogs even began to
salivate when they saw Pavlov enter the room. Pavlov real- various stimuli along with a dish of food placed next to
ized that some type of learning had occurred and soon be- the dog while measuring how much the dog salivated. Let’s
gan investigating “conditioning.” He did this by presenting explore what he found.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
28.1 How does classical conditioning occur? 28.2 Does conditioning affect emotions?

Classical Conditioning—Does the Name Pavlov Ring a Bell?

Survey Question 28.1 How does classical conditioning
Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning) (Schultz
occur?
& Schultz, 2016).
Pavlov believed that salivation is an automatic, inherited
reflex. It really shouldn’t change from one day to the next. Pavlov’s Experiment
His dogs were supposed to salivate when he put food in How did Pavlov study conditioning? To begin, he rang a bell.
their mouths, but they were not supposed to salivate when At first, the bell was a neutral stimulus (the dogs did not re-
they merely saw him. This was a change in behavior due spond to it by salivating). Immediately after, he placed meat
to experience. Pavlov realized that some type of learning powder on the dogs’ tongues, which caused reflex salivation.
had occurred and soon began investigating “conditioning,” This sequence was repeated a number of times: bell, meat
as he called it. Because of its place in history, this form of powder, salivation; bell, meat powder, salivation. Eventu-
learning is now called classical conditioning (also known as ally (as conditioning took place), the dogs began to salivate

244
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 MODU LE 28 C o n d iti o n i n g an d Lear n i n g: C Las s i CaL C o n d iti o n i n g 245

Before Conditioning During Conditioning (Acquisition) Test for Conditioning

Time
Bell Bell Salivation
(CS) (CS) (CR)
Bell
(NS) No salivation
Conditioned
Associated reflex

Meat powder Salivation Meat powder Salivation

(US) (UR) (US) (UR)
Reflex Reflex

➤ Figure 28.1
The classical conditioning procedure.

when they heard the bell (➤ Figure 28.1). By association, of learning. Let’s summarize the terms using an earlier
the bell, which before had no effect, began to evoke the same example:
response as food. This was shown by sometimes ringing the
Before Conditioning Example
bell alone. The dogs still salivated, even though no food had
been placed in their mouths. US S UR Puff of air S eyeblink
Psychologists use several terms to describe these events. NS S no effect Horn S no effect
The meat powder is an unconditioned stimulus (US)—a After Conditioning Example
stimulus that elicits a response without any prior experience
CS S CR Horn S eyeblink
(salivation in this case). Notice that the dog did not have to
learn to respond to the US. Such stimuli naturally trigger As trivial as it might seem to use classical conditioning to
reflexes or emotional reactions. Because a reflex is innate, or condition blinking, it has great clinical potential (Laasonen
“built in,” it is called an unconditioned response (UR)—a et al., 2012). For example, remember Kate Adamson, the
response to a stimulus that requires no previous experience. courageous woman with locked-in syndrome, whom we met
Reflex salivation was the UR in Pavlov’s experiment. in Module 10? Because she was totally paralyzed, doctors as-
The bell starts out as a neutral stimulus (NS). In time, sumed that she was brain dead. Fortunately, Kate discovered
the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS)—a stimulus
that, through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, comes Unconditioned stimulus (US) Something that elicits a response
to elicit a learned response. When Pavlov’s bell also pro- without any prior experience.
Unconditioned response (UR) Response to a stimulus that requires
duced salivation, the dog was making a new response. Thus,
no previous experience.
salivation also had become a conditioned response (CR), or Neutral stimulus (NS) A stimulus that does not evoke a response.
learned reaction (see Figure 28.1). ■ Table 28.1 summarizes Conditioned stimulus (CS) Neutral stimulus that, through pairing
the important elements of classical conditioning. with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a learned response.
Conditioned response (CR) Learned reaction elicited by pairing an
Are all these terms really necessary? Yes, because originally neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
they help us recognize similarities in various instances

Table 28.1 elements of Classical Conditioning

Element Symbol Description Example

Unconditioned stimulus US A stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response Meat powder

Unconditioned response UR An innate reflex response elicited by a US Reflex salivation to the US
Neutral stimulus NS A stimulus that does not evoke the UR Bell before conditioning
Conditioned stimulus CS A stimulus that evokes a response because it has been Bell after conditioning
repeatedly paired with a US
Conditioned response CR A learned response elicited by a CS Salivation to the CS

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246 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u Les fo r aCtive Lear n i n g

she could communicate by deliberately blinking her eyes. Higher-Order Conditioning Once a response is learned,
But what if she couldn’t do even that? Worse still, what if she it can bring about higher-order conditioning. In this case,
were minimally conscious instead of in a vegetative state? a well-learned CS is used to condition further learning—
One exciting possibility is that eyeblink conditioning may that is, the CS has become strong enough to be used like an
be useful for distinguishing locked-in individuals from those unconditioned stimulus (Lefrançois, 2012). Let’s illustrate
with more severe brain damage, and even severely brain-dam- again with Sheldon.
aged individuals who are minimally conscious from those As a result of earlier learning, the bell now makes Shel-
who are in a vegetative state (Bekinschtein et al., 2009; Monti, don salivate. (No lemon juice is needed.) To go a step fur-
2012). Patients who are at least minimally conscious can be ther, Leonard could clap his hands and then ring the bell.
conditioned and may recover some mental functions, where- (Again, no lemon juice would be used.) Through higher-
as patients in a vegetative state likely cannot be conditioned order conditioning, Sheldon would soon learn to salivate
or recover. Currently, some minimally conscious patients are when Leonard clapped his hands (➤ Figure 28.3). (This
misdiagnosed and are not offered appropriate therapy. little trick could be a real hit with Leonard’s colleagues.)
Higher-order conditioning extends learning one or more
Principles of Classical Conditioning steps beyond the original conditioned stimulus. Many adver-
Suppose a scientist named Leonard wants to study condition- tisers use this effect by pairing images that evoke good feel-
ing by conditioning his friend Sheldon. To observe condition- ings (such as people, including celebrities, smiling and having
ing, he could ring a bell and squirt lemon juice into Sheldon’s fun) with pictures of their products. They hope that you will
mouth. By repeating this procedure several times, he could learn, by association, to feel good when you see their prod-
condition Sheldon to salivate to the bell. Sheldon might then ucts (Chen, Lin, & Hsiao, 2012; Till, Stanley, & Priluck, 2008).
be used to explore other aspects of classical conditioning.
Expectancies Pavlov believed that classical condition-
Acquisition During acquisition, or training, a condi- ing does not involve any cognitive processes. Today, many
tioned response must be established and strengthened psychologists think that classical conditioning does have
(➤ Figure 28.2). Classical conditioning occurs when the
NS is followed by, or associated with, a US. As this associa-
tion is strengthened, the NS increasingly elicits the UR; it is Before Conditioning

becoming a CS capable of eliciting a CR. For Sheldon, the US UR

bell is an NS on the way to becoming a CS, the sour lemon Lemon juice Salivation

juice is a US, and salivating is a UR on the way to becom- During Conditioning

ing a CR. For the bell to elicit salivation, we must link the CS — US UR
bell with the lemon juice. Conditioning will be most rapid if Bell Lemon juice Salivation
the US (lemon juice) follows immediately after the CS (the Test for Conditioning
bell). With most classical conditioning, the optimal delay
CR CR
between CS and US is from ½ second to about 5 seconds Bell Salivation
(Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Higher-Order Conditioning

14 14 CS2 — CS1 CR
12 12 Clap Bell Salivation
Drops of saliva to CS
Drops of saliva to CS

10 10 Test for Conditioning

8 8
CS2 CR
6 6 Clap Salivation
4 4
2 2 ➤ Figure 28.3
Higher-order conditioning. Higher-order conditioning takes place
0 4 8 12 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 when a well-learned conditioned stimulus is used as if it were an
Test trials during acquisition Test trials during extinction unconditioned stimulus. In this example, Sheldon is first conditioned
to salivate to the sound of a bell. In time, the bell will elicit
➤ Figure 28.2 salivation. At that point, Leonard could clap his hands and then ring
Acquisition and extinction of a conditioned response. After the bell. Soon, after repeating the procedure, Sheldon would learn
Pavlov (1927). to salivate when Leonard clapped his hands.

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 MODU LE 28 C o n d iti o n i n g an d Lear n i n g: C Las s i CaL C o n d iti o n i n g 247

cognitive origins because it is related to information that fireplaces, stoves, and so forth. It’s fortunate that generaliza-
might aid survival. According to this informational view, tion extends learning to related situations. Otherwise, we
we process associations among events (Schultz & Helm- would be far less adaptable.
stetter, 2010). Doing so creates new, unconscious, mental As you may have guessed, stimulus generalization has
expectancies, about how events are interconnected. limits. As stimuli become less like the original CS, respond-
How does classical conditioning alter expectancies? Notice ing decreases. If you condition a person to blink each time
that the conditioned stimulus reliably precedes the uncondi- you play a particular note on a piano, blinking will decline as
tioned stimulus. Because it does, the CS predicts the US (Rescor- you play higher or lower notes. If the notes are much higher
la, 1987). During conditioning, the brain learns to expect that the or lower, the person will not respond at all (➤ Figure 28.4).
US will follow the CS. As a result, the brain prepares the body Stimulus generalization partly explains why many stores carry
to respond to the US. Here’s an example: when you are about imitations of nationally known products. For many customers,
to get a shot with a hypodermic needle, your muscles tighten, positive attitudes conditioned to the original products tend to
and there is a catch in your breathing. Why? Because your body generalize to the cheaper knockoffs (Till & Priluck, 2000).
is preparing for pain. You have learned to expect that getting
Discrimination Let’s consider one more idea with Sheldon
poked with a needle will hurt. This expectancy, which was ac-
(who by now must be ready to explode in a big bang). Suppose
quired through classical conditioning, changes your behavior.
Leonard again conditions Sheldon with a bell as the CS. As an
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Once an asso- experiment, he also occasionally sounds a buzzer instead of
ciation has been classically conditioned, will it ever go away? If ringing the bell. However, the buzzer is never followed by the
the US stops following the CS, conditioning will fade away, or US (lemon juice). At first, Sheldon salivates when he hears the
extinguish. Let’s return to Sheldon. If Leonard rings the bell buzzer (because of generalization). But after Leonard sounds
many times and does not follow it with lemon juice, Sheldon’s the buzzer several times more, Sheldon will stop responding
expectancy that “bell precedes lemon juice” will weaken. As to it. Why? In essence, Sheldon’s generalized response to the
it does, he will lose his tendency to salivate when he hears the buzzer has extinguished. As a result, he has learned to dis-
bell. Thus, extinction (in classical conditioning) occurs by criminate, or respond differently, to the bell and the buzzer.
weakening the connection between the conditioned and the Stimulus discrimination is the learned ability to re-
unconditioned stimulus (see Figure 28.2). spond differently to various stimuli. As an example, you
If conditioning takes a while to build up, shouldn’t it take might remember the feelings of anxiety or fear you had
time to reverse? Yes. In fact, it may take several extinction as a child when your mother’s or father’s voice changed
sessions to completely reverse conditioning. Let’s say that to the dreaded put-away-that-hoverboard tone. Most
Leonard rings the bell until Sheldon quits responding. It children quickly learn to discriminate voice tones associ-
might seem that extinction is complete. However, Sheldon ated with punishment from those associated with praise
will probably respond to the bell again on the following day, or affection.
at least at first. The return of a learned response after ap-
parent extinction is called spontaneous recovery (Rescorla, Acquisition The period in conditioning during which a response is
2004; Thanellou & Green, 2011). It explains why people who reinforced.
Higher-order conditioning Classical conditioning in which a condi-
have had a car accident may need many slow, calm rides be- tioned stimulus is used to reinforce further learning—that is, a CS
fore their fear of driving completely extinguishes. is used as if it were a US.
Informational view (of conditioning) A perspective that explains
Generalization After conditioning, other stimuli similar to learning in terms of information imparted by events in the envi-
ronment.
the CS also may trigger a response. This is called stimulus Expectancies Anticipations concerning future events or relationships.
generalization. For example, Leonard might find that Sheldon Extinction (classical conditioning) Weakening of a learned re-
salivates to the sound of a ringing telephone or doorbell, even sponse by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without
the unconditioned stimulus.
though they were never used as conditioning stimuli.
Spontaneous recovery Reappearance of a learned response after its
It is easy to see the value of stimulus generalization. apparent extinction.
Consider the child who burns her finger while playing with Stimulus generalization Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to a
matches. Most likely, lighted matches will become condi- conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus discrimination The learned ability to respond differently
tioned fear stimuli for her. Because of stimulus generaliza- to similar stimuli.
tion, she also may have a healthy fear of flames from lighters,

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248 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u Les fo r aCtive Lear n i n g

Percentage of eyeblinks to CS
Figure 28.4

High
Stimulus generalization.
(a) Stimuli similar to the
CS also elicit a response.
(b) This cat has learned
to salivate when it sees a
cat food box. Because of
stimulus generalization, it

Low
also salivates when shown a
similar-looking detergent box. Lower tones CS Higher tones

Dennis Coon
Test stimuli CS Test stimuli

Classical Conditioning in Humans—An Emotional Topic

Survey Question 28.2 Does conditioning affect emotions? trigger a dangerous rise in blood pressure (Reiff, Katkin, &
Friedman, 1999).
Is much human learning actually based on classical condi-
Of course, emotional conditioning also applies to ani-
tioning? At its simplest, classical conditioning depends on
mals. One of the most common mistakes people make with
unconditioned reflex responses. As mentioned previously,
pets (especially dogs) is hitting them if they do not come
a reflex is a dependable, inborn stimulus-and-response
when called. Calling the animal then becomes a conditioned
connection. For example, your hand reflexively draws back
stimulus for fear and withdrawal. No wonder the pet disobeys
from pain. Bright light causes the pupils of your eyes to nar-
when called on future occasions. Parents who belittle, scream
row. A puff of air directed at your eye will make you blink.
at, or physically abuse their children make the same mistake.
Various foods elicit salivation. Any of these reflexes, and
others as well, can be associated with a new stimulus. At Learned Fears In 1920, pioneering psychologist John
the very least, you have probably noticed how your mouth B. Watson reported classically conditioning a young child
waters when you see or smell a bakery. Even pictures of named Little Albert to fear rats (Beck, Levinson, & Irons,
food may make you salivate (a photo of a sliced lemon is 2009). Since then, it has been widely accepted that that many
great for this). phobias (FOE-bee-ahs) begin as a conditioned emotional
response (CER), or learned emotional reaction to a previ-
Conditioned Emotional Responses ously neutral stimulus (Laborda & Miller, 2011; Vriends et
More complex emotional, or “gut,” responses also may be al., 2012). A phobia is a fear that persists even when no real-
associated with new stimuli. For instance, if your face red- istic danger exists. Fears of animals, water, heights, thunder,
dened when you were punished as a child, you may blush fire, bugs, elevators, and the like are common.
now when you are embarrassed or ashamed. Or, think about People who have phobias can often trace their fears to
the effects of associating pain with a dentist’s office during a time when they were frightened, injured, or upset by a
your first visit. On later visits, did your heart pound and particular stimulus, especially in childhood (King, Muris,
your palms sweat before the dentist began? & Ollendick, 2005). Even one bad experience in which you
Many involuntary, autonomic nervous system respons- were frightened or disgusted by a spider may condition fears
es (“fight-or-flight” reflexes) can be linked with new stim- that persist for years (de Jong & Muris, 2002; Schweckendiek
uli and situations by classical conditioning. For example, et al., 2011). Stimulus generalization and higher-order con-
learned reactions worsen many cases of hypertension (high ditioning can spread CERs to other stimuli. As a result,
blood pressure). Traffic jams, arguments with a spouse, what began as a limited fear may become a disabling phobia
and similar situations can become conditioned stimuli that (➤ Figure 28.5).

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 MODU LE 28 C o n d iti o n i n g an d Lear n i n g: C Las s i CaL C o n d iti o n i n g 249

same effect by pairing products with pleasant images and

music. So do many students on a first date.

Vicarious, or Secondhand, Conditioning

Conditioning also can occur indirectly. Let’s say, for
example, that you watch another person get an electric
shock. Each time, a signal light comes on before the shock
(a) (b)
is delivered. Even if you don’t receive a shock yourself,
you will soon develop a CER to the light. Children who
learn to fear thunder by watching their parents react to it
have undergone similar conditioning. Many Americans
were traumatized as a consequence of watching media
coverage of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in
New York and Washington, DC (Blanchard et al., 2004).
(c) (d)
Similarly, people who counsel traumatized victims of
➤ Figure 28.5 sexual abuse can themselves develop vicarious trauma
Hypothetical example of a CER becoming a phobia. A (Jordan, 2010).
child approaches a dog (a) and is frightened by it (b). This fear Vicarious classical conditioning occurs when we learn
generalizes to other household pets (c) and later to virtually all furry
animals (d).
to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing anoth-
er person’s emotional reactions (Cohen & Collens, 2012).
Such “secondhand” learning affects feelings in many situ-
ations. Being told that “snakes are dangerous” may not ex-
Systematic Desensitization During a CER, an area
plain the child’s emotional response. More likely, the child
of the brain called the amygdala becomes more active,
has observed others reacting fearfully to the word snake or
producing feelings of fear (Schweckendiek et al., 2011).
to snake images on television (King, Muris, & Ollendick,
The amygdala is part of the limbic system, which is respon-
2005). That is exactly how Larry, who we met previously,
sible for other emotions as well (see Module 10). Cognitive
developed his fear of rats. As children grow up, the emo-
learning has little effect on these lower brain areas (Olsson,
tions of parents, friends, and relatives undoubtedly add to
Nearing, & Phelps, 2007; Wood & Rünger, 2016). Perhaps
fears of snakes, caves, spiders, heights, and other terrors.
that’s why fears and phobias cannot be readily eased by
Even horror movies filled with screaming actors can have
merely reading about how to control fears—as our friend
a similar effect.
Larry discovered with his rat phobia.
The emotional attitudes we develop toward foods, po-
However, conditioned fears do respond to a thera-
litical parties, ethnic groups, escalators—whatever—are
py called systematic desensitization. This is done by
probably conditioned not only by direct experiences, but
gradually exposing the phobic person to the feared ob-
vicariously as well. No one is born prejudiced—all attitudes
ject while she or he remains calm and relaxed. For ex-
are learned. Parents may do well to look in the mirror if they
ample, people who fear heights can be slowly taken to
wonder how or where a child “picked up” a particular fear
ever-higher elevations until their fears extinguish. Simi-
or emotional attitude.
larly, people can overcome their fear of spiders by slowly
getting closer and closer to actual spiders. Systematic
desensitization even works when computer graphics Conditioned emotional response (CER) An emotional response
that has been linked to a previously nonemotional stimulus by
are used to simulate the experience of the phobic object
classical conditioning.
or event (Michaliszyn et al., 2010; Rizzo et al., 2015). Systematic desensitization Method of reducing fear by gradually
(See Module 67 for more information about therapies exposing people to the object of their fear.
based on learning principles.) Vicarious classical conditioning Classical conditioning brought
about by observing another person react to a particular
Undoubtedly, we acquire many of our likes, dislikes, and stimulus.
fears as CERs. As noted before, advertisers try to achieve the

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250 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u Les fo r aCtive Lear n i n g

MODULE

28 Summary
28.1 how does classical conditioning occur? 28.1.6 When the CS is repeatedly presented alone, con-
28.1.1 Classical conditioning, studied by Pavlov, occurs ditioning is extinguished (weakened or inhibited).
when a neutral stimulus (NS) is associated with an After extinction seems to be complete, a rest period
unconditioned stimulus (US). may lead to the temporary reappearance of a condi-
28.1.2 The US causes a reflex called the unconditioned re- tioned response. This is called spontaneous recovery.
sponse (UR). If the NS is consistently paired with the 28.1.7 Through stimulus generalization, stimuli similar to the
US, it becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) capable CS also will produce a response. Generalization gives
of producing a conditioned response (CR). way to stimulus discrimination when an organism learns
28.1.3 When the CS is repeatedly followed by the US, an asso- to respond to one stimulus, but not to similar stimuli.
ciation between the two is established and strengthened. 28.2 Does conditioning affect emotions?
28.1.4 Higher-order conditioning occurs when a well-learned CS
28.2.1 Conditioning applies to visceral or emotional re-
is used as if it were an US, bringing about further learning.
sponses as well as simple reflexes. As a result, condi-
28.1.5 From an informational view, conditioning creates ex-
tioned emotional responses (CERs) also occur.
pectancies, which alter response patterns. In classical
28.2.2 Irrational fears called phobias may be CERs. Condi-
conditioning, the CS creates an expectancy that the
tioning of emotional responses can occur vicariously
US will follow.
(secondhand) as well as directly.

Knowledge Builder Conditioning and Learning: Classical Conditioning

Recite c. spontaneous recovery

1. You smell the odor of cookies being baked, and your d. higher-order conditioning
mouth waters. Apparently, the odor of cookies is a
Reflect
__________ and your salivation is a ______________.
a. CR, CS c. CS, US Think Critically
b. CS, CR d. UR, CS 7. Lately, you have been getting a shock of static electricity
2. The informational view says that classical conditioning is every time you touch a door handle. Now, you hesitate
based on changes in mental _______________________ before you approach a door handle. Can you analyze this
__________ about the CS and US. situation in terms of classical conditioning?
3. After you have acquired a conditioned response, it may
be weakened by repeated Self-Reflect
a. spontaneous recovery US, CS, UR, CR—How will you remember these terms?
b. stimulus generalization First, note that we are interested in either a stimulus (S) or a
c. presentation of the CS alone response (R). Each S or R can be either conditioned (C) or un-
d. presentation of the CS followed by the US conditioned (U). If a stimulus provokes a response before any
4. When a conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce the learning, then it’s a US. If you have to learn to respond, then
learning of a second conditioned stimulus, higher-order it’s a CS. Does a response occur without being learned? Then
conditioning has occurred. T or F? it’s a UR. If it has to be learned, then it’s a CR.
5. Psychologists theorize that many phobias begin when a
CER generalizes to other, similar situations. T or F? AN SW E R S
6. Three-year-old Josh sees a neighbor’s dog chase his five- have been generalized to other handles.

year-old sister. Now Josh is as afraid of the dog, as is his

normally follows getting a shock. This conditioned response also may
ditioned stimuli that elicit the reflex withdrawal and muscle tensing that
sister. Josh’s fear is a result of 1. b 2. expectancies 3. c 4. T 5. T 6. b 7. Door handles have become con-
a. stimulus discrimination
b. vicarious conditioning
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 MODULE
Conditioning and Learning
Operant Conditioning 29
Shape Up!
The principles of operant conditioning, another form of asso-
ciative learning, are among the most powerful tools in psy-
chology. You won’t regret learning how to use them. Almost
all living creatures learn through operant conditioning. In

Yale Joel/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images

fact, a few simple operant concepts explain much day-to-day
behavior.
For example, operant learning is strengthened each
time a response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs.
Similarly, it is weakened if it is followed by an unsatisfy-
ing state of affairs. You are much more likely to keep tell-
ing a story if people pay attention to you. If the first three ing pets, as well as human children and adults. You can
people “tune out” when they hear the story, you may not even use operant conditioning to alter your own behavior.
tell it again. Using the principles of operant conditioning, B. F. Skinner
Operant conditioning has been successfully used to once even trained these pigeons to play Ping-Pong. Let’s
deliberately alter the behavior of many organisms includ- find out how.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
29.1 How does operant conditioning occur? 29.2 What is stimulus control?

Operant Conditioning—Ping-Pong Playing Pigeons?

Survey Question 29.1 How does operant conditioning occur? In operant conditioning, the learner actively “oper-
As stated in Module 27, in operant conditioning, we associ- ates on” the environment. Thus, operant conditioning
ate responses with their positive or negative consequences. refers mainly to learning voluntary responses. For exam-
The basic principle is simple: Acts that are followed by a pos- ple, pushing buttons on a television remote control is a
itive consequence tend to be repeated (Lefrançois, 2012). A learned operant response. Pushing a particular button is
dog is much more likely to keep searching for food under a reinforced by gaining the consequence you desire, such
pillow if it finds food there. The dog will likely stop looking
there if it fails to find food or finds something frightening. Operant conditioning Learning based on the positive or negative
Pioneer learning theorist Edward L. Thorndike called this consequences of responding.
Law of effect Responses that lead to desirable results are repeated
the law of effect—the probability of a response is altered by while those that produce undesirable ones are not.
the effect that it has had (Benjafield, 2015).

251
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252 p syChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 29.1 comparison of classical and operant conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Nature of response Involuntary, reflex Spontaneous, voluntary

Timing of learning Occurs before response (CS paired with US) Occurs after response (response is followed by reinforcing
stimulus or event)
Role of learner Passive (response is elicited by US) Active (response is emitted)
Nature of learning Neutral stimulus becomes a CS through Probability of making a response is altered by consequences
association with a US that follow it
Learned expectancy US will follow CS Response will have a specific effect

as changing channels or muting an obnoxious commer- of the top of the cage. Click! The lever depresses, and a food
cial. In contrast, classical conditioning is passive. It sim- pellet drops into the tray. The rat scurries to the tray, eats the
ply “happens to” the learner when a US follows a CS. (See pellet, and then grooms himself. Up and exploring the cage
again, he leans on the lever. Click! After another trip to the
■ Table 29.1 for a further comparison of classical and
food tray, he returns to the bar and sniffs it, and then puts
operant conditioning.) his paw on it. Click! Soon Einstein settles into a smooth pat-
tern of frequent bar pressing.
positive Reinforcement
Notice that the rat did not acquire a new skill in this situ-
Isn’t reinforcement another term for reward? Not exactly. To
ation. He was already able to press the bar. Reinforcement
be correct, it is better to say reinforcer. Why? Because re-
only alters how frequently he presses the bar. In operant
wards do not always increase responding. If you give choco-
late to a child as a “reward” for good behavior, it will work
only if the child likes chocolate. What is reinforcing for one Day 1
person may not be for another. As a practical rule of thumb, doll
psychologists define a reinforcement as any event that fol- duh
lows a response and increases its probability of occurring dat
again (➤ Figure 29.1). Day 5
doll
Acquiring an Operant Response duh
dat
Many studies of operant conditioning in animals use an
Day 10
operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box), which was
doll
developed by B. F. Skinner (Skinner, 1938; ➤ Figure 29.2).
duh
The walls are bare except for a metal lever and a tray into dat
which food pellets can be dispensed. The fact that there’s Day 20
not much to do in a Skinner box increases the chances that a doll
subject will make the desired response, which is pressing the duh
bar. Also, hunger keeps the animal motivated to seek food dat
and actively emit, or freely give off, a variety of responses.
A look into a typical Skinner box will clarify the process of
➤ Figure 29.1
Reinforcing language use. Assume that a child who is learning
operant conditioning. to talk points to her favorite doll and says either “doll,” “duh,” or
“dat” when she wants it. Day 1 shows the number of times that the
Einstein Snags a Snack
child uses each word to ask for the doll (each block represents
A smart and hungry rat (yes, it’s Larry’s rat Einstein) is one request). At first, she uses all three words interchangeably. To
placed in an operant conditioning chamber. For a while, hasten learning, her parents decide to give her the doll only when
Einstein walks around, grooms, sniffs at the corners, or she names it correctly. Notice how the child’s behavior shifts as
stands on his hind legs—all typical rat behaviors. Then it reinforcement is applied. By day 20, saying “doll” has become the
happens. He places his paw on the lever to get a better view most probable response.

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 MODU LE 29 c o n d iti o n i n g An d leAr n i n g: o p e r Ant c o n d iti o n i n g 253

Water Light Screen purchase? The immediate pleasure of making small pur-
chases today (and tomorrow, and tomorrow . . .) can easily
Food pellet
dispenser outweigh the anticipated pleasure of buying that new car or
motorbike sometime in the distant future.

Information and Contingency Like classical condi-

tioning, we can think of operant learning as based on in-
formation and expectancies (Lefrançois, 2012). In operant
conditioning, we learn to expect that a certain response will
have a certain effect at certain times. That is, we learn that a
particular response is associated with reinforcement. Fur-
Food tray thermore, reinforcement works best when it is response
Lever
contingent (kon-TIN-jent)—it must be given only after a
➤ Figure 29.2 desired response has occurred. From this point of view, a
The Skinner box. This simple device, developed by B. F. Skinner, reinforcer tells a person or an animal that a response was
allows careful study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses
the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released.
“right” and worth repeating.
For example, reinforcement was used to teach Jay, a
conditioning, new behavior patterns are molded by chang- 3-year-old autistic child, to answer questions with a “Yes”
ing the probability that various responses will be made. or a “No” (Shillingsburg et al., 2009). (Recall from Module
9 that autistic children have an impaired ability to com-
The Timing of Reinforcement municate with other people.) If he answered “Yes” to ques-
Reinforcement is most effective when it rapidly follows a tions like “Do you want a cookie?” (a preferred food), he
correct response (Powell, Honey, & Symbaluk, 2017). For was reinforced with a cookie and verbal praise. Similarly, if
rats in a Skinner box, little or no learning occurs if the delay he answered “No” to questions like “Do you want corn?” (a
between bar pressing and receiving food exceeds 50 seconds nonpreferred food), he was reinforced with verbal praise. In
(➤ Figure 29.3). In general, you will be most successful if addition, he was praised if he answered “Yes” to questions
you present a reinforcer immediately after a response you like “Does a cow say ‘moo’?” or “No” to a question like (upon
want to change. Thus, a child who is helpful or courteous seeing a photo of a boat) “Is this a shoe?”
should be immediately praised for her good behavior. In similar ways, operant principles greatly affect behav-
Understanding the power of immediate reinforcement ior in homes, schools, and businesses. It is always worth-
can also clarify some of our only-too-human weaknesses. while to arrange reinforcers so that they encourage produc-
Have you ever had trouble saving your money for a big tive and responsible behavior.

Superstitious Conditioning: Are We Less

100
Superstitious Than Pigeons? Oddly enough, even
accidental response contingent reinforcement can pro-
75
duce curious behaviors. For example, Skinner once placed
Learning score

some pigeons in Skinner boxes and reinforced them with

50 food every minute or so, no matter what they were doing
(Domjan, 2015). Despite the fact that there was no real con-
25 nection between their behavior and its consequences, each
pigeon acted as if there were. One bird began to flap its left
0 wing, another to hop on one leg, a third to turn around in
0 50 100 150
Delay of reinforcement (in seconds)
Reinforcement Any event that increases the probability of responses
➤ Figure 29.3
it follows.
The effect of delay of reinforcement. Notice how rapidly the Operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box) An apparatus de-
learning score drops when reward is delayed. Animals learning to signed to study operant conditioning in animals.
press a bar in a Skinner box showed no signs of learning if the food Response contingent Occurring only after a response.
reward following a bar press took more than 100 seconds to arrive.

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254 p syChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

complete circles, and so on, despite these behaviors being

quite unnecessary to receive reinforcement. (Silly birds!)
How could this happen? Imagine being a pigeon in this
experiment. While in the Skinner box, you would be emit-
ting various behaviors: you might coo, flap your left wing,
turn around, and so forth. In other words, you would have
to be doing something. Inevitably, some behavior you just
emitted would accidentally be followed by reinforcement.
Suppose, then, you had just flapped your left wing when you

© Dziurek/Shutterstock.com
were (accidentally) reinforced. Regardless, left-wing flap-
ping would be more likely to occur again. So you flap some
more and, again, are accidentally reinforced. You would be-
come the bird flapping your left wing all the time.
But humans wouldn’t behave that way, right? Don’t bet Dogs must build up long response chains to compete in agility
training competitions or serve as police dogs or guide dogs.
on it. When Skinner did this research, he had in mind hu-
man behavior like that of a golfer who always taps her club
on the ground three times before hitting a shot. This prob- Third, a single reinforcer can often maintain a long response
ably started because once, by chance, the golfer tapped her chain—a linked series of actions that lead to reinforcement.
club three times immediately before hitting a great shot. The An example of response chaining is provided by the sport
tapping behavior was followed by success, and was hence of dog agility training. Dogs are taught to navigate a variety of
reinforced, even though it had nothing to do with the great obstacles. These include jumping over hurdles, walking over
shot (which was due to her correct swing). Reinforcers af- seesaws, climbing up and jumping off inclined walls, and run-
fect not only the specific response they follow, but also oth- ning through tunnels made of cloth (Helton, 2007, 2009). Dur-
er responses that occur shortly before. After this sequence ing competitions, a trainer can reinforce a dog with a snack or
happened a few more times, this golfer ended up tapping a hug only after the dog completes the entire response chain.
her club three times before every shot. (Silly humans!) The winning dog is the one who finishes the course with the
Skinner even used the term superstitious behavior to fewest mistakes and the fastest time. (Good dog!)
describe a behavior that is repeated because it appears to Many of the things we do every day involve similar re-
produce reinforcement, even though it is unnecessary. Some sponse chains. The long series of events necessary to prepare a
examples of actual superstitious behaviors of athletes in- meal is rewarded by the final eating. A violinmaker may carry
clude drawing four lines in the dirt before getting in the bat- out thousands of steps for the final reward of hearing a first
ter’s box, eating chicken before each game, and always play- musical note. And as a student, you have built up long response
ing in the same athletic supporter—for four years (phew!) chains for the final reward of getting good grades (right?).
(Brevers et al., 2011; Wright & Erdal, 2008).
Skinner’s idea helps explain many human superstitions. shaping
If you walk under a ladder and then hurt yourself, you may
How is it possible to reinforce responses that rarely occur?
avoid ladders in the future. Now, each time you avoid a lad-
Even in a barren Skinner box, it could take a long time for a
der and nothing bad happens, your superstitious action is
rat (even one as smart as Einstein) to accidentally press the
reinforced. Belief in magic also can be explained along these
bar and get a food pellet. We might wait forever for more
lines. Rituals to bring rain, ward off illness, or produce abun-
complicated chains of responses to occur. For example, you
dant crops likely persist because they were superstitiously
would have to wait a long time for a duck to accidentally
reinforced in the beginning and now occasionally appear to
walk out of its cage, turn on a light, play a toy piano, turn off
succeed (Abbott & Sherratt, 2011; Engelhard et al., 2015). So
the light, and walk back to its cage. If this is what you wanted
keep your fingers crossed.
to reward, you would never get the chance.
Response Chains Let’s say that I work hard all semester in Then, how are the animals on television and at amuse-
a class to get an A. Wouldn’t the delay in reinforcement keep ment parks taught to perform complicated tricks? The answer
me from learning anything? No, for several reasons. First, as a lies in shaping, which is the reinforcement of increasingly
mature human, you can anticipate future reward. Second, you close approximations of a desired response. Let’s look again
get reinforced by quiz and test grades throughout the semester. at our favorite rat, Einstein.
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 MODU LE 29 c o n d iti o n i n g An d leAr n i n g: o p e r Ant c o n d iti o n i n g 255

Shape Up, Einstein Mom!” at the top of their lungs, throw tantrums, show off,
Instead of waiting for Einstein’s first accidental bar press, or break something. Granted, the attention they get is often a
which might have taken a long time, we could have shaped scolding, but attention is a powerful reinforcer, nevertheless.
his behavior. Assume that Einstein has not yet learned to Parents report dramatic improvements when they praise or
press the bar. At first, we settle for just getting him to face
the bar. Any time he turns toward the bar, he is reinforced
attend to a child who is quiet or playing constructively and
with a bit of food. Soon Einstein spends much of his time ignore their children’s disruptive behavior.
facing the bar. Next, we reinforce him every time he takes
a step toward the bar. If he turns toward the bar and walks
Negative Reinforcement
away, nothing happens. But when he faces the bar and takes Until now, we have stressed positive reinforcement, which
a step forward, click! His responses are being shaped. occurs when a reward or other positive event follows a re-
By changing the rules about what makes a successful re- sponse. How else could operant learning be reinforced? The
sponse, we can gradually train the rat to approach the bar time has come to consider negative reinforcement, which
and press it. In other words, successive approximations (ever- occurs when making a response is followed by removing
closer matches) to a desired response are reinforced during something unpleasant from the environment of the organ-
shaping. Skinner once taught two pigeons to play Ping-Pong ism. Don’t be fooled by the word negative. Negative rein-
in this way. Humans can also be shaped (Lamb et al., 2010). forcement also increases responding. However, it does so by
Let’s say that you want to study more, clean the house more ending (negating, or taking away) discomfort.
often, or exercise more. In each case, it would be best to set a Let’s say that you have a headache and take a painkiller.
series of gradual, daily goals. Then you can reward yourself Your painkiller-taking will be negatively reinforced if the
for small steps in the right direction (Watson & Tharp, 2014). headache stops. Likewise, a rat could be taught to press a bar
to get food (positive reinforcement), or the rat could be given
Operant Extinction a continuous mild shock (through the floor of its cage) that is
turned off by a bar press (negative reinforcement). Either way,
Would a rat stop pressing the bar if no more food arrived?
the rat will learn to press the bar more often. Why? Because
Yes, but not immediately. Through extinction (in operant
it leads to a desired state of affairs (food or an end to pain).
conditioning), learned responses that are not reinforced
Here are two additional examples of negative reinforcement:
gradually weaken. Just as acquiring an operant response
takes time, so does extinction. For example, if a television ◗ While walking outside, your hands get so cold, they
program repeatedly bores you, watching the program will hurt. You take a pair of gloves out of your backpack and
likely extinguish over time. put them on, ending the pain. (Putting on gloves is neg-
Even after extinction seems complete, the previously atively reinforced.)
reinforced response may return. If a rat is removed from a ◗ A politician who irritates you is being interviewed on the
Skinner box after extinction and given a short rest, the rat evening news. You change channels so you won’t have to
will press the bar again when returned to the box. Similar- listen to him. (Channel changing is negatively reinforced.)
ly, a few weeks after they give up on buying lottery tickets,
many people are tempted to try again.
punishment
Does extinction take as long the second time? If reinforce- Many people mistake negative reinforcement for punish-
ment is still withheld, a rat’s bar pressing will extinguish ment. However, punishment usually refers to following a
again, usually more quickly. The brief return of an operant response with an aversive (unpleasant) consequence. This
response after extinction is another example of spontaneous
recovery (mentioned earlier regarding classical condition- Superstitious behavior A behavior repeated because it seems to
produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary.
ing). Spontaneous recovery is very adaptive. After a rest pe- Response chain A series of actions that eventually lead to
riod, the rat responds again in a situation that produced food reinforcement.
in the past: “Just checking to see if the rules have changed!” Shaping Reinforcement of increasingly close approximations of a
Marked changes in behavior occur when reinforce- desired response.
Extinction (operant conditioning) Weakening of a learned re-
ment and extinction are combined. For example, parents sponse when it is no longer followed by reinforcement.
often unknowingly reinforce children for negative attention Positive reinforcement When a response is followed by a reward or
seeking (using misbehavior to gain attention). Children are other positive event.
Negative reinforcement Strengthening a behavior by removing
generally ignored when they are playing quietly. They get
something unpleasant from the environment of the organism.
attention when they become louder and louder, yell “Hey,
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256 p syChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 29.2 Behavioral effects of various consequences

Consequence of Making a Example Effect on Response
Response probability

Positive reinforcement Good event begins Food given Increase

Negative reinforcement Bad event ends Pain stops Increase
Positive punishment Bad event begins Pain begins Decrease
Negative punishment (response cost) Good event ends Food removed Decrease
Nonreinforcement Nothing N/A Decrease

form of punishment also is known as positive punishment ◗ Every time you give advice to a friend, she suddenly turns
(punishment). Again, don’t be fooled by the word positive. cold and distant. Lately, you’ve stopped offering her advice.
Positive punishment decreases the likelihood that the response (Giving advice was positively punished by rejection.)
will occur again. However, it does so by initiating (adding) dis-
Isn’t it also punishing to have privileges, money, or other
comfort. As noted, negative reinforcement increases responding.
positive things taken away for making a particular response?
The difference can be shown in a hypothetical example.
Yes. Punishment also occurs when a reinforcer or positive
Let’s say that you live in an apartment and your neighbor’s stereo
state of affairs is removed, such as losing privileges. This
is blasting so loudly that you can’t concentrate on reading this
second type of punishment is called negative punishment
book. If you pound on the wall and the volume suddenly drops
(response cost). One more time, don’t be fooled by the word
(you have been negatively reinforced), you will be more likely to
negative. Negative punishment also decreases responding.
pound on the wall in the future. But if you pound on the wall
However, it does so by ending (negating, or taking away)
and the volume increases (you have been positively punished)
something pleasant.
or if the neighbor comes over and pounds on you (more posi-
The best-known form of response cost is time-out, in
tive punishment), your wall pounding becomes less likely.
which children are removed from situations that normally
Here are two more examples of positive punishment, in
allow them to gain reinforcement (Donaldson et al., 2013).
which an unpleasant result follows a response:
When your parents put you in time-out by sending you to
◗ You are driving your car too fast. You are caught in a your room, they denied you the reinforcement of being with
radar trap and given a speeding ticket. Henceforth, you the rest of your family or hanging out with your friends. For
will be less likely to speed. (Speeding was positively your convenience, ■ Table 29.2 summarizes five basic con-
punished by a fine.) sequences of making a response.

Stimulus Control—Red Light, Green Light

Survey Question 29.2 What is stimulus control? When the light is on, a bar press will produce food. When
the light is off, bar pressing goes unrewarded. We soon
When you are driving, your behavior at intersections is con- observe that the rat presses vigorously when the light is on
trolled by the red or green light. In similar fashion, many and ignores the bar when the light is off.
of the stimuli we encounter each day act like stop or go In this example, the light signals what consequences will
signals that guide our behavior. To state the idea more for- follow if a response is made. Evidence for stimulus control
mally, stimuli that consistently precede a rewarded response could be shown by turning the food delivery on when the
tend to influence when and where the response will occur light is off. Even a well-trained animal like Einstein might
(Domjan, 2015). This effect is called stimulus control. never discover that the rules had changed (Powell, Honey,
Notice how it works with our friend Einstein. & Symbaluk, 2017). A similar example of stimulus control
Lights Out for Einstein would be a child learning to ask for candy when her mother
While learning the bar-pressing response, Einstein has been is in a good mood but not asking at other times. Likewise,
in a Skinner box illuminated by a bright light. During sever- we pick up phones that are ringing but rarely answer phones
al training sessions, the light is alternately turned on and off. that are silent.
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 MODU LE 29 C o n d iti o n i n g an d Lear n i n g: o p e r ant C o n d iti o n i n g 257

Generalization
Two important aspects of stimulus control are generaliza-
tion and discrimination. Let’s return to dogs to illustrate
these concepts. First, generalization.
Is generalization the same in operant conditioning as it
is in classical conditioning? Basically, yes. Operant stimulus
generalization is the tendency to respond in the presence of
stimuli similar to those that preceded reinforcement—that
is, a reinforced response tends to be made again when simi-
lar antecedents are present.

© Belizar/Shutterstock.com
Assume, for instance, that your dog has begun to jump
up at you whenever you are eating dinner at the kitchen
table. (Bad dog!) Mind you, that’s because you have been
rewarding its behavior with table scraps. (Bad owner!)
Then, your dog begins to jump any time that you sit at the This trainer is using operant shaping to teach tricks to these seals.
kitchen table. The dog has learned that reinforcement tends Fish from a cup hanging from her waist serve as reinforcers. Notice
that she is using a whistle and hand signals as discriminative
to occur when you are at the kitchen table. The dog’s be- stimuli to control the performance.
havior has come under stimulus control. Now, let’s say that
you have some other tables in your house. Because they are
automobile brands, birds, animals, wines, types of music,
similar, your dog will likely jump up if you sit at any of them
and even the answers on psychology tests all depends, in
because the jumping response generalized to other tables.
part, on operant discrimination learning.
Similar generalization explains why children may tempo-
A discriminative stimulus with which most drivers are
rarily call all men Daddy—much to the embarrassment of
familiar is a police car on the freeway. This stimulus is a
their parents.
clear signal that a specific set of reinforcement contingen-
cies applies. As you have probably observed, the presence of
Discrimination a police car brings about rapid reductions in driving speed,
Meanwhile, back at the table. . . . As stated earlier, to discrimi- lane changes, and tailgating.
nate means to respond differently to varied stimuli. Because Would using different ringtones on my cellphone be
one table signaled the availability of reinforcement to your dog, an example of using discriminative stimuli? Excellent!
it also began jumping up while you sat at other tables (general- Suppose that you use one ringtone for people you want
ization). If you do not feed your dog while sitting at any other to speak to, one for people you don’t, and yet another
tables, the jumping response that originally generalized to them for calls from strangers. In no time at all, you will show
will extinguish because of nonreinforcement. Thus, if your dog’s different telephone-answering behavior in response to
jumping response is consistently rewarded only in the presence different ringtones.
of a specific table, jumping at other tables will eventually be ex-
tinguished. Through operant stimulus discrimination, your Positive punishment (punishment) Any event that follows a re-
dog has learned to differentiate between antecedent stimuli that sponse and decreases its likelihood of occurring again; the process
signal reward and nonreward. As a result, the dog’s response of suppressing a response.
pattern will shift to match these discriminative stimuli— Negative punishment (response cost) Removal of a positive rein-
forcer after a response is made.
stimuli that precede reinforced and nonreinforced responses. Stimulus control Stimuli present when an operant response is
Stimulus discrimination is aptly illustrated by the acquired tend to control when and where the response is made.
“sniffer” dogs that locate drugs and explosives at airports Operant stimulus generalization The tendency to respond to
stimuli similar to those that preceded reinforcement.
and border crossings. Operant discrimination is used to
Operant stimulus discrimination The tendency to make an oper-
teach these dogs to recognize contraband. During training, ant response when stimuli previously associated with reward are
they are reinforced only for approaching containers baited present and to withhold the response when stimuli associated
with drugs or explosives. with nonreward are present.
Discriminative stimuli Stimuli that precede rewarded and nonre-
Stimulus discrimination also has a tremendous im- warded responses in operant conditioning.
pact on human behavior. Learning to recognize different
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258 p syChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

MODULE

29 summary
29.1 how does operant conditioning occur? 29.1.6 Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforce-
29.1.1 Operant conditioning occurs when a voluntary ment increase the likelihood that a response will be
action is followed by a reinforcer (which increases repeated. Positive and negative punishment decrease
the frequency of the action) or a punisher (which the likelihood that the response will occur again.
decreases the frequency of the action). 29.2 What is stimulus control?
29.1.2 Delaying reinforcement greatly reduces its effective-
29.2.1 Stimuli that precede a reinforced response tend to
ness, but a single reinforcer may maintain long chains
control the response on future occasions (stimulus
of responses.
control). Two aspects of stimulus control are general-
29.1.3 Superstitious behaviors often become part of re-
ization and discrimination.
sponse chains because they appear to be associated
29.2.2 In generalization, an operant response tends to occur
with reinforcement.
when stimuli similar to those preceding reinforce-
29.1.4 By rewarding successive approximations to a par-
ment are present.
ticular response, behavior can be shaped into desired
29.2.3 In discrimination, responses are given in the presence
patterns.
of discriminative stimuli associated with reinforce-
29.1.5 If an operant response is not reinforced, it may extin-
ment and withheld in the presence of stimuli associ-
guish (disappear). However, after extinction seems
ated with nonreinforcement.
complete, it may temporarily reappear (spontaneous
recovery).

Knowledge Builder Conditioning and Learning: Operant Conditioning

Recite Reflect
1. Responses in operant conditioning are voluntary, or Think Critically
___________, whereas those in classical conditioning are 6. Can you think of any reasons that engaging in supersti-
passive, involuntary, or __________ responses. tious behaviors might actually improve performance?
2. Changing the rules in small steps so that an animal (or
person) is gradually trained to respond as desired is self-Reflect
called ______________________________. A friend of yours punishes his dog all the time. What advice
3. Extinction in operant conditioning is also subject to would you give him about how to use reinforcement, extinc-
___________ of a response. tion, and shaping instead of punishment?
a. successive approximations Doors that are meant to be pushed outward have metal
b. shaping plates on them. Those that are meant to be pulled inward have
c. automation handles. Do these discriminative stimuli affect your behavior?
d. spontaneous recovery
4. Positive reinforcers increase the rate of responding, and AN sW E R s
negative reinforcers decrease it. T or F? attention on your swing (Damisch, Stoberock, & Mussweiler, 2010).
5. Responding tends to occur in the presence of discrimina- shot, it might nevertheless help settle you down or help you focus your
tive stimuli associated with reinforcement and tends not
tapping your club on the ground three times is not causing a better golf
1. emitted, elicited 2. shaping 3. d 4. F 5. T 6. Even though you know that
to occur in the presence of discriminative stimuli associ-
ated with nonreinforcement. T or F?

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 MODULE
Conditioning and Learning
Reinforcement and Punishment in Detail 30
One-Armed Bandits
If you want to influence operant learning, you need to know more
about how different types and patterns of reinforcement affect be-
havior. Imagine that a mother wants to reward her child for turning
off the lights when he leaves a room. Contrary to what you might

RK Studio/Monashee Frantz/Photodisc/Getty Images

think, it is better to reinforce only some of her son’s correct respons-
es. Why should this be so? You’ll find the answer in this module,
along with the secret of slot machines.
Spankings, reprimands, fines, jail sentences, firings, failing
grades, and the like are also commonly used to control behavior.
Unfortunately, too many people tend to rely exclusively on punish-
ment to shape operant behavior. Yet, punishment, especially severe
punishment, is worth avoiding, if at all possible. Why? Clearly, the
story of operant learning is unfinished without a return to the topic
of punishment.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
30.1 Are there different types of operant reinforcement? 30.3 What does punishment do to behavior?
30.2 How are we influenced by patterns of reward?

Reinforcement—What’s Your Pleasure?

Survey Question 30.1 Are there different types of operant
examples. Every time you open the refrigerator, walk to a
reinforcement?
drinking fountain, turn up the heat, or order a double latte,
For humans, learning may be reinforced by anything from a your actions reflect primary reinforcement.
candy bar to a word of praise. In categorizing reinforcers, a
Primary Reinforcement and the Brain In addition to
useful distinction can be made between primary reinforcers
the examples just listed, there are other, less obvious, primary
and secondary reinforcers.
reinforcers, such as psychoactive drugs. One of the most pow-
erful reinforcers is intracranial self-stimulation, which involves
Primary Reinforcers the direct activation of “pleasure centers” in the brain.
Primary reinforcement produces comfort, ends discomfort,
Primary reinforcement Nonlearned reinforcer, usually those that
or fills an immediate physical need: it is natural, nonlearned, satisfy biological needs.
and rooted in biology. Food, water, and sex are obvious

259
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260 P syChoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Suppose that you could have an electrode implanted secondary Reinforcers

in your brain and connected to a remote control. Slide the
Although human learning is still strongly tied to food, wa-
controller upward, and electrical impulses stimulate one of
ter, and other primary reinforcers, humans also respond
your brain’s “pleasure centers.” The few humans who have
to a much broader range of secondary reinforcers. Money,
had a chance to try direct brain stimulation report feeling
praise, attention, approval, success, affection, grades, and
intense pleasure that is better than food, water, sex, drugs, or
the like all serve as learned or secondary reinforcement.
any other primary reinforcer (Heath, 1963; ➤ Figure 30.1).
How does a secondary reinforcer gain its ability to pro-
Most of what we know about intracranial self-stimula-
mote learning? Some secondary reinforcers are simply asso-
tion comes from studying rats with similar implants (Vla-
ciated with a primary reinforcer. For example, if you want to
chou & Markou, 2011). (Electrical stimulation is a valuable
train a dog to follow you (“heel”) when you take a walk, you
tool for studying the functions of various brain structures.
could reward the dog with small food treats for staying near
See Module 8.) A rat “wired for pleasure” can be trained to
you. If you praise the dog each time you give it a treat, praise
press the bar in a Skinner box to deliver electrical stimu-
will become a secondary reinforcer. In time, you will be able
lation to its own limbic system (refer toFigure 30.1). Some
to skip giving treats and simply praise your pup for doing
rats will press the bar thousands of times per hour to obtain
the right thing. The same principle applies to children. One
brain stimulation. After 15 or 20 hours of constant pressing,
reason that parents’ praise becomes a secondary reinforcer
animals sometimes collapse from exhaustion. When they
is because it is frequently associated with food, candy, hugs,
revive, they begin pressing again. If the reward circuit is not
and other primary reinforcers.
turned off, an animal will ignore food, water, and sex in fa-
vor of bar pressing.
Tokens and Token Economies Some secondary re-
Many natural primary reinforcers activate the same
inforcers gain their value because they can be exchanged
pleasure pathways in the brain that make intracranial
for primary reinforcers (Powell, Honey, & Symbaluk,
self-stimulation so powerful (Powell, Honey, & Symbaluk,
2017). Printed money obviously has little or no value of
2017). So do psychoactive drugs, such as alcohol and
its own. You can’t eat it, drink it, or sleep with it. However,
cocaine (Galankin, Shekunova, & Zvartau, 2010; Prus,
it can be exchanged for food, water, lodging, and other
2014). In fact, rats also will self-administer nicotine. When
necessities.
they do, they are even more likely to engage in intracra-
Token reinforcement is a tangible secondary reinforcer,
nial self-stimulation (Kenny & Markou, 2006). Apparently,
such as money, a gold star, a poker chip, and the like. In a
nicotine further increases the sensitivity of pleasure path-
series of classic experiments, chimpanzees were taught to
ways in the brain.
work for tokens. The chimps were first trained to put poker
chips into a vending machine (➤ Figure 30.2). Each chip
dispensed a few grapes or raisins. Once the animals had
learned to exchange tokens for food, they would learn new
tasks to earn the chips. To maintain the value of the tokens,
the chimps were occasionally allowed to use the “Chimp-O-
Mat” (Cowles, 1937).
A major advantage of tokens is that they don’t lose
reinforcing value as quickly as primary reinforcers. For
instance, if you use candy to reinforce a developmentally
(a) (b)
disabled child for correctly naming things, the child might
lose interest when he or she is no longer hungry. It would
➤ Figure 30.1
be better to use tokens as immediate rewards for learning.
Electrical self-stimulation of the brain. Humans have been
“wired” for brain stimulation, as shown in (a). However, in humans,
Later, the child can exchange tokens for candy, toys, or
this has been done only as an experimental way to restrain other treats.
uncontrollable outbursts of violence. Implants have not been done Token economies, systems for managing and altering
merely to produce pleasure. Most research has been carried out
behavior through reinforcement of selected responses, have
with rats. Using the apparatus shown in (b), the rat can press a bar
to deliver mild electric stimulation to a “pleasure center” in been used with troubled children and adults in special pro-
the brain. grams and even in ordinary school classrooms (Alberto &

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 MoDU LE 3 0 c o n d iti o n i n g An d leAr n i n g: r e i n fo r c e M e nt An d P u n i s h M e nt i n d etAi l 261

Average days per week exercised

5

0
Baseline Treatment Reversal Return to 1 Month 3 Month
treatment follow-up follow-up
Participant 1
➤ Figure 30.2
Participant 2
Will Work for Tokens. Poker chips normally have little or no value Participant 3
for chimpanzees, but this chimp will work hard to earn them once he
learns that the “Chimp-O-Mat” will dispense food in exchange for them. ➤ Figure 30.3
Reinforcement in a token economy. Children with cystic fibrosis
Troutman, 2013; Maggin et al., 2011; ➤ Figure 30.3). In (a hereditary lung disease) benefit from exercise that clears
blocked airways. This graph shows the effects of using tokens to
each case, the goal is to provide an immediate reward for reward aerobic exercise in three children with cystic fibrosis. The
learning. Typically, tokens may be exchanged for food, spe- number of minutes of aerobic exercise each day was measured.
cial privileges, or trips to movies, amusement parks, and so Tokens earned could be exchanged for rewards such as going
to see a movie or staying up past bedtime. The graph shows
forth. Many parents find that tokens greatly reduce disci-
that all three children exercised relatively infrequently without
pline problems with younger children. For example, chil- the reinforcement (baseline and reversal phases) and relatively
dren can earn points or gold stars during the week for good more when the reinforcement was in place (training and return to
behavior. If they earn enough tokens, they are allowed on treatment phases). It is encouraging to note that exercise rates
remained heightened for months after the token economy was first
the weekend to choose one item out of a grab bag of small implemented. (Adapted from Bernard, Cohen, & Moffett, 2009.)
prizes (see Module 67 for more information on the uses of
token economies in behavior therapy.)
reinforcing. Also be aware that you may be unaware of
Social Reinforcers As we have noted, social rein- some of the reinforcers that are changing your own be-
forcement, learned desires for attention and approval, can havior! (In fact, such automatic associative learning is a
change the behavior of children, family members, friends, hallmark of experiential processing, but more about that is
roommates, and coworkers. Be aware of what you are included in Module 37.)

Partial Reinforcement—Las Vegas, a Human Skinner Box?

Survey Question 30.2 How are we influenced by patterns
of reward? Secondary reinforcement Reward that organisms learn to like.
Token reinforcement A tangible secondary reinforcer such as
Until now, we have treated reinforcement as if it were con- money, gold stars, poker chips, and the like.
tinuous. Continuous reinforcement means that a reward Social reinforcement Reward based on receiving attention, ap-
follows every correct response. At the start, continuous proval, or affection from another person.
Continuous reinforcement Pattern in which a reward follows every
reinforcement is useful for learning new responses (Chance, correct response.
2014). To teach your dog to come to you, it is best to reinforce

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262 P syChoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

your dog every time that it comes when called. Curiously,

Fixed Variable Fixed Variable
once your dog has learned to come when called, it is best to ratio ratio interval interval
shift to partial reinforcement, in which reinforcers do not

Cumulative number of responses

400
follow every response. Responses acquired by partial rein-
forcement are highly resistant to extinction, a phenomenon
300
known as the partial reinforcement effect (Powell, Honey,
& Symbaluk, 2017; Horsley et al., 2012).
How does getting reinforced part of the time make a habit 200

stronger? If you have ever visited a casino, you have probably

seen row after row of people playing slot machines. To gain 100
insight into the distinction between continuous and partial
reinforcement, imagine that you put a dollar in a slot ma-
chine and pull the handle. As a result, $10 spills into the tray. 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Let’s say that this continues for several minutes. Every pull Time (minutes)

is followed by a payoff. Because you are being reinforced on ➤ Figure 30.4

a continuous schedule, you quickly “get hooked” (and be- Typical response patterns for partial reinforcement schedules.
gin to plan your retirement). But, alas, suddenly each pull is
followed by nothing. Obviously, you would respond several when and how often responses will be rewarded (Chance,
times more before giving up. However, when continuous re- 2014). Let’s consider the four basic schedules, which all have
inforcement is followed by extinction, the message quickly some interesting effects on us. Typical responses to each pattern
becomes clear: no more payoffs (or early retirement). are shown in ➤ Figure 30.4. Results such as these are obtained
Contrast this with partial reinforcement. This time, imag- when a recorder is connected to a Skinner box. Rapid respond-
ine that you put a dollar in a slot machine five times without ing results in a steep line; a horizontal line indicates no response.
a payoff. You are just about to quit, but decide to play once Small tick marks on the lines show when a reinforcer was given.
more. Bingo! The machine returns $20. After this, payoffs Fixed Ratio (FR) What would happen if a reinforcer fol-
continue on a partial schedule; some are large, and some are lowed only every other response? What if we followed ev-
small. All are unpredictable. Sometimes you hit two in a row, ery third, fourth, fifth, or other number of responses with
and sometimes 20 or 30 pulls go unrewarded. Now let’s say reinforcement? Each of these patterns is a fixed ratio (FR)
the payoff mechanism is turned off again. How many times schedule—the number of correct responses that a subject
do you think you would respond this time before your han- must give to receive reinforcement. Notice that in an FR
dle-pulling behavior is extinguished? Because you have devel- schedule, the ratio of reinforcers to responses is fixed: FR-3
oped the expectation that any play may be “the one,” it will be means that every third response is reinforced; FR-10 means
hard to resist just one more play . . . and then one more . . . and that 10 responses must be made to obtain a reinforcer.
one more. Also, because partial reinforcement might include Fixed ratio schedules produce very high response rates (see
long periods of nonreward, it will be harder to distinguish be- Figure 30.4). A hungry rat on an FR-10 schedule will quickly
tween periods of reinforcement and extinction. It is no exag- run off 10 responses, pause to eat, and then run off 10 more. A
geration to say that the partial reinforcement effect has left similar situation occurs when factory employees or farmwork-
many people penniless. Even psychologists visiting a casino ers are paid on a piecework basis. When a fixed number of items
may get “cleaned out.” (Not your authors, of course!) must be produced for a set amount of pay, work output is high.
To return to our examples, after using continuous rein-
Variable Ratio (VR) In a variable ratio (VR) schedule
forcement to teach a child to turn off the lights or a dog to
a varying number of correct responses must be made to get
come when called, it is best to shift to partial reinforcement.
a reinforcer. Instead of reinforcing every fourth response
That way, the new behavior will become more resistant to
(FR-4), for example, a person or animal on a VR-4 schedule
extinction (Horsley et al., 2012).
gets rewarded every fourth response on average. Sometimes
two responses must be made to obtain a reinforcer; some-
schedules of Partial Reinforcement times it’s five; sometimes four; and so on. The actual num-
Partial reinforcement can be given in several patterns. ber varies, but it averages out to four (in this example). VR
A schedule of reinforcement is a protocol for determining schedules also produce high response rates.

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 MoDU LE 3 0 c o n d iti o n i n g An d leAr n i n g: r e i n fo r c e M e nt An d P u n i s h M e nt i n d etAi l 263

VR schedules seem less predictable than FR. Does that fishing also is on a VI schedule—which may explain the
have any effect on extinction? Yes. Because reinforcement bulldog tenacity of many anglers (Domjan, 2015).
is less predictable, VR schedules tend to produce greater
Are Animals Stuck in Time? We humans are cognitive
resistance to extinction than FR schedules. Playing a slot
time travelers, regularly zooming back and forth through
machine is an example of behavior maintained by a VR
time in our minds. You can, for example, think about past
schedule. Another would be a plan to sporadically reward a
events, such as what you had for breakfast this morning.
child for turning off the lights, once he or she has learned to
You also can imagine events in the future. But what about
do so. Golf, tennis, baseball, and many other sports also are
animals? Are they less cognitive and hence “stuck in time”
reinforced on a VR basis: even the best batters in baseball
(Clayton, Russell, & Dickinson, 2009)? Do dogs ever think
rarely get a hit more than an average of three out of every ten
about how hot it was yesterday or what they plan to do to-
times they are at bat.
morrow? To answer such questions, psychologists have clev-
Fixed Interval (FI) In another pattern, reinforcement erly used operant conditioning as a research tool.
is given only when a correct response is made after a set Conditioning studies have repeatedly shown that animals
amount of time has passed. This time interval is measured are sensitive to the passage of time (Zentall, 2010). For exam-
from the last reinforced response. Responses made dur- ple, pigeons and rats reinforced on FI schedules stop respond-
ing the time interval are not reinforced. In a fixed interval ing immediately after they receive a reinforcer and do not
(FI) schedule, the first correct response made after the set start again until just before the next scheduled reinforcement
time period has passed is reinforced. Thus, a rat on an FI- (Roberts, 2002). In one study, pigeons were put in a Skinner
30-second schedule has to wait 30 seconds after the last re- box with a pecking key on each wall. They quickly learned to
inforced response before a bar press will pay off again. The
rat can press the bar as often as it wants during the interval,
but it will not be rewarded.
FI schedules produce moderate response rates. Animals
working on an FI schedule seem to display a keen sense of
the passage of time (Zentall, 2010). Few responses occur
Don Johnston/Passage/All Canada Photos/Corbis

just after a reinforcement is delivered, and a spurt of activity

occurs just before the next reinforcement is due.
Is getting paid weekly an FI schedule? Pure examples of
FI schedules are rare, but getting paid each week at work
does come close. Notice, however, that most people do not
work faster just before payday, as an FI schedule predicts. A
closer parallel would be having a report due every two weeks
for a class. Right after turning in a paper, your work would Florida scrub jays are food hoarders. Does their food hoarding
probably drop to zero for a week or more (Powell, Honey, & behavior prove that they are not “trapped in time”?
Symbaluk, 2017).
Partial reinforcement Pattern in which only a portion of all re-
Variable Interval A variable interval (VI) schedule is a sponses are reinforced.
variation on a fixed interval schedule. Here, reinforcement Partial reinforcement effect Responses acquired with partial rein-
is given for the first correct response made after a varying forcement are more resistant to extinction.
Schedule of reinforcement Protocol for determining when and how
time period. On a VI-30-second schedule, reinforcement is often responses will be rewarded.
available after an interval that averages 30 seconds. Fixed ratio (FR) schedule Rule specifying the number of correct
VI schedules produce slow, steady response rates and responses a subject must give to receive reinforcement.
Variable ratio (VR) schedule Rule for delivering reinforcement
tremendous resistance to extinction (Lattal, Reilly, & Kohn,
after varying numbers of correct response.
1998). If you check your e-mail every now and then while Fixed interval (FI) schedule Rule for how long a set time period
awaiting important messages, your reward (getting the mes- must pass before a subject’s correct response can be reinforced.
sage) is on a VI schedule. You may have to wait a few min- Variable interval (VI) schedule Rule for how long a varying time
period must pass before a subject’s correct response can be
utes or hours. If you are like most people, you will doggedly reinforced.
check over and over until you get your message. Success in

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264 P syChoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

peck only at Key 1 if it was 9:30 in the morning and at Key 3 if decay after a day or so, whereas nuts stay edible. It seems that
it was 4:00 in the afternoon (Saksida & Wilkie, 1994). the jays knew exactly where they stored each type of food and
Another study focused on scrub jays. These birds are how much time had passed (Clayton, Yu, & Dickinson, 2001).
hoarders; they store excess food at different locations and Although these studies are suggestive, they are part of an
then go back later to eat it. Scrub jays were allowed to hoard ongoing debate about animal cognition, including whether
some nuts in one location and some worms in another. If animals are stuck in time (Roberts & Roberts, 2002; Zentall,
they were released four hours later, they went directly to the 2010). Nevertheless, be careful if you forget to feed your
worms. However, if they were released five days later, they beloved dog, Rover, at his usual mealtime. If he has been
went straight for the nuts. Worms are a scrub jay’s favorite conditioned to think it’s time to eat, he may settle for your
food, which explains their choice after four hours. But worms favorite flip-flops instead of dog food!

Consequences of Punishment—Putting the Brakes on Behavior

Survey Question 30.3 What does punishment do to the onset of an unpleasant event (positive punishment) or the
behavior? removal of a pleasant state of affairs (negative punishment or
response cost).
Recall that punishment lowers the probability that a response
will occur again. To be most effective, punishment must be Variables Affecting Punishment
given contingently (only after an undesired response oc- How effective is punishment? The effectiveness of punishers
curs). Punishers, like reinforcers, are defined by observing depends greatly on their timing, consistency, and intensity.
their effects on behavior. Punishment is any consequence Punishment works best when it occurs as the response is
that reduces the frequency of a target behavior. being made, or immediately afterward (timing), and when it
It is not always possible to know ahead of time what is given each time a response occurs (consistency). Thus, if
will act as a punisher for a particular person. For example, simply refusing to feed your dog table scraps is not enough
when Jason’s mother reprimanded him for throwing toys, to stop it from jumping at you when you sit at a table, you
he stopped doing it. In this instance, the reprimand was could effectively (and humanely) punish it by spraying water
a punisher. However, Chris is starved for attention of any on its nose each time it jumps up. About 10 to 15 such treat-
kind from his parents, who both work full time. For Chris, ments are usually enough. This would not be the case if you
a reprimand, or even a spanking, might actually reinforce applied punishment haphazardly or long after the jumping
toy throwing. Remember, too, that a punisher can be either stopped. If you discover that your dog dug up a tree and ate
it while you were gone, punishing the dog hours later will do
little good. Likewise, the commonly heard childhood threat,
“Wait ’til your father comes home, then you’ll be sorry,” just
makes the father a feared brute; it doesn’t effectively punish
an undesirable response.
Severe punishment (following a response with an in-
tensely aversive or unpleasant stimulus) can be extremely
effective in stopping behavior. If 10-year-old Beavis sticks
© bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock.com

his finger in a light socket and gets a shock, that may be the
last time he ever tries it (the little butthead!). Intense punish-
ment may permanently suppress responding, even for ac-
tions as basic as eating.
However, mild punishment only temporarily suppresses
a response. If the response is still reinforced, punishment
Punishers are consequences that lower the probability that a may be particularly ineffective. This fact was demonstrated
response will be made again. Receiving a traffic citation is directly
by slapping rats on the paw as they were bar pressing in a
punishing because the driver is delayed and reprimanded. Paying
a fine and higher insurance rates add to the punishment in the form Skinner box. Two groups of well-trained rats were placed on
of response cost. extinction. One group was punished with a slap for each bar

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 MoDU LE 3 0 c o n d iti o n i n g An d leAr n i n g: r e i n fo r c e M e nt An d P u n i s h M e nt i n d etAi l 265

First day Second day children who run away from punishing parents (escape)
Cumulative responses
200
Nonpunished
may soon learn to lie about their behavior (avoidance) or
Punished to spend as much time away from home as possible (also an
150
Slap avoidance response).
100
Aggression A third problem with punishment is that it
50 can greatly increase aggression. Animals react to pain by at-
tacking whomever or whatever else is around. A common
example is the faithful dog that nips its owner during a pain-
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110
ful procedure at the veterinarian’s office. Likewise, humans
Time (minutes)
who are in pain have a tendency to lash out at others.
➤ Figure 30.5
We also know that one of the most common respons-
The effect of punishment on extinction. Immediately after
punishment, the rate of bar pressing is suppressed, but by the end
es to frustration is aggression (But does frustration always
of the second day, the effects of punishment have disappeared. produce aggression? For more information, see Modules 56
(After B. F. Skinner, 1938.) and 73.) Generally speaking, punishment is painful, frus-
trating, or both. Punishment, therefore, sets up a powerful
press, and the other group was not. It might seem that the
environment for learning aggression. When spanked, a child
slap would cause bar pressing to extinguish more quickly.
may feel angry, frustrated, and hostile. What if that child
Yet, this was not the case, as you can see in ➤ Figure 30.5.
then goes outside and hits a brother, a sister, or a neighbor?
Punishment temporarily slowed responding, but it did not
The danger is that aggressive acts may feel good because
cause more rapid extinction. Slapping the paws of rats or
they release anger and frustration. If so, aggression has been
children has little permanent effect on a reinforced response.
rewarded and will tend to occur again in other frustrating
The Downside of Punishment situations.
Studies have found that children who are physically
Are there drawbacks to using punishment? A common myth
punished are more likely to engage in aggressive, impulsive,
about using punishment for training or discipline is that it
antisocial behavior (Taylor et al., 2010). Similarly, a classic
is harmless (Kish & Newcombe, 2015). Actually, using pun-
study of angry adolescent boys found that they were severe-
ishment has several drawbacks, all of which become more
ly punished at home. This suppressed their misbehavior at
of a problem as punishment increases in severity. Basically,
home but made them more aggressive elsewhere. Parents
punishment is aversive (painful or uncomfortable). As a re-
were often surprised to learn that their “good boys” were
sult, people and situations associated with punishment tend,
in trouble for fighting at school (Simons & Wurtele, 2010).
through classical conditioning, to become feared, resented,
Fortunately, at least for younger children, if parents change
or disliked. The aversive nature of punishment makes it an
to less punitive parenting, their children’s levels of aggres-
especially poor method to use when teaching children to eat
sion will decline (Thomas, 2004). (See Module 13 for infor-
politely or when toilet training (Miltenberger, 2016).
mation on parenting.)
Escape and Avoidance A second major problem
is that aversive stimuli encourage escape and avoidance Using Punishment Wisely
learning, a regular part of daily experience (Schlund & In light of its limitations and drawbacks, should punishment be
Cataldo, 2010). In escape learning, we learn to make a re- used to control behavior? Parents, teachers, animal trainers,
sponse in order to end an aversive stimulus. For example, and the like have three basic tools to control simple learn-
if you work with a loud and obnoxious person, you may at ing: (1) reinforcement strengthens responses; (2) nonrein-
first escape from conversations with him to obtain relief. forcement causes responses to extinguish; (3) punishment
(Notice that escape learning is based on negative reinforce-
ment.) Later, you may dodge him altogether. This is an ex-
Punishment Any event that decreases the probability of responses
ample of avoidance learning—making a response in order it follows.
to postpone or prevent discomfort. Each time you sidestep Escape learning Learning to make a response in order to end an
him, your avoidance is again reinforced by a sense of relief. aversive stimulus.
Avoidance learning Learning to make a response in order to post-
In many situations involving frequent punishment, similar pone or prevent discomfort.
desires to escape and avoid are activated. For example,

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266 P syChoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Type of Event 2007). Although most children show no signs of long-

Positive Aversive
term damage from spanking if it is backed up by sup-
Discomfort portive parenting, emotional damage does occur if
follows spankings are severe, frequent, or coupled with harsh
response
Positive parenting (Maguire-Jack et al., 2012; Stacks et al., 2009).
Presented

reinforcement
Like all harsh punishment, frequent spanking tends to
Positive
After a Response, Event Is:

Positive punishment increase aggression and leads to more problem behav-

event
follows iors, not fewer (Simons & Wurtele, 2010). In fact, antis-
response panking laws have been passed in a number of countries
Positive
around the world (Isaacs, 2011).
state 2. Use the minimum punishment necessary to suppress
removed
after Negative misbehavior. If punishment is used at all, it should be
Removed

response reinforcement
mild. In a situation that poses immediate danger, such
Negative
punishment as when a child reaches for something hot or a dog runs
Discomfort
(response
removed by into the street, mild punishment may prevent disaster.
cost)
response Punishment in such cases works best when it produces
actions incompatible with the response that you want to
➤ Figure 30.6 suppress. Let’s say that a child reaches toward a stove
Types of reinforcement and punishment. The impact of an event burner. Would a swat on the bottom serve as an effective
depends on whether it is presented or removed after a response is
made. Each square defines one possibility: arrows pointing upward punisher? Probably so. It would be better, however, to
indicate that responding is increased; arrows pointing downward slap the child’s outstretched hand so that it will be with-
indicate that responding is decreased. drawn from the source of danger. Negative punishment
(response cost) such as taking away privileges or other
suppresses responses. (Consult ➤ Figure 30.6 to refresh positive reinforcers is usually best for older children and
your memory about the different types of reinforcement adults. A verbal rebuke or a scolding is often enough.
and punishment.) These tools work best in combination. It 3. Apply punishment during, or immediately after, misbe-
is usually best to begin by making liberal use of positive re-
havior. Of course, immediate punishment is not always
inforcement, especially praise, to encourage good behavior
possible. With older children and adults, you can bridge
(Martin & Pear, 2011). Also, try extinction first: see what
the delay by clearly stating what act you are punishing.
happens if you ignore a problem behavior, or shift atten-
If you cannot punish an animal or young child immedi-
tion to a desirable activity and then reinforce it with praise.
ately, wait for the next instance of misbehavior.
Remember that it is much more effective to strengthen and
4. Be consistent. Be very clear about what you regard as
encourage desirable behaviors than it is to punish unwant-
misbehavior. Punish every time the misbehavior occurs.
ed behaviors (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). When all else
Don’t punish for something one time and ignore it the
fails, it may be necessary to use punishment to help manage
next. If you are usually willing to give a child three
the behavior of an animal, child, or even another adult. For
chances, don’t change the rule and explode without
those times, here are some tips to keep in mind:
warning after a first offense. Both parents should try
1. Avoid harsh punishment. Harsh or excessive punishment to punish their children for the same things and in the
has serious negative drawbacks (never slap a child’s face, same way.
for instance). “Sparing the rod” will not spoil a child. 5. Use counterconditioning. Mild punishment tends to be
In fact, the reverse is true. As we just discussed, harsh ineffective if reinforcers are still available in the situa-
punishment can lead to negative emotional reactions, tion. That’s why it is best to also reward an alternate,
avoidance and escape behaviors, and increased aggres- desired response. For example, Sally, who has a habit
sion (Aucoin, Frick, & Bodin, 2006; Simons & Wurtele, of taking toys from her sister, should not just be rep-
2010). It can even lead to long-term mental health prob- rimanded for it. She should be counterconditioned, or
lems (Afifi et al., 2006). rewarded, for displaying any behavior that is counter
What about spanking? Parents should minimize to the unacceptable behavior, such as cooperative play
spanking or avoid it entirely (Gershoff & Bitensky, or sharing her toys. As desired behaviors become more

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 MoDU LE 3 0 c o n d iti o n i n g An d leAr n i n g: r e i n fo r c e M e nt An d P u n i s h M e nt i n d etAi l 267

frequent, undesired behaviors become less frequent. instance, do not punish a person in front of others, if
Sally can’t very well share her toys and take them from possible. A strong, trusting relationship tends to mini-
her sister at the same time. mize behavior problems. Ideally, others should want to
Remember, punishment tells a person or an animal behave well to get your praise, not because they fear
only that a response was “wrong.” Punishment does punishment.
not say what the “right” response is, so it does not teach To summarize, the overall emotional adjustment of a
new behaviors. If reinforcement is missing, punishment child or pet disciplined mainly by reward is usually superior
becomes less effective (Gershoff & Bitensky, 2007). to one disciplined mainly by punishment. Frequent pun-
6. Expect anger from a punished person. Briefly acknowl- ishment makes a person or an animal unhappy, confused,
edge this anger, but be careful not to reinforce it. Be anxious, aggressive, and fearful (Gershoff & Bitensky, 2007;
willing to admit your mistake if you wrongfully punish Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013).
someone or if you punished too severely. Parents and teachers also should be aware that using
7. Punish with kindness and respect. Avoid punishing punishment can be “habit forming.” When children are noisy,
when you are angry. It is easy to get carried away and messy, disrespectful, or otherwise misbehave, the temptation
become abusive (Fréchette, Zoratti, & Romano, 2015; to punish them can be strong. The danger is that punish-
Gonzalez et al., 2008). Two-thirds of child abuse cases ment often works. When it does, a sudden end to the adult’s
start out as attempts at physical punishment (Trocmé irritation acts as a negative reinforcer. This encourages the
et al., 2001). One way to guard against doing harm is adult to use punishment more often in the future (Alberto &
to punish with kindness and respect. Doing so also Troutman, 2013). Immediate silence may be “golden,” but its
allows the punished person to retain self-respect. For cost can be very high in terms of a child’s emotional health.

MODULE

30 summary
30.1 Are there different types of operant variable interval. Each produces a distinct pattern of
reinforcement? responding.
30.1.1 Operant learning may be based on primary reinforc- 30.3 What does punishment do to behavior?
ers (which are rooted in biology) and secondary
30.3.1 Punishment decreases response frequency.
reinforcers (such as tokens and social reinforcers).
30.3.2 Punishment occurs when a response is followed by
30.1.2 Primary reinforcers are “natural,” physiologically
the onset of an aversive event (positive punishment)
based rewards. Intracranial stimulation of “pleasure
or by the removal of a positive event (negative pun-
centers” in the brain also can serve as a primary
ishment or response cost).
reinforcer.
30.3.3 Punishment is most effective when it is immediate,
30.1.3 Secondary reinforcers are learned. They typically gain
consistent, and intense.
their reinforcing value by direct association with pri-
30.3.4 Although severe punishment can virtually eliminate
mary reinforcers or because they can be exchanged
a particular behavior, mild punishment usually only
for primary reinforcers. Tokens and money gain their
temporarily suppresses responding. Reinforcement
reinforcing value in this way.
must be used to make lasting changes in the behavior
30.2 how are we influenced by patterns of of a person or an animal.
reward? 30.3.5 The undesirable side effects of punishment include
30.2.1 Reward or reinforcement may be given continuously the conditioning of fear to punishing agents and situ-
(after every response) or on a schedule of partial re- ations associated with punishment, the learning of
inforcement. Partial reinforcement produces greater escape and avoidance responses, and the encourage-
resistance to extinction. ment of aggression.
30.2.2 The four most basic partial schedules of reinforce-
ment are fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and

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268 P syChoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Knowledge Builder Conditioning and Learning: Reinforcement and Punishment

Recite Reflect
1. Primary reinforcers are those learned through classical Think Critically
conditioning. T or F? 8. Using the concept of partial reinforcement, can you
2. Which is a correct match? explain why inconsistent punishment is especially
a. social reinforcer–primary reinforcement ineffective?
b. token reinforcer–secondary reinforcement 9. Escape and avoidance learning have been applied to en-
c. intracranial stimulation–secondary reinforcement courage automobile seat belt use. Can you explain how?
d. negative reinforcer–punishment
3. Partial reinforcement tends to produce slower respond- self-Reflect
ing and reduced resistance to extinction. T or F? See if you can think of at least one everyday example of the
4. The schedule of reinforcement associated with playing five basic schedules of reinforcement (continuous reinforce-
slot machines and other types of gambling is ment and the four types of partial reinforcement).
a. fixed ratio Think of how you were punished as a child. Was the pun-
b. variable ratio ishment immediate? Was it consistent? What effect did these
c. fixed interval factors have on your behavior? Was the punishment effective?
d. variable interval Which of the side effects of punishment have you witnessed
5. Negative reinforcement increases responding; punish- or experienced?
ment suppresses responding. T or F?
6. Mild punishment tends to only temporarily AN sW E R s
____________ a response that is also reinforced. buzzer sounds.
a. enhance conditioning is evident when a driver learns to buckle up before the
b. aggravate irritating sound. This is an example of escape conditioning. Avoidance

c. replace
belt is fastened. Most drivers quickly learn to fasten the belt to stop the
an annoying sound if the ignition key is turned before the driver’s seat
d. suppress make it even more resistant to extinction. 9. Many automobiles make
7. Three undesired side effects of punishment are (1) response will continue to be reinforced on a partial schedule, which can
conditioning of fear and resentment, (2) encourage- 1. F 2. b 3. F 4. b 5. T 6. d 7. avoidance 8. An inconsistently punished
ment of aggression, and (3) the learning of escape or
___________________________ responses.

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 MODULE
Conditioning and Learning
Skills in Action 31
Behavioral Self-Management

Control Yourself
Chuck was out of shape. Worse, he was having a tough time motivating
himself to exercise. Once Chuck decided to follow the steps outlined in
this module, that changed. Now he is back on track, at least as far as his
fitness is concerned.
Chuck began by targeting the number of hours per week he spent exer-
cising. For the first week, he tracked how many hours per day he exercised
(almost none, as it turned out). With this baseline in place, he set the goal
of exercising an hour a week the first week, and an additional hour every
week afterwards until he reached his final goal of exercising five hours a

© Maridav/Shutterstock.com
week. His fitness tracker let him easily keep track of the time spent exercis-
ing, along with the number of steps he took and calories he burned. For
every hour he spent exercising, Chuck rewarded himself by watching an
hour of television. Within a month, Chuck reached his goal. (Now if only
he could spend more time studying.)

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
31.1 How is behavioral self-management related to the 32.2 How can behavioral self-management skills help me
study of psychology? in my personal and professional life?

Just Say No!

Survey Question 31.1 How is behavioral self-management
principles of operant conditioning that were discussed in
related to the study of psychology?
Modules 29 and 30.
In many ways, behavioral self-management is connect- Operant conditioning offers a number of ideas that
ed to the idea of self-regulation, which was discussed in can be useful in guiding your efforts to change behaviors.
Module 11. Recall that self-regulation is related to the For example, psychological research suggests that provid-
ability to achieve our goals, and involves both internal ing reinforcement for actions that are in line with our goals
mental processes (such as those discussed in Module 26) (and punishing those that are not!) can be extremely effec-
and external observable behaviors. In this module, we fo- tive in helping to alter behavior. But how can you take those
cus on the goals that are related to specific observable be- principles of operant conditioning and actually use them to
haviors and how those behaviors can be altered using the change your behavior? Let’s take a look.
269
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270 p SyChoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Behavioral Self-Management—A Rewarding Project

Survey Question 31.2 How can behavioral self-management 3. Choose Reinforcers If you meet your daily goal,
skills help me in my personal and professional life? what reward will you allow yourself? Daily rewards might
be watching television, eating a candy bar, socializing with
This is an invitation to use the principles of operant con-
friends, listening to your iPod, or whatever you enjoy. Also
ditioning to carry out a self-management project of your
establish a weekly reward. A movie? A dinner out? Some
own—one that can help you with any behavior that’s impor-
time playing a computer game such as Guitar Hero? A week-
tant in your relationships or the work that you do. Let’s ex-
end hike? If you have trouble thinking of rewards, remem-
plore how to identify, track, and modify the behaviors that
ber that anything you like to do can serve as reinforcement.
you want to reduce or increase in frequency (Miltenberger,
This is known as the Premack principle, named after David
2016; Watson & Tharp, 2014).
Premack, the psychologist who popularized its use.
Create a Management plan For example, suppose you like to watch television ev-
ery night and want to study more. All you need to do is
It is best to begin with a little reflective planning. Before get-
to make television watching contingent (dependent) on
ting started, you would be wise to review the basic principles
whether or not you meet your daily goal (study more). You
of classical and operant conditioning (Modules 27–30) and
might make it a rule not to watch anything until (and un-
also to look ahead to Module 67, which discusses some uses
less!) you have studied for an hour (or whatever length of
of conditioning principles in therapy. Once you’re ready to
time you choose).
proceed, you can create your own behavioral management
plan, which includes the following steps: 4. Record Your Progress Keep accurate records of
the amount of time spent each day on the target behavior,
1. Specify a Behavioral Goal Is there a behavior you
or the number of times you exercise, arrive late to class,
want to eliminate altogether, such as quitting smoking or
eat vegetables, smoke a cigarette, study, watch television,
biting your nails? Perhaps you just want to decrease a be-
drink a cappuccino, swear, or whatever behavior you have
havior, such as watching less television. Or maybe you want
targeted.
to increase a behavior, such as exercising more or studying
Even if you find it difficult to give and withhold rewards,
longer.
self-recording—keeping records of response frequencies, a
Most of us find it quite difficult to suddenly completely
form of feedback—can make a difference all by itself. Re-
change our behavior (hence so many broken New Year’s
flective record-keeping helps break habits (Wood & Rünger,
resolutions). (Remember the principle of shaping—the rein-
2016). Also, feedback can be motivating as you begin to
forcement of increasingly close approximations of a desired
make progress. In general, when you systematically (and
response; see Module 29.) Instead, set realistic goals for
honestly) observe yourself, you are more likely to engage in
gradual improvement over a number of successive weeks.
desired behaviors and less likely to perform undesired be-
Also, set daily goals that add up to the weekly goal for any
haviors (Fireman, Kose, & Solomon, 2003; Watson & Tharp,
given week.
2014). As you may have noticed, this is the basic idea behind
To increase the likelihood of meeting your goals, consid-
modern fitness trackers such as the Fitbit or websites such
er creating a behavioral contract. Write down the specific
as stickK.com.
behavioral goal you want to achieve. Also state the rewards
you will receive, privileges you will forfeit, or punishments 5. Reward Successes If you meet your daily goal, col-
you must accept. The contract should be signed by you and lect your reward. If you fall short, be honest with yourself
a person you trust. and skip the reward. Do the same for your weekly goal.
2. Record a Baseline Once you have targeted a behav- 6. Adjust Your Plan as You Learn More About
ior, spend a week or so recording how much time you cur- Your Behavior Overall progress will reinforce your at-
rently spend performing the target behavior. Or count the tempts at self-management. Unless your plan is not work-
number of desired or undesired responses you make each ing at all, don’t be dismayed by the occasional setback.
day. You will be able to evaluate your progress against your Attempting to manage or alter your own behavior may be
baseline. more difficult than it sounds. If you feel you need more

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 MoDU LE 3 1 c o n d iti o n i n g An d leAr n i n g s k i lls i n Acti o n: B e hAvi o r Al s e lf-MAnAg e M e nt 271

information, have a look at the book by Watson & Tharp his smoking to home. Then to only one room at home.
titled, Self-directed behavior: Self-modification for person- Then to one chair at home. If he succeeds in getting this
al adjustment. If you do try a self-modification project far, he may want to limit his smoking to only one un-
but find it impossible to reach your goals, be aware that pleasant place, such as a bathroom, basement, or garage
professional advice is available. (Riley et al., 2002).

Extra Techniques to Break Bad habits Use Covert Sensitization and Reward In covert sen-
sitization, aversive imagery is used to reduce the occurrence
Are there any extra tips for breaking stubborn bad hab-
of an undesired behavior, such as smoking or overeating
its? Breaking bad habits may be especially difficult to do.
(Kearney, 2006; Watson & Tharp, 2014). Suppose, for exam-
Here are four additional strategies you can add to your
ple, you want to quit smoking. Every time you get the urge,
behavioral management plan to help you change bad
repeatedly and vividly imagine yourself painfully coughing
habits.
up blood or having to tell the most important person in your
Look for Alternate Behaviors A good strategy for life that you have untreatable lung cancer and have only
change is to try to get the same reinforcement with a new three months left to live. The scenes you imagine should be
behavior. For example, Marta often tells jokes at the ex- so disturbing or disgusting that thinking about them would
pense of others. Her friends sometimes feel hurt by her temporarily make you very uncomfortable about indulging
sharp-edged humor. Marta senses this and wants to change. in the habit.
What can she do? Usually, Marta’s joke telling is reinforced Covert reinforcement—the use of positive imag-
by attention and approval. She could just as easily get the ery—can also be used to reinforce desired behavior
same reinforcement by giving other people praise or com- (Kearney, 2006; Watson & Tharp, 2014). To make use
pliments. Making a change in her behavior should be easy of covert reinforcement, rehearse your target behav-
because she will continue to receive the reinforcement that ior mentally. Then follow each rehearsal with a vivid,
she seeks. rewarding image. For example, suppose that your target
behavior is not smoking. Imagine that you are at a bar
Break up Response Chains Breaking up response
with your friends. You are offered a cigarette and po-
chains that precede an undesired behavior will help break
litely refuse. Next, imagine a pleasant, reinforcing scene:
the bad habit. The key idea is to scramble the chain of
Imagine yourself nicotine-free. Someone you really like
events that leads to an undesired response (Watson &
says to you, “Gee, you just played your best tennis ever.
Tharp, 2014). For example, Ignacio often comes home
I’ve never seen you so healthy.”
from work, logs in to his favorite role-playing game, and
While actual direct self-reinforcement is the best way
eats a whole bag of cookies or chips. He then takes a shower
to alter behavior, covert or “visualized” reinforcement can
and changes clothes. By dinnertime, he has lost his appe-
have similar effects. (Direct self-reinforcement is described
tite. Ignacio realizes he is substituting junk food for dinner.
in Module 30.) So while covert sensitization and reinforce-
Ignacio could solve the problem by breaking the response
ment may sound as if you are “playing games with yourself,”
chain that precedes dinner. For instance, he could shower
it can be a great help if you want to cut down on a bad habit
immediately when he gets home or delay logging in until
(Kearney, 2006).
after dinner.
Reduce Cues and Antecedents Try to avoid, narrow
down, or remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit. Behavioral contract A formal agreement stating behaviors to be
Example: Brent wants to cut down on smoking. He changed and consequences that apply.
can take many smoking cues out of his surroundings by Premack principle Any high-frequency response can be used to
contingently reinforce a low-frequency response.
removing ashtrays, matches, and extra cigarettes from Self-recording Self-management based on keeping records of
his house, car, and office. Drug cravings are strongly re- response frequencies.
lated to cues conditioned to the drug, such as the odor Covert sensitization Use of aversive imagery to reduce the occur-
of cigarettes. Brent can narrow antecedent stimuli even rence of an undesired response behavior.
Covert reinforcement Using positive imagery to reinforce desired
more. He could begin by smoking only in the lounge at behavior.
work, never in his office or in his car. He could then limit

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272 p SyChoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

MODULE

31 Summary
31.1 how is behavioral self-management related chains, avoiding antecedent cues, and using covert
to the study of psychology? sensitization and reinforcement.
31.1.1 By applying conditioning principles to implement a 31.2.2 In covert sensitization, aversive images are used to
behavioral management plan, it is possible to change discourage unwanted behavior. Covert reinforcement
or manage your own behavior. is a way to encourage desired responses by mental
rehearsal.
31.2 how can behavioral self-management skills
help me in my personal and professional
life?
31.2.1 Four strategies that can help change bad habits are
reinforcing alternative responses, breaking response

Knowledge Builder Conditioning and Learning Skills in Action: Behavioral

Self-Management

Recite Self-Reflect
1. After a target behavior has been selected for reinforce- Even if you don’t expect to carry out a self-management proj-
ment, it’s a good idea to record a baseline so that you can ect right now, outline a plan for changing your own behavior.
set realistic goals for change. T or F? Be sure to describe the behavior that you want to change, set
2. Self-recording, even without the use of extra rewards, can goals, and identify reinforcers.
bring about desired changes in target behaviors. T or F? How could you use covert sensitization and covert rein-
3. The Premack principle states that behavioral contracting forcement to change your behavior?
can be used to reinforce changes in behavior. T or F?
4. A self-management plan should use the principle of AN SW E R S
shaping by setting a graduated series of goals. T or F?
reinforcement.
the delay of reinforcement, which maximizes the impact of the
5. Like covert sensitization, covert reinforcement of desired 1. T 2. T 3. F 4. T 5. T 6. Daily performance goals and rewards reduce
responses also is possible. T or F?

Reflect
Think Critically
6. How does setting daily goals in a behavioral self-
management program help maximize the effects of
reinforcement?

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 MODULE

Memory
Memory Systems 32
My Memory Rules My Life
The more you remember, the better, right? Maybe when it comes to
exams. But consider Joe, whose military service left him haunted
by memories of battle. Images of combat spontaneously intrude
on his thoughts while he is at work, such as the time he saw a
land mine tear apart a good friend. Everyday experiences, such as
smelling gas while filling up, take him back. Loud noises startle
him into combat mode. He is unable to visit old comrades without
being overwhelmed by painful memories. For Joe, a little more
forgetfulness would be a gift (Cohen, 2006).
In a very real sense, who we are is determined by what we re-

C.J. Burton/Crush/Corbis
member and what we forget. An interesting series of events must
occur before we can say, “I remember.” Don’t worry. As you read
this module, and others on memory and forgetting, we won’t forget
to share some ways to help you better remember for that next exam.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
32.1 In general, how does memory work? 32.3 What are the features of long-term memory?
32.2 What are the features of short-term (or working)
memory?

Stages of Memory—Do You Have a Mind Like

a Steel Trap? Or a Sieve?
Survey Question 32.1 In general, how does memory work? To pass through each memory, information must be en-
coded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding is the conversion of
Memory is no passive “library of facts.” Instead, human
information into a form suitable for retention in memory.
memory is a series of active systems that receive, store, or-
Once it is encoded, information must be held in memory
ganize, alter, and recover information (Baddeley, Eysenck,
& Anderson, 2009). For information to be stored for a long
time—like, say, between when you study and when you need Memory Mental system for receiving, encoding, storing, organizing,
to remember for an exam—it must pass through a series of altering, and retrieving information.
Encoding Converting information into a form to be retained in
memories: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long- memory.
term memory.

273
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274 p Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Maintenance
rehearsal Elaborative
processing or
Rote rehearsal
Sensory
input Sensory Short-term Long-term
Memory Selective memory (STM) memory (LTM)
attention Retrieval

➤ Figure 32.1
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model. Successful long-term remembering involves three stages of memory. Sensory memory encodes and stores
sensory information for a second or two. Selectively attending to that information encodes small amounts in short-term memory, where it
may be processed. Any resulting meaningful information may be encoded in long-term memory, where it may be stored until it is needed, at
which time it may be retrieved as needed. It is worth noting that this is a useful, but highly simplified, model of memory; it may not be literally
true regarding what happens in the brain.

storage for later use. Finally, retrieval involves the recovery also watching television), that does not bode well for your
of stored information. exam. As your elementary teacher might have commented,
If you’re going to remember all of the 9,856 new terms reading is more than just passing your eyes over the page.
on your next psychology exam, then you must successfully
encode them in sensory memory, move them through short- Short-Term Memory
term memory, and eventually retrieve them from long-term Even though you are usually unaware of your sensory mem-
memory. These stages are summarized by the Atkinson- ory, you cannot fail to be aware of your short-term memory.
Shiffrin model of memory, shown in ➤ Figure 32.1 (Atkinson Carefully read the definition contained in the next two sen-
& Shiffrin, 1968; Sternberg, 2017). It is well worth tracing tences. Short-term memory (STM) holds small amounts of
the series of memory events that must occur before you can information for short periods of time. We are consciously
pass that exam. Let’s start with a quick overview. aware of short-term memories for a dozen seconds or so
(Jonides et al., 2008). That’s right—what you are aware of
Sensory Memory right now is in your short-term memory. Back to those defi-
Let’s say that you sit down to memorize a few terms from nitions you are studying. You pay attention to what you are
this textbook for your exam next month. As you read, infor- reading and so become aware of the definitions when they
mation is first automatically encoded in sensory memory, are encoded in STM.
which can hold an exact copy of what you are seeing for a
few seconds or less. We are normally unaware of the func- long-Term Memory
tioning of our sensory memories, which store information If STM is so short-term, how do we remember for longer peri-
just long enough for it to be retrieved and encoded into ods? Information that is important or meaningful is retrieved
short-term memory (Radvansky, 2011). from STM and encoded in long-term memory (LTM), an
For instance, look at the next definition in this para- unlimited capacity storage system that can hold information
graph and then quickly close your eyes. If you are lucky, a over lengthy periods of time. LTM contains everything you
fleeting “photocopy” of the letters will persist. Iconic (eye- know about the world—from aardvark to zebra, math to The
KON-ick) memories—visual sensory images—are typically Walking Dead, facts to fantasy. Yet, there appears to be no
stored for about a half second (Keysers et al., 2005). Simi- danger of running out of room. LTM can store nearly limit-
larly, when you hear information, sensory memory stores it less amounts of information. In fact, the more you know, the
for up to 2 seconds as an echoic memory, a brief flurry of easier it becomes to add new information to memory. This is
activity in the auditory system (Cheng & Lin, 2012). the reverse of what we would expect if LTM could be “filled
If you are selectively attending (focusing on a selected up” (Goldstein, 2015). It also is one of many reasons for get-
portion of sensory input) to the terms you are studying, they ting an education.
most likely will be retrieved from sensory memory and en-
coded in short-term memory. Background events, such as a The Relationship Between STM and lTM
voice on the television announcing a new episode of Ameri- Although sensory memory is involved every time we store
can Crime, will not. However, if you are just looking at the information, we are most likely to notice STM and LTM. To
words on the page but not paying attention (maybe you are summarize their connection, picture a small desk (STM) at

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 MoDU lE 32 M e M o ry: M e M o ry syste M s 275

the front of a huge warehouse full of filing cabinets (LTM). When we want to use knowledge from LTM to answer
As information enters the warehouse, it is first placed on the a question, the information is returned to STM. Or, in our
desk. Because the desk is small, it must be quickly cleared analogy, a folder is retrieved from the files (LTM) and moved
off to make room for new information. While unimport- to the desk (STM), where it can be used. Now that you have
ant items are simply tossed away, meaningful information is a general picture of memory, it is time to explore STM and
placed in the files (Wang & Conway, 2004). LTM in more detail.

Short-Term (Working) Memory—Do You Know

the Magic Number?
Survey Question 32.2 What are the features of short-term people really form a working memory image to do this task?
(or working) memory? It seems that they did. As shown in Figure 32.2b, the time
that it took to “move” the dot was directly related to actual
How are short-term memories encoded? Short-term memo-
distances on the map.
ries can be encoded as images but most often they are en-
Here’s another example, this time with sounds: Read the
coded phonetically (by sound), especially when it comes to
following two numbers out loud and add them together in
words and letters (Barry et al., 2011).
your head: 1,874 1 3,326. Come on, give it a try. Regard-
When STM combines with other mental processes, it
less of how well you did, notice that you had to encode and
acts like a sort of “mental scratchpad,” or working memory,
store the two numbers, likely by the sound of their number
in which we do much of our thinking (Chein & Fiez, 2010;
names, along with any carries or other intermediate calcula-
Nevo & Breznitz, 2013). Whenever you read a book, do
tions, as you carried out the addition.
mental arithmetic, put together a puzzle, plan a meal, or fol-
low directions, you are using working memory (Baddeley, Storage Holding information in memory for later use.
2012; Prime & Jolicoeur, 2010). Retrieval Recovery of stored information.
To experience your short-term memory at work, answer Sensory memory Fleeting storage system for sensory impressions.
this question: How many doors are in your house or apartment? Iconic memory A mental image or visual representation.
Echoic memory A brief continuation of sensory activity in the audi-
To answer a question such as this, many people form mental tory system after a sound is heard.
images—mental pictures—of each room and count the door- Short-term memory (STM) Storage system used to hold small
ways they visualize (Ganis, 2013; Shorrock & Isaac, 2010). amounts of information in conscious awareness for about a dozen
seconds.
Stephen Kosslyn, Thomas Ball, and Brian Reiser (1978)
Long-term memory (LTM) Unlimited capacity storage system that
provided an interesting example of using images in work- can hold information over lengthy periods of time.
ing memory. Participants first memorized a map like the Working memory Another name for short-term memory, especially
one shown in ➤ Figure 32.2a. They were then asked to pic- as it is used for thinking and problem solving.
Mental images Mental pictures or visual depictions used in memory
ture a black dot moving from one object, such as one of the and thinking.
trees, to another, such as the hut at the top of the island. Did

2.1 ➤ Figure 32.2

Reaction time (seconds)

1.9 Scanning mental images.

(a) “Treasure map” similar to the
1.7 one used by Kosslyn, Ball, and
Reiser (1978) to study images in
1.5
memory. (b) This graph shows how
1.3 long it took participants to move a
visualized spot various distances
1.1 on their mental images of the map.
(See text for explanation.)

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Distance (cm)
(a) (b)

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276 p Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Storage and Rehearsal in Short-Term As you read, try to reflect frequently. Ask yourself “why”
(Working) Memory questions, such as, “Why would that be true?” (Toyota &
Kikuchi, 2005). Also, try to relate new ideas to your own ex-
For how long is a short-term memory stored? That de-
periences and knowledge (Karpicke & Smith, 2012). If you
pends, because you can keep sounds active in short-term
do not already recognize this advice, consider (re?)reading
memory by repeating them over and over, a process called
Module 1 if only to elaborate on your processing of the idea
maintenance rehearsal (see Figure 7.1). In a sense, rehears-
of elaborative processing.
ing information (whether silently or out loud) allows you
to “hear” it many times, not just once (Jarrold & Hall, 2013;
Tam et al., 2010). You have probably used maintenance re- The capacity of Short-Term
hearsal to keep a phone number active in your mind while (Working) Memory
looking at your cell phone and dialing it. How much information can be held in short-term memory?
What if rehearsal is prevented, so a memory cannot be re- It depends on whether the information is comprised of
hearsed? Without maintenance rehearsal, individual memories sounds, mental images, or a combination of the two. Read
rapidly decay, or fade from STM. This feature of short-term the following numbers once, and then close the book and
memory prevents our minds from more permanently storing write as many as you can in the correct order.
useless names, dates, telephone numbers, and other trivia.
In one experiment, participants heard meaningless syl- 8 5 1 7 4 9 3
lables such as “xar,” followed by a number such as 67. As This is called a digit-span test—a measure of attention and
soon as participants heard the number, they began counting short-term memory (Bowden et al., 2013). Most adults can
backward by threes (to prevent them from rehearsing the correctly repeat about seven digits. Now try to memorize
syllable). After a delay of between 12 and 18 seconds, their the following list, again reading it only once.
memory for the syllables fell to zero (Peterson & Peterson,
1959). That’s why, when you are introduced to someone, 7 1 8 3 5 4 2 9 1 6 3 4
that person’s name can easily slip out of STM. To avoid em-
This series was likely beyond your short-term memory capac-
barrassment, pay careful attention to the name, rehearse it
ity. Psychologist George Miller (1920–2012) found that short-
several times, and try to use it in the next sentence or two,
term memory for sounds is limited to the “magic number” of
before it fades away (Radvansky, 2011).
seven (plus or minus two) information bits (Miller, 1956).
You also have likely noticed that STM is very sensitive
A bit is a single meaningful “piece” of information, such as a
to interruption, or displacement. You’ve probably had some-
digit. It is as if short-term memory has seven “slots” or “bins”
thing like this happen: A friend gives you a phone number
into which separate items can be placed. A few people can
to call, say to order a pizza. As you start to dial, your friend
remember up to nine bits, and for some types of information,
suddenly asks you a question. You answer and return to dial-
five bits is the limit. Thus, an average of seven information
ing, only to find that your memory for the number was dis-
bits can be stored in short-term memory (Radvansky, 2011).
placed by processing the question. Because STM can handle
When all of the “slots” in STM are filled, there is no room
only small amounts of information, it can be difficult to do
for new information. Picture how this works at a party: Let’s say
more than one task at a time (Mercer & McKeown, 2010).
your hostess begins introducing everyone who is there, “Chun,
Isn’t saying stuff to yourself over and over also a way of
Dasia, Sandra, Roseanna, Cholik, Shawn, Kyrene. . . .” Stop, you
studying? It is true that the more times a short-term mem-
think to yourself. But she continues, “Nelia, Jay, Frank, Patty,
ory is rehearsed, the greater are its chances of being stored
Amit, Ricky.” The hostess leaves, satisfied that you have met
in LTM (Goldstein, 2015; refer to Figure 32.1). This is rote
everyone. You spend the evening talking with Chun, Dasia,
rehearsal (rote learning)—learning by simple repetition.
and Ricky, the only people whose names you remember!
But rote learning is not a very effective way to study.
Elaborative processing, which makes information Chunking Before we continue, try your short-term
more meaningful, is a far better way to form lasting memo- memory again, this time on letters. Read the following let-
ries. When encoding information for the first time, it is best ters once, and then look away and try to write them in the
to elaborate on the meaning of the information, especially proper order.
by forming links between that information and memories
that are already in LTM (Raposo, Han, & Dobbins, 2009). T V I B M U S N Y M C A

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 MoDU lE 32 M e M o ry: M e M o ry syste M s 277

Notice that there are 12 letters, or “bits” of information. If facts or ideas into larger chunks, and your short-term memo-
you studied the letters one at a time, this should be beyond ry will improve. In fact, some psychologists believe that STM
the seven-item limit of STM. However, you may have no- may actually hold only four items, unless some chunking has
ticed that some of the letters can be organized, or chunked, occurred (Jonides et al., 2008; Mathy & Feldman, 2012).
together. For example, you may have noticed that NY is the The clear message is that creating information chunks
abbreviation for New York. If so, the two bits N and Y be- is the key to making good use of your short-term memory
came one chunk. Chunking, then, is the process of grouping (Gilchrist, Cowan, & Naveh-Benjamin, 2009; Jones, 2012).
similar or meaningful information together. This means, for example, that it is well worthwhile to find or
Does chunking make a difference? Chunking recodes create meaningful chunks when you study.
(reorganizes) information into units that are already in
LTM. In a classic experiment that used lists like this one, The Multimedia Principle How about short-term mem-
people remembered best when the letters were read as fa- ory for images? Unlike the digit span test, there is, as yet,
miliar meaningful chunks: TV, IBM, USN, YMCA (Bower no standard way of measuring short-term memory span for
& Springston, 1970). If you recoded the letters this way, you mental images. What we do know, however, is that people
organized them into four chunks of information and prob- process words and mental images together better than they
ably remembered the entire list. If you didn’t, go back and do words alone. This is the multimedia principle (Overson,
try it again; you’ll notice a big difference. 2014). When it comes to short-term memory, this means that
Chunking suggests that STM holds about five to seven of adding mental images to short-term memory interferes less
whatever units we are using. A single chunk could be made with memory for words already in STM than adding more
up of numbers, letters, words, phrases, or familiar sentences. words. If the friend who gave you the phone number of the
Picture STM as a small desk again. Through chunking, we pizza joint grinned at you and gave you a thumbs up signal
combine several items into one “stack” of information. This instead of asking you a question as you dialed the number,
allows us to place seven stacks on the desk, whereas before chances are your memory for the number would not suffer.
there was room for only seven separate items. While you are (See Module 36 to see how the multimedia principle can be
studying, try to find ways to link two, three, or more separate put to good use designing memorable presentations.)

Long-Term Memory—A Blast from the Past

Survey Question 32.3 What are the features of long-term helps you as much as it did them: “The First Space Trip to
memory? the Moon.” In the “cramped quarters,” the rest of the crew
is at the controls of the space ship. The “rubber ball” is the
Are long-term memories also encoded as images or sounds?
appearance of earth from space and the “important papers”
They can be. But long-term memories are typically encoded
are the newspapers waiting to report on the moon landing.
on the basis of meaning. For example, try to memorize this
Back to your psychology exam: If you make an error in
story:
LTM, it probably will be related to meaning. For example,
He looked outside from cramped quarters. Many unknown
objects moved swiftly in blackness. Fearless companions
manipulated buttons while reading complex patterns. Flat Maintenance rehearsal Repeating information over and over to
familiar homeland resembled a rubber ball. Everyone knew keep it active in short-term memory.
Rote rehearsal (rote learning) Learning by simple repetition.
that only lifeless things would be found among cold moun-
Elaborative processing Making memories more meaningful
tains surrounding barren valleys. But important papers anx-
through processing that encodes links between new information
iously awaited their arrival for no man had ever made such and existing memories and knowledge, either at the time of the
big news. (Adapted from Dooling & Lachman, 1971.) original encoding or on subsequent retrievals.
Information bits Meaningful units of information, such as num-
This odd story emphasizes the impact that meaning has bers, letters, words, or phrases.
on memory encoding. You can, of course, memorize the Chunking Process of grouping similar or meaningful information
words without understanding their meaning. But people together.
Multimedia principle The idea that people process words and men-
given the title of the story find it much more meaningful,
tal images together better than they do words alone.
and memorable, than those not given a title. See if the title

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278 p Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

if you are trying to recall the phrase test anxiety, you are membership in groups. In one study, European-American
more likely to mistakenly write down test nervousness or test and Chinese adults were asked to recall 20 memories from
worry than text anxiety or tent anxiety. any time in their lives. As expected, American memories
One important way to gain meaning is to link informa- tended to be self-centered: Most people remembered sur-
tion currently in STM to knowledge already stored in LTM. prising events and what they did during the events. Chinese
This makes it easier to encode in LTM and, hence, remember. adults, in contrast, remembered important social or histori-
For example, if you can relate the definition of test anxiety to cal events and their own interactions with family members,
a memory of a time when you or a friend was nervous about friends, and others (Wang & Conway, 2004). Thus, in the
taking a test, you are more likely to remember the definition. United States, personal memories tend to be about “me”; in
China they tend to be about “us” (Wang, 2013).
Encoding and culture
Culture also affects the encoding of long-term memories Storage in long-Term Memory
(Ross & Wang, 2010). For example, American culture em- An electrode touched the patient’s brain. Immediately, she
phasizes individuals, whereas Chinese culture emphasizes said, “Yes, sir, I think I heard a mother calling her little boy
somewhere. It seemed to be something happening years ago.
It was somebody in the neighborhood in which I live.” A
short time later, the electrode was applied to the same spot.
Again the patient said, “Yes, I hear the same familiar sounds.
It seems to be a woman calling, the same lady” (Penfield,
1958). A woman made these statements while she was un-
dergoing brain surgery. The brain has no pain receptors, so
the patient was awake while her brain was electrically stim-
ulated (➤ Figure 32.3). When activated, some brain areas
seemed to produce vivid memories of long-forgotten events
(Jacobs, Lega, & Anderson, 2012).
Results such as those described led neurosurgeon
Wilder Penfield to propose that the brain records the past
Keith Dannemiller/Corbis News/

After going for a walk in nature, could you remember the locations,
appearances, and names of all of the plants you saw along the ➤ Figure 32.3
way? Unless you are a botanist, doing so would be quite a feat Exposed cerebral cortex of a patient undergoing brain
of memory. However, for indigenous peoples, such as this Piaroa surgery. While operating on the brains of wide-awake patients,
Indian shaman, from Venezuela, it would be easier. Plants are very Wilder Penfield would sometimes deliver a mild electric “shock”
important to indigenous peoples as sources of food and medicine to the surface of the exposed cortex. In response, patients would
(Kimmerer, 2013). Since a shaman’s power is strongly influenced often experience vivid memories. A critical evaluation of such
by his knowledge of plants, he is prepared to encode and store reports suggests that they are more like dreams than memories.
information about plants and their uses that would be difficult for This fact raises questions about claims that long-term memories
most other people to remember. are permanent.

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 MoDU lE 32 M e M o ry: M e M o ry syste M s 279

like a “strip of movie film, complete with sound track” (Pen- Try It Yourself: Old or New?
field, 1957). However, as you already know, this is an ex- Now, without looking back to the list of words you read a
aggeration because many events never get past sensory or few minutes ago, see if you can tell which of the following
short-term memory. Also, most reports of memorylike ex- are “old” words (items from the list you read) and which are
“new” words (items that weren’t on the list). Mark each of
periences resemble dreams more than memories, and many the following words as old or new:
are clearly imaginary. Memory experts now believe that, ex-
cept for a few rare individuals, long-term memories are only sofa sleep lamp kitchen
relatively permanent (Goldstein, 2015).
Return now and look at the labels you wrote on the “old
Try It Yourself: How’s Your Memory? or new” word list. Contrary to what you may think you “re-
To better appreciate the next topic, read through this list of membered,” all of the listed words are “new.” None was on the
words once and then continue reading: original list! If you thought you “remembered” that “sleep”
was on the original list, you elaborated a false memory. The
bed dream blanket doze pillow nap
snore mattress alarm clock rest slumber word sleep is associated with most of the words on the origi-
nod sheet bunk cot cradle groggy nal list, which creates a strong impression that you saw it
before (Roediger & McDermott, 1995; Schacter, 2012).
As the preceding examples show, thoughts, inferences,
False Memories and mental associations may be mistaken for true memo-
There’s another reason to doubt that all our experiences are ries (Scoboria et al., 2012). False memories are a common
permanently recorded. Although elaborative processing is problem in police work. For example, a witness may select
helpful when you’re making meaningful connections be- a photo of a suspect from police files or see a photo in the
tween new information and what you already know, it also news. Later, the witness identifies the suspect in a lineup or
can lead to memories of things that never happened (Jou & in court. Did the witness really remember the suspect from
Flores, 2013). Gaps in memory, which are common, may be the scene of the crime? Or was that memory distorted by
filled in by logic, guessing, or new information (Schacter, later viewing the photograph?
2012). The result is often the storage of new long-term Does new information always “overwrite” existing memo-
memories as older memories might be revised or even lost ries? Sometimes a new memory is merely stored alongside
(Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson, 2009). a similar but older memory. In this case, the two memories
To illustrate this point, Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer can potentially be confused. This can make us vulnerable to
(1974) showed people a filmed automobile accident. After-
ward, some participants were asked to estimate how fast the
cars were going when they “smashed” into one another. For
others, the words “bumped,” “contacted,” or “hit” replaced
“smashed.” One week later, each person was asked, “Did you
see any broken glass?” Those asked earlier about the cars that
“smashed” into one another were more likely to say yes, even
though no broken glass was shown in the film. The new in-
formation (“smashed”) was incorporated into the original
Ilene MacDonald/Alamy Stock Photo

memories, elaborating them and producing a false memory.

Such “memories” can seem accurate, but they never happened
(such as remembering broken glass at an accident when there
was none) (Loftus, 2003; Weinstein & Shanks, 2010).
In another study, people who had visited a Disney resort
were shown several fake ads for Disney that featured Bugs Eyewitness memories are notoriously inaccurate. By the time that
Bunny. Later, about 16 percent of the people who saw these witnesses are asked to testify in court, information they learned
fake ads claimed that they had met Bugs at Disneyland. This after an incident may blend into their original memories.
is impossible, of course, because Bugs Bunny is a Warner
Brothers character who would never show his face at Dis- False memory A memory that can seem accurate but is not.
neyland (Braun, Ellis, & Loftus, 2002).

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280 p Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

source confusion, which occurs when the origins of a mem- organizing Memories
ory are misremembered (Fandakova, Shing, & Lindenberg-
Long-term memory stores huge amounts of information
er, 2012; Rosa & Gutchess, 2011). For example, a witness to
during a lifetime. How are we able to quickly find specific
a crime might inappropriately “remember” a face when they
memories? The answer is that each person’s “memory
accidentally retrieve the wrong memory (Ruva, McEvoy, &
index” is highly organized.
Bryant, 2007).
Does that mean that information is arranged alphabeti-
One famous example involved memory expert Donald cally, as in a dictionary? Not usually. Information in LTM may
Thomson. After appearing live on Australian television, be arranged according to rules, images, categories, symbols,
he was accused of rape. It turns out that the victim was similarity, formal meaning, or personal meaning (Baddeley,
watching him on television when the actual rapist broke Eysenck, & Anderson, 2009). Psychologists believe that a
into her apartment (Schacter, 1996). She correctly re- network model best explains the structure, or organization,
membered Thomson’s face, but attributed it to the wrong of memories. Memory structure refers to the pattern of as-
source. Many tragic cases of mistaken identity occur sociations among items of information. According to this
this way. view, LTM is organized as a network of linked memories.
To summarize, forming and using long-term memo- With ➤Figure 32.4 in mind, assume that Erica was
ries is an active, creative, highly personal process. Our given two statements to which she must quickly answer yes
memories are colored by emotions, judgments, and quirks or no: (1) Classical conditioning forms simple associations.
of personality. If you and a friend were joined at the hip (2) Classical conditioning is due to experience. Which will she
and you went through life side by side, you would still have answer more quickly? Erica most likely will say yes to the
different memories. What we remember depends on what statement Classical conditioning forms simple associations
we pay attention to, what we regard as meaningful or im- faster (Collins & Quillian, 1969).
portant, how we elaborate our memory, and what we feel Why should this be so? When ideas are “farther” apart,
strongly about. it takes a longer chain of associations to connect them. The

Question: Classical conditioning Change in behavior

is revealed by latent learning,
Learning Due to experience
Yes or No?
Relatively permanent

Answer: No.

Forms simple Uses information-rich

associations processes
Instrumental Requires little Cognitive Requires greater
learning awareness learning awareness
Shared by animals Animals can engage
and humans in simpler types

Developed by Learning by
Operant Thorndike and Skinner Observational imitation
conditioning Focus on behavior learning BoBo doll
consequences studies

START Developed by
Pavlov Revealed by
Classical Focus on behavior Cognitive latent learning
conditioning antecedents maps Form of internal
Links US to a representation
new CS

➤ Figure 32.4
A network model of student learning. Erica, a first-year psychology major, has just finished studying for an exam on conditioning and
learning. This figure presents a hypothetical network model of a part of what she just learned. Small networks of ideas such as this are
probably organized into larger and larger units and higher levels of meaning.

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 MoDU lE 32 M e M o ry: M e M o ry syste M s 281

more two items are separated, the longer it takes to answer. Thus, hypnosis sometimes uncovers more information,
In terms of information links, “classical conditioning” is as it did with the bus driver (Wester & Hammond, 2011).
probably “closer” to “forms simple associations” in Erica’s However, in the absence of corroborating evidence, there is
“memory file.” The phrases “is due to experience” and “clas- no sure way to tell which memories are false and which are
sical conditioning” are farther apart. Remember that this true (Mazzoni, Heap, & Scoboria, 2010).
has nothing to do with alphabetical order. We are talking Is there a better way to improve eyewitness memory? To
about a system of linked meanings. help police detectives, R. Edward Geiselman and Ron Fisher
created the cognitive interview, a technique which uses red-
Redintegration integration to improve the memory of eyewitnesses (Fisher &
Memory networks also help explain a common experi- Geiselman, 1987; Ginet, Py, & Colomb, 2014). The key to this
ence: Imagine finding a picture taken on your sixth birth- approach is recreating the crime scene. Witnesses revisit the
day. The photo serves as a retrieval cue, triggering the scene in their imaginations or in person. That way, aspects of
retrieval of memories of that day. Then, one memory links the crime scene, such as sounds, smells, and objects, provide
to another associated memory, which links to another, and helpful retrieval cues (stimuli associated with a memory).
another. Soon you have unleashed a flood of seemingly Back in the context of the crime, the witness is encouraged to
forgotten details as link after link is activated. This pro- recall events in different orders and from different viewpoints.
cess is called redintegration (reh-DIN-tuh-GRAY-shun). Every new memory, no matter how trivial it may seem, can
The key idea in redintegration is that one retrieved serve as a cue to trigger the retrieval of yet more memories.
memory serves as a retrieval cue to trigger another. As a re- When used properly, the cognitive interview produces
sult, an entire past experience may be reconstructed from 35 percent more correct information than standard ques-
one small recollection. Many people find that redintegration tioning (Centofanti & Reece, 2006; Geiselman et al., 1986).
can be touched off by distinctive odors from the past—from This improvement comes without adding to the number of
a farm visited in childhood, Grandma’s kitchen, the sea- false memories elicited, as occurs with hypnosis (Holliday
shore, the perfume or aftershave of a former lover, and so on et al., 2012). The result is a procedure that is more effec-
(Willander & Larsson, 2006). tive in actual police work, even across cultures (Memon,
Meissner, & Fraser, 2010; Stein & Memon, 2006).
The Cognitive Interview Redintegration has even been
used to help improve the memory of witnesses. Imagine From Encoding to Retrieval in Long-Term Memory
you are a forensic psychologist investigating a crime. Un- Let’s get back to passing that psychology exam. On one re-
fortunately, your witness can’t remember much of what hap- cent exam, Jerry, another introductory psychology student,
pened. What can you do to help? studied using rote learning, whereas Erica made extensive
Could hypnosis help? In one case, 26 children were use of elaborative processing. ➤ Figure 32.5 shows what
abducted from a school bus and held captive for ransom. their memory networks might look like for the concept of
Under hypnosis, the bus driver recalled the license plate reinforcement (Module 29).
number of the kidnappers’ van. This memory helped break Because Jerry spent most of his time in rote rehearsal,
the case. Such successes seem to imply that hypnosis can his memory network for the concept of reinforcement is
improve memory. But does it? quite sparse. He managed to get the definition right. Also,
Research has shown that hypnosis increases false mem-
ories more than it reveals true ones. In one experiment,
80 percent of the new memories produced by hypnotized Source confusion (in memory) Occurs when the origins of a
memory are misremembered.
subjects were incorrect (Dywan & Bowers, 1983). This is in Network model (of memory) A model of memory that views it as
part because a hypnotized person is more likely than normal an organized system of linked information.
to use imagination to fill in gaps in memory. Also, if a ques- Retrieval cue Any information that can prompt or trigger the
retrieval of particular memories. Retrieval cues usually enhance
tioner asks misleading or suggestive questions, hypnotized
memory.
persons tend to elaborate the questioner’s information Redintegration Process by which memories are reconstructed or
into their memories (Scoboria et al., 2002). To make mat- expanded by starting with one memory and then following chains
ters worse, even when a memory is totally false, the hypno- of association to other, related memories.
Cognitive interview Use of various cues and strategies to improve
tized person’s confidence in it can be unshakable (Burgess & the memory of eyewitnesses.
Kirsch, 1999).

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282 p Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Sending more soldiers ➤ Figure 32.5

Network models of two students’ concepts of
Reinforcement reinforcement. Hypothetical networks of two students’ encoding
Is more likely to recur of the concept of reinforcement. Jerry is in trouble, while Erica is in
the money. Only part of her more elaborate network is shown here.
See if you can connect this fragment of Erica’s network to her other
Event Follows fragment, shown in Figure 32.3.

(a) Jerry’s memory network

Grounded! Response cost Positive reinforcement Allowance for housework

Operant
Negative reinforcement

Punishment Reinforcement

Follows Follows

Is less likely to recur Event Is more likely to recur

(b) Erica’s memory network

during rote learning, it occurred to him that extra soldiers In summary, more elaborative processing results in
joining a battle also were reinforcements. In contrast, while more elaborate memory networks and, hence, more retriev-
studying, Erica asked herself how reinforcement and pun- al cues to help with redintegration. Time spent in elabora-
ishment differ and what were the kinds of reinforcement tive processing is time well spent, at least if you want to do
(and punishment); she also tried to think of personal ex- well on exams.
amples. In addition, she checked out the difference between
operant and respondent learning. Types of long-Term Memory
That means Erica has a better chance of doing well on
A curious thing happens to many people who develop
the psychology exam, right? Much better. To begin, Jerry
amnesia. Amnesic patients may be unable to remember a
used rote learning, so his memories will be weaker be-
telephone number, an address, or a person’s name. Yet, the
cause he cannot be as sure as Erica that he understood
same patients can learn to solve complex puzzles in a nor-
the concept of reinforcement. Also, suppose that Jerry
mal amount of time (Cavaco et al., 2004; ➤ Figure 32.6).
cannot directly retrieve the definition of reinforcement
These and other observations have led many psychologists
during his exam. His only other hope is to remember
to conclude that long-term memories fall into at least two
soldiers so that redintegration might pop up the needed
categories (Lum & Bleses, 2012). One is called procedural
definition.
memory (or skill memory). The other is declarative memory
In sharp contrast, for Erica to successfully encode her
(sometimes called fact memory).
more elaborated network, she had to understand the con-
cept of reinforcement. Hence, she is more likely than Jerry Procedural Memory Procedural memory holds long-
to directly retrieve that information if she needs it. On the term memories for how to do things that require motor or
off chance that Erica does not immediately remember the performance skills, such typing, driving, or swinging a golf
needed definition, she has many retrieval cues to help her. club. Such memories can be fully expressed only as actions
Remembering punishment, or an example of reinforcement, (or know-how). It is likely that skill memories are stored
or even the time she got grounded, could well trigger redin- in “lower” brain areas, especially the basal ganglia and the
tegration of “reinforcement.” cerebellum. They represent the more basic “automatic”

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 MoDU lE 32 M e M o ry: M e M o ry syste M s 283

of our lives. More than simply storing information, they al-

low us to mentally travel back in time and reexperience events
(Moscovitch et al., 2016; Philippe, Koestner, & Lekes, 2013).
Are episodic memories as lasting as semantic memories?
Either type of memory can last indefinitely. However, unless
episodic memories are important, they are easily forgotten.
In fact, it is the forgetting of episodic information that re-
sults in the formation of semantic memories. At first, you
remembered when and where you were when you learned
➤ Figure 32.6
The Tower of Hanoi puzzle. In this puzzle, all the colored disks
the names of the seasons. (“Mommy, Mommy, guess what
must be moved to another post without ever placing a larger disk on I learned in preschool today!”) Over time, you forgot the
a smaller one. Only one disk may be moved at a time, and a disk episodic details, but you will likely remember the names for
must always be moved from one post to another (it cannot be held the rest of your life.
aside). An amnesic patient learned to solve the puzzle in 31 moves,
the minimum possible. Even so, each time he began, he protested How Many Types of Long-Term Memory Exist? In
that he did not remember ever solving the puzzle before and that
answer to the question posed at the beginning of this sec-
he did not know how to begin. Evidence such as this suggests that
memories for skills are distinct from memories for facts. tion, it is likely that three kinds of long-term memories exist:
procedural memory and two types of declarative memory,
semantic and episodic (➤ Figure 32.7).
elements of conditioning, learning, and memory (Freberg,
2016; Lum & Bleses, 2012).
Sensory memory
Declarative Memory Declarative memory stores spe-
cific factual information, such as names, faces, words, dates,
and ideas. Declarative memories are expressed as words or Short-term memory
symbols. For example, knowing that Apple is both a fruit
and a computer company is a declarative memory. This is
the type of memory that a person with amnesia lacks and Long-term memory
that most of us take for granted. Declarative memory can be
further divided into semantic memory and episodic memory
(Irish & Piguet, 2013; Tulving, 2002). Procedural memory Declarative memory

Semantic Memory Much of our basic factual knowledge

about the world is almost totally immune to forgetting. The
names of objects, the days of the week or months of the Semantic memory Episodic memory
year, simple math skills, the seasons, words and language,
and other general facts are all quite lasting. Such impersonal ➤ Figure 32.7
knowledge makes up a part of declarative memory called Types of memory. In the model shown, long-term memory is
semantic memory, which serves as a mental dictionary or divided into procedural memory (learned actions and skills) and
declarative memory (stored facts). Declarative memories can be
encyclopedia of basic knowledge.
either semantic (impersonal knowledge) or episodic (personal
Episodic Memory Semantic memory has no connection experiences associated with specific times and places).

to times or places. It would be rare, for instance, to remember

when and where you first learned the names of the seasons. Procedural memory That part of long-term memory for how to do
In contrast, episodic memory (ep-ih-SOD-ik) is a subpart of things that require motor or performance skills.
Declarative memory That part of long-term memory containing
declarative memory that stores an “autobiographical” record specific factual information.
of personal experiences. It stores life events (or episodes) day Semantic memory A subpart of declarative memory that records
after day, year after year. Can you remember your seventh impersonal knowledge about the world.
Episodic memory A subpart of declarative memory that records per-
birthday? Your first date? What you did yesterday? All are
sonal experiences that are linked with specific times and places.
episodic memories, about the “what,” “where,” and “when”

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284 p Sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

MODULE

32 Summary
32.1 In general, how does memory work? although brief, can be prolonged through mainte-
32.1.1 Memory is an active system that encodes, stores, and nance rehearsal.
retrieves information. 32.2.2 STM has a capacity of about five to seven bits of
32.1.2 The Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory includes verbal information, but this limit can be extended by
three stages of memory (sensory memory, short-term chunking.
or working memory, and long-term memory) that 32.2.3 For transferring information to LTM, rote rehearsal is
hold information for increasingly longer periods. less effective than elaborative processing.
32.1.3 Sensory memories are encoded as iconic memories 32.3 What are the features of long-term memory?
or echoic memories.
32.3.1 Long-term memories are relatively permanent. LTM
32.1.4 Selective attention determines what information
seems to have an almost unlimited storage capacity.
moves from sensory memory, which is exact but very
32.3.2 Remembering is an active process. Elaborative pro-
brief, on to STM.
cessing can have the effect of altering memories. Our
32.1.5 While we are normally unaware of sensory memory,
memories are frequently lost, altered, revised, or
we are conscious of the contents of short-term
distorted.
memory, which can function as a working memory,
32.3.3 LTM is organized into memory networks.
or “mental scratchpad.”
32.3.4 In redintegration, memories are reconstructed as one
32.1.6 Long-term memories are encoded by meaning.
bit of information leading to others, which then serve
32.2 What are the features of short-term (or as cues for further recall.
working) memory? 32.3.5 LTM contains procedural (skill) and declarative (fact)
32.2.1 Short-term memories tend to be encoded by sound, memories. Declarative memories can be semantic or
are sensitive to interruption or displacement, and, episodic.

Knowledge Builder Memory: Memory Systems

Recite Self-Reflect
Match: A. Sensory memory B. STM C. LTM In the United States, telephone numbers are divided into
1. _____ Information tends to be stored phonetically an area code (three digits) and a seven-digit number that is
2. _____ Holds information for a few seconds or less divided into three digits plus four more. Can you relate this
3. _____ Stores an iconic memory or echoic memory practice to STM chunking?
4. _____ Relatively permanent, unlimited capacity Think about how you’ve used your memory in the last
5. _____ Selective attention determines its contents hour. Can you identify an example of each of the follow-
6. Elaborative processing is often responsible for creating ing: a procedural memory, a declarative memory, a semantic
false memories. T or F? memory, and an episodic memory?

Reflect AN SW E R S
Think critically
the words wasn’t already stored in LTM, could you read at all?
1. B 2. A 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. T 7. If your understanding of the meanings of
7. How is long-term memory helping you read this
sentence?

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 MODULE

Memory
Measuring Memory 33
On the Tip of Your Tongue?
Janelle fumed as the examination ended. She had studied
hard and expected to do well. However, she was frustrated
when she got to a question worth a lot of marks. She knew
she knew the answer. It tortured her . . . for the remainder
of the exam.
Have you, too, experienced this? You read an exam ques-
tion and the answer is immediately on the tip of your tongue.
Yet, it doesn’t come to mind. You know how this ends, right?

Rich Legg/E1/Getty Images

As soon as you leave the exam, the answer “pops” into your
head. (Professor, I knew my stuff!)
Whether you “remember” depends on how you are
tested. For example, police lineups use recognition mem-
ory. However, unless great care is taken, false identifica- Let’s find out more about the ins and outs of measuring
tions are still possible. Is the lineup pictured here fair? memory.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
33.1 How is memory measured?

Measuring Memory—The Answer Is on the Tip of My Tongue

Survey Question 33.1 How is memory measured? Often, they could guess the first and last letter and the num-
ber of syllables of the word they were seeking. They also
You either remember something or you don’t, right?
gave words that sounded like or meant the same thing as the
Wrong. Partial memories are common, like Janelle’s tip-
defined word (Brown & McNeill, 1966).
of-the-tongue (TOT) state. This is the feeling that a
memory is available—stored in your memory—and yet
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state The feeling that a memory is avail-
you cannot access—locate or retrieve—the complete
able but not quite retrievable.
memory (Brown, 2012). Availability (in memory) Memories currently stored in memory are
In a classic TOT study, university students read the def- available.
initions of words such as sextant, sampan, and ambergris. Accessibility (in memory) Memories currently stored in memory
that can be retrieved when necessary are both available and
Students who “drew a blank” and couldn’t name a defined accessible.
word were asked to give any other information they could.

285
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286 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Closely related to the TOT state is the fact that people question, you are using recall. When you answer an essay
can often tell beforehand if they are likely to remember question by providing facts and ideas, you also are using
something. This is called the feeling of knowing (Thomas, recall, even though you didn’t learn your essay verbatim.
Bulevich, & Dubois, 2011; Widner, Otani, & Winkelman, The order in which information is memorized has an
2005). Feeling-of-knowing reactions are easy to observe on interesting effect on recall. To experience it, try to memorize
television game shows, where they occur just before contes- the following list, reading it only once:
tants are allowed to answer.
bread, apples, soda, ham, cookies, rice,
Déjà vu, the feeling that you have already experienced a lettuce, beets, mustard, cheese, oranges,
situation that you are experiencing for the first time, may be ice cream, crackers, flour, eggs
another example of partial memory (Brown & Marsh, 2010).
If a new experience triggers vague memories of a past expe- If you are like most people, it will be hardest for you to
rience, without yielding any details at all, you might be left recall items from the middle of the list. ➤ Figure 33.1 shows
saying to yourself, “I feel like I’ve seen it before.” The new the results of a similar test. Notice that most errors occur
experience seems familiar even though the older memory is with middle items of an ordered list. This is the serial posi-
too weak to rise to the level of awareness. tion effect (Bonk & Healy, 2010; Gavett & Horwitz, 2012).
Because memory is not an all-or-nothing event, it can be You can remember the last items on a list because they are
measured in several ways. Three commonly used methods still in STM (short-term memory). The first items also are
of measuring memory are recall, recognition, and relearning. remembered well because they entered an “empty” STM.
Let’s see how they differ. This allows you to rehearse the items so that they move into
long-term memory. The middle items are neither held in
Recalling Information short-term memory nor moved to long-term memory, so
What is the name of your favorite song? Who won the last they are often lost.
Super Bowl? Who wrote Catcher in the Rye? If you can an-
swer these questions, you are using recall, a direct retrieval of Recognizing Information
facts or information with a minimum of external cues. Tests Try to write down everything that you can remember
of recall often require verbatim (word-for-word) memory. from a class you took last year. If you actually did this, you
If you study a poem until you can recite it without looking might conclude that you had learned very little. However,
at it, you are recalling it. If you complete a fill-in-the-blank a more sensitive test based on recognition could be used.

100

80
Percentage correct

60

40

20
➤ Figure 33.1
The serial position effect. The graph
shows the percentage of participants
correctly recalling each item in a
15-item list. Recall is best for the first 1 5 10 15
and last items. (Data from Craik, 1970.) Serial position in original list

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 MoDU lE 33 M e M o ry: M eAs u r i n g M e M o ry 287

In recognition, previously learned material is correctly 15 months and 3 years of age. At age 8, the boy was tested to
identified. For instance, you could take a multiple-choice see if he remembered the Greek passage. He showed no evi-
test on facts and ideas from the course. Because you would dence of recall or recognition. Had the psychologist stopped,
have to recognize only correct answers, you probably would he might have concluded that no memory of the Greek re-
find that you had learned a lot. mained. However, the child was then asked to memorize the
Recognition can be amazingly accurate for pictures and original passage and others of equal difficulty. This time, his
photographs (Oates & Reder, 2011). In one classic study, earlier learning became evident. The boy memorized the
people viewed 2,560 photographs at a rate of one every passage he had heard in childhood 25 percent faster than the
10 seconds. Each person was then shown 280 pairs of photo- others (Burtt, 1941). As this experiment suggests, relearning
graphs. Each pair included an “old” picture (from the first set is typically the most sensitive measure of memory.
of photos) and a similar “new” image. Participants could tell When a person is tested by relearning, how do we know a
85 to 95 percent of the time which photograph they had seen memory still exists? As with the boy described, relearning is
before (Haber, 1970). This finding may explain why we rarely measured by a savings score (the amount of time saved when
need to see our friends’ vacation photos more than once. relearning information). Let’s say that it takes you 1 hour to
Recognition is usually superior to recall. That’s why memorize all the names in a telephone book. (It’s a small
people so often say, “I may forget a name, but I never for- town.) Two years later, you relearn them in 45 minutes. Be-
get a face.” (You can’t recall the name but can recognize the cause you “saved” 15 minutes, your savings score would be
face.) That’s also why police departments use photographs 25 percent (15 divided by 60 times 100). Savings of this type
or a lineup to identify criminal suspects. Witnesses who dis- are a good reason for studying a wide range of subjects. It
agree when they try to recall a suspect’s height, weight, age, may seem that learning algebra, history, or a foreign lan-
or eye color often agree completely when they merely need guage is wasted if you don’t use the knowledge immediately.
to recognize the person. But when you do need such information, you will be able to
Is recognition always superior? It depends greatly on the relearn it quickly.
kind of distractors used (Flowe & Ebbese, 2007). Distractors
are false items included with an item to be recognized. If dis- Explicit and Implicit Memories
tractors are very similar to the correct item, memory may be
Who were the last three presidents of the United States?
poor. A reverse problem occurs when only one choice looks
What did you have for breakfast today? What is the title of
like it could be correct. This can produce a false positive, or
Adele’s latest album? Explicit memory is used in answering
false sense of recognition (Clark, Rush, & Moreland, 2013).
each of these questions. An explicit memory is a past expe-
Many hundreds of people have been put in jail on the basis
rience that is consciously brought to mind. Recall, recogni-
of mistaken eyewitness memories (Lampinen, Neuschatz, &
tion, and the tests that you take in school rely on explicit
Cling, 2012; Wade, Green, & Nash, 2010). In some instances,
memories.
witnesses have described a criminal as black, tall, or young.
In contrast, an implicit memory lies outside awareness
Then a police lineup was held in which a suspect was the
(Gopie, Craik, & Hasher, 2011). That is, we are not aware
only African American among whites, the only tall suspect,
that a memory exists. For example, if you know how to
or the only young person. In such cases, a false identification
type, it is apparent that you know where the letters are on
is very likely (Steblay, 2013). To avoid tragic mistakes, it’s bet-
the keyboard. But how many typists could correctly label
ter to have all the distractors look like the person witnesses
described. Also, to reduce false positives, witnesses should
be warned that the culprit may not be present. It may also be Recall Retrieval of information with a minimum of external cues.
better to show witnesses one photo at a time (a sequential Serial position effect When remembering an ordered list, the ten-
dency to make the most errors with middle items.
lineup). For each photo, the witness must decide whether the Recognition Ability to correctly identify previously learned infor-
person is the culprit before another photo is shown (Mickes, mation.
Flowe, & Wixted, 2012; Wells & Olsen, 2003). Relearning Learning again something that was previously learned.
Used to measure memory of prior learning.
Explicit memory A recollection that a person is aware of having or
Relearning Information is consciously retrieved.
Implicit memory A recollection that a person does not know exists
In a classic experiment, a psychologist read a short passage and is retrieved unconsciously.
in Greek to his son every day when the boy was between

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288 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Can you label the letter keys on this blank

keyboard? If you can, you probably used
implicit memory to do it.

blank keys in a drawing of a keyboard? Many people find example, the first item (from “chair”) would be the letters
that they cannot directly remember such information, even ch. The patient could say “child,” “chalk,” “chain,” “check,” or
though they “know” it. Nevertheless, implicit memories— many other words. Instead, he says “chair,” a word from the
such as unconsciously knowing where the letters are on a original list. The patient is not aware that he is remembering
keyboard—greatly influence our behavior (Voss, Lucas, & the list, but as he gives a word for each letter pair, almost all
Paller, 2012). are from the list. Apparently, the letters primed (activated)
hidden memories, which then influenced his answers.
Priming How is it possible to objectively show that a mem-
Similar effects have been found for people with nor-
ory exists if it lies outside subjective awareness? Psychologists
mal memories. As the preceding example implies, implic-
first noticed implicit memory while studying memory loss
it memories are often revealed by giving a person limited
caused by brain injuries. Let’s say, for example, that a patient
cues, such as the first letter of words or partial drawings of
is shown a list of common words, such as chair, tree, lamp,
objects. Typically, the person believes that he or she is just
table, and so on. Later, the patient fails to recall any words
saying whatever comes to mind. Nevertheless, information
from the list.
previously seen or heard affects his or her answers (Lavigne
Now, instead of asking the patient to explicitly recall the
et al., 2012).
list, we could “prime” his memory by giving him the first
two letters of each word. “Just say whatever word comes to
Priming Facilitating the retrieval of an implicit memory by using
mind that begins with these letters,” we tell him. Of course, cues to activate hidden memories.
many words could be made from each pair of letters. For

MODULE

33 summary
33.1 how is memory measured? 33.1 4 In relearning, material that seems to be forgotten is
33.1.1 The tip-of-the-tongue state shows that memory is not learned again, and memory is revealed by a savings
an all-or-nothing event. Memories may be revealed score.
by recall, recognition, relearning, or priming. 33.1.5 Recall, recognition, and relearning mainly measure
33.1.2 In recall, memories are retrieved without explicit explicit memories. Other techniques, such as prim-
cues, as in an essay exam. The recall of listed infor- ing, are necessary to reveal implicit memories.
mation often reveals a serial position effect.
33.1.3 A common test of recognition is the multiple-choice
question.

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 MoDU lE 33 M e M o ry: M eAs u r i n g M e M o ry 289

Knowledge Builder Memory: Measuring Memory

Recite Reflect
1. Four techniques for measuring or demonstrating memory Think critically
are the following: 6. When asked to explain why they may have failed to recall
______________________ _______________________ some information, people often claim it must be because
______________________ _______________________ the information is no longer in their memory. Why does the
2. Essay tests require ____________________ of facts or existence of implicit memories challenge this explanation?
ideas.
3. As a measure of memory, a savings score is associated self-Reflect
with Do you prefer tests based primarily on recall or recognition?
a. recognition Have you observed a savings effect while relearning informa-
b. priming tion you studied in the past (such as in high school)?
c. relearning What things do you do that are based on implicit memo-
d. reconstruction ries? For instance, how do you know which way to turn vari-
4. The two most sensitive tests of memory are ous handles in your house, apartment, or dorm? Do you have
a. recall and redintegration to explicitly think, “Turn it to the right,” before you act?
b. recall and relearning
c. recognition and relearning AN sW E R s
d. recognition and digit-span guarantee it is no longer in memory (Voss, Lucas, & Paller, 2012).
5. Priming is used to reveal which type of memories? consciously accessible) show that failing to recall something does not

a. explicit
Memories such as these (available in memory even though they are not
possible to have an implicit memory that cannot be consciously recalled.
b. sensory 1. recall, recognition, relearning, priming 2. recall 3. c 4. c 5. d 6. It is
c. skill
d. implicit

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MODULE

34 Memory
Forgetting

Where’s My Car?
We forget for a variety of reasons. For example, have you
ever “lost” your car?
On the one hand, if you park your car in a different loca-
tion in the same large parking lot every day, you may have ex-
perienced forgetting caused by interference. It is not so much
that you forgot where you parked it today as that you (mis)
remembered where you parked it some other day. Memories
from yesterday, and the day before, and the day before that
interfere with today’s memory about your car’s location.
On the other hand, suppose it is a special day, and you
Joos Mind/Getty Images

take out that special someone to a new restaurant or club to

celebrate. If you had to park your car on a crowded, unfamil-
iar street many blocks away, and can’t find it afterwards, you
may have experienced encoding failure. Perhaps you were so
excited that you did not spend enough time when you got Before we forget to, let’s explore some of the explana-
there encoding where you parked. tions for forgetting.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
34.1 Why do we forget? 34.2 How does the brain form and store memories?

Forgetting—Why We, Uh, Let’s See. . . . Why We,

Uh . . . Forget!
Survey Question 34.1 Why do we forget?
Why do we forget long-term memories? The more you
We don’t expect sensory memories and short-term memo- know about how we “lose” memories, the better you will
ries to remain with us for long, as they fade away or are dis- be able to hang on to them. Most forgetting tends to occur
placed by incoming information. But when you deliberately immediately after memorization. Herman Ebbinghaus
encode and store information in long-term memory, you (1885) famously tested his own memory at various inter-
want it to stay there (after all, it’s supposed to be long-term). vals after learning. To be sure that he would not be swayed
For example, when you study for an exam, you count on by prior learning, he memorized nonsense syllables. These
your long-term memory to retain the information at least are meaningless three-letter combinations such as cef, wol,
until you take your exam. and gex. The importance of using meaningless words is

290
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 MODU LE 3 4 M e M o ry: Fo r g etti n g 291

Retention (savings score percentage)

100 Immediate recall
90
80
70 20 minutes
60
1 hour
50
9 hours
40
30
➤ Figure 34.2
20
10 facts they learned. After that, little more forgetting occurred
12 6 31 (Conway, Cohen, & Stanhope, 1992).
Elapsed time since learning (days) Although the Ebbinghaus curve gives a general picture
➤ Figure 34.1 of forgetting from long-term memory, it doesn’t explain it.
The curve of forgetting. This graph shows the amount remembered
For explanations, we must search further. In Module 32, we
(measured by relearning) after varying lengths of time. Notice pointed out that three processes are involved in successfully
how rapidly forgetting occurs. The material learned was nonsense remembering: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Conversely,
syllables. Forgetting curves for meaningful information also show
forgetting can be due to the failure of any one of these three
early losses followed by a long gradual decline, but overall, forgetting
occurs much more slowly. (After Ebbinghaus, 1885.) processes.

shown by the fact that Vel, Fab, and Duz are no longer used When Memory Encoding Fails
on memory tests. People who recognize these words as de- Pick a card from the six shown in ➤ Figure 34.2. Look at it
tergent names find them easy to remember. This is another closely, and be sure that you can remember which card is
reminder that relating new information to what you already yours.
know can improve memory. Now, snap your fingers and look at the cards in
By waiting various lengths of time before testing him- ➤ Figure 34.3. Poof! Only five cards remain, and the card
self, Ebbinghaus plotted a curve of forgetting. This graph you chose has disappeared. Obviously, you could have se-
shows the amount of information remembered after vary- lected any one of the six cards in Figure 34.2. How did we
ing lengths of time (➤Figure 34.1). Notice that forgetting is know which one to remove?
rapid at first and is followed by a slow decline (Hintzman, This trick is based entirely on an illusion of memory. Re-
2005; Sternberg, 2017). The same applies to meaningful in- call that you were asked to concentrate on one card among
formation, but the forgetting curve is stretched over a longer the six original cards. That prevented you from paying at-
time. As you might expect, recent events are recalled more tention to the other cards, so they weren’t encoded in your
accurately than those from the remote past. Thus, you are memory (Unsworth, Brewer, & Spillers, 2012). The five
more likely to remember that Spotlight won the Best Picture cards you see in Figure 34.3 are all new (none is shown in
Oscar in 2016 than you are to remember that Slumdog Figure 34.2). Because you couldn’t find it in the “remaining
Millionaire won it in 2009. five,” your card seemed to disappear. What looked like “card
As a student, you should note that a short delay between magic” is memory magic.
studying and taking a test minimizes forgetting. However, Here’s another demonstration of encoding failure. Whose
this is no reason for cramming. Most students make the er- head is on a U.S. penny? Which way is it facing? What is writ-
ror of only cramming. If you cram, you don’t have to re- ten at the top of a penny? Can you accurately draw and label
member for very long, but you may not learn enough in the a penny? In an interesting experiment, Ray Nickerson and
first place. If you use short, daily study sessions and review Marilyn Adams (1979) asked a large group of students to draw
intensely before a test, you will get the benefit of good prep-
aration and a minimum time lapse.
The Ebbinghaus curve shows that less than 30 percent
of what is learned is remembered after only two days have
passed. Is forgetting really that rapid? No, not always. Mean-
ingful information is not lost nearly as quickly as nonsense
syllables. After three years, students who took a university
psychology course had forgotten about 30 percent of the ➤ Figure 34.3

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292 p sychOLO Gy M o d u les Fo r Active leAr n i n g

➤ Figure 34.4
Find the real penny. Penny A is correct but
was seldom recognized. Pennies G and J
were popular wrong answers.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

a penny. Few could. In fact, few could even recognize a draw- first man in very general terms as a “college student.” As a
ing of a real penny among fakes (➤ Figure 34.4). Can you? result, that’s all they remembered. Because his replacement
The most obvious reason for forgetting is also the most also looked like a college student, they assumed he was the
commonly overlooked. Obviously, few of us ever encode same person.
the details of a penny. Similarly, we may not encode the de- We all tend to categorize strangers in general terms: Is
tails of what we are reading in a book or studying for an the person young or old, male or female, a member of my
exam. In such cases, we “forget” because of encoding failure ethnic group or another one? This tendency is one reason
(Johnson, Nessler, & Friedman, 2013). That is, a memory that eyewitnesses are better at identifying members of their
was never formed in the first place. If you are bothered by own ethnic group than persons from other groups (Wallis,
frequent forgetting or absentmindedness, it is wise to ask Lipp, & Vanman, 2012). It may seem harsh to say so, but
yourself, “Have I been encoding the information in the first during brief social contacts, people really do act as if mem-
place?” By the way, if you like to study while watching televi- bers of other ethnic groups “all look alike.” Of course, this
sion or instant messaging, beware. Dividing your attention bias disappears when people get acquainted and learn more
between studying and other activities increases the likeli- about one another as individuals (Bukach et al., 2012).
hood of encoding failure (Johnson, Nessler, & Friedman,
2013; Unsworth, Brewer, & Spillers, 2012). When Memory storage Fails
Actively focusing on the information you are learning One view of forgetting, decay theory, holds that memory
(elaborative processing) is a good way to prevent encod- traces—changes in neurons or brain activity—fade or weak-
ing failure (Hall et al., 2007; Wong, 2015). You’ll find more en over time. As a result, the ability to retrieve those memo-
memory strategies in Module 35. ries becomes more difficult. Memory decay is a factor in the
loss of sensory memories and short-term memory. Informa-
College Students: They’re All Alike! Encoding fail-
tion stored in these memories initiates a flurry of activity in
ures can even affect our memories of people. Imagine your-
the brain that quickly dies out. Sensory memory and short-
self in this situation: As you are walking on campus, a young
term memory, therefore, operate like “leaky buckets”: New
man, who looks like a college student, approaches you
information constantly pours in, but it rapidly fades away
and asks for directions. While you are talking, two work-
and is replaced by still-newer information.
ers carrying a door pass between you and the young man.
While your view is blocked by the door, another man takes Disuse Does decay also occur in long-term memory? Evi-
the place of the first. Now you are facing a different person dence exists that memories not retrieved and “used” or re-
than the one who was there just seconds earlier. If this hap- hearsed become weaker over time. That is, some long-term
pened to you, do you think you would notice the change? memory traces may fade from disuse (infrequent retrieval)
Remarkably, only half the people tested in this way noticed and eventually become too weak to retrieve. However, dis-
the switch (Simons & Levin, 1998)! use alone cannot fully explain forgetting (Della Sala, 2010).
How could anyone fail to notice that one stranger was Disuse doesn’t seem to account for our ability to recover
replaced by another? The people who didn’t remember the seemingly forgotten memories through redintegration, re-
first man were all older adults. College students weren’t learning, and priming. It also fails to explain why some un-
fooled by the switch. Apparently, older adults encoded the used memories fade, whereas others are carried for life.

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 MODU LE 3 4 M e M o ry: Fo r g etti n g 293

A third contradiction will be recognized by anyone who

has spent time with the elderly. People growing senile may
become so forgetful that they can’t remember what hap-
pened a week ago. Unfortunately, this is often due to condi-
tions such as Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias, which
slowly strangle the brain’s ability to process and store infor-
mation (Hanyu et al., 2010; Verma & Howard, 2012). Yet,
at the same time that your Uncle Oscar’s recent memories
are fading, he may have vivid memories of trivial and long-
forgotten events from the past. “Why, I remember it as clearly
as if it were yesterday,” he will say, forgetting that the story he
is about to tell is one he told earlier the same day (twice).
In short, disuse offers no more than a partial explanation of
long-term forgetting. (Memory can easily be disrupted by or-
ganic factors, including brain injuries and disorders such as
Alzheimer’s disease. For more information, see Module 60.)

When Memory Retrieval Fails

If encoding failure and storage failure don’t fully explain forget-
Paul Conklin/PhotoEdit
ting from long-term memory, what does? If you have encoded
and stored information, that leaves retrieval failure as a likely
cause of forgetting (Della Sala, 2010; Guerin et al., 2012). Even
if memories are available (stored in your memory), you still External cues such as those found in a photograph, in a scrapbook,
have to be able to access them (locate or retrieve them) in order or during a walk through an old neighborhood often aid recall of
to remember. For example, as we mentioned earlier, you might seemingly lost memories. For many veterans, finding a familiar
name engraved in the Vietnam Veterans Memorial unleashes a
have had the experience of knowing that you know the answer flood of memories.
to an exam question (you knew it was available) but being un-
able to retrieve it during the exam (it was inaccessible). (Parker, Ngu, & Cassaday, 2001). In fact, odors are among
the most powerful retrieval cues for emotional memories
Cue-Dependent Forgetting One reason why retriev-
(Arshamian et al., 2013).
al may fail is that retrieval cues are missing when the time
comes to access the information. For instance, if you were State-Dependent Learning Have you heard the one
asked, “What were you doing on Monday afternoon of the about the drunk who misplaced his wallet and had to get
third week in May, two years ago?” your reply might be, drunk again to find it? This is not too far-fetched. The bodily
“Come on, how should I know?” However, if you were re- state that exists during learning also can be a strong retrieval
minded, “That was the day the courthouse burned” or “That cue for later memory, an effect known as state-dependent
was the day Stacy had her automobile accident,” you might learning (Radvansky, 2011). Being very thirsty, for instance,
remember immediately.
The presence of appropriate cues almost always enhanc- Encoding failure Failure to store sufficient information to form a
es memory retrieval. As we saw previously, more elaborately useful memory.
Memory traces Physical changes in neurons or brain activity that
encoded memories are more likely to be remembered be- take place when memories are stored.
cause more retrieval cues are associated with any particular Decay theory Proposition that the strength of memories weakens
piece of information. Memory will even tend to be better if over time, making them harder to retrieve.
Disuse (in memory) Proposition that memory traces weaken when
you study in the same room where you will be tested. Be-
memories are not periodically used or retrieved.
cause this is often impossible, when you study, try to visual- Retrieval failure Failure to access (locate) memories even though
ize the room where you will be tested. Doing so can enhance they are available (stored in memory).
memory later (Jerabek & Standing, 1992). Similarly, people State-dependent learning Memory influenced by one’s physical
state at the time of learning and at the time of retrieval. Improved
even remember better if the same odor (such as lemon or memory occurs when the physical states match.
lavender) is present both when they study and are tested

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294 p sychOLO Gy M o d u les Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Sad mood during learning Happy mood during learning 100

80
80

Percent remembered
Percent remembered

70
60

60 40
Asleep
50 20
Awake
40
Sad Happy Sad Happy 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mood while recalling words Hours after learning

➤ Figure 34.5 ➤ Figure 34.6

The effect of mood on memory. Participants best remembered a The amount of forgetting after a period of sleep or of being
list of words when their mood during testing was the same as their awake. Notice that sleep causes less memory loss than activity
mood when they learned the list. (Adapted from Bower, 1981.) while one is awake. (After Jenkins & Dallenbach, 1924.)

might prompt you to remember events that took place an- the tendency for new memories to impair retrieval of older
other time when you were thirsty. Because of such effects, memories (and the reverse). It seems to apply to both short-
information learned under the influence of a drug is best term and long-term memory (Radvansky, 2011; Rodríguez-
remembered when the drugged state occurs again (Koek, Villagra et al., 2012).
2011; Mariani et al., 2011). (However, this is a laboratory It is not completely clear whether new memories alter
finding. In school, it’s far better to study with a clear mind existing long-term memory traces or whether they make it
in the first place.) harder to retrieve earlier memories. In any case, there is no
A similar effect applies to emotional states (Yang & doubt that interference is a major cause of forgetting (Rad-
Ornstein, 2011; Wessel & Wright, 2004). For instance, Gordon vansky, 2011). In one classic study, college students who
Bower (1981) found that people who learned a list of words memorized 20 lists of words (one list each day) were able to
while in a happy mood recalled them better when they were recall only 15 percent of the last list. Students who learned
again happy. People who learned while they felt sad remem- only one list remembered 80 percent (Underwood, 1957)
bered best when they were sad (➤ Figure 34.5). Similarly, if (➤ Figure 34.7).
you are in a happy mood, you are more likely to remember The sleeping college students who studied non-
recent happy events. If you are in a bad mood, you will tend sense syllables remembered more because the type of
to have unpleasant memories. Such links between emotional
cues and memory could explain why couples who quarrel 90
often end up remembering—and rehashing—old arguments. 80
70
Interference
Percentage recall

60
Further insight into forgetting comes from a classic experi- 50
ment in which college students learned lists of nonsense 40
syllables. After studying, students in one group slept for 30
eight hours and were then tested for memory of the lists. 20
A second group stayed awake for eight hours and went 10
about business as usual. When members of the second
group were tested, they remembered less than the group that 0 5 10 15 20
slept (➤ Figure 34.6.) This difference is based on the fact Number of previous lists
that new learning can interfere with the ability to retrieve
previous learning. (Sleep can improve memory in another
➤ Figure 34.7
The effects of interference on memory. The graph shows the
way: REM sleep and dreaming appear to also help us con- approximate relationship between percentage recalled and number
solidate memories. See Module 34.) Interference refers to of different word lists memorized. (Adapted from Underwood, 1957.)

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 MODU LE 3 4 M e M o ry: Fo r g etti n g 295

interference called retroactive interference was held to a Then, proactive interference goes “forward”? Yes. For in-
minimum. Retroactive interference (RET-ro-AK-tiv) re- stance, if you cram for a psychology exam and then, later the
fers to the tendency for new learning to inhibit retrieval of same night, cram for a history exam, your memory for the
old learning. Avoiding new learning prevents retroactive second subject studied (history) will be less accurate than if
interference. This doesn’t exactly mean that you should you had studied only history. (Because of retroactive inter-
hide in a closet after you study for an exam. However, you ference, your memory for psychology also would probably
should, if possible, avoid studying other subjects until the suffer.) The greater the similarity in the two subjects studied,
exam. Sleeping after study can help you retain memories, the more interference takes place. The moral, of course, is
and reading, writing, or even watching television may don’t procrastinate in preparing for exams. The more you
cause interference. can avoid competing information, the more likely you are to
Retroactive interference is easily demonstrated in the recall what you want to remember (Wixted, 2004).
laboratory by this arrangement:
Experimental group: Learn A Learn B Test A
Repression and suppression of Memories
Control group: Learn A Rest Test A Take a moment and scan the events of the last few years of
your life. What kinds of things most easily come to mind?
Imagine yourself as a member of the experimental Many people remember happy, positive events better than
group. In task A, you learn a list of telephone numbers. In disappointments and irritations (Moore & Zoellner, 2007).
task B, you learn a list of Social Security numbers. How do This tendency is called repression, or motivated forgetting.
you score on a test of task A (the telephone numbers)? If you Through repression, distressing, threatening, or embarrassing
do not remember as much as the control group that learns memories are kept buried in the unconscious. An example is
only task A, then retroactive interference has occurred. The provided by soldiers who have repressed some of the horrors
second thing learned interfered with memory of the first that they saw during combat (Anderson & Huddleston, 2012).
thing learned; the interference went “backward,” or was Forgetting past failures, upsetting childhood events,
“retroactive” (➤ Figure 34.8). the names of people you dislike, or appointments you don’t
Proactive interference is the second type of interference. want to keep may reveal repression (Goodman, Quas, &
Proactive interference (pro-AK-tiv) occurs when prior Ogle, 2010). People who are extremely sensitive to emotion-
learning inhibits recall of later learning. A test for proactive al events tend to use repression to protect themselves from
interference would take this form: threatening thoughts.
If I try to forget a test I failed, am I repressing it? Prob-
Experimental group: Learn A Learn B Test B
ably not. Repression can be distinguished from suppression,
Control group: Rest Learn B Test B
an active, conscious attempt to put something out of mind
Let’s assume that the experimental group remembers (Anderson et al., 2011). By not thinking about the test, you
less than the control group on a test of task B. In that case, have merely suppressed a memory. If you choose, you can
learning task A interfered with remembering task B. remember the test. Clinicians consider true repression an
unconscious event and one of the major psychological de-
rference fenses we use against emotional threats. (See Module 57 for
Inte
details.) When a memory is repressed, we may be unaware
New learning that forgetting has even occurred.
Retroactive Learn A Learn B Memory loss for A interferes with
old memory

rference Interference The tendency for new memories to impair retrieval of

Inte
older memories, and the reverse.
Retroactive interference The tendency for new memories to inter-
Old learning
Proactive Learn A Learn B Memory loss for B interferes with fere with the retrieval of old memories.
new memory Proactive interference The tendency for old memories to interfere
Order of Events with the retrieval of newer memories.
Repression Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the
➤ Figure 34.8
unconscious.
Retroactive and proactive interference. The order of learning Suppression A conscious effort to put something out of mind or to
and testing shows whether interference is retroactive (backward) or keep it from awareness.
proactive (forward).

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296 p sychOLO Gy M o d u les Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Although some psychologists have questioned wheth- Why would anyone have false memories about such dis-
er repression exists, evidence suggests that we can choose turbing events? Several popular books and a few misguided
to actively suppress upsetting memories (Ceylan & Say- therapists have actively encouraged people to find repressed
in, 2012; Neufeind et al., 2009). If you have experienced memories of abuse. Hypnosis, guided visualization, sug-
a painful emotional event, you will probably avoid all gestion, age regression, administering the so-called truth
thoughts associated with it. This tends to keep cues out drug Amytal, and similar techniques can elicit fantasies
of mind that could trigger a painful memory. In time, that are mistaken for real memories. As we saw earlier, it is
your active suppression of the memory may become true easy to create false memories, especially by using hypnosis
repression. (Weinstein & Shanks, 2010).
In an effort to illustrate how easy it is to create false
The Recovered Memory/False Memory Debate memories, and to publicize false memory syndrome,
Many sexually abused children develop problems that memory expert Elizabeth Loftus once deliberately im-
persist into adulthood. In some instances, they repress all planted a false memory in actor Alan Alda. As the host
memory of the abuse. According to some psychologists, of the television series Scientific American Frontiers, he
uncovering these hidden memories can be an important was scheduled to interview Loftus. Before the interview,
step toward regaining emotional health (Colangelo, 2007; Alda was asked to fill out a questionnaire about his tastes
Haaken & Reavey, 2010). in food. When he arrived, Loftus told Alda that his an-
Although the preceding may be true, the search for re- swers revealed that he must once have gotten sick after
pressed memories of sexual abuse has itself been a problem. eating hard-boiled eggs (which was false). Later that
Families have been torn apart by accusations of sexual abuse day, at a picnic, Alda would not eat hard-boiled eggs
that later turned out to be completely false. For example, (Loftus, 2003).
when Meredith Maran thought that she had recovered vivid Certainly, some memories of abuse that return to aware-
memories of being molested by her father, she withdrew ness are genuine and must be dealt with. However, there is
herself and her children from any further contact with him. little doubt that some “recovered” memories are pure fan-
It was not until nine years later that she realized that her tasy. No matter how real a recovered memory may seem,
“memories” were not true and finally apologized to her fa- it could be false, unless it can be verified by others or by
ther (Maran, 2010). Things have gotten much worse for oth- court or medical records (Bernstein & Loftus, 2009; Otgaar
er people, as some cases have gone to court, some innocent & Smeets, 2010). The saddest thing about such claims is that
people have gone to jail, and some actual sexual abuse vic- they deaden public sensitivity to actual abuse. Childhood
tims have been accused of making false claims about their sexual abuse is widespread. Awareness of its existence must
very real memories. not be repressed.

Memory and the Brain—Some “Shocking” Findings

Survey Question 34.2 How does the brain form and store consolidation
memories? We can explain retrograde amnesia by assuming that it takes
One possibility overlooked in our discussion of forgetting time to form a lasting memory, a process called consolidation
is amnesia, an inability to form or retrieve memories of (Nadel et al., 2012). You can think of consolidation as be-
events due to an injury or trauma (Papanicolaou, 2006). For ing somewhat like writing your name in wet concrete. Once
example, a head injury may cause a “gap” in memories pre- the concrete is set, the information (your name) is fairly last-
ceding the accident. Retrograde amnesia, as this is called, ing. But while the concrete is setting, the information can be
involves forgetting events that occurred before an injury or wiped out (amnesia) or scribbled over (interference).
trauma (MacKay & Hadley, 2009). In contrast, anterograde Consider a classic experiment on consolidation, in
amnesia involves forgetting events that follow an injury or which a rat is placed on a small platform. The rat steps down
trauma (Dewar et al., 2010). (We discuss an example of this to the floor and receives a painful electric shock. After one
type of amnesia in a moment.) shock, the rat can be returned to the platform repeatedly,

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 MODU LE 3 4 M e M o ry: Fo r g etti n g 297

but it will not step down. Obviously, the rat remembers the fairly normal because he still has short-term memory. But if
shock. Would it remember if consolidation were disturbed? you were to leave the room and return 15 minutes later, he
Curiously, one way to prevent consolidation is to give a would act as if he had never seen you before. Lacking the
different kind of shock called electroconvulsive shock (ECS). ability to form new lasting memories, he lived eternally in
ECS is a mild electric shock to the brain. It does not harm the present until his death in 2008 at the age of 82 (Bohbot
the animal, but it does destroy any memory that is being & Corkin, 2007).
formed. If each painful shock (the one the animal remem-
Memory, Stress, and Emotion Many people can still
bers) is followed by ECS (which wipes out memories during
remember when they first learned about the terrorist attacks
consolidation), the rat will step down over and over. Each
on New York City’s World Trade Center in 2001. They can
time, ECS erases the memory of the painful shock. (ECS is
even recall lots of detail, including how they reacted. They
employed as a psychiatric treatment for severe depression in
have a flashbulb memory for 9/11 (Paradis et al., 2004). A
humans; see Module 68.)
flashbulb memory is an especially vivid recollection that
What would happen if ECS was given several hours
seems to be frozen in memory at times of emotionally sig-
after the learning? Recent memories are more easily disrupted
nificant personal or public events (Lanciano, Curci, & Se-
than older memories. If enough time is allowed to pass be-
min, 2010). Depending on your age, you also may have a
tween learning and ECS, the memory will be unaffected
flashbulb memory for the assassinations of John F. Kennedy
because consolidation is already complete. That’s why peo-
or Martin Luther King, Jr., the death of Princess Diana, or
ple with mild head injuries lose only memories from just
before the accident, whereas older memories remain in-
tact (Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson, 2009). Likewise, you
would forget more if you studied, stayed awake eight hours,
and then slept eight hours than you would if you studied,
slept eight hours, and were awake for eight hours. Either
way, sixteen hours would pass. However, less forgetting
would occur in the second instance because more consoli-
Joe Raedle/Getty Images News/Getty Images

dation would occur before interference begins.

Where does consolidation take place in the brain? Many
parts of the brain are responsible for memory, but the
hippocampus is particularly important (Squire & Wixted,
2011). The hippocampus, part of the limbic system, acts as
a sort of “switching station” between short-term and long-
term memory (Moscovitch et al., 2016). The hippocampus
does this, in part, by growing new neurons and by making Do you have a flashbulb memory for the December 2015 terrorist
new connections within the brain (Leuner & Gould, 2010; attack in San Bernardino, California? You do if you were at all
Pan, Storm, & Xia, 2013). involved and can still remember it like it happened yesterday. You
even do if you saw the news on TV and you have clear memories of
If the hippocampus is damaged, patients usually develop how you reacted.
anterograde amnesia and show a striking inability to con-
solidate new memories. A man described by Brenda Milner
(1965) provides a dramatic example. Two years after an op- Amnesia Inability to form or retrieve memories of events due to an
injury or trauma.
eration damaged his hippocampus, the 29-year-old H. M. Retrograde amnesia Inability to retrieve memories of events that
continued to give his age as 27 and reported that the opera- occurred before an injury or trauma.
tion had just taken place. His memory of events before the Anterograde amnesia Inability to form or retrieve memories of
events that occur after an injury or trauma.
operation remained clear, but he found forming new long-
Consolidation Process by which relatively permanent memories are
term memories almost impossible. When his parents moved formed in the brain.
to a new house a few blocks away on the same street, he Hippocampus Part of the limbic system associated with storing
could not remember the new address. Month after month, memories.
Flashbulb memory Especially vivid and detailed recollection of an
he read the same magazines over and over without finding emotional event.
them familiar. If you were to meet this man, he would seem

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298 p sychOLO Gy M o d u les Fo r Active leAr n i n g

the massive tsunami and earthquake that struck Japan in or maltreatment as a child, can produce so much limbic sys-
2011 (Curci & Luminet, 2006). tem activation that the resulting memories and “flashbacks”
Does the brain handle flashbulb memories differently? leave a person emotionally handicapped (Bergstrom et al.,
Powerfully exciting or stressful experiences activate the 2013; Goodman, Quas, & Ogle, 2010).
limbic system, a part of the brain that processes emotions.
Heightened activity in the limbic system, in turn, appears to Long-Term Memory and the Brain
intensify memory consolidation (LaBar, 2007). As a result, Somewhere within the 3-pound mass of the human brain
flashbulb memories tend to form at times of intense emotion. lies all we know: ZIP codes, faces of loved ones, history,
Although flashbulb memories are often related to pub- favorite melodies, the taste of an apple, and much, much
lic tragedies, memories of both positive and negative events more. Where is this information? According to neuroscien-
can have “flashbulb” clarity. Would you consider any of the tists, many parts of the brain become active when we form
following to be a flashbulb memory: your first kiss or your and retrieve long-term memories, but some areas are more
prom night? How about a time when you had to speak in important for different types of memory and memory pro-
front of a large audience? A car accident that you were in or cesses (Squire & Wixted, 2011).
witnessed? For example, brain imaging studies reveal that frontal
The term flashbulb memories was first used to describe areas of the cerebral cortex (the wrinkled outer layer of the
recollections that seemed to be unusually vivid and perma- brain) are more important in processing episodic memory. In
nent (Brown & Kulik, 1977). It has become clear, however, contrast, side and back areas of cortex are more important in
that flashbulb memories are not particularly accurate (Tinti processing semantic memory (LePort et al., 2012; Shimotake
et al., 2013). More than anything else, what sets flashbulb et al., 2015; Tulving, 1989, 2002). (See ➤ Figure 34.9.) As
memories apart is that we tend to place great confidence in another example, different parts of the cortex are activated
them—even when they are wrong (Niedzwienska, 2004). when we are engaging in memory retrieval as opposed to
Perhaps that’s because we review emotionally charged events memory suppression (Mecklinger, 2010).
over and over and tell others about them. Also, public events Let’s summarize (and simplify greatly). Earlier, we not-
such as wars, earthquakes, and elections reappear many ed that the hippocampus handles memory consolidation
times in the news, which highlights them in memory. Over (Wang & Morris, 2010). Once declarative long-term memo-
time, flashbulb memories tend to crystallize into consistent, ries are formed, they appear to be stored in the cortex of the
if not entirely accurate, landmarks in our lives (Lanciano, brain (episodic in the front, semantic in the sides and back)
Curci, & Semin, 2010). (Mecklinger, 2010; Squire, 2004). Long-term procedural
Some memories go beyond flashbulb clarity and be- (skill) memories are stored in the basal ganglia and cerebel-
come so intense that they may haunt a person for years. lum, parts of the brain that also are responsible for muscular
Extremely traumatic experiences, such as military combat coordination (Freberg, 2016; Lum & Bleses, 2012).

(a) (b) (c)

➤ Figure 34.9
Cortical areas involved in semantic and episodic memory. Patterns of blood flow in the cerebral cortex (wrinkled outer layer of the brain)
change as areas become more or less active. Thus, blood flow can be used to draw “maps” of brain activity. This drawing, which views
the brain from the top, shows the results of measuring cerebral blood flow while people were thinking about a semantic memory (a) or an
episodic memory (b). In the map, green indicates areas that are more active during semantic thinking. Red shows areas of greater activity
during episodic thinking. The brain in view (c) shows the difference in activity between views a and b. The resulting pattern suggests that
the front of the cortex is related to episodic memory. Areas toward the back and sides of the cortex, especially the temporal lobes, are more
associated with semantic memory (Tulving, 1989, 2002).

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 MODU LE 3 4 M e M o ry: Fo r g etti n g 299

long-term potentiation. After it occurs, an affected neu-

ron will respond more strongly to messages from the other
neurons. The brain appears to use this mechanism to form
lasting memories (Blundon & Zakharenko, 2008; Kimura
et al., 2012).
How has that been demonstrated? Electrically stimulat-
ing parts of the brain involved in memory, such as the hip-

Daniel Gotshall/Visuals Unlimited/Corbis

pocampus, can decrease long-term potentiation (Eckert &
Racine, 2006; Ivanco & Racine, 2000). As we saw earlier, us-
ing electroconvulsive shock to overstimulate memory areas
in the brains of rats interferes with long-term potentiation.
It also causes memory loss—just as it does when humans are
given ECS for depression.
An aplysia. The relatively simple nervous system of this sea animal Will researchers ever produce a “memory pill” for people
allows scientists to study memory as it occurs in single neurons.
with normal memory? It’s a growing possibility, although
one early candidate, ginkgo biloba, has yielded disappoint-
Long-Term Potentiation OK, that’s where, but how are
ing results in research trials (Snitz et al., 2009). Yet, drugs
memories recorded in the brain? Scientists are beginning to
that increase long-term potentiation also tend to improve
identify the exact ways neurons record information (Xu &
memory (Farah et al., 2004). For example, rats administered
Yao, 2010). Their research may eventually help the millions
such drugs could remember the correct path through a maze
of persons who suffer from memory impairment (Elli &
better than rats not given the drug (Wang et al., 2014). Such
Nathan, 2001). For example, Eric Kandel and his colleagues
findings suggest that memory can be and will be artificial-
have studied learning in the marine snail aplysia (ah-PLEEZ-
ly enhanced. However, the possibility of something like a
yah). Learning in the aplysia occurs when certain neurons in
“physics pill” or a “math pill” still seems remote.
a circuit alter the amount of transmitter chemicals it releases
(Bailey & Kandel, 2004). Learning also alters the activity,
structure, and chemistry of neurons.
Specifically, if two or more interconnected neurons be- Long-term potentiation Brain mechanism used to form lasting
memories by strengthening the connection between neurons that
come more active at the same time, the connections between become more active at the same time.
them grow stronger (Kalat, 2016). This process is called

MODULE

34 summary
34.1 Why do we forget? State-dependent learning is related to the effects of
34.1.1 Forgetting is most rapid immediately after learning. retrieval cues.
34.1.2 Failure to encode information is a common cause of 34.1.5 Much forgetting in LTM is caused by interference.
“forgetting.” In retroactive interference, new learning interferes
34.1.3 Forgetting in sensory memory and STM is due to with the ability to retrieve earlier learning. Proactive
a failure of storage through a weakening (decay) of interference occurs when old learning interferes with
memory traces. STM forgetting also occurs through the retrieval of new learning.
displacement . Decay of memory traces due to disuse 34.1.6 Memories can be consciously suppressed, and they
also may explain some LTM losses. may be unconsciously repressed. Extreme caution is
34.1.4 Failures of retrieval occur when information that warranted when “recovered” memories are the only
resides in memory is nevertheless not retrieved. A basis for believing that traumatic events, such as
lack of retrieval cues can produce retrieval failure. childhood sexual abuse, happened in the past.

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300 p sychOLO Gy M o d u les Fo r Active leAr n i n g

34.2 how does the brain form and store 34.2.3 After memories have been consolidated, they appear
memories? to be stored in the cortex of the brain.
34.2.1 It takes time to consolidate memories. In the brain, 34.2.4 Lasting memories are recorded by changes in the
memory consolidation takes place in the hippocam- activity, structure, and chemistry of neurons as well
pus. Until they are consolidated, long-term memories as how they interconnect.
are easily destroyed, resulting in retrograde amnesia.
34.2.2 Intensely emotional experiences can result in flash-
bulb memories.

Knowledge Builder Memory: Forgetting

Recite 6. Retrograde amnesia results when consolidation is

1. Which explanation(s) best seem(s) to account for the loss speeded up. T or F?
of short-term memories?
Reflect
a. decay
b. disuse Think critically
c. repression 7. Based on state-dependent learning, why do you think
d. displacement music often strongly evokes memories?
2. When memories are available but not accessible, forget-
ting may be cue-dependent. T or F? self-Reflect
3. When learning one thing makes it more difficult to recall Which of the following concepts best explains why you have
another, forgetting may be caused by ________________ missed some answers on psychology tests: encoding failure,
_______________. disuse, memory cues, interference?
4. You are asked to memorize long lists of telephone num- Do you know someone whose name you have a hard time
bers. You learn a new list each day for ten days. When remembering? Do you like or dislike that person? Do you
tested on list three, you remember less than a person who think your difficulty is an instance of repression? Suppression?
learned only the first three lists. Your larger memory loss Interference? Retrieval failure?
is probably caused by
a. disuse AN sW E R s
b. retroactive interference
son’s mood, and moods tend to affect memory (Barrett et al., 2010).
1. a and d 2. T 3. interference 4. b 5. b 6. F 7. Music tends to affect a per-
c. regression
d. proactive interference
5. If you consciously succeed at putting a painful memory
out of mind, you have used
a. redintegration
b. suppression
c. negative rehearsal
d. repression

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 MODULE
Memory
Exceptional Memory 35
Snap!
Wouldn’t it to be nice to have a photographic memory? Memories
would be as easy to create as snapping a timeless photo and just as
easy as photos to find when you need them. OK, so maybe we mere
memory mortals have to live with imperfect memories, but that’s
how it works for people with exceptional memories, no?
Actually, the metaphor that memory is like a photograph is not
only incorrect; it is unfortunately misleading. In this module, we will
see that the idea of photographic memory is more myth than real-
ity. Exceptional or not, we all have to put serious mental effort into

© MorganStudio/Shutterstock.com
encoding and retrieving memories.
The good news is that, with the right motivation and some men-
tal effort, we can all improve our memories. We’ll start this mod-
ule by meeting some exceptional people and conclude it by sharing
some ways to immediately improve your memory skills.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
35.1 What is “exceptional” memory? 35.3 What are mnemonic devices?
35.2 How can I improve my memory?

Exceptional Memory—Wizards of Recall

Survey Question 35.1 What is “exceptional” memory? or a brightly lit neon sign (Brang & Ramachandran, 2010).
They are rare in childhood and become virtually nonexis-
So this is not about photographic memory, then? Perhaps
tent in adulthood (Haber & Haber, 2000).
the closest we can come, in reality, is a rare type of memory
called eidetic imagery (eye-DET-ik), which occurs when a Two Types of Exceptional Memory The occasional
person has visual images clear enough to be “scanned” or re- rare adult does have a truly exceptional memory. Some
tained for at least 30 seconds. Internal mental images can be have exceptional episodic memories (for personal experi-
“viewed” mentally with the eyes closed. In contrast, eidetic ences that are linked with specific times and places) while
images are “projected” in front of a person—that is, they are
best “seen” on a plain surface, such as a blank piece of paper.
Eidetic imagery The ability to retain a “projected” mental image
In this respect, eidetic images are somewhat like the short- long enough to use it as a source of information.
lived afterimages you might have after looking at a flashbulb

301
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302 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

others have exceptional semantic memories (for imper- Mr. S., who made a living as a professional memorizer, or
sonal knowledge about the world). (You can review this mnemonist. He regularly wowed audiences with his ability
distinction in Module 32.) to memorize, with equal ease, long strings of digits, mean-
People with an exceptional episodic memory system ingless consonants, mathematical formulas, and poems in
(also known as highly superior autobiographical memory) foreign languages. But Mr. S. displayed normal episodic
generally have specific enlargements in the brain areas all of memory, going so far as to describe living his life “as if in a
us use for storing episodic memories. They also tend to have haze” (Luria, 1968). Once again, don’t be too quick to envy
normal semantic memories (LePort et al., 2012). Mr. S.’s abilities. He had to devise ways to forget unimport-
Before you get too jealous, consider what Jill Price has ant information—such as writing it on a piece of paper and
to say about her “perfect” episodic memory: “My memory then burning it.
has ruled my life. . . . Whenever I see a date flash on the What both Jill Price and Mr. S. share in common is that,
television (or anywhere else for that matter), I automatically unlike effortlessly “snapping a photo,” they spend much
go back to that day and remember where I was, what I was of their waking life focused on their memories. In other
doing, what day it fell on, and on and on and on and on. It words, exceptional memory may begin with natural ability
is nonstop, uncontrollable, and totally exhausting. . . . Most (Yi & Qian, 2009). But it also involves high levels of moti-
have called it a gift, but I call it a burden. I run my entire vation and the use of memory strategies, including special
life through my head every day and it drives me crazy!!!” memory “tricks” called mnemonic (nee-MON-ik) devices.
(Parker, Cahill, & McGaugh, 2006; Price & Davis, 2009). Assuming that you are at least somewhat motivated to re-
As you may have guessed, other people have an excep- member what you study, let’s take a look at some of those
tional semantic memory system. One famous example is strategies.

Improving Memory—Some Keys to (Memory) Success

Survey Question 35.2 How can I improve my memory? Steve was able to memorize approximately 80 digits, like this
sample: 928420480508422689539901902529128079997066
To begin, you can do very little to improve your brain’s
06574717310601080585269726026357332135.
ability to store long-term memories. The jury is still out
How did Steve do it? Basically, he practiced chunking
on the use of drugs, herbs (such as ginkgo biloba), and
digits into meaningful groups containing three or four digits
vitamins (such as vitamin E) to improve human mem-
each. Steve’s avid interest in long-distance running helped
ory (McDaniel, Maier, & Einstein, 2002; McGaugh &
greatly. For instance, to him the first three digits in the pre-
Roozendaal, 2009). However, you can immediately use
ceding group represented 9 minutes and 28 seconds, a good
meaning-based strategies to improve memory encoding
time for a 2-mile run. When running times wouldn’t work,
and memory retrieval (Fry, 2012; Hancock, 2011). Most
Steve used other associations, such as ages or dates, to chunk
exceptional memorizers use these strategies to augment
digits (Ericsson & Chase, 1982).
whatever natural talents they have. Some of their strate-
Let’s be clear: Steve’s natural short-term memory capac-
gies are described in the remainder of this module. (See
ity did not improve during months of practice. For exam-
also Module 1.)
ple, even at the end, Steve could still memorize only seven
consonants. Instead, his exceptional memory for numbers
Encoding strategies was a skill that he improved as he figured out new ways to
In keeping with the (mistaken) idea that forming a memory chunk digits.
is like snapping a photo, many students assume encoding Also, Steve is no exception to the rule. Mr. S. worked full
(forming) memories should be effortless. So, for example, time as a professional memorizer. A Chinese man named Lu
Steve was able to listen to lists of 80 digits and repeat them Chao once held the world record for reciting from memo-
back without making a mistake (Ericsson & Chase, 1982). ry the first 67,890 digits of the number pi (Hu et al., 2009).
Impressive? Maybe. But easy? Not at all. Steve, a student vol- But, like other people with exceptional semantic memories,
unteer who could remember 7 digits, spent 20 months (!) Lu Chao does not have a photographic memory. Instead
practicing memorizing ever-longer lists of digits. Ultimately, he spent many years practicing, competing against other

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 MoDU lE 3 5 M e M o ry: e xc e pti o nAl M e M o ry 303

“pi memorizers,” and making use of memory techniques any- Consider Whole Versus Part Learning If you have to
one can use to improve their memories (Hu & Ericsson, 2012). memorize a speech, is it better to try to learn it from begin-
If, unlike Steve, you act on the belief that encoding ning to end or in smaller parts like paragraphs? It depends.
memories should be effortless, you are settings yourself up For fairly short, organized information, it is usually better to
for plenty of encoding failure. While you may never need practice whole packages of information rather than smaller
to remember strings of 80 (or 67,890!) digits, one way to parts (whole learning). Learning parts is usually better for
improve your memory is to be sure to more fully encode extremely long, complicated information. In part learning,
information. Following are some strategies you can use to subparts of a larger body of information are studied (such as
become a better encoder: sections of a textbook module or chapter). To decide which
approach to use, remember to study the largest meaningful
Use Chunking to Organize Information The ability
amount of information you can at one time.
to organize information into chunks underlies expertise in
For very long or complex material, try the progressive-
many fields (Gilchrist, Cowan, & Naveh-Benjamin, 2009;
part method, by breaking a learning task into a series of
Gobet, 2005). Be open to searching for good ways to better
short sections. At first, you study part A until it is mastered.
chunk customer’s orders if you are a restaurant server, the
Next, you study parts A and B; then A, B, and C; and so
playbook if you are on a football team, speeches if you are a
forth. This is a good way to learn the lines of a play, a long
public speaker, and so on. Don’t be afraid to ask the people
piece of music, or a poem (Ash & Holding, 1990). After the
you work with how they manage it.
material is learned, you also should practice by starting at
For example. assume that you must memorize the fol-
points other than A (at C, D, or B, for example). This helps
lowing list of words: north, man, red, spring, woman, east,
prevent getting “lost” or going blank in the middle of a
autumn, yellow, summer, boy, blue, west, winter, girl, green,
performance.
south. This rather difficult list could, with a little effort, be
reorganized into chunks as follows: north-east-south-west, Beware Serial Position Whenever you must learn
spring-summer-autumn-winter, red-yellow-green-blue, man- something in order, be aware of the serial position effect. As
woman-boy-girl. you will recall, this is the tendency to make the most errors
Organizing class notes and summarizing modules or in remembering the middle of a list. If you are introduced to
chapters can be quite helpful (Ellis, 2016). You may even a long line of people, the names you are likely to forget will
want to summarize your summaries so that the overall net- be those in the middle, so you should make an extra effort
work of ideas becomes clearer and simpler. Summaries im- to attend to them. You also should give extra practice to the
prove memory by encouraging better encoding of informa- middle of a list, poem, or speech.
tion (Anderson, 2014).
Encode Retrieval Cues The best retrieval cues (stimuli
Use Mental Images Mental images, especially vivid ones,
that aid retrieval) are those that were present during encod-
are particularly memorable (Worthen & Hunt, 2010). Accord-
ing (Anderson, 2014). For example, students in one classic
ing to the multimedia principle, it is also better to mix words
study had the daunting task of trying to recall a list of 600
and images than to reply on words alone (Overson, 2014). For
words. As they read the list (which they did not know they
example, don’t treat the figures and graphs in this textbook as
would be tested on), the students gave three other words
unnecessary “fluff.” Far from it, they can become the core of
closely related in meaning to each listed word. In a test given
effective encodings. Try, for example, to memorize Figure 32.1
later, the words each student supplied were used as cues to
and organize your summary of Module 32 around it.
jog memory. The students recalled an astounding 90 percent
Use Elaborative Processing Let us reiterate: The more of the original word list (Mantyla, 1986).
you rehearse (mentally review) information as you read, the The preceding example shows, once again, that it of-
better you will remember it. Even repeatedly thinking about ten helps to elaborate on information as you learn. When
facts helps link them together in memory. But remember you study, try to use new names, ideas, or terms in sev-
that maintenance rehearsal alone is not very effective. Elab- eral sentences. Also, form images that include the new
orative processing, in which you rehearse by looking for information and relate it to knowledge that you already
connections to existing knowledge, is far better. To learn have. Your goal should be to knit meaningful cues into
college-level information, you must make active use of more your memory at encoding to help you retrieve informa-
reflective study strategies (Halonen & Santrock, 2013). tion when you need it.

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304 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Overlearn Numerous studies have shown that memory is 3. Recall from different viewpoints. Review events by
greatly improved when you overlearn or continue to study mentally standing in a different place. Or try to view
beyond bare mastery. After you have learned material well information as another person would remember it.
enough to remember it once without error, you should con- When taking a test, for instance, ask yourself what other
tinue studying. Overlearning is your best insurance against students or your professor would remember about the
going blank on a test because of nervousness. topic.
Use Spaced Practice To keep boredom and fatigue to 4. Mentally return to the context of encoding. Try to
a minimum, try alternating short study sessions with brief mentally recreate the learning environment or relive
rest periods. This pattern, called spaced practice, is gener- the event. As you do, include sounds, smells, details of
ally superior to massed practice, in which little or no rest is weather, nearby objects, other people present, what you
given between learning sessions (Radvansky, 2011). By im- said or thought, and how you felt as you learned the
proving attention and consolidation, three 20-minute study information (Milne & Bull, 2002).
sessions can produce more learning than 1 hour of continu- The following are some more strategies to help you
ous study. avoid retrieval failure:
Perhaps the best way to use spaced practice is to schedule
Rely on Retrieval Practice Learning proceeds best
your time. To make an effective schedule, designate times
when feedback allows you to check your progress. Feedback
during the week before, after, and between classes when you
can help you identify ideas that need extra practice. In ad-
will study particular subjects. Then treat these times just as
dition, it is rewarding to know that you have remembered
if they are classes that you have to attend.
or answered correctly. A prime way to provide feedback
for yourself while studying is recitation. If you are going to
Retrieval Strategies remember something, eventually you have to retrieve it.
Just as it was with encoding, it is a mistake to assume re- Recitation refers to summarizing aloud while you are learn-
trieval should come easily. When a much needed memory ing. Recitation forces you to practice retrieving information.
fails to pop into mind, it’s time to start a deliberate search of When you are reading a textbook, you should stop frequent-
memory (Sternberg, 2017). ly and try to remember what you have just read by restating
How do you search memory? For example, one study it in your own words. In one classic experiment, the best
found that students were most likely to recall names that memory score was earned by a group of students who spent
eluded them if they made use of partial information (Reed & 80 percent of their time reciting and only 20 percent reading
Bruce, 1982). The students were trying to answer questions (Gates, 1917). (Maybe students who talk to themselves aren’t
such as, “He is best remembered as the scarecrow in the Judy crazy after all.)
Garland movie The Wizard of Oz.” (The answer is Ray Bolger.) If you have spaced your practice and overlearned, re-
Partial information that helped students remember included trieval practice in the form of review will be like icing on
impressions about the length of the name, letter sounds with- your study cake (Karpicke & Blunt, 2011). Reviewing shortly
in the name, similar names, and related information (such as before an exam cuts down the time during which you must
the names of other characters in the movie). A similar helpful remember details that may be important for the test. When
strategy is to go through the alphabet, trying each letter as the reviewing, hold the amount of new information you try to
first sound of a name or word you are seeking. memorize to a minimum. It may be realistic to take what
The cognitive interview (described in Module 32) of- you have learned and add a little more to it at the last min-
fers some further hints for recapturing context and jogging ute by cramming. But remember that more than a little new
memories: learning may interfere with what you already know.
1. Say or write down everything you can remember that Extend How Long You Remember When you are
relates to the information you are seeking. Even trivial learning new information, practice retrieval repeatedly. As
bits of information you remember can serve as a cue to you do, gradually lengthen the amount of time that passes
bring back other information. before you test yourself again. For example, if you are study-
2. Recall events or information in different orders. Let ing German words on flash cards, look at the first card and
your memories flow backward or out of order, or start then move it a few cards back in the stack. Do the same with
with whatever impressed you the most. the next few cards. When you get to the first “old” card, test

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 MoDU lE 3 5 M e M o ry: e xc e pti o nAl M e M o ry 305

yourself on it and check the answer. Then, move it farther exams (Smith, Clark, & Gallagher, 1999). A cup of coffee
back in the stack. Do the same with other “old” cards as they won’t hurt your test performance, either (Smith, Christo-
come up. When “old” cards come up for the third time, put pher, & Sutherland, 2013).
them clear to the back of the stack.
A Look Ahead Psychologists still have much to learn
Clear Your Mind and Prepare Your Body If you about the nature of memory and how to improve it. For
are counting on successful retrieval, say when writing an now, one thing stands out clearly: People who have good
exam, try to clear your mind before hand. Don’t schedule memories excel at organizing meaningful information.
any other important events near the same time if you can Sometimes, however, you are faced with the need to mem-
help it. Remember that resting after study reduces interfer- orize information without much inherent meaning. For
ence. That’s why your study schedule should include am- example, a shopping list is just a list of more or less un-
ple breaks between subjects and you should be well-rested related items. There’s not much of a meaningful relation-
when you write your exam. Also remember that although ship among carrots, rolls of toilet paper, TV dinners, and
it is better to study before eating, people who are hungry Twinkies, except that you need more of them. With this in
almost always score lower on memory tests (Diano et al., mind, you can learn how to use mnemonic devices to bet-
2006). So Mother was right—it’s a good idea to make sure ter memorize when meaning-based strategies, like those
that you’ve had a good breakfast or lunch before you take already described, are not helpful.

Mnemonic Devices—Tricks of the (Memory) Trade

Survey Question 35.3 What are mnemonic devices? which uses the first letter of each of the cranial nerves to
generate a nonsense sentence, indeed produces better recall
Imagine the poor biology or psychology student who is re-
of the cranial nerves. Similarly, Some People Can Fly! helps
quired to learn the names of the 12 cranial nerves (in order,
psychology students remember Piaget’s stages of cognitive
of course). Although the spinal nerves connect the brain to
development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete op-
the body through the spinal cord, the cranial nerves do so
erational, formal operational. Such acrostics are even more
directly. Just in case you want to know, the names are ol-
effective if you make up your own (Fry, 2012). (Try making
factory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens,
them rhyme for an added memory boost.)
facial, vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal, vagus, spinal ac-
cessory, and hypoglossal.
As you might imagine, most of us find it difficult to create Mental Images
successfully encode this list. In the absence of any obvious According to the multimedia principle, supplementing
meaningful relationship among these terms, it is difficult to words with images generally improves memory (Worthen &
apply the memory strategies that we discussed in the previ- Hunt, 2010). Make these images as vivid, and even bizarre,
ous section and tempting to resort to rote learning (learn- as possible (Soemer & Schwan, 2012). Bizarre images make
ing by simple repetition). Fortunately, there is an alterna- stored information more distinctive and therefore easier to
tive. Use a mnemonic device (nee-MON-ik)—a strategy for retrieve (Worthen & Hunt, 2010). Do note, however, that
enhancing memory—to impose an artificial organization bizarre images help improve mainly immediate memory,
on material if none is naturally present. The superiority of and they work best for fairly simple information (Fritz et al.,
mnemonic learning as opposed to rote learning has been 2007). Nevertheless, they can be a first step toward learning.
demonstrated many times (Saber & Johnson, 2008; Worthen For example, suppose that you have to learn the names
& Hunt, 2010). Here are some examples: of all the bones and muscles in the human body. To remem-
ber that the jawbone is the mandible, you can associate it to a
create Acrostics
In an acrostic, the first letters of the word in a target list Spaced practice A practice schedule that alternates study periods
are used to create a sentence. Generations of students have with brief rests.
learned the names of the spinal nerves by memorizing the Massed practice A practice schedule in which studying continues
for long periods, without interruption.
sentence “On Old Olympus’ Towering Top A Famous
Mnemonic device A strategy for enhancing memory.
Vocal German Viewed Some Hops.” This mnemonic device,

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306 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

man nibbling, or maybe you can order, try forming an exaggerated association (mental
picture a man dribbling a bas- image) connecting the first item to the second and then the
ketball with his jaw (make this second to the third, and so on. To remember the follow-
image as ridiculous as possible). ing short list in order—elephant, doorknob, string, watch,
rifle, oranges—picture a full-size elephant balanced on a
The Keyword Method Let’s
doorknob playing with a string tied to him. Picture a watch
say that you have some new
tied to the string, and a rifle shooting oranges at the watch.
vocabulary words to memo-
This technique can be used quite successfully for lists of
rize in Spanish. You can use the
20 or more items. In one test, people who used a linking
keyword method, in which a
mnemonic did much better at remembering lists of 15 and
familiar word or image is used
22 errands (Higbee et al., 1990). Try it next time you go
to link two other words or items
shopping and leave your list at home. Another helpful strat-
(Campos, Camino, & Pérez-
egy is to make up a short story that links all the items on a
Fabello, 2011; Fritz et al., 2007).
list that you want to remember (McNamara & Scott, 2001;
To remember that the word pa-
Worthen & Hunt, 2010).
Exaggerated mental images
jaro (pronounced PAH-hah-ro)
can link two words or ideas means “bird,” you can link it to The Method of Loci Ancient Greek orators had an inter-
in ways that aid memory. a “key” word in English: pajaro esting way to remember ideas in order when giving a speech,
Here, the keyword method the method of loci (locations). They took a mental “walk”
sounds a bit like “parked car-o.”
is used to link the English
word letter with the Spanish Therefore, to remember that pa- along a familiar path. As they did, they associated topics with
word carta. jaro means “bird,” you might vi- the images of statues found along the walk. You can do the
sualize a parked car jam-packed same thing by “placing” objects or ideas along the way as you
with birds. You should try to make this image as vivid and mentally take a familiar walk (Radvansky, 2011).
exaggerated as possible, with birds flapping and chirping
The Pros and Cons of Mnemonic Devices What
and feathers flying everywhere. Similarly, for the word carta
about a year from now? How long do these “mnemonic
(which means “letter”), you might imagine a shopping cart
memories” last? Mnemonic memories work best in the
filled with postal letters.
short run. Later, they may be more fragile than conven-
If you link similar keywords and images for the rest of
tional memories. That’s why it’s usually best to use mne-
the list, you may not remember them all, but you will get
monic devices during the initial stages of learning (Carney
most without much more practice. As a matter of fact, if you
& Levin, 2003; Fry, 2012).
have formed the pajaro and carta images, it will be almost
If you have never used mnemonic devices, you may
impossible for you to see these words again without remem-
still be skeptical, but give this approach a fair trial. Most
bering what they mean. The keyword method is also supe-
people find that they can greatly extend their memory using
rior when you want to work “backward” from an English
mnemonic devices. But remember, like most things worth-
word to a foreign word (Campos, Rodríguez-Pinal, & Pérez-
while, remembering takes effort (Hancock, 2011).
Fabello, 2013).

create stories or chains

Keyword method As an aid to memory, using a familiar word or
How can mnemonic devices be used to remember things image to link two items.
in order? To remember lists of ideas, objects, or words in

MODULE

35 summary
35.1 What is “exceptional” memory? blank surface. Eidetic imagery is rarely found
35.1.1 Eidetic imagery (photographic memory) occurs in adults.
when a person is able to project an image onto a

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 MoDU lE 3 5 M e M o ry: e xc e pti o nAl M e M o ry 307

35.1.2 Some individuals have exceptional episodic memo- retrieval practice, which involves feedback, recitation,
ries; others have exceptional semantic memories. and review.
35.1.3 Exceptional memory may be based on natural ability
35.3 What are mnemonic devices?
or learned strategies. Usually, it involves both.
35.3.1 Mnemonic devices use bizarre or exaggerated verbal
35.2 how can I improve my memory? associations and mental images to link new informa-
35.2.1 Memory can be improved through better encoding tion with familiar memories already stored in LTM.
strategies, such as chunking, using mental im- 35.3.2 Mnemonic devices include acrostics, mental imag-
ages, and elaborating, as well as whole learning, the ery (including the keyword method), and stories or
progressive-part method, encoding retrieval cues, chains (including the method of loci).
overlearning, and spaced practice. 35.3.3 Mnemonic devices greatly improve immediate
35.2.2 Memory also can be improved through better retriev- memory. However, conventional learning tends to
al strategies, such as using active search strategies and create the most lasting memories.

Knowledge Builder Memory: Exceptional Memory

Recite 6. How are elaborative processing and mnemonic devices

1. For most people, having an especially good memory is alike?
based on self-Reflect
a. maintenance rehearsal
What kinds of information are you good at remembering?
b. elaborative processing
Why do you think your memory is better for those topics?
c. phonetic imagery
Review the techniques for improving memory, and think
d. learned strategies
of a specific example of how you could use each technique at
2. As new information is encoded, it is helpful to elaborate
school, at home, or at work.
on its meaning and connect it to other information.
The best mnemonic devices are your own. As an exercise,
T or F?
see if you can create a better acrostic for the 12 cranial nerves.
3. The cognitive interview helps people remember more by
One student generated Old Otto Octavius Tried Trigonom-
providing
etry After Facing Very Grim Virgin’s Sad Husbands (Bloom
a. retrieval cues
& Lamkin, 2006).
b. a serial position effect
c. phonetic priming
d. massed practice AN sW E R s
in LTM that is familiar or already easy to retrieve.
4. Which of the following is least likely to improve a 6. Both attempt to relate new information to information already stored
memory in the long term? and selection of important ideas, and your notes can be used for review.
a. using exaggerated mental images processing; it encourages active reflection and facilitates the organization
b. forming a chain of associations 1. d 2. T 3. a 4. c 5. Properly done, note-taking is a form of elaborative
c. turning visual information into verbal information
d. associating new information to information that is
already known or familiar

Reflect
Think critically
5. What are the advantages of taking notes as you read a
textbook, as opposed to underlining words in the text?

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MODULE

36 Memory Skills in Action

Giving Memorable Presentations

Fighting PowerPoint-less Slides

In an effort to explain the U.S. Forces strategy in Afghanistan, mem-
bers of the American military prepared a Microsoft PowerPoint
slide for General Stanley McChrystal (pictured here). This single
slide outlined 100 issues that were central to the war effort, with no
fewer than two hundred arrows connecting them to one another.
The general, who was in charge of North Atlantic Treaty Organiza-
tion (NATO) forces in the region, had just one thing to say: “When
we understand that slide, we’ll have won the war.”
Have you, like the general, ever sat through a presentation overflow-
ing with words or complicated diagrams? Overwhelmed by listening and
reading, you probably didn’t remember very much. Of course, you may
also have experienced presentations that kept you on the edge of your
seat, and that you remembered many months—or even years—later.
These days, it’s common to give presentations at school or
work that involve videos or slides made using PowerPoint, Prezi,
AP Images/J. Scott Applewhite

or Keynote. Clearly, there are important technology-related skills

needed to create this type of presentation. Giving a memorable pre-
sentation, however, requires a different set of skills altogether—skills
that depend on a solid understanding of how human memory works.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
36.1 How are good presentation skills related to the study 36.2 How can good presentation skills help me in my per-
of psychology? sonal and professional life?

From Pictures to PowerPoint

Survey Question 36.1 How are good presentation skills
related to the study of psychology?
forgetting. In this module, we make use of what we know
The previous four modules described human memory, in- about memory to describe how to give an effective multime-
cluding the three memory systems (sensory memory, short- dia presentation—that is, a presentation that includes both
term or working memory, and long-term memory) and words (either spoken or text) and graphics (including pic-
some of the factors that contribute to remembering and tures, animations, charts, or video).

308
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 MODU LE 3 6 M e M o ry S k i llS i n Acti o n: G ivi n G M e M o r Ab le P r eS e ntAti o n S 309

One of the reasons that multimedia presentations can image or a video on the screen, the audience can only hold
be so useful in conveying information is that people pro- a portion of that graphic in working memory at one time.
cess words and mental images together better than they do Similarly, when you are speaking during your presentation, the
words alone, a finding referred to as the multimedia princi- audience is only able to keep a few words in working memory.
ple (see Module 32). There are three important assumptions Finally, the third assumption is that people remember in-
associated with this principle (Overson, 2014). The first is formation best when they select important information from
that people process multimedia information through two sensory memory, organize it in a meaningful way in working
sensory channels—visual (the eyes) and verbal (the ears). memory, and integrate it with other information in long-term
The second assumption is that people can only process a memory (Mayer, 2014). A memorable presentation is one that
limited amount of information through either of these chan- promotes active processing by helping the audience with the
nels at any moment in time. For example, if you present an tasks of selecting, organizing, and integrating information.

Start Talking!
Survey Question 36.2 How can good presentation skills Help the Audience Select Important
help me in my personal and professional life? Information
Multimedia presentations are common in workplaces rang- ◗ Eliminate distractions. Critically evaluate the slide design
ing from business to education to health care. Part of your template that you have selected, as well as other features
success in the workplace, then, may rest on your ability to that you are using. Does the template have a very busy
give a presentation that is persuasive, informative, and above pattern with wild colors? Is the font easy to read? You
all, memorable. should also ask yourself whether any animations you’ve
OK. How do I do that? Begin by noting the character- selected will be distracting for the audience. For exam-
istics of your audience, such as their age and background ple, do you have points that are zooming onto the screen
knowledge. Understanding your audience is important from the side, or text that bounces up and down? These
because it will guide the complexity of the ideas that kinds of animations will consume your audience’s valu-
you present, the language that you use, and the pace at able processing capacity unnecessarily. Always remem-
which you provide information. Audiences that are ber that just because these features can be used doesn’t
extremely knowledgeable require much less in the way of mean that they should be used.
background information and will not be left behind if you ◗ Eliminate anything on the slide that does not support the
move through your material at a somewhat faster pace. main point. On individual slides, the things that you cut
On the other hand, a less experienced audience will need out may include unnecessary graphics, such as logos,
you to move more slowly, explaining the background more backgrounds or watermarks (the images that can be
thoroughly and providing examples where appropriate. If seen “behind” the text), or any text that does not sup-
you’re presenting on ideas in a field that uses a specialized port the main point being made on the slide.
professional vocabulary, it will be important to explain
◗ Limit yourself to a few main points per slide. This will
each term and how it relates to the main points that you’re
help limit the amount of text that’s up on the screen
trying to make.
for people to process. You can also limit the amount
In terms of the multimedia part of your presentation,
of text by avoiding points that are paragraphs—use the
recall that people have a limited ability to process informa-
minimum number of words necessary to convey your
tion through their visual and verbal channels. Remember,
point clearly. If you do find yourself with a large amount
too, that they remember information best when they select
of text on your slide, consider splitting it into two (or
information that’s important from the material that enters
more) slides.
sensory memory, organize it in a meaningful way while
◗ Highlight the main points you want to make on each slide.
it is in working memory, and integrate it with other in-
There are many ways that you can draw the audience’s
formation that is in long-term memory. Let’s look at how
attention to the central point being made on a slide.
to create presentations that meet these goals (Atkinson &
One is to use italics and colored font to draw attention
Mayer, 2004).

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310 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r Active leAr n i n G

to key words or phrases on the slide (but make sure that or closing slide that summarizes only the main points
there aren’t too many!). If you are contrasting two ideas, being made.
another way to visually highlight points is to use a table ◗ Talk over pictures. The multimedia principle tells us that
format that places them side-by-side, rather than two people learn better from pictures and words than they
sets of bullet points. do from words alone. Because most presenters don’t
◗ Instead of a title at the top of the slide, use a headline. realize this, slides are often filled only with words. This
A headline is written in the active voice and contains a information has to be processed by the visual channel,
noun and verb. Its primary purpose is to summarize, in which can quickly become overloaded when there is a
a very limited number of words, the single overarching lot of text on the screen. This problem is made worse
idea that is being conveyed by the information or graph- when the presenter is also speaking, because the audi-
ics on the slide. People—especially those who are not ence’s attention is then trying to process the same type
very familiar with the material that you are presenting— of information through the visual and auditory chan-
have a better chance of remembering a short summary nels! A better strategy is to use carefully selected (and
than all of the text that’s on the slide. Instead of a title high quality) visuals that can make the point, and to
such as “Mnemonics,” then, you may want to consider narrate the text out loud for your audience (Fenesi et
the headline “Mnemonics Help Improve Memory.” al., 2014). By “talking over pictures” in this way, you can
capitalize on people’s ability to process visual and audi-
Help the Audience Organize Information tory information at the same time.
◗ Keep your eye on the whole story. As you create individ-
ual slides, it’s very easy to get caught up in what infor- Help the Audience Integrate Information
mation you should include on each one. Remember, ◗ Help the audience make connections. Whenever possi-
though, that the entire presentation is intended to tell ble, help the audience to see how the information you’re
your audience a story. To ensure that the story is devel- presenting is related to material that is already in their
oping smoothly, you should regularly check on the flow long-term memory. For example, you might draw their
of the presentation as a whole by using features such as attention to how the material is similar or different to
Slide Sorter in PowerPoint or Light Table in Keynote. things they have seen before, how it extends what they
◗ Make the structure of your points clear. You will have already know, or how your topic is connected to their
noticed that each module in this book has a clear struc- own personal experiences.
ture. The main topics have titles in very large print; if
there are smaller points being made within these main Practice
topics, then their titles are written in smaller print. The final thing to remember if you want to deliver a good
Using fonts of different sizes in this way helps to signal presentation is simple: practice, practice, practice! Practic-
the overall structure of the information to the reader ing your talk will confirm whether you will be able to stick
and helps them to organize it in their minds. When you to the time you’ve been given and will help to develop your
create a slide that includes text, you can do the same confidence. That confidence will help you to speak without
thing: Use points and subpoints to help the audience see stumbling over your words and present the image of some-
the underlying structure of your talk. And if you really one who really understands the material. And what could be
want to emphasize structure, consider a single opening more memorable than that?

MODULE

36 Summary
36.1 How are good presentation skills related to and graphics together than they do from words
the study of psychology? alone.
36.1.1 Multimedia presentations involve both visual 36.1.2 We can process very limited amounts of information
and auditory information. The multimedia through the auditory and visual channels at a specific
principle states that people learn more from words time.

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 MODU LE 3 6 M e M o ry S k i llS i n Acti o n: G ivi n G M e M o r Ab le P r eS e ntAti o n S 311

36.1.3 We remember information best when we select im- points per slide and highlighting them, and using
portant information, organize it in a meaningful way, headlines rather than titles for each slide.
and integrate it with other existing information. 36.2.3 You can help your audience organize information by
outlining your presentation as a story, clearly struc-
36.2 How can good presentation skills help me in
turing points, and making complementary use of the
my personal and professional life?
auditory and visual channels.
36.2.1 Effective presentations consider audience demo-
36.2.4 You can help the audience integrate information by
graphics.
highlighting connections between information and
36.2.2 You can help the audience select important informa-
external knowledge.
tion by eliminating irrelevant background distrac-
tions and information from slides, putting a few main

Knowledge Builder Memory Skills in Action: Giving Memorable Presentations

Recite Self-Reflect
1. People learn more from words alone than from words Think of a time you sat in a lecture and found yourself dis-
and graphics. True or False? engaged because of the professor’s presentation style, tone of
2. We can process unlimited multimedia information voice, or layout of information. Now think of a really great
through our visual and verbal sensory channels. True or lecture you attended. What was it about the presentation that
False? made this lecture engaging? How can you apply these tech-
3. People will remember information best when they niques to your own presentations in the future?
______________ information that they consider impor-
tant, __________________ it in a meaningful way, and AN SW E R S
________________ it with other long-term information. age-appropriate.
tion, assume little background knowledge, and keep visuals simple and
Reflect should use simple language, move at a slower pace, provide less informa-
tion, background knowledge, and visuals. For the Grade 1 class you
Think critically graphics of each audience, you could tailor language, pace of informa-
4. You are asked to give a presentation to a group of Grade 1 1. F 2. F 3. Select, organize, and integrate. 4. Considering the demo-

students on how to study. Now, what if you were asked to

present the same topic to a group of university students?
How would you tailor your presentations to suit each
audience?

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MODULE

37 Cognition and Intelligence

Modes of Thought

Quadrotor Swarm
A tiny robotic drone hovers just above University of Pennsylvania pro-
fessor Vijay Kumar’s outstretched finger, as if he were balancing it there.
Kumar and his colleagues study how to best program swarms of these in-
telligent little quadrotors, or four-rotor helicopters (Pivtoraiko, Mellinger,
& Kumar, 2013). Under his tutelage, quadrotor swarms have learned to
flock like birds and even to play the James Bond theme song. (Go ahead,
Google it.)
The possibilities are endless. Equip each quadrotor in a swarm with a
digital camera to create unique artistic images or more efficiently search
for missing people. Or outfit them with little tools and the ability to carry
parts so that they can swarm together and assemble machines in new ways

Scott Spitzer, University of Pennsylvania

or in places unreachable in any other way.
But how does Vijay Kumar find such elegant solutions to problems?
How does he think? What is thinking? What does language have to do
with thought? What is intelligence? What is creativity? Let’s think this
through.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
37.1 What is the nature of thought? 37.3 What are concepts, and how are they learned?
37.2 In what ways are images related to thinking? 37.4 What is language, and what role does it play in thinking?

What Is Thinking?—Brains over Brawn

Survey Question 37.1 What is the nature of thought?
tries out several lines of questioning before beginning a live
Cognition is the process of thinking, gaining knowledge, interview. By planning her moves, she can avoid many mis-
and dealing with knowledge. At its most basic, cognition takes. Imagine planning what to study for an exam, what
refers to processing a mental representation (internal subjec- to say at a job interview, or how to get to your spring break
tive expression) of a problem or situation (Sternberg, 2017). hotel. Better yet, in each of these cases, imagine what might
Human cognition can take many forms, from experiential happen if you didn’t, or couldn’t, plan at all.
daydreaming to more reflective problem solving and reason- Let’s do some more experiential and reflective think-
ing. Consider, for example, the relatively reflective process ing while looking at ➤ Figure 37.1. On the left (a), is this
of planning. Picture a television interviewer who mentally face happy or sad? Chances are that you knew the answer

312
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 MODU LE 37 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e: M o d es o f th o u g ht 313

18 PURPLE
RED
BLUE
PURPLE
GREEN
RED
GREEN
GREEN

29 ➤ Figure 37.2
The Stroop interference task. Test yourself by naming out loud
the colors in the top two rows as quickly as you can. Then name out

54
loud the colors of the ink used to print the words in the bottom two
rows. (Do not read the words themselves.) Was it harder to name
the ink colors in the bottom rows?

naming. To avoid making mistakes, fluent readers having

© AJP/Shutterstock.com
42 to engage in some reflective cognition, deliberately check-
ing responses to make sure they are not reading the color
words aloud.

Some Basic Units of Thought

(a) (b)
The power of being able to mentally represent problems
➤ Figure 37.1
is dramatically illustrated by chess grand master Miguel
Experiential vs. reflective processing. (a) An experiential
Najdorf, who once simultaneously played 45 chess games
processing task (b) a reflective processing task. See the text for
an explanation. (After Kahneman, 2011.) while blindfolded. How did Najdorf do it? Like most peo-
ple, he used the basic units of thought: mental images,
concepts, and language (or symbols). Mental images are
just by looking at the photo. You were engaging in more picturelike mental representations. A concept is a mental
or less unconscious, effortless, and automatic experiential category for classifying things based on common features
processing. Now looking at (b), what is the sum of these or properties. Language consists of words or symbols and
numbers? This time, experiential processing may not have rules for combining them. Thinking often involves all three
been enough; you likely had to deliberately concentrate and units. For example, blindfolded chess players rely on visual
engage in reflective processing (Kahneman, 2011; Norman, images, concepts (“Game 2 begins with a strategy called an
1994). (The difference between these two types of cognition English opening”), and the notational system, or “lan-
is relevant to how well you understand and remember what guage,” of chess.
you are learning; see Module 1.) In a moment, we’ll delve further into imagery, con-
What do you mean when you say that experien- cepts, and language. Be aware, however, that thinking in-
tial processing is “automatic”? Try the activity shown in volves attention, pattern recognition, memory, decision
➤ Figure 37.2. Fluent readers of English usually have
making, intuition, knowledge, and more (Goldstein, 2015).
difficulty quickly naming the color of ink used to print This module is only a sample of what cognitive psychology
the words in the bottom two rows of this figure. But why? is about.
When fluent readers look at words, they normally read
them automatically (Moors, 2016). In this case, the task is
not to read the words; instead, it is to name the ink color Cognition Process of thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with
knowledge.
used to print the words. But reading words is so automat- Experiential processing Thought that is passive, effortless, and
ed that fluent readers cannot help themselves. Sooner or automatic.
later, when fluent readers works through lists like these, Reflective processing Thought that is active, effortful, and
controlled.
they are likely to make some mistakes, reading out loud,
Mental images Mental pictures or visual depictions used in memory
for example, the word purple instead of naming the ink and thinking.
color (green in this example). Concept Mental category for classifying things based on common
At the very least, fluent readers cannot speed through features or properties.
Language Words or symbols, and rules for combining them, that are
such lists since the automatic processing of word mean- used for thinking and communication.
ings is just too strong to ignore and interferes with color

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314 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

Mental Imagery—Does a Frog Have Lips?

Survey Question 37.2 In what ways are images related to back to the visual cortex, where once again an image is cre-
thinking? ated (Borst & Kosslyn, 2010; Zvyagintsev et al., 2013). For
Almost everyone experiences visual and auditory images. example, if you visualize a friend’s face right now, the area of
Many of us also experience imagery for movement, touch, your brain that specializes in perceiving faces will become
taste, smell, and pain. Thus, mental images are often more more active (Prochnow et al., 2013).
than just “pictures.” For example, your image of a bakery Using Mental Images How are images used to solve prob-
also may include its delicious aroma. Some people even have lems? Let’s say that you are asked, “How many ways can you
a rare form of imagery called synesthesia (sin-es-THEE- use an empty egg carton?” You might begin by picturing uses
zyah). For these individuals, images cross normal sensory you have already seen, such as sorting buttons. To give more
barriers (Craver-Lemley & Reeves, 2013; Marks, 2014). For original answers, you might assemble or invent new images.
one such person, spiced chicken tastes “pointy”; and for an- Thus, an artist may completely picture a proposed sculpture
other, chocolate smells pink and stripey (Dixon, Smilek, & before beginning work. People with good imaging abilities
Merikle, 2004; Russell, Stevenson, & Rich, 2015). tend to score higher on tests of creativity, even if they are
Despite such variations, most of us use images to think, blind (Eardley & Pring, 2007; Morrison & Wallace, 2001).
remember, and solve problems. For instance, we may use
Kinesthetic Imagery In a sense, we think with our bod-
mental images to do the following:
ies as well as our brains. Kinesthetic (motor) images are
◗ Make a decision or solve a problem (choose what clothes created from muscular sensations (Grangeon, Guillot, &
to wear; figure out how to arrange furniture in a room) Collet, 2011; Olshansky et al., 2015). Such images help us
◗ Change feelings (think of pleasant images to get out of think about movements and actions.
a bad mood; imagine yourself as thin to stay on a diet)
◗ Improve a skill or prepare for some action (use images
to improve a tennis stroke; mentally rehearse how you
will ask for a raise)
◗ Aid memory (picture Mr. Cook wearing a chef ’s hat, so
you can remember his name)

The Nature of Mental Images (a) (b) (c)

Mental images are not flat, like photographs. Researcher
Stephen Kosslyn showed this by asking people, “Does a frog
have lips and a stubby tail?” Unless you often kiss frogs, you
probably will tackle this question by using mental images.
Most people picture a frog, “look” at its mouth, and then
mentally “rotate” the frog in mental space to check its tail
(Kosslyn, 1983). Mental rotation is partly based on imagined
movements (➤ Figure 37.3). That is, we can mentally “pick (d) (e) (f)
up” an object and turn it around or even fold it (Harris, Hirsh-
Pasek, & Newcombe, 2013; Wraga, Boyle, & Flynn, 2010). ➤ Figure 37.3
Imagery in thinking. (Top) Participants were shown a drawing
“Reverse Vision” What happens in the brain when a similar to (a) and drawings of how (a) would look in other positions,
such as (b) and (c). Participants could recognize (a) after it had
person has visual images? Seeing something in your “mind’s
been “rotated” from its original position. However, the more (a)
eye” is similar to seeing real objects. Information from the was rotated in space, the longer it took to recognize it. This result
eyes normally activates the brain’s primary visual area, cre- suggests that people formed a three-dimensional image of (a) and
ating an image (➤ Figure 37.4). Other brain areas then help rotated the image to see if it matched (Shepard, 1975). (Bottom)
Try your ability to manipulate mental images: Picture each of these
us recognize the image by relating it to stored knowledge.
shapes as a piece of paper that can be folded to make a cube.
When you form a mental image, the system works in re- After they have been folded, on which cubes do the arrow tips meet
verse. Brain areas in which memories are stored send signals (Kosslyn, 1985)?
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 MODU LE 37 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e: M o d es o f th o u g ht 315

Vision
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe

Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe
Cerebellum

Mental Image
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe

Occipital lobe

Gavriel Jecan/AGE Fotostock

Temporal lobe
Cerebellum

➤ Figure 37.4
Imagery in the brain. (Top) When you see a flower, its image is Rock climbers use kinesthetic imagery to learn climbing routes and
represented by activity in the primary visual area of the cortex at to plan their next few moves (Boyd & Munroe, 2003).
the back of the brain. Information about the flower also is relayed
to other brain areas. (Bottom) If you form a mental image of a
flower, information follows a reverse path. The result, once again, is
activation of the primary visual area. As you think and talk, kinesthetic sensations can guide
the flow of ideas. For example, if a friend calls and asks you
the combination of a lock you lent her, you may move your
hands as if twirling the dial on the lock. Or, try answering
this question: Which direction do you turn the hot-water
handle in your kitchen to shut off the water? If you haven’t
memorized the words “leftie loosie” and “rightie tightie,”
you may “turn” the faucet in your imagination before an-
swering. You may even make a turning motion with your
hand before answering.
Kinesthetic images are especially important in move-
© MR. INTERIOR/Shutterstock.com

ment-oriented skills such as music, sports, dance, skate-

boarding, and martial arts. An effective way to improve such
skills is to practice by rehearsing kinesthetic images of your-
self performing flawlessly (Anema & Dijkerman, 2013).

The Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles was designed by

architect Frank Gehry. Could a person lacking mental imagery Synesthesia Experiencing one sense in terms normally associated with
design such a masterpiece? Most artists, architects, designers, another sense; for example, “seeing” colors when a sound is heard.
sculptors, and filmmakers have excellent visual imagery.
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316 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

Concepts—I’m Positive, It’s a Whatchamacallit

Survey Question 37.3 What are concepts, and how are
they learned? 1 2 3 4

As noted previously, a concept is an idea that represents a

category of objects or events. Concepts help us identify im-
portant features of the world. That’s why experts in various
areas of knowledge are good at classifying objects. Bird- 5 6 7 8
watchers, tropical fish fanciers, 5-year-old dinosaur enthu-
➤ Figure 37.5
siasts, and others all learn to look for identifying details that Identifying prototypes. When does a cup become a bowl or a
beginners tend to miss. If you are knowledgeable about a vase? Deciding if an object belongs to a conceptual class is aided
topic, such as horses, flowers, or football, you literally see by relating it to a prototype, or ideal example. Participants in one
things differently than less well-informed people do (Harel experiment chose number 5 as the “best” cup. (After Labov, 1973.)

et al., 2010; Ross, 2006).

All of the following are relational concepts: larger, above, left,
Forming Concepts north, and upside down. Another example is brother, which
is defined as “a male considered in his relation to another
How are concepts learned? Concept formation is the pro-
person having the same parents.”
cess of classifying information into meaningful categories
A disjunctive concept has at least one of several pos-
(Ashby & Maddox, 2005; Newell, 2012). At its most basic,
sible features. These are “either/or” concepts. To belong to
concept formation is based on experience with positive and
the category, an item must have “this feature or that fea-
negative instances (examples that belong, or do not belong,
ture or another feature.” For example, in baseball, a strike
to the concept class).
is either a swing and a miss or a pitch over the plate or
As adults, we often acquire concepts by learning or form-
a foul ball (unless two strikes have already been called).
ing conceptual rules, guidelines for deciding whether objects
The either/or quality of disjunctive concepts makes them
or events belong to a concept class. For example, a triangle
harder to learn.
must be a closed shape with three sides made of straight
lines. Rules are an efficient way to learn concepts, but ex- Prototypes When you think of the concept bird, do you
amples remain important. It’s unlikely that memorizing rules mentally list the features of birds? Probably not. In addition
would allow a new listener to accurately categorize rhythm to rules and features, we might use a prototype, or ideal
and blues, hip-hop, rock, salsa, reggae, country, and rap music. model, to identify concepts (Rosch, 1977; Tunney & Fernie,
2012). A robin, for example, is a prototypical bird; an ostrich
Types of Concepts is not. In other words, some items are better examples of a
Are there different kinds of concepts? Yes, a conjunctive concept than others are (Smith, 2013). Which of the draw-
concept, or “and concept,” is defined by the presence of ings in ➤ Figure 37.5 best represents a cup? At some point,
two or more features (Reed, 2013). In other words, an item as a cup grows taller or wider, it becomes a vase or a bowl.
must have “this feature and this feature and this feature.” For How do we know when the line is crossed? Probably, we
example, a motorcycle must have two wheels and an engine mentally compare objects to an “ideal” cup, like number 5.
and handlebars. That’s why it’s hard to identify concepts when we can’t come
A relational concept is based on how an object relates to up with relevant prototypes (Minda & Smith, 2011).
something else, or how its features relate to one another. Let’s move on to explore another concept: language.

Language—Say What?
Survey Question 37.4 What is language, and what role
that exists as a vague image or feeling. Nevertheless,
does it play in thinking?
most thinking relies heavily on language, because words
As we have seen, thinking may occur without language. encode (translate) the world into symbols that are easy to
Everyone has searched for a word to express an idea manipulate.

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 MODU LE 37 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e: M o d es o f th o u g ht 317

and eaten) and asked to put them in order usually arranged

them from left to right. Hebrew speakers usually arranged
the cards from right to left, presumably because this is the
direction in which Hebrew is written. In contrast, speakers
of Kuuk Thaayorre arrange temporal sequences from east
to west. If the sorter is facing north, the cards are arranged

Heinrich van den Berg/Getty Images

from right to left, but if the sorter is facing south, the cards
are arranged from left to right, and so on (Boroditsky &
Gaby, 2010).
Findings like these lend support to the linguistic
relativity hypothesis, the idea that the words we use not
Wine tasting illustrates the encoding function of language. To only reflect our thoughts but can shape them as well. So the
communicate their experiences to others, wine connoisseurs must
next time you think that your future is “ahead” of you and
put taste sensations into words. The wine you see here is “Marked
by deeply concentrated nuances of plum, blackberry, and currant, your past is “behind,” think again. For speakers of Aymara,
with a nice balance of tannins and acid, building to a spicy oak a South American language, it is the past that is “ahead”
finish.” (Don’t try this with a soda!) (Miles et al., 2010). So watch your back.

Linguistic Relativity: What’s North Semantics

of My Fork? The study of meaning in words and language is known as
semantics (Traxler, 2011). It is here that the link between
Our struggle at times, to express our thoughts in words,
language and thought becomes most evident.
makes it clear that our thoughts influence the words we
use. But might the reverse be true? Do the words we use Connotative and Denotative Meaning Generally
affect our thoughts and actions? The answer appears to be speaking, words have two types of meaning. The denotative
“Yes.” Cognitive psychologist Lera Boroditsky has reported meaning of words is their exact, or dictionary, definition. The
that aboriginal children from Cape York, a remote part of connotative meaning is the emotional or personal meaning
northeastern Australia, can accurately point to any compass of words. The denotative meaning of the word naked (having
direction as early as age 5. In contrast, most Americans can- no clothes) is the same for a nudist as it is for a movie censor,
not do this even as adults (Boroditsky, 2011). but we could expect their connotations to differ.
But why? According to Boroditsky, unlike English, Kuuk Connotative differences can influence how we think
Thaayorre, the language of the Cape York Australian aborig- about issues. Would you rather eat rare prime beef or bloody
inals, relies exclusively on absolute directional references.
Like English, Kuuk Thaayorre has words for north, south,
Concept formation The process of classifying information into
and so on. Unlike English, Kuuk Thaayorre lacks words for meaningful categories.
relative directional references, such as left and right. Conjunctive concept A class of objects that have two or more
For long distances, an English speaker might say, features in common. (For example, to qualify as an example of the
concept, an object must be both red and triangular.)
“Chicago is north of here.” But for short distances, the
Relational concept A concept defined by the relationship between
same speaker will shift to a relative reference and might features of an object or between an object and its surroundings
say, “My brother is sitting to my right.” In contrast, a (for example, “greater than,” “lopsided”).
speaker of Kuuk Thaayorre always uses absolute direc- Disjunctive concept A concept defined by the presence of at least
one of several possible features. (For example, to qualify, an object
tional references, saying things like “My friend is sitting must be either blue or circular.)
southeast of me” and “The spoon is west of the cup.” If Prototype An ideal model used as a prime example of a particular
you are a young aboriginal child, you had better master concept.
your absolute directions, or most conversations will be Linguistic relativity hypothesis The idea that the words we use not
only reflect our thoughts but can shape them as well.
impossible to follow. Semantics The study of meanings in words and language.
Another interesting consequence for speakers of Kuuk Denotative meaning The exact, dictionary definition of a word or
Thaayorre is how they arrange time. In one study, English concept; its objective meaning.
Connotative meaning The subjective, personal, or emotional mean-
speakers given a set of cards depicting a series of events
ing of a word or concept.
(for example, a person getting older or a meal being cooked

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318 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

slab of dead cow? The arts of political spin and propaganda may suffer. In short, English-only instruction can leave them
often amount to manipulating connotations (Sussman, poorly prepared to succeed in the majority culture (Durán,
2011). For example, facing a terminal illness, would you Roseth, & Hoffman, 2010; Matthews & Matthews, 2004).
rather engage in end-of-life counseling or sit before a death For the majority of children who speak English at home,
panel (Payne, 2009)? the picture can be quite different because learning a second
language is almost always beneficial. It poses no threat to
Context and Meaning Word meanings also depend on
the child’s home language and improves a variety of cogni-
context. Circle the word that does not belong in this series:
tive skills. This has been called additive bilingualism because
SKYSCRAPER CATHEDRAL TEMPLE PRAYER learning a second language adds to a child’s overall compe-
tence (Hermanto, Moreno, & Bialystok, 2012).
If you circled prayer, you answered as most people do.
An approach called two-way bilingual education can
Now try again to circle the odd item:
help children benefit from bilingualism and avoid its draw-
CATHEDRAL PRAYER TEMPLE SKYSCRAPER backs (Benitz, 2009; Lessow-Hurley, 2013). In such pro-
grams, majority-group children and children with limited
Did you circle skyscraper this time? The new order sub-
English skills are taught part of the day in English and the
tly alters the meaning of the last word. This occurs because
rest of the day in a second language. Both majority- and
words get much of their meaning from context. For example,
minority-language speakers become fluent in two languages,
the word shot means different things when we are thinking
and they perform as well as or better than single-language
of marksmanship, bartending, medicine, photography, or
students in English and general academic abilities.
golf (Harley, 2014).
Then why isn’t two-way bilingual education more widely
Language also plays a major role in defining ethnic
used? Bilingual education tends to be politically unpopular
communities and other social groups. Thus, language can
among majority-language speakers (Garcia, 2008). Lan-
be a bridge or a barrier between cultures. Translating lan-
guage is an important sign of group membership. Even
guages can cause a rash of semantic problems. Perhaps a
where the majority culture is highly dominant, some of its
hotel in Acapulco, Mexico, can be excused for attempting to
members may feel that recent immigrants and “foreign lan-
reassure tourists that their water is safe to drink by posting
guages” are eroding their culture. Regardless, an ability to
a sign reading, “The manager has personally passed all the
think and communicate in a second language is a wonderful
water served here.” However, in more important situations,
gift. Given the cognitive benefits, fostering bilingualism also
such as in international business and diplomacy, avoiding
may turn out to be one of the best ways to improve competi-
semantic confusion may be vital.
tiveness in our rapidly globalizing information economy.
Bilingualism Wouldn’t it be better to being able to speak
more than one language? It would certainly reduce the like- The Structure of Language
lihood of miscommunication across cultures. But it can What does it take to make a language? First, a language must
bring personal benefits as well. Consider, for example, provide symbols that stand for objects and ideas (Harley,
bilingualism, the ability to speak two languages. Studies 2014). The symbols we call words are built out of phonemes
have found that students who learn to speak two languages (FOE-neems), basic speech sounds; and morphemes (MOR-
well have better mental flexibility, general language skills, feems), speech sounds collected into meaningful units, such
control of attention, and problem-solving abilities (Bialystok as syllables. For instance, in English, the sounds m, b, w, and
& Barac, 2012; Sorge, Toplak, & Bialystok, 2016). a cannot form the syllable mbwa. In Swahili, they can. (Also
Unfortunately, millions of minority American children see ➤ Figure 37.6.)
who do not speak English at home experience subtractive Next, a language must have a grammar, or set of rules
bilingualism. Immersed in English-only classrooms, in for making sounds into words and words into sentences
which they are expected to “sink or swim,” they usually end (Reed, 2013). One part of grammar, known as syntax, con-
up losing some of their native language skills. Such children cerns rules for word order. Syntax is important because re-
risk becoming less than fully competent in both their first arranging words almost always changes the meaning of a
and second languages. In addition, they tend to fall behind sentence: “Dog bites man” versus “Man bites dog.”
educationally. As they struggle with English, their grasp of Traditional grammar is concerned with “surface”
arithmetic, social studies, science, and other subjects also language—the sentences we actually speak. Linguist Noam

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 MODU LE 37 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e: M o d es o f th o u g ht 319

sign language teacher, he understood the link between a cat

and the gesture for it. At that magic moment, he grasped the
idea that “cat” could be communicated to another person,
Albanian mak, mak
just by signing the word.
Chinese gua, gua
Dutch rap, rap
American Sign Language (ASL), a gestural language,
English quack, quack made Ildefonso’s breakthrough possible. ASL is a true lan-
French coin, coin guage, like German, Spanish, or Japanese (Liddell, 2003).
Italian qua, qua In fact, people who use other gestural languages, such as
Spanish cuá, cuá
French Sign, Mexican Sign, or Old Kentish Sign, may not
John Mitterer
Swedish kvack, kvack
Turkish vak, vak easily understand ASL (Lucas & Bayley, 2011; Shaw &
Delaporte, 2011).
➤ Figure 37.6 Although ASL has a spatial grammar, syntax, and se-
“Vak, Vak” Animals around the world make pretty much the same mantics all its own (➤ Figure 37.7), both speech and signing
sounds. Notice, however, how various languages use slightly
different phonemes to express the sound that a duck makes.
follow similar universal language patterns. Signing children
pass through the stages of language development at about
the same age as speaking children. Some psychologists now
Chomsky has focused instead on the unspoken rules that
believe that speech evolved from gestures, far back in human
we use to change core ideas into various sentences. Chom-
sky (1986) believes that we do not learn all the sentences we
might ever say. Rather, we actively produce them by applying Look at Stare
transformation rules to universal, core patterns. We use
these rules to change a simple declarative sentence to other
voices or forms (past tense, passive voice, and so forth). For
example, the core sentence “Man rides horse” can be trans-
formed to these patterns (and others):
Past: The man rode the horse.
Passive: The horse was ridden by the man.
Negative: The man did not ride the horse.
Question: Did the man ride the horse? ➤ Figure 37.7
American Sign Language. ASL has only 3,000 root signs,
Children seem to be using transformation rules when compared with roughly 600,000 words in English. However,
they say things such as “I runned home.” That is, the child variations in signs make ASL a highly expressive language. For
example, the sign LOOK-AT can be varied in ways to make it mean
applied the normal past tense rule to the irregular verb
“look at me,” “look at her,” “look at each,” “stare at,” “gaze,” “watch,”
to run. “look for a long time,” “look at again and again,” “reminisce,”
A true language is, therefore, productive—it can gener- “sightsee,” “look forward to,” “predict,” “anticipate,” “browse,” and
ate new thoughts or ideas. In fact, words can be rearranged many more variations.
to produce a nearly infinite number of sentences. Some are
silly: “Please don’t feed me to the chipmunk.” Some are pro- Bilingualism The ability to speak two languages.
found: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men Two-way bilingual education A program in which English-speak-
are created equal.” In either case, the productive quality of ing children and children with limited English proficiency are
language makes it a powerful tool for thinking. taught some of the day in English and some in a second language.
Phonemes Basic speech sounds of a language.
Morphemes Smallest meaningful units in a language, such as syl-
Gestural Languages lables or words.
Grammar A set of rules for combining language units into mean-
Contrary to commonsense belief, language is not limited to ingful speech or writing.
speech and text. Consider the case of Ildefonso, a young man Syntax Rules for ordering words when forming sentences.
who was born deaf. At age 8, Ildefonso had never commu- Transformation rules Rules by which a simple declarative sentence
may be changed to other voices or forms (past tense, passive
nicated with another human, except by mime. Then, at last,
voice, and so forth).
Ildefonso had a breakthrough: After much hard work with a

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320 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

Michael Nichols/National Geographic Creative

Myrleen Pearson/PhotoEdit
Infants can express the idea “pick me up” in gestures before they
can make the same request in words. Their progression from
Kanzi’s language learning has been impressive. He can
gestures to speech may mirror the evolution of human language
comprehend spoken English words. He can identify lexigram
abilities (Genty et al., 2009).
symbols when he hears corresponding words. He can use
lexigrams when the objects to which they refer are absent, and
he can, if asked, lead someone to the object. All these skills were
and primate history (Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2014). Gestures
acquired through observation, not conditioning (Segerdahl, Fields,
help us string words together as we speak (Moreno-Cabrera, & Savage-Rumbaugh, 2005).
2011). Do you ever make hand gestures when you are speak-
ing on the phone? If so, you may be displaying a remnant of
taught to communicate with word symbols of various
the gestural origins of language. Perhaps that’s also why the
kinds. The “champion” is probably a pygmy chimpanzee
same brain areas become more active when a person speaks
named Kanzi.
or signs (Enrici et al., 2011).
Sign languages naturally arise out of a need to commu- Kanzi’s Lexigrams Since the 1980s, Duane Rumbaugh
nicate visually. But they also embody a personal identity and and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh have been teaching Kanzi to
define a distinct community. Those who “speak” sign share communicate by pushing buttons on a computer key-
not just a language but a rich culture as well (West & Sutton- board. Each of the 250 buttons is marked with a lexigram,
Spence, 2012). or geometric word-symbol. Some of the lexigrams that
Kanzi knows are quite abstract, like symbols for “bad”
Animal Language and “good” (Lyn, Franks, & Savage-Rumbaugh, 2008). Us-
Do animals use language? Animals in the wild definite- ing the lexigrams, Kanzi can create primitive sentences
ly communicate. The cries, gestures, and mating calls of several words long. He also can understand about 650
animals have broad meanings immediately understood by spoken sentences.
other animals of the same species (Bradbury & Vehren- Kanzi’s sentences consistently follow correct word order.
camp, 2011). For the most part, however, natural animal Like a child learning language, Kanzi picked up some rules
communication is quite limited. Even apes and monkeys from his caregivers (Segerdahl, Fields, & Savage-Rumbaugh,
make only a few dozen distinct cries, which carry mes- 2005). However, he has developed other patterns on his own
sages such as “attack,” “flee,” or “food here.” More impor- (Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2011). For example, Kanzi usually
tant, animal communication lacks the productive quality places action symbols in the order that he wants to carry
of human language. For example, when a monkey gives an them out, such as “chase tickle” or “chase hide.”
“eagle distress call,” it always means something like, “I see In these respects, Kanzi’s vocabulary and ability to in-
an eagle.” The monkey has no way of saying, “I don’t see an vent a simple grammar are on a par with a 2-year-old’s. After
eagle,” or “Thank heavens that wasn’t an eagle,” or “That more than 30 years of training, Kanzi’s language use is cer-
sucker I saw yesterday was some huge eagle” (Pinker & tainly noteworthy and may yet help us better understand the
Jackendoff, 2005). roots of human language (Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2014). On
What about trying to teach language to animals? To the other hand, as linguist Noam Chomsky insists, if chimps
this point, numerous chimps and gorillas, as well as an were biologically capable of language, they would use it on
assortment of dolphins, sea lions, and parrots, have been their own.

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 MODU LE 37 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e: M o d es o f th o u g ht 321

MODULE

37 Summary
37.1 What is the nature of thought? 37.3.4 In practice, concept identification frequently makes
37.1.1 Thinking is the manipulation of internal representa- use of prototypes, or ideal models.
tions of external stimuli or situations. 37.4 What is language, and what role does it play
37.1.2 Thinking can be either automatic experiential pro- in thinking?
cessing or more effortful reflective processing. 37.4.1 Language encodes events into symbols for easy men-
37.1.3 Three basic units of thought are images, concepts, tal manipulation.
and language. 37.4.2 The linguistic relativity hypothesis holds that just
37.2 In what ways are images related to thinking? as thought shapes language, so too, language shapes
thought.
37.2.1 Most people have internal images of one kind or an-
37.4.3 The study of meaning in language is called seman-
other. Sometimes they cross normal sense boundaries
tics. Words have denotations (dictionary definitions)
in a type of imagery called synesthesia.
and connotations (personal or emotional meanings).
37.2.2 Images may be three-dimensional; they may be ro-
Word meaning is also influenced by context.
tated in space, and their size may change.
37.4.4 Bilingualism is a valuable ability. Two-way bilingual
37.2.3 The same brain areas are involved in both vision and
education allows children to develop additive bilin-
visual imagery.
gualism while in school.
37.2.4 Kinesthetic images are used to represent movements
37.4.5 Language carries meaning by combining a set of sym-
and actions.
bols (phonemes and morphemes) according to a set
37.3 What are concepts, and how are they of rules (grammar), which includes rules about word
learned? order (syntax).
37.3.1 A concept is a generalized idea of a class of objects or 37.4.6 True languages are productive and can be used to
events. generate new ideas or possibilities. Complex gestural
37.3.2 Concept formation may be based on positive and systems, such as ASL, are true languages.
negative instances or rule learning. 37.4.7 Chimpanzees and other primates have learned to
37.3.3 Concepts may be conjunctive (“and” concepts), dis- use word symbol systems about as well as 2-year-old
junctive (“either/or” concepts), or relational. humans.

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322 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

Knowledge Builder Cognition and Intelligence: Modes of Thought

Recite Self-Reflect
1. Reflective processing is automatic and effortless. T or F? Name some ways that you have used imagery in the thinking
2. Our reliance on imagery in thinking means that problem that you have done today.
solving is impaired by the use of language or symbols. T or F? Write a conceptual rule for the following idea: unicycle.
3. Humans can form three-dimensional images that can be Were you able to define the concept with a rule? Would posi-
moved or rotated in mental space. T or F? tive and negative instances help make the concept clearer for
4. A mup is defined as anything that is small, blue, and others?
hairy. Mup is a _________________________ concept. Just for fun, see if you can illustrate the productive quality
5. Stereotyping is an example of oversimplification in think- of language by creating a sentence that no one has ever before
ing. T or F? spoken.
6. True languages are _____________________ because
they can be used to generate new possibilities. AN SW E R S
7. Noam Chomsky believes that we can create an infi-
information about stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination.)
muddle thinking about members of the group. (See Module 73 for more
nite variety of sentences by applying ______________ conservatives, liberals, police officers, Muslims, or other groups often
______________ to universal language patterns. Pelley, et al., 2010). Stereotypes about men, African Americans, women,
8. Social stereotypes are oversimplified concepts of groups of people (Le
Reflect 1. F 2. F 3. T 4. conjunctive 5. T 6. productive 7. transformation rules
Think Critically
8. Are social stereotypes a type of concept?

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 MODULE
Cognition and Intelligence
Problem Solving 38
Seal Math
You can imagine Santiago’s surprise. He had anchored his little
motorboat 10 miles from an island and gone snorkeling. He
returned to the boat only to discover that two seals had settled in
for a quick nap. He climbed into his boat and immediately began
to cruise toward the island at 7 miles per hour. Just then the two
seals woke up, indignantly jumped into the water, and also swam
toward the island. At the same instant, Santiago’s friend left the
island in a sailboat at 3 miles per hour, coming out to rendezvous
with the motorboat. The seals swam back and forth between the
motorboat and sailboat at a speed of 12 miles per hour.
A good way to start a discussion of problem solving is to solve
a problem, so, how far will the seals have swum when the two John Mitterer

boats meet?

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
38.1 What do we know about problem solving?

Problem Solving—Go Figure

Survey Question 38.1 What do we know about problem Algorithmic Solutions
solving? For routine problems, an algorithmic solution—achieved
We all solve many problems every day. Problem solving can by following a series of step-by-step rules—may be enough
be as commonplace as figuring out how to make a nonpoi- to solve the problem (Goldstein, 2015). A simple example of
sonous meal out of leftovers or as significant as developing an algorithm is the steps that you used to add up the num-
a cure for cancer. No matter what form a problem takes, it bers in Figure 37.1 (whether you did it in your head or by
is usually best faced mindfully (Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, using a calculator). Here’s another example: If you forget the
2012). Did you enter reflective processing mode to tack- combination to your bike lock, you will be able to discover it
le the seals and boats problem? If you didn’t immediately
see the answer to this problem, try it again. (The answer is
Algorithmic solution A problem solution achieved by following a
revealed in the “Insightful Solutions” section, later in this series of step-by-step rules.
module.)

323
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324 P SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

if you systematically try all the possible combinations (this heuristics

could take some time, though . . . ).
“You can’t get there from here,” or so it often seems when fac-
Algorithmic thinking is logical thought—proceeding
ing a problem. Solving problems often benefits from a strat-
from given information to new conclusions on the basis of
egy. Imagine that you are traveling to Washington, DC, and
explicit rules. To this, we can add that logical thought may
decide to look up an old FBI friend, Penelope Garcia. You
be inductive thought—going from specific facts or obser-
search an online directory and find dozens of P. Garcias listed.
vations to general principles—or deductive thought—go-
Of course, you could follow an algorithm such as dialing each
ing from general principles to specific situations. Becoming
number in alphabetical order until you found the right one.
a problem-solving expert in any particular field involves, at
Alternatively, you could use a heuristic (hew-RIS-tik)—a
a minimum, becoming familiar with the algorithms avail-
shortcut or “rule of thumb” for finding a solution to a prob-
able in that field. If you have a good background in math,
lem. Typically, a heuristic reduces the number of alternatives
you may have found an algorithmic solution to the problem
that thinkers must consider (Benjafield, Smilek, & King-
of the seals and the boats. (Your authors hope you didn’t.
stone, 2010). You could, for example, simplify the problem
There is an easier solution.)
of looking up Penelope by randomly choosing just a few,
plausible-looking entries. In this case, you would be using
Solutions by Understanding a random search strategy. This is another example of tri-
Many problems cannot be solved algorithmically. In such al-and-error thinking in which some possibilities are tried,
cases, understanding (deeper comprehension of a problem) more or less randomly. “Forget it,” you say to yourself. “Is
is necessary. Try this problem: there a better way I can narrow the search?” “Oh, yeah! I
A person has an inoperable stomach tumor. A device is remember hearing that Penelope lives near work.” Then you
available that produces rays that at high intensity will de- Google a map and call only the numbers with addresses in
stroy tissue (both healthy and diseased). How can the tumor southern Washington, nearer to Quantico.
be destroyed while minimizing damage to the surrounding Notice that while some algorithms may be inefficient,
tissue? (Also see the sketch in ➤ Figure 38.1.) they are generally going to find a solution. In contrast, a heu-
What does this problem show about problem solving? ristic may be more efficient but is less likely to find a solution.
German psychologist Karl Duncker gave college students Expert problems solvers are good at knowing when best to
this problem in a classic series of studies. Duncker asked use algorithms or move on to heuristic strategies like these:
them to think aloud as they worked. He found that success- ◗ Try to identify how the current state of affairs differs
ful students first had to discover the general properties of from the desired goal. Then find steps that will reduce
a correct solution. A general solution defines the require- the difference.
ments for success but not in enough detail to guide further ◗ Try working backward from the desired goal to the
action. This phase was complete when students realized starting point or current state.
that the intensity of the rays had to be lowered on their way ◗ If you can’t reach the goal directly, try to identify an
to the tumor. Then, in the second phase, they proposed a intermediate goal or subproblem that at least gets you
number of functional solutions, or workable solutions, closer.
and selected the best one (Duncker, 1945). (One solution ◗ Represent the problem in other ways—with graphs, dia-
is to focus weak rays on the tumor from several angles. An- grams, or analogies, for instance.
other is to rotate the person’s body to minimize exposure of
◗ Generate a possible solution and test it. Doing so may
healthy tissue.)
eliminate many alternatives, or it may clarify what is
needed for a solution.

Insightful Solutions
A thinker who suddenly solves a problem has experienced
➤ Figure 38.1
insight (Cushen & Wiley, 2012). Insights are usually based
The tumor problem. A schematic representation of Duncker’s
on reorganizing a problem. This allows us to see problems
tumor problem. The dark spot represents a tumor surrounded by
healthy tissue. How can the tumor be destroyed without injuring in new ways and makes their solutions seem obvious (Hélie
surrounding tissue? (Adapted from Duncker, 1945.) & Sun, 2010).

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 MoDU lE 3 8 c o g n iti o n An d i nte lli g e n c e: P r o b le M s o lvi n g 325

Water lilies
Problem: Water lilies growing in a pond double in area every 24 hours. On the first day of spring,
only one lily pad is on the surface of the pond. Sixty days later, the pond is entirely covered. On
what day is the pond half-covered?
Twenty dollars
Problem: Jessica and Blair both have the same amount of money. How much must Jessica give Blair
so that Blair has $20 more than Jessica?
How many pets?
Problem: How many pets do you have if all of them are birds except two, all of them are cats except
two, and all of them are dogs except two?
Between 2 and 3
Problem: What one mathematical symbol can you place between 2 and 3 that results in a number
greater than 2 and less than 3?
One word
Problem: Rearrange the letters NEWDOOR to make one word.

➤ Figure 38.2
Some insight problems.

Let’s return now to the problem of the boats and the Insight also relies on selective combination, or bringing
seals. The best way to solve it is by insight. Because the boats together seemingly unrelated bits of useful information. Try
will cover the 10-mile distance in exactly 1 hour, and the this sample problem:
seals swim 12 miles per hour, the seals will have swum 12 With a 7-minute hourglass and an 11-minute hourglass, what
miles when the boats meet. Very little math is necessary if is the simplest way to time boiling an egg for 15 minutes?
you have insight into this problem. ➤ Figure 38.2 lists some
additional insight problems that you may want to try (the The answer requires using both hourglasses in combina-
answers can be found in ■ Table 38.1). tion. First, the 7-minute and the 11-minute hourglasses are
started. When the 7-minute hourglass runs out, it’s time to
Table 38.1 solutions to insight Problems begin boiling the egg. At this point, 4 minutes remain on the
11-minute hourglass. Thus, when it runs out, it is simply turned
Water lilies: Day 59 over. When it runs out again, 15 minutes will have passed.
A third source of insights is selective comparison. This is
Twenty dollars: $10
the ability to compare new problems with old information
How many pets?: Three (one bird, one cat, and one dog) or with problems already solved. A good example is the hat
Between 2 and 3: A decimal point
One word: ONE WORD (You may object that the answer is Inductive thought Thinking in which a general rule or principle is
gathered from a series of specific examples; for instance, inferring
two words, but the problem called for the answer to be “one
the laws of gravity by observing many falling objects.
word,” and it is.) Logical thought Drawing conclusions on the basis of formal prin-
ciples of reasoning.
Deductive thought Thought that applies a general set of rules to
The Nature of Insight Psychologist Janet Davidson specific situations; for example, using the laws of gravity to pre-
(2003) believes that insight involves three abilities. The first dict the behavior of a single falling object.
is selective encoding, which refers to selecting information Understanding (in problem solving) A deeper comprehension of
the nature of a problem.
that is relevant to a problem while ignoring distractions. For
General solution A solution that correctly states the requirements
example, consider the following problem: for success but not in enough detail for further action.
If you have white socks and black socks in your drawer, Functional solution A detailed, practical, and workable solution.
Heuristic Shortcut or rule of thumb for finding a solution to a
mixed in the ratio of 4 to 5, how many socks will you have
problem.
to take out to ensure that you have a pair of the same color?
Random search strategy Trying possible solutions to a problem in a
A person who recognizes that “mixed in a ratio of 4 to more or less random order.
Insight A sudden mental reorganization of a problem that makes
5” is irrelevant will be more likely to come up with the cor- the solution obvious.
rect answer of 3 socks.

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326 P SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

➤ Figure 38.3 How does functional fixedness affect problem solving?

A solution to the hat Karl Duncker once asked students to mount a candle on a
rack problem. vertical board so that the candle could burn normally. He
gave each student three candles, some matches, some card-
board boxes, some thumbtacks, and other items. Half of
Duncker’s participants received these items inside the card-
board boxes. The others were given all the items, including
the boxes, spread out on a tabletop.
Duncker found that when the items were in the boxes,
solving the problem was very difficult. Why? If students saw
the boxes as containers, they didn’t realize the boxes might
be part of the solution (if you haven’t guessed the solution,
rack problem, in which participants must build a structure
check ➤ Figure 38.5). Undoubtedly, we could avoid many
that can support an overcoat in the middle of a room. Each
fixations by being more flexible in categorizing the world
person is given only two long sticks and a C-clamp to work
(Kalyuga & Hanham, 2011; McCaffrey, 2012). For instance,
with. The solution, shown in ➤ Figure 38.3, is to clamp the
creative thinking could be facilitated in the container prob-
two sticks together so that they are wedged between the
lem by saying “This could be a box,” instead of “This is a box.”
floor and ceiling. If you were given this problem, you would
When tested with the candle problem, 5-year-old chil-
be more likely to solve it if you first thought of how pole
dren show no signs of functional fixedness. Apparently, this
lamps are wedged between floor and ceiling
is because they have had less experience with the use of vari-
Fixations One of the most important barriers to prob- ous objects. It is sometimes said that to be more creative,
lem solving is fixation, the tendency to get “hung up” on you should try to see the world without preconceptions, as
wrong solutions or to become blind to alternatives (Stern- if through the eyes of a child. In the case of functional fixed-
berg, 2017). This usually occurs when, without giving it any ness, that may be true (German & Defeyter, 2000).
thought, we place unnecessary restrictions on our thinking
(McCaffrey, 2012). How, for example, could you plant four Common Barriers to Problem Solving
small trees so that each is an equal distance from all the oth- Functional fixedness is just one of the mental blocks that
ers? (The answer is shown in ➤ Figure 38.4.) prevent insight (Reed, 2013). Here’s an example of another:
A prime example of restricted thinking is functional A $5 bill is placed on a table, and a stack of objects is bal-
fixedness, a tendency to perceive an item only in terms of anced precariously on top of the bill. How can the bill be
its most common use (Bernstein & Lucas, 2008). If you have removed without touching, moving, or toppling the objects?
ever used a dime as a screwdriver, you’ve overcome func-
tional fixedness.

➤ Figure 38.4
The four trees
problem. Four trees can
be placed equidistant
from one another by
piling dirt into a mound.
Three of the trees are
planted equal distances
apart around the base of
the mound. The fourth
tree is planted on the top (a) (b) (c)
of the mound. If you were
fixated on arrangements ➤ Figure 38.5
that involve level ground, The candle problem. Materials for solving the candle problem
you may have been blind were given to participants in boxes (a) or separately (b). Functional
to this three-dimensional fixedness caused by condition (a) interfered with solving the
solution. problem. The solution to the problem is shown in (c).

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 MoDU lE 3 8 c o g n iti o n An d i nte lli g e n c e: P r o b le M s o lvi n g 327

A good answer is to split the bill on one of its sides. Gently

pulling from opposite ends will tear the bill in half and re-
move it without toppling the objects. Many people fail to see
this solution because they have learned not to destroy mon-
ey (Adams, 2001). Notice again the impact of placing some-
thing in a category—in this case, “things of value” (which
should not be destroyed). Other common mental blocks can
hinder problem solving:
1. Emotional barriers: Inhibition and fear of making a
fool of oneself, fear of making a mistake, inability to tol- ➤ Figure 38.6
erate ambiguity, excessive self-criticism Memory for chess positions. The left chessboard shows a
Example: An architect doesn’t try an unconventional realistic game. The right chessboard is a random arrangement
of pieces. Expert chess players can memorize the left board at a
design because she fears that other architects will think
glance, yet they are no better than beginners at memorizing the
it is frivolous. random board (Ross, 2006). Expert performance at most thinking
2. Cultural barriers: Values that hold that fantasy is a tasks is based on acquired strategies and knowledge. If you want
to excel at a profession or a mental skill, plan on adding to your
waste of time; that playfulness is for children only; that
knowledge every day (Reed, 2013).
reason, logic, and numbers are good; that feelings, intu-
itions, pleasure, and humor are bad or have no value in therefore, wastes less time exploring unproductive pathways
the serious business of problem solving (Ross, 2006).
Example: A corporate manager wants to solve a busi- In other words, becoming a star performer does not
ness problem but becomes stern and angry when mem- come from some general strengthening of the mind. Master
bers of his marketing team joke playfully about possible chess players don’t necessarily have better memories than
solutions. beginners (except for realistic chess positions) (Gobet &
3. Learned barriers: Conventions about uses (functional Simon, 1996; Goldstein, 2015; see ➤ Figure 38.6). And, typ-
fixedness), meanings, possibilities, taboos ically, they don’t explore more moves ahead than do lesser
Example: A cook doesn’t have any clean mixing bowls players.
and fails to see that she could use a pot as a bowl. You might think experts are always in reflective process-
4. Perceptual barriers: Habits leading to a failure to iden- ing mode. Oddly enough, just the opposite is true. Expertise
tify important elements of a problem involves more experiential, automatic processing, or fast,
Example: A beginning artist concentrates on drawing a fairly effortless thinking based on experience with similar
vase of flowers without seeing that the “empty” spaces problems. Automatic processing frees “space” in short-term
around the vase are part of the composition, too. (working) memory, making it easier to work on the problem
(Kalyuga, Renkl, & Paas, 2010). At the highest skill levels,
So far, we have seen that problem-solving expertise is
expert performers tend to rise above rules and plans. Their
based on acquired strategies (learned heuristics) and specific
decisions, thinking, and actions become rapid, fluid, and
organized knowledge (systematic information). Experts are
insightful (Hélie & Sun, 2010). Thus, when a chess master
better able to see the true nature of problems and to define
recognizes a pattern on the chessboard, the most desirable
them more flexibly in terms of general principles (Kalyuga
tactic comes to mind almost immediately. Mind you, this ca-
& Hanham, 2011). For example, chess experts are much
pacity comes at a price of time and effort. Expert chess play-
more likely than novices to have heuristics available for solv-
ers can automatically recognize 50,000 to 100,000 patterns,
ing chess problems.
However, what really sets experts apart is their ability
Fixation (in problem solving) The tendency to repeat wrong solu-
to automatically recognize patterns (Gorman, Abernethy, tions or faulty responses, especially as a result of becoming blind
& Farrow, 2013). For example, a master chess player might to alternatives.
recognize a particular position as one that she saw in a Functional fixedness Tendency to perceive an item only in terms of
game played several months ago, and immediately realize its most common use.
Automatic processing Fast, fairly effortless thinking; often based on
what lines of play should be explored next. This helps elimi- experience.
nate a large number of possible moves. The chess master,

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328 P SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

a level of skill that takes about 10 years of mindful, reflective mix that expertise also involves learning thousands of pat-
processing to build up (Ross, 2006). terns and practicing solving many problems, and you can
To develop expertise in a field, then, requires us to learn see that developing expertise involves years of hard work.
available heuristic solution strategies as well as to develop a Think about that the next time someone says of an expert,
deeper general understanding of the field. Throw into the “She makes it look easy.”

MODULE

38 Summary
38.1 What do we know about problem solving? selective encoding, selective combination, and selec-
38.1.1 The solution to a problem may be arrived at algorith- tive comparison.
mically, but algorithmic solutions are often time- 38.1.5 Insight can be blocked by fixations. Functional fixed-
consuming. ness is a common fixation, but emotional blocks,
38.1.2 Solutions by understanding usually begin with cultural values, learned conventions, and perceptual
discovery of the general properties of an answer, fol- habits also are problems.
lowed by a functional solution. 38.1.6 Problem-solving experts also engage in automatic
38.1.3 Problem solving is aided by heuristics, which narrow processing and pattern recognition.
the search for solutions.
38.1.4 When understanding leads to a rapid solution,
insight has occurred. Three elements of insight are

Knowledge Builder Cognition and Intelligence: Problem Solving

Recite Reflect
1. Insight refers to rote, or trial-and-error, problem solving. Think Critically
T or F? 7. Do you think that it is true that “a problem clearly de-
2. The first phase in problem solving by understanding is fined is a problem half solved”?
to discover the general properties of a correct solution.
T or F? Self-Reflect
3. Problem-solving strategies that guide the search for solu- Identify at least one problem that you have solved algorith-
tions are called ____________________________. mically. Now identify a problem that you solved by under-
4. A common element underlying insight is that informa- standing. Did the second problem involve finding a general
tion is encoded, combined, and compared solution, a functional solution, or both? What heuristics did
a. algorithmically you use to solve the problem?
b. by rote What is the most insightful solution that you’ve ever come
c. functionally up with? Did it involve selective encoding, combination, or
d. selectively comparison?
5. Functional fixedness is a major barrier to Can you think of a time when you overcame functional
a. insightful problem solving fixedness to solve a problem?
b. using random search strategies
c. algorithmic problem solving AN SW E R S
d. achieving fixations through problem solving goal can serve as a heuristic in problem solving.
6. Organized knowledge, acquired heuristics, and the abil- statement, it is true that clearly defining a starting point and the desired
ity to recognize patterns are all characteristics of human 1. F 2. T 3. heuristics 4. d 5. a 6. T 7. Although this might be an over-

expertise. T or F?
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 MODULE
Cognition and Intelligence
Creative Thinking and Intuition 39
No One-Hit Wonders
Original ideas have changed the course of human history. Much of
what we now take for granted in art, medicine, music, technology,
and science was once regarded as radical or impossible. How do
creative thinkers achieve the breakthroughs that advance us into
new realms?
For a start, creative thinkers are usually continuously creative.
Mozart produced more than 600 pieces of music. Inventor Thomas
Edison held more than 1,000 patents. Emily Dickinson wrote some
1,800 poems. Ex-Beatle Paul McCartney (shown here performing
at the opening ceremonies of the 2012 Olympics) has written about
900 musical compositions. Not all of these works were masterpieces.

Antonin Thuillier/AFP/Getty Images

However, a fluent outpouring of ideas fed the creative efforts of each
of these geniuses.
Psychologists have learned a great deal about how creativity
occurs and how to promote it. Besides noting the fluency of creative
thinkers, what else have they found?

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
39.1 What is the nature of creative thinking? 39.2 How accurate is intuition?

Creative Thinking—Down Roads Less Traveled

Survey Question 39.1 What is the nature of creative divergent thinking, in which many possibilities are devel-
thinking? oped from one starting point. (See ■ Table 39.1 for some ex-
amples of convergent and divergent problems.) Furthermore,
We have seen that problem solving may be based on algo-
rithms, understanding, or insight. Routine problem solving
usually requires logical convergent thinking, where lines of
Convergent thinking Thinking directed toward discovery of a
thought converge on the answer. There is one correct an- single established correct answer; conventional thinking.
swer and the problem is to find it. Creativity Ability to combine mental elements in new and useful
What distinguishes creativity from more routine problem ways.
Divergent thinking Thinking that produces many ideas or alterna-
solving? Creativity is the ability to combine mental elements tives; a major element in original or creative thought.
in new and useful ways. It is usually best achieved through

329
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330 p syCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 39.1 convergent and divergent Problems Tests of Creativity

Divergent thinking can be measured in several ways
Convergent Problems (Kaufman, 2009; Runco & Acar, 2012). In the Unusual Uses
◗ What is the area of a triangle that is 3 feet wide at the base test, you would be asked to think of as many uses as possible
and 2 feet tall? for some object, such as the plastic containers mentioned
previously. In the Consequences test, you would list the con-
◗ Erica is shorter than Zoey but taller than Carlo, and Carlo is
sequences that would follow a basic change in the world.
taller than Jared. Who is the second tallest?
For example, you might be asked, “What would happen if
◗ If you simultaneously drop a baseball and a bowling ball everyone suddenly lost their sense of balance and could no
from a tall building, which will hit the ground first? longer stay upright?” People try to list as many reactions as
possible. If you were to take the Anagrams test, you would be
Divergent Problems
given a word such as creativity and asked to make as many
◗ What objects can you think of that begin with the letters BR? new words as possible by rearranging the letters. Each of
◗ How could discarded aluminum cans be put to use? these tests can be scored for fluency, flexibility, and original-
ity. (For an example of other tests of divergent thinking, see
◗ Write a poem about fire and ice.
➤ Figure 39.1.)
Isn’t creativity more than divergent thought? What if a
divergent thought tends to be illogical thought—intuitive, person comes up with a large number of useless answers to a
associative, or personal. Whereas problem solving is usually problem? Good question. Divergent thinking is an important
a consciously reflective processing activity, creativity more
likely involves apparently unconscious experiential process-
ing (Ritter, van Baaren, & Dijksterhuis, 2012).
Creative thinking also involves fluency, flexibility, and
originality. Let’s say that you would like to find creative uses
for the billions of plastic containers discarded each year. The
creativity of your suggestions could be rated in this way:
Fluency is defined as the total number of suggestions that you
are able to make. Flexibility is the number of times that you
shift from one class of possible uses to another. Originality
refers to how novel or unusual your ideas are. By counting
the number of times that you showed fluency, flexibility,
and originality, we could rate your creativity, or capacity for

EVERETT KENNEDY BROWN/Newscom/European Pressphoto Agency/TOKYO/JAPAN

divergent thinking (Runco, 2012; Runco & Acar, 2012).
It is worth noting that divergent thinking is also a char-
acteristic of daydreams (vivid waking fantasies). For most
people, fantasy and daydreaming are associated with greater
mental flexibility or creativity (Langens & Schmalt, 2002).
Regardless, no matter when or how it occurs, rather than
repeating learned solutions, creative thinking produces new
answers, ideas, or patterns (Lewis & Lovatt, 2013).
Problem finding is another characteristic of creative
thinking. Many of the problems we solve are “presented” to
us—by employers, teachers, circumstances, or life in gen-
eral. Problem finding involves actively seeking problems to
solve. When you are thinking creatively, a spirit of discovery
prevails: you are more likely to find unsolved problems and Deliberately whimsical Japanese inventor Kenji Kawakami created
these “eye drop funnel glasses” so that people with dry eyes can
choose to tackle them. Thus, problem finding may be a more
easily apply lubricating eye drops. In addition to being original or novel,
creative act than the convergent problem solving that typi- a creative solution must be high-quality and relevant to the problem. Is
cally follows it (Runco, 2015). this a creative solution to the “problem” of using eye drops?
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 MoDU lE 3 9 c o g n iti o n An d i nte lli g e n c e: c r eAtive th i n k i n g An d i ntu iti o n 331

Complete this drawing

Unique: "Foot and toes"

Common: "Table with things on top"

Unique: "Lollipop bursting into pieces"

Common: "Flower"

Unique: "Two haystacks on a flying carpet"

Common: "Two igloos"
Ordinary response Creative subjects
(a) (b)

➤ Figure 39.1
Some tests of divergent thinking. Creative responses are more original and more complex. [(a) Adapted from Wallach & Kogan, 1965; (b)
adapted from Barron, 1958.]

part of creativity, but there is more to it. To be creative, level: although the problem seems to have been set aside,
the solution to a problem must be more than novel, un- it is still “cooking” in the background.
usual, or original. It also must be high quality and relevant 4. Illumination. The incubation stage is often ended by
to solving the original problem (Kaufman & Sternberg, a rapid insight or series of insights. These produce the
2010). This is the dividing line between a “harebrained “Aha!” experience, often depicted in cartoons as a light-
scheme” and a “stroke of genius.” In other words, the cre- bulb appearing over the thinker’s head.
ative person brings reasoning and critical thinking to bear 5. Verification. The final step is to test and critically evalu-
on new ideas once they are produced (Runco, 2012). ate the solution obtained during the illumination stage.
If the solution proves faulty, the thinker reverts to the
stages of Creative Thought stage of incubation.
Does creative thinking have a pattern? Typically, five stages
Of course, creative thought is not always so neat. Neverthe-
occur during creative problem solving:
less, the stages listed are a good summary of the most typical
1. Orientation. As a first step, the person defines the sequence of events.
problem and identifies its most important dimensions.
2. Preparation. It helps to be prepared in general, as an Illogical thought Thought that is intuitive, haphazard, or irrational.
expert might be when first confronting a problem, but Fluency In tests of creativity, fluency refers to the total number of
solutions produced.
it also helps to become saturated with as much infor-
Flexibility In tests of creativity, flexibility is indicated by how many
mation about the specific problem as possible (Klein, different types of solutions are produced.
2013). Originality In tests of creativity, originality refers to how novel or
3. Incubation. Most major problems will have a period unusual solutions are.
Daydream A vivid waking fantasy.
during which all attempted solutions are futile. At this Problem finding The active discovery of problems to be solved.
point, problem solving may proceed on a subconscious

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332 p syCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

The Whole human: The Creative 3. Creative people are open to a wide variety of experi-
personality ences. They accept irrational thoughts and are unin-
hibited about their feelings and fantasies. They tend
What makes a person creative? According to the popular
to use broad categories, question assumptions, and
stereotype, highly creative people are eccentric, introverted,
break mental sets, and they find order in chaos. They
socially inept, unbalanced in their interests, and on the edge
also experience more unusual states of consciousness,
of madness. There may be some truth to this stereotype, at
such as lucid dreams and mystical experiences (Zink &
least when it comes to mood disorders (Kyaga et al., 2013;
Pietrowsky, 2013).
Smith et al., 2015; Young, Winner, & Cordes, 2013). Many
of history’s renowned artists, writers, poets, and compos- 4. Creative people enjoy symbolic thought, ideas,
ers, including Vincent Van Gogh, Edgar Allan Poe, Winston concepts, and possibilities. They tend to be inter-
Churchill, and Ernest Hemingway, experienced pronounced ested in truth, form, and beauty, rather than in fame
mood swings. or success. Their creative work is an end in itself
In general, however, direct studies of creative individu- (Robinson, 2010).
als paint a very different picture (Hennessey & Amabile, 5. Creative people value their independence and pre-
2010; Robinson, 2010): fer complexity. However, they are unconventional
and nonconforming primarily in their work; other-
1. Creativity test scores (which measure divergent thinking) wise, they do not have unusual, outlandish, or bizarre
and IQ test scores (which measure convergent thinking) personalities.
are weakly correlated (Kim, Cramond, & VanTassel-
Baska, 2010; Silvia, 2015). Highly creative people are not Can creativity be learned? It is beginning to look as if
necessarily highly intelligent and vice versa. some creative thinking skills can be learned. In particu-
2. Creative people usually have a greater-than-average lar, you can become more creative by practicing divergent
range of knowledge and interests, and they are more thinking and by taking risks, asking unusual questions, an-
fluent in combining ideas from various sources. They alyzing ideas, and seeking odd connections between ideas
also are good at using mental images and metaphors in (Bucher, 2011; Sternberg, 2017). (See Module 41 for more
thinking (Riquelme, 2002). on learning creativity and innovation.)

Intuitive Thought—Mental Shortcut? or Dangerous Detour?

Survey Question 39.2 How accurate is intuition?
Gladwell (2005) argues this is not a case of hurried ir-
When creativity is expressed as a quick, impulsive thought, rationality. Instead, it is “thin-slicing,” or quickly making
we speak of intuition. Sometimes rapid intuitive judge- sense of thin slivers of experience. Such immediate, intui-
ments can be as accurate as more reflective, rational tive, experiential reactions can sometimes form the basis
consideration. of more carefully reasoned, reflective judgments. They are
Think back to your least favorite teacher. (Not your cur- a testament to the power of the cognitive unconscious,
rent one, of course!) How long did it take you to figure out which is a part of the brain that does automatic, uncon-
that he or she wasn’t going to make your list of star teachers? scious processing (Bar-Anan, Wilson, & Hassin, 2010;
Psychologist Nalini Ambady once asked people to watch Wilson, 2004). Far from being irrational, intuition may be
video clips of teachers they did not know. After watching an important part of how we think (Ritter, van Baaren, &
three 10-second segments, participants were asked to rate Dijksterhuis, 2012).
the teachers. Amazingly, their ratings correlated highly with The trick, of course, is figuring out when thin-slicing
year-end course evaluations made by actual students (Am- can be trusted and when it can’t. After all, first impressions
bady & Rosenthal, 1993). Ambady obtained the same result aren’t always right. Have you ever had a teacher you came to
when she presented an even thinner “slice” of teaching be- appreciate only after the course was over? In many circum-
havior, just three 2-second clips. A mere 6 seconds is all that stances, quick impressions are most valuable when you take
participants needed to form intuitive judgments of the in- the time to verify them through more reflective observation
structors’ teaching! (Tom, Tong, & Hesse, 2010).

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 MoDU lE 3 9 c o g n iti o n An d i nte lli g e n c e: c r eAtive th i n k i n g An d i ntu iti o n 333

Errors in Intuitive Thought in the know, the Yankees have historically been competitive
in end-of-season and postseason play). However, this intui-
Although intuition can sometimes provide accurate answers,
tive answer overlooks an important fact: the likelihood of
it also can be misleading. Two noted psychologists, Daniel
two events occurring together must be lower than the prob-
Kahneman and Amos Tversky (1937–1996), studied how
ability of either one alone. For example, the probability of
we make decisions in the face of uncertainty. They found
getting one head when flipping a coin is higher (one half, or
that human judgment is often seriously flawed (Kahneman,
0.5) than the probability of getting two heads in a row (one
2011; Kahneman, Slovic, & Tversky, 1982). Let’s explore
fourth, or 0.25.) Therefore, A (the New York Yankees will
some common intuitive thinking errors, so you will be
not be in the lead after the first half of the baseball season)
better prepared to avoid them.
is statistically more likely than B (the New York Yankees will
Underlying Odds One common error in intuitive judg- not be in the lead after the first half of the baseball season
ment involves ignoring the base rate, or underlying prob- but will win their division).
ability of an event. People in one experiment were told that According to Tversky and Kahneman (1982), such
they would be given descriptions of 100 people—70 lawyers faulty conclusions are based on the representativeness
and 30 engineers. Participants were then asked to guess, heuristic—that is, we tend to give a choice greater weight if
without knowing anything about a person, whether she or it seems to be similar to other members of a class we already
he was an engineer or a lawyer. All correctly stated the prob- know. Thus, you probably compared the information about
abilities as 70 percent for lawyer and 30 percent for engineer. the Yankees with your general impression of the Yankees
Participants were then given this description: as a highly successful team. Therefore, B might seem more
Eric is a 30-year-old man. He is married with no children. likely than A, even though it isn’t.
A man of high ability and high motivation, he promises When intuitions are unknowingly based on represen-
to be quite successful in his field. He is well liked by his tativeness, the results can be disastrous. In courtrooms, for
colleagues. example, jurors are more likely to think that a defendant is
guilty if the person appears to fit the profile of a person likely
Notice that the description gives no new information
to commit a crime (Davis & Follette, 2002). For example,
about Eric’s occupation. He could still be either an engineer
a young, single man from a poor neighborhood would be
or a lawyer. Therefore, the odds should again be estimated
more likely to be judged guilty of theft than a middle-aged,
as 70–30. However, most people changed the odds to 50–50.
married father from an affluent suburb.
Intuitively, it seems that Eric has an equal chance of being
either an engineer or a lawyer. But this guess completely ig- Framing The most general conclusion about intuition is
nores the underlying odds. that the way a problem is stated, or framed, affects decisions
Perhaps it is fortunate that we do ignore underlying odds (Kahneman, 2011; Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). To gain
at times. Were this not the case, how many people would get further insight into framing, try this problem:
married in the face of a 50 percent divorce rate? Or how A couple is divorcing. Both parents seek custody of their
many would start high-risk businesses? On the other hand, only child, but custody can be granted to just one parent. If
people who smoke, drink and then drive, or skip wearing you had to make a decision based on the following informa-
auto seatbelts ignore rather high odds of injury or illness. In tion, to which parent would you award custody of the child?
many high-risk situations, ignoring base rates is the same as Parent A: Average income, average health, average work-
thinking that you are an exception to the rule. ing hours, reasonable rapport with the child, relatively stable
social life
Representativeness Another common pitfall in intui-
tive judgment is illustrated by the following question: which
Intuition Quick, impulsive thought that does not use formal logic or
is more probable? clear reasoning.
A. The New York Yankees will not be in the lead after the Base rate The basic rate at which an event occurs over time; the
first half of the baseball season. basic probability of an event.
Representativeness heuristic Mental shortcut of judging if
B. The New York Yankees will not be in the lead after the
something belongs in a given class based on similarity to other
first half of the baseball season but will win their division. members.
Framing In thought, the terms in which a problem is stated or the
People who follow baseball are likely to regard a state-
way that it is structured.
ment like B as more probable than A (for those of you not

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334 p syCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Parent B: Above-average income, minor health problems, cool down a bit before picking that bar fight, running off
lots of work-related travel, very close relationship with the and eloping, or immediately declining that daunting job
child, extremely active social life offer (Johnson, Batey, & Holdsworth, 2009). Personal
Most people choose to award custody to Parent B, the rituals, such as counting to 10, meditating for a moment,
parent who has some drawbacks but also several advantages and even engaging in superstitious behaviors such as
(such as above-average income). That’s because people tend crossing your fingers before moving ahead, can be calming
to look for positive qualities that can be awarded to the child. (Damisch, Stoberock, & Mussweiler, 2010).
However, who would you choose if you were asked this
Cognition and Stress “Venti, double-shot, sugar-free,
question: which parent should be denied custody? In this
peppermint, nonfat, double-cupped, extra hot, please.”
case, most people choose to deny custody to Parent B. Why
Overhearing the order while standing in line, the older
is Parent B a good choice one moment and a poor choice the
woman remarked to her husband, “Don’t you miss the days
next? It’s because the second question asked who should be
when all you could order was a coffee with cream and sug-
denied custody. To answer this question, people tend to look
ar?” Behind them, a young man whispered in his friend’s
for negative qualities that would disqualify a parent. As you
ear, “Poor old people!” One stereotype of elderly people
can see, the way a question is framed can channel us down
is that they have trouble coping with modern life. But are
a narrow path so that we attend to only part of the informa-
the elderly the only ones sometimes bewildered by tasks as
tion provided, rather than reflectively weighing all the pros
“simple” as ordering a cup of coffee?
and cons.
Isn’t the freedom of having a wide variety of choices a
Usually, the broadest way of framing or stating a prob-
good thing (Leotti, Iyengar, & Ochsner, 2010)? Maybe not.
lem produces the best decisions. However, people often state
According to behavioral economist Dilip Soman (2010), even
problems in increasingly narrow terms until a single, seem-
low-level stress can subtly influence how we think and act.
ingly “obvious” answer emerges. For example, to select a ca-
In one study, consumers were given an option to pur-
reer, it would be wise to consider pay, working conditions,
chase jam. Half of them could choose from 6 different fla-
job satisfaction, needed skills, future employment outlook,
vors; the other half had 24 flavors from which to choose.
and many other factors. Instead, such decisions are often
Although consumers with more choice expressed more
narrowed to thoughts such as, “I like to write, so I’ll be a
interest, they were 10 times less likely to purchase any jam
journalist,” “I want to make good money and law pays well,”
(Iyengar & Lepper, 2000). Similarly, restaurants with menus
or “I can be creative in photography.” Framing decisions so
that feature a broader variety of choices often find that pa-
narrowly greatly increases the risk of making a poor choice.
trons are more likely to order from a smaller number of
If you would like to think more critically and analytically, it
familiar choices (Soman, 2010). Apparently, businesses
is important to pay attention to how you are defining prob-
that increase the variety of their product offerings are not
lems before you try to solve them. Remember that shortcuts
guaranteed increased sales (Greifeneder, Scheibehenne, &
to answers often short-circuit clear thinking.
Kleber, 2010; Gourville & Soman, 2005).
Cognition and Emotion Another factor that bears It may be faintly amusing that people have trouble ex-
mentioning is that “hot cognition”—thinking driven by ercising choice in a coffee shop, grocery store, or restaurant.
emotions—also tends to affect good judgment (Lerner et It’s not that funny when more important issues are involved,
al., 2015). Our emotional reactions to various possibilities such as choosing the best medicine or medical procedure.
can determine what intuitively seems to be the right answer. Imagine, for example, facing too many options when decid-
Emotions such as fear, hope, anxiety, liking, or disgust can ing whether to remove a seriously ill infant from life support
eliminate possibilities from consideration or promote them (Botti, Orfali, & Iyengar, 2009).
to the top of the list (Kahneman, 2011). For many people, Why are more complex choices so tough to make? Re-
choosing which political candidate to vote for is a good ex- searchers such as Soman have identified a number of fac-
ample of how emotions can cloud clear thinking. Rather tors, such as increased stress, cognitive overload, difficulty
than comparing candidates’ records and policies, it is tempt- remembering all the choices, and confusion about the pos-
ing to vote for the person we like rather than the person who sibilities (Soman, 2010). Although the growing complexity
is most qualified for the job. of modern life may increase our freedom, our choices may
Of course, taking action in the heat of anger, passion, be expanding beyond our capacity to cope. It’s OK to order
or stress may not be the wisest move. It may be better to a coffee with cream and sugar sometimes.

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 MoDU lE 3 9 c o g n iti o n An d i nte lli g e n c e: c r eAtive th i n k i n g An d i ntu iti o n 335

MODULE

39 summary
39.1 What is the nature of creative thinking? 39.2 how accurate is intuition?
39.1.1 To be creative, a solution must be practical and 39.2.1 Intuitive thinking can be fast and accurate but also
sensible as well as original. Creative thinking requires often leads to errors. Wrong conclusions may be
divergent thought, characterized by fluency, flexibil- drawn by ignoring the base rate (or underlying prob-
ity, and originality. Tests of creativity measure these ability) of an event.
qualities. 39.2.2 A second problem occurs when we draw conclusions
39.1.2 Five stages often seen in creative problem solving are because they seem highly representative of what we
orientation, preparation, incubation, illumination, already believe is true.
and verification. 39.2.3 Clear thinking is usually aided by stating or framing a
39.1.3 Studies suggest that the creative personality has a problem in broad terms.
number of characteristics, most of which contradict 39.2.4 Emotions also lead to intuitive thinking and poor
popular stereotypes. Only a very small correlation choices.
exists between IQ and creativity.
39.1.4 Some creative thinking skills can be learned.

Knowledge Builder Cognition and Intelligence: Creative Thinking and Intuition

Recite (d) H H T H. Which sequence would most likely precede

getting a head on the fifth coin flip?
1. Fluency, flexibility, and originality are characteristics of
a. convergent thought Self-Reflect
b. deductive thinking
Make up a question that would require convergent thinking to
c. creative thought
answer. Now, do the same for divergent thinking.
d. trial-and-error solutions
On which of the tests of creativity described in the text do
2. Reasoning and critical thinking tend to block creativity;
you think you would do best? (Look back if you can’t remem-
these are noncreative qualities. T or F?
ber them all.)
3. To be creative, an original idea also must be high quality
Explain in your own words how base rates and representa-
and relevant. T or F?
tiveness contribute to thinking errors.
4. Intelligence and creativity are highly correlated; the
higher a person’s IQ, the more likely he or she is to be
AN sW E R s
creative. T or F? heads.
5. Our decisions are greatly affected by the way that a prob- head is “overdue,” or that c is correct because the coin is “on a roll” for
lem is stated, a process called However, many people intuitively think that b is the answer because a
a. framing chance of getting a head is 50 percent, no matter what happened before.
b. base rating the fifth flip is the same in each case. Each time that you flip a coin, the

c. induction
1. c 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. a 6. None of them; the chance of getting heads on

d. selective encoding

Reflect
Think Critically
6. A coin is flipped four times with one of the following
results: (a) H T T H, (b) T T T T, (c) H H H H,

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MODULE

40 Cognition and Intelligence

Intelligence

How Intelligent Is the Idea of Intelligence?

What does it mean to say that a person such as the brilliant physicist
Stephen Hawking is “intelligent”? You might assume that most psychol-
ogists agree on the meaning of this everyday word. After all, Hawking
is a genius, right? IQ tests measure intelligence, and Hawking would
score high, wouldn’t he? (When Hawking was once asked about his IQ,
he claimed he didn’t know and joked, “People who boast about their IQ
are losers.”)
You might be surprised to learn that many questions about “intel-
ligence” remain unanswered. Can intelligence be accurately measured?
What does it mean to have extremely high or low intelligence? Is intel-
ligence all about “book learning”? What about “street smarts”?
How about athletic brilliance, like the play-making abilities of re-
markable athletes like LeBron James? Are we talking about another
form of “intelligence” or something else altogether? Or musical bril-
Mitchell Leff/Getty Images

liance, like that of Prince, who we lost in 2016?

Questions like these have fascinated psychologists for over
100 years. Let’s see what we have learned to date and what is still being
debated.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
40.1 How is human intelligence defined and measured? 40.3 What are some issues in the study of intelligence?
40.2 How much does intelligence vary from person to
person?

Human Intelligence—The IQ and You

Survey Question 40.1 How is human intelligence defined
Education wanted to find a way to distinguish slower stu-
and measured?
dents from the more capable (or the capable but lazy). In
Like many important concepts in psychology, intelligence a flash of brilliance, Binet and an associate created a test
cannot be observed directly. So how can it be measured? made up of “intellectual” questions and problems. Next,
That’s the problem Alfred Binet faced in 1904 (Benjafield, they learned which questions an average child could answer
2015; Jarvin & Sternberg, 2003). The French Minister of at each age. By comparing test scores of individual children

336
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 MODU LE 4 0 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e: i nte lli g e n C e 337

to the average score for their ages, they could tell whether a
child was performing up to his or her potential (Kaplan &
Saccuzzo, 2013; Kaufman, 2009).
Binet’s approach gave rise to modern intelligence tests.
At the same time, it launched an ongoing debate. Part of
the debate is related to the basic difficulty of defining intel-
ligence (Sternberg et al., 2011).

Defining Intelligence
Isn’t there an accepted definition of intelligence? Broadly
speaking, yes. Intelligence is the overall capacity to think
rationally, to act purposefully, and to adapt to one’s sur-
roundings (Barber, 2010; Flynn, 2012). Beyond this, how-

Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works

ever, there is much disagreement. At one extreme, some
theorists propose that the core of intelligence is an overall,
or general (hence the “g”) mental ability called the g-factor.
Others propose that “g” is composed of a small set of inter-
connected general mental abilities like those we have been
exploring for the last eight modules, such as memory, rea- Modern intelligence tests are widely used to measure cognitive
soning, problem solving, and knowledge (Kan et al., 2013; abilities. When properly administered, such tests provide an
operational definition of intelligence.
Ziegler et al., 2011).
Other theorists question just which general mental age 2 to 851 years, and scores on the test are very reliable
abilities together constitute intelligence. Still others ques- (Decker, Brooks, & Allen, 2011).
tion the idea of the g-factor itself, proposing instead that The SB5 measures five cognitive factors (general men-
humans possess very different, unconnected “intelligences” tal abilities) thought to make up general intelligence: fluid
(Hampshire et al., 2012). (Also, intelligence has tradition- reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial
ally been considered a cognitive, not emotional, capacity. Is processing, and working memory. Each factor is measured
there such a thing as emotional intelligence? To find out, see with verbal questions (those involving words and num-
Module 64.) bers) and nonverbal questions (items that use pictures and
In fact, many psychologists simply accept an op- objects). If you were to take the SB5, you would be assess-
erational definition of intelligence by spelling out the ing your general intelligence, verbal intelligence, nonverbal
procedures they use to measure it (Neukrug & Fawcett, intelligence, and each of the five cognitive factors (Decker,
2015) . Thus, by selecting items for an intelligence test, a Brooks, & Allen, 2011). Let’s see what each factor looks like:
psychologist is saying in a direct way, “This is what I mean
by intelligence.” A test that measures memory, reasoning, Fluid Reasoning Questions like the following are used to
and verbal fluency offers a very different definition of in- test fluid reasoning:
telligence than one that measures strength of grip, shoe How are an apple, a plum, and a banana different from
size, hunting skills, or the person’s best Pokemon Go a beet?
mobile game score (Goldstein, 2015). An apprentice is to a master as a novice is to a(n)
____________.
The Stanford-Binet “I knew my bag was going to be in the last place I looked,
American psychologists quickly saw the value of Alfred so I looked there first.” What is silly or impossible
Binet’s test. In 1916, Lewis Terman and others at Stanford about that?
University revised it for use in North America. After more
revisions, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edi- Intelligence Capacity for rational thought, purposeful action, and
tion (SB5), continues to be widely used. The SB5 primarily effective adaptation.
g-factor Measure of an individual’s overall intelligence as opposed to
is made up of age-ranked questions that get a little harder specific abilities.
at each age level. The SB5 is appropriate for people from

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338 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

Other items ask people to fill in the missing shape in a group also have separate scores for performance (nonverbal)
of shapes and to tell a story that explains what’s going on in intelligence and verbal intelligence—language- or symbol-
a series of pictures. oriented intelligence (Neukrug & Fawcett, 2015). The abili-
ties measured by the Wechsler tests and some sample test
Knowledge The knowledge factor assesses the person’s
items are listed in ■ Table 40.1.
knowledge about a wide range of topics:
Why is yeast added to bread dough? Group Tests
What does “cryptic” mean? The SB5 and the Wechsler tests are individual intelligence
What is silly or impossible about this picture? (For exam- tests, which are given to a single person by a trained special-
ple, a bicycle has square wheels.) ist. In contrast, group intelligence tests can be given to large
groups of individuals with minimal supervision. Group tests
Quantitative Reasoning Test items for quantitative rea-
usually require people to read, to follow instructions, and to
soning measure a person’s ability to solve problems involv-
solve problems of logic, reasoning, mathematics, or spatial
ing numbers. Here are some samples:
skills. If you’re wondering if you have ever taken an intel-
If I have six marbles and you give me another one, how ligence test, the answer is probably yes. The well-known
many marbles will I have? SAT Reasoning Test (SAT) measures aptitudes for language,
Given the numbers 3, 6, 9, 12, what number would come math, and reasoning. The SAT is designed to predict your
next? chances for success in college. Because it measures a number
If a shirt is being sold for 50 percent of the normal price, of different mental aptitudes, it also can be used to estimate
and the price tag is $60, what is the cost of the shirt? general intelligence.

Visual-Spatial Processing People who have visual- Intelligence Quotients

spatial skills are good at putting picture puzzles together and
What is an IQ? Imagine that a child named Yuan can answer
copying geometric shapes (such as triangles, rectangles, and
intelligence test questions that an average 7-year-old can an-
circles). Visual-spatial processing questions ask test-takers
swer. We could say that 7 is her mental age (average cognitive
to reproduce patterns of blocks and choose pictures that
show how a piece of paper would look if it were folded or
cut. Verbal questions also can require visual-spatial abilities:
Suppose that you are going east, then turn right, then turn
right again, then turn left. In what direction are you
facing now?
Working Memory The working memory part of the SB5
measures the ability to use short-term memory. Some typi-
cal memory tasks include the following:
Correctly remember the order of colored beads on a stick.
After hearing several sentences, name the last word from
each sentence.
Repeat a series of digits (forward or backward) after
hearing them once.

The Wechsler Tests

Kes/CartoonStock Ltd

Is the Stanford-Binet the only intelligence test? One widely

used alternative is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—
Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). A version for children is called
the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fifth Edition
(WISC-V). Like the Stanford-Binet, the Wechsler tests yield
a single overall intelligence score. In addition, these tests

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 MODU LE 4 0 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e: i nte lli g e n C e 339

Table 40.1 sample items similar to those used on the Wais-iv

Verbal Comprehension Sample Items or Descriptions

Similarities In what way are a wolf and a coyote alike?

In what way are a screwdriver and a chisel alike?
Vocabulary The test consists of asking, “What is a(n) ____________?” or “What does ____________ mean?”
The words range from more to less familiar and difficult.
Information How many wings does a butterfly have?
Who wrote Romeo and Juliet?
Perceptual Reasoning
Block design Copy designs with blocks (as shown at right).
Matrix reasoning Select the item that completes the matrix.
Visual puzzles Choose the pieces that go together to form a figure.
Working Memory
Digit span Repeat from memory a series of digits, such as 8 5 7 0 1 3 6 2, after hearing it once.
Arithmetic Four girls divided 28 jellybeans equally among themselves. How many jellybeans did each girl receive?
If 3 peaches take 2 minutes to find and pick, how long will it take to find and pick a dozen peaches?
Processing Speed
Symbol search Match symbols appearing in separate groups. Symbol Search

Coding Fill in the symbols:

1 2 3 4 3 4 1 3 4 2 1 2

X III I 0

Items similar to those in Wechsler (2008).

ability displayed by 7-year-olds) . How smart is Yuan? We Suke also has a mental age of 12. However, Suke’s chrono-
can’t say yet, because we don’t know how old she is. If she logical age is 12, so his IQ is 100. The IQ shows that 10-year-
is 10, she’s not very smart. If she’s 5, she is very bright. To old Justin is brighter than his 12-year-old friend Suke, even
estimate a child’s intelligence, then, we need to compare her though their intellectual skills are about the same. Notice
mental age and her chronological age (age in years). When that a person’s IQ will be 100 whenever mental age equals
the Stanford-Binet was first used, MA (mental age) was di-
vided by CA (chronological age). The resulting quotient was Performance (nonverbal) intelligence Intelligence measured by
then multiplied by 100 to give a whole number, rather than a solving puzzles, assembling objects, completing pictures, and
other nonverbal tasks.
decimal, yielding an intelligence quotient (IQ):
Verbal intelligence Intelligence measured by answering questions
MA involving vocabulary, general information, arithmetic, and other
3 100 5 IQ language- or symbol-oriented tasks.
CA Mental age In intelligence testing, the average cognitive ability
In this way, children with different chronological and mental displayed by people of a given age
Intelligence quotient (IQ) Mental age divided by chronological age
ages can be easily compared. For instance, 10-year-old Jus- times 100.
tin has a mental age of 12. Thus, his IQ is 120. Justin’s friend

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340 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

chronological age. This is why an IQ score of 100 is defined directly calculate IQs. Instead, modern tests use deviation
as average intelligence. IQs. Tables supplied with the test are used to convert a
Then, does a person with an IQ score below 100 have below person’s relative standing in the group to an IQ score—
average intelligence? Not unless the IQ is well below 100. Aver- that is, they tell how far above or below average the per-
age intelligence is usually defined as any score from 90 to 109. son’s score falls. For example, if you score at the 50th per-
The important point is that IQ scores will be over 100 when centile, half the people your age who take the test score
mental age is higher than age in years. IQ scores below 100 oc- higher than you and half score lower. In this case, your IQ
cur when a person’s age in years exceeds his or her mental age. score is 100. If you score at the 84th percentile, your
IQ score is 115. If you score at the 97th percentile, your
Deviation IQs Although the preceding discussion may
IQ score is 130.
give you insight into IQ scores, it’s no longer necessary to

Variations in Intelligence—Curved Like a Bell

Survey Question 40.2 How much does intelligence vary or more (the “Termites,” as he called them) into adulthood.
from person to person? Most were quite successful. A majority finished college,
earned advanced degrees, or held professional positions,
The distribution (or scattering) of IQ scores approximates
and many had written books or scientific articles (Terman
a bell-shaped curve or normal distribution—that is, most
& Oden, 1959).
scores fall close to the average and few are found at the ex-
In general, the correlation between IQ scores and school
tremes ➤ Figure 40.1.
grades is .50, a sizable association. The link would be even
The Mentally Gifted stronger, but motivation, special talents, off-campus learn-
ing, and many other factors also affect grades. The same
How high is the IQ of a genius? Only 2 people out of 100 score
is true of real-world success beyond school. IQ is not at all
above 130 on IQ tests. These bright individuals are usually
good at predicting success in art, music, writing, dramatics,
described as “gifted.” Less than 0.5 percent of the population
science, and leadership. Creativity is much more strongly re-
scores above 140. These people are certainly gifted, or perhaps
lated to doing well in these areas (Preckel, Holling, & Wiese,
even “geniuses.” However, some psychologists reserve the
2006; Runco, 2012).
term genius for people with even higher IQs or those who are
Were all the Termites superior as adults? No. Although
exceptionally creative (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2011).
the gifted tend to be well adjusted psychologically (Dai,
Gifted Children Do high IQ scores in childhood predict 2010; Deary, Whalley, & Starr, 2009), some had committed
later ability? To directly answer this question, Lewis Terman crimes, were unemployable, or were unhappy misfits. Re-
followed a gifted group of 1,500 children with IQs of 140 member that a high IQ reveals potential. It does not guar-
antee success. Nor does a lower IQ guarantee failure. Nobel
Average
24 Prize–winning physicist Richard Feynman, whom many re-
20
gard as a genius, had an IQ of 122 (Michalko, 2006).
Bright normal
How did Terman’s more successful Termites differ from
16
the less successful? Most of them had educated parents who
Percent

Dull normal
12
Superior valued learning and encouraged them to do the same. In
8 general, successful gifted persons tend to have strong in-
Borderline
Intellectually Very superior tellectual determination—a desire to know, to excel, and to
4
disabled persevere. Gifted or not, most successful persons tend to
be persistent and motivated to learn (Reis & Renzulli, 2010;
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Mean 5101.8 IQ
Winner, 2003). No one is paid to sit around being capable of
achievement. What you do is always more important than
➤ Figure 40.1
what you should be able to do. That’s why a child’s talents
The bell curve. Distribution of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
scores for 3,184 children. (Adapted from Terman & Merrill, are most likely to blossom when she or he is nurtured with
1937/1960.) support, encouragement, education, and effort (Reis, 2016).

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 MODU LE 4 0 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e: i nte lli g e n C e 341

It is wise to remember
that a child may be gifted
in many ways. Many
schools now offer Gifted
and Talented Education
programs for students
who have a variety of
special abilities—not just
for those who score well
on IQ tests.

Hill Street Studios/AGE Fotostock

Vladimir Godnik/Getty Images

Identifying Gifted Children How might a parent spot an disability (intellectual developmental disorder) begins at
unusually bright child? Early signs of giftedness are not al- an IQ of approximately 70 or below. However, a person’s
ways purely “intellectual.” Giftedness can be either the pos- ability to perform adaptive behaviors (basic skills such as
session of a high IQ or of special talents or aptitudes (Kreger dressing, eating, communicating, shopping, and working)
Silverman, 2013). The following signs may reveal that a child is more important in evaluating this disability (American
is gifted: a tendency to seek out older children and adults; Psychiatric Association, 2013; Kirk, Gallagher, & Coleman,
an early fascination with explanations and problem solving; 2015; Murray et al., 2013).
talking in complete sentences as early as 2 or 3 years of age; It is worth noting that intellectually disabled people usu-
an unusually good memory; precocious talent in art, music, ally have much more to them than what is shown by the re-
or number skills; an early interest in books, along with early sults of IQ testing (Treffert, 2014). It is especially important
reading (often by age 3); showing kindness, understanding, to realize that intellectually disabled persons have no handi-
and cooperation toward others (Dai, 2010; Distin, 2006). cap concerning feelings. They are easily hurt by rejection,
Notice that this list goes beyond straight g-factor, or teasing, or ridicule. Likewise, they respond warmly to love
general “academic” intelligence. In fact, if artistic talent, me- and acceptance. They have a right to self-respect and a place
chanical aptitude, musical aptitude, athletic potential, and in the community (Montreal Declaration on Intellectual Dis-
so on are considered, many children have a special “gift” of abilities, 2004). This is especially important during child-
one kind or another. Limiting giftedness to a high IQ can hood, when support from others adds greatly to each person’s
shortchange children with special talents or potentials. This chances of becoming a well-adjusted member of society.
is especially true of ethnic minority children, who may be
Savant Syndrome Some intellectually disabled indi-
the victims of subtle biases in standardized intelligence tests.
viduals display a remarkable mixture of brilliance and in-
These children, as well as children with physical disabili-
tellectual disability. They have savant syndrome, a limited
ties, are less likely to be recognized as gifted (Castellano &
general intelligence accompanied by exceptional mental
Frazier, 2011; Kornilov et al., 2012).
Deviation IQ An IQ obtained statistically from a person’s relative
Intellectual Disability standing in his or her age group—that is, how far above or below
Just as some children have exceptionally high IQs, so other average the person’s score is relative to other scores.
children have exceptionally low IQs. A person with mental Normal distribution Bell-shaped curve of scores with a large num-
ber in the middle and very few on the high and low ends.
abilities far below average is termed intellectually disabled Giftedness The possession of either a high IQ or special talents or
(the former term, mentally retarded, is now regarded as of- aptitudes.
fensive). According to the definition listed in the American Intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder) The
presence of a developmental disability, a formal IQ score below 70,
Psychiatric Association’s new edition of the Diagnostic and
and a significant impairment of adaptive behavior.
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), intellectual

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342 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

ability in one or more narrow areas, such as mental arith- Causes of Intellectual Disability What causes intel-
metic, calendar calculation, art, or music (Crane et al., lectual disability? Intellectual disability can be caused by a
2010; Young, 2005). wide range of factors. Some of the most common are the
Meet Kim Peek, the model for Dustin Hoffman’s following:
character in the Academy Award–winning movie Rain
◗ Genetic abnormalities. A variety of genetic abnormali-
Man (Peek & Hanson, 2007). By the time of Kim’s death
ties, such as missing, extra, or defective genes, can result
in 2009, he could recite from memory more than 9,000
in an intellectual disability. For example, Down syn-
books. He knew all the ZIP codes and area codes in the
drome children have an extra 21st chromosome. This
United States and could give accurate travel directions
condition, also called trisomy 21, results from flaws
between any two major U.S. cities. He also could discuss
in the parents’ egg or sperm cells (National Institute
hundreds of pieces of classical music in detail and could
of Child Health and Human Development, 2014).
play most of them quite well. Amazingly, though, for
Although Down syndrome is genetic, it is not usually
someone with such skills, Kim had difficulty with abstract
hereditary (it doesn’t “run in the family”). In contrast,
thinking and tests of general intelligence. He was poorly
children with PKU (phenylketonuria) have an inherited
coordinated and couldn’t button his own clothes (Treffert,
inability to control a destructive chemical that builds up
2010; Treffert & Christensen, 2005).
in their bodies (National Institute of Child Health and
Do savants have special mental powers not shared by most
Human Development, 2013a).
people? According to one theory, many savants have suffered
◗ Fetal damage. Fetal development can be disrupted by a
some form of damage to their left hemispheres, freeing them
variety of teratogens such as disease, infection, or drugs
from the “distractions” of language, concepts, and higher-
(Kalat, 2016; see Module 12). Fetal alcohol syndrome
level thought. This allows them to focus with crystal clarity
(FAS), caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy, is,
on music, drawing, prime numbers, license plates, televi-
unfortunately, one of the most common causes of intel-
sion commercials, and other specific information (Young,
lectual disability (Jones & Streissguth, 2010).
2005). Another theory holds that the performances of many
savants result from intense practice. Perhaps each of us har- ◗ Birth injuries. Birth injuries such as a lack of oxygen
bors embers of mental brilliance that intense practice could during delivery or an overly premature delivery also can
fan into full flame (Snyder et al., 2006; Treffert, 2014). result in intellectual disability.
Although savant syndrome hasn’t been fully explained, ◗ Postnatal problems. Malnutrition and exposure to lead,
it does show that extraordinary abilities can exist apart from PCBs, and other toxins early in childhood also can cause
general intelligence. organic intellectual disability (Beirne-Smith, Patton, &
Shannon, 2006). In many cases, no known biological

© Marcel Jancovic/Shutterstock.com
Ethan Hill/Contributor/Getty Images

This young woman exhibits the classical features of Down

Once, four months after reading a novel, Kim was asked about a syndrome, including almond-shaped eyes, a slightly protruding
character. He immediately named the character, gave the page tongue, a stocky build, and stubby hands with deeply creased
number on which a description appeared, and accurately recited palms. Although she is mildly intellectually disabled, she is very
several paragraphs about the character (Treffert & Christensen, 2005). loving and has a right to self-respect and a place in the community.

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 MODU LE 4 0 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e: i nte lli g e n C e 343

problem can be identified. Often, other family members poor households where nutrition, intellectual stimula-
also are mildly intellectually disabled. Familial intel- tion, medical care, and emotional support may be inad-
lectual disability, as this is called, occurs mostly in very equate (Harris, 2010).

Questioning Intelligence—More Questions Than Answers?

Survey Question 40.3 What are some issues in the study So, how intelligent are computers? You may be sur-
of intelligence? prised to learn that the answer, to date, is “not very.”
Computers have been most successful in specific situa-
In this section, we consider some of the issues that have
tions where complex skills can be converted into clearly
arisen in the study of intelligence. Most stem from ques-
stated rules that a computer can follow. The resulting
tions about the traditional assumptions that intelligence
expert systems can already predict the weather, analyze
can be defined in terms of a small set of general mental
geological formations, diagnose disease, play chess, read,
abilities and measured with IQ tests like the SB5 or the
tell when to buy or sell stocks, harmonize music, and per-
Wechsler scales. One criticism has been that this approach
form many other tasks better than humans (Giarratano
is too vague; according to researchers in the field of arti-
& Riley, 2004; Mahmoodabadi et al., 2010). Consider, for
ficial intelligence, a better approach is to specify what we
example, IBM’s “Watson,” which outperforms expert hu-
mean by intelligent behavior in enough detail that we can
mans at playing the television game Jeopardy (Markoff,
program computers to act intelligently. Others have won-
2011). Another example is Deep Blue, which beat world
dered if maybe the traditional approach is too narrow and
chess champion Garry Kasparov in 1997. (For fans of Go,
doesn’t apply across cultures. Still others have questioned
AlphaGo finished off world Go champion, Lee Se-dol, in
the value of defining intelligence in terms of any general
2016.) However, before you get too impressed, don’t forget
intelligence factor at all. Finally, many have challenged the
that outside their little corners of expertise, these “expert
often implicit assumption that intelligence is mainly inher-
systems” are as dumb as a bag of nails. Deep Blue plays
ited from our parents.
chess. Period.
Artificial Intelligence
While most efforts have focused on measuring human in-
telligence, a small group of psychologists and computer
scientists have taken an entirely different approach. Their
basic idea is to build machines that display artificial
intelligence (AI). This usually refers to creating com-
puter programs capable of doing things that require in-
telligence when done by people (Müller, 2012; Russell &
Norvig, 2010).
As computer scientist Aaron Sloman explains it, “Hu-
man brains don’t work by magic, so whatever it is they
Source: Youtube

do should be doable by machine” (Brooks, 2009; Sloman,

2008). The resulting programs can then help us understand
how people do those same things. While a robot might do This robot recently held the robot world record for solving the
a spiffy job of solving Rubik’s Cube puzzles, it also can be Rubik’s Cube, taking less than 1 second. What did it take the
thought of as a computer simulation, a program that at- fastest human, you ask? About 5.25 seconds! To what extent is the
way this robot comes up with solutions helpful for understanding
tempts to duplicate specific human behaviors, especially how humans do it?
thinking, decision making, and problem solving. Here, the
computer acts as a “laboratory” for testing models of cogni-
tion. If a computer program behaves as humans do (includ- Artificial intelligence (AI) Any artificial system (often a computer
program) that is capable of humanlike problem solving or intel-
ing making the same errors), then the program may be a ligent responding.
good model of how we think.

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344 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

If you’ve ever had an odd interaction with an “intelligent

personal assistant” like Apple’s Siri, you may already under-
stand why expert systems may not be the whole story. Al-
though there is no limit to what you can ask, Siri operates in
a simple question-and-answer mode and cannot engage in
a believable free-flowing conversation. In contrast, we hu-
mans can mentally “shift gears” from one topic to another
with incredible flexibility that is not easily described by ex-
pert system rules.
To date, no machine has proven able to keep up a truly

Keren Su/Getty Images

open-ended conversation (Floridi, Taddeo, & Turilli, 2009).
Make no mistake, however. Intelligent personal assistants
and other computers and robots will continue to improve
over time as they help psychologists and computer scientists How important do you think the mental abilities assessed in modern
better understand human intelligence (Cassimatis, 2012; intelligence tests are to this Dani hunter in Papua, New Guinea?

Hill, Ford, & Farreras, 2015).

Swahili, and Chinese and given to every 10-year-old in
Culture and Intelligence Latin America, East Africa, and China, the majority would
obtain IQ scores in the intellectually disabled range.”
Speaking of “shifting gears,” imagine you have been asked to
Certainly, we cannot believe that children of other cultures
sort some objects into categories. Wouldn’t it be smart to put
are all intellectually disabled. The fault must lie with the
the clothes, containers, implements, and foods in separate
test (Castles, 2012).
piles? Not necessarily. When individuals from the Kpelle
In view of such problems, psychologists have tried to
people in Liberia were asked to sort objects, they grouped
create “culture-fair” intelligence tests that do not disadvan-
them together by function. For example, a potato (food)
tage certain groups. A culture-fair test is designed to mini-
would be placed with a knife (implement). When the Kpelle
mize the importance of skills and knowledge that may be
were asked why they grouped the objects this way, they of-
more common in some cultures than in others. For a sample
ten said that was how a wise man would do it. The research-
of culture-fair test items, see ➤ Figure 40.2.
ers finally asked the Kpelle, “How would a fool do it?” Only
Culture-fair tests attempt to measure intelligence with-
then did they sort the objects into the nice, neat categories
out being influenced by a person’s verbal skills, cultural
that we Westerners prefer.
This anecdote, related by cultural psychologist Patricia
Greenfield (1997), raises serious questions about general
? ?
definitions of intelligence. For example, among the Cree of
Northern Canada, “smart” people are those who have the
skills needed to find food on the frozen tundra (Darou,
1992). For the Puluwat people in the South Pacific, “smart” 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
means having the oceangoing navigation skills necessary to (a) Sample series problem (b) Sample matrix problem
get from island to island (Sternberg, 2004). And so it goes, ➤ Figure 40.2
as each culture teaches its children how the wise man would Sample items like those often found on culture-fair intelligence
do it, not the fool (Barber, 2010; Correa-Chávez, Rogoff, & tests. (a) Sample series problem. Which pattern correctly
continues the series of patterns shown at the top left? (Number
Arauz, 2005).
4.) (b) Sample matrix problem. Which pattern best completes the
matrix of patterns shown at the top right? (Number 1.) The idea
Culture-Fair Intelligence Tests Cultural values, then, is that the ability to read and the mastery of culturally relevant
as well as knowledge, language patterns, and traditions, can knowledge should not be necessary to do well on these questions.
greatly affect performance on tests designed for Western Nevertheless, do you think that illiterate street orphans from Sao
Paulo, Brazil, or aboriginals living in the desert of the Australian
cultures (Nisbett et al., 2012; Sternberg & Grigorenko,
outback would find the items as easy to complete as you did? If not,
2005). Psychologist Jerome Kagan once remarked, “If the can you think of any other truly culture-fair way to test intelligence
Wechsler and Binet scales were translated into Spanish, across different cultures?

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 MODU LE 4 0 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e: i nte lli g e n C e 345

background, and educational level, to the greatest extent 4. Musical (music abilities)—composer, musician, music
possible. Their value lies not just in testing people from critic
other cultures. They also are useful for testing children in 5. Bodily-kinesthetic (physical abilities)—dancer, athlete,
the United States who come from poor communities, ru- surgeon
ral areas, or ethnic minority families (Stephens et al., 1999). 6. Intrapersonal (self-knowledge)—poet, actor, minister
However, no intelligence test can be entirely free of cultural 7. Interpersonal (social abilities)—psychologist, teacher,
influences. For instance, our culture is very “visual” because politician
children are constantly exposed to television, movies, video 8. Naturalist (an ability to understand the natural environ-
games, and the like. Thus, compared with children in devel- ment)—biologist, medicine man, organic farmer
oping countries, a child who grows up in the United States 9. Existential (an ability to understand spirituality and
may be better prepared to take both nonverbal tests and tra- existence)—religious leader, philosopher, motivational
ditional IQ tests. speaker
Because the concept of intelligence exhibits diversity
across cultures, many psychologists have begun to stress the Most of us are probably strong in only a few types of intel-
need to rethink the concept of intelligence itself (Greenfield, ligence. In contrast, geniuses like Albert Einstein seem to be
1997; Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2005). If we are to find a able to use nearly all of the intelligences, as needed, to solve
truly culture-fair way to measure intelligence, we first need problems.
to identify the core cognitive skills that lie at the heart of If Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is cor-
human intelligence the world over (Gardner, 2008; Henrich, rect, traditional IQ tests measure only a part of real-world
Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010). intelligence—namely, linguistic, logical-mathematical, and
spatial abilities (Roberts & Lipnevich, 2012). A further im-
plication is that our schools may be wasting a lot of human
Multiple Intelligences potential. For example, some children might find it easier
Defining intelligence as a g-factor (general ability) also has to learn math or reading if these topics were tied into art,
been questioned. As we just noted, there may be many ways music, dance, drama, and so on. Many schools are now us-
to be smart. For example, consider William, a grade-school ing Gardner’s theory to cultivate a wider range of skills and
student two years behind in reading, who shows his teacher talents (Campbell, 2008).
how to solve a difficult computer-programming problem. Let’s end this module with a look at the controversial
What about his classmate, Malika, who is a poor reader but question of how much intelligence is inherited from our
plays intricate pieces of piano music? Both of these children parents.
show clear signs of what we earlier referred to as aptitudes.
Yet, each might score below average on a traditional IQ test. IQ and heredity
And, as we have seen, autistic savants like Kim Peek have Most people are aware of a moderate similarity in the intelli-
even more extreme intellectual strengths and weaknesses. gence of parents and their children or between brothers and
Such observations have convinced many psychologists that sisters. As ➤ Figure 40.3 shows, the closer two people are on
it is time to forge new, broader definitions of intelligence a family tree, the more alike their IQs are likely to be.
(Roberts & Lipnevich, 2012). Their basic goal is to better Does this indicate that intelligence is hereditary? Not nec-
predict real-world success—not just the likelihood of suc- essarily. Brothers, sisters, and parents share similar environ-
cess in school (Richardson, 2013). ments, as well as similar genes (Grigorenko, 2005; Kaplan,
One such psychologist is Howard Gardner of Harvard 2012). To separate nature and nurture, a twin study may
University. Gardner (2008, 2011) theorizes that there are
nine distinctly different kinds of intelligence. These are dif-
Culture-fair test A test (such as an intelligence test) designed to
ferent mental “languages” that people use for thinking. Each minimize the importance of skills and knowledge that may be
is listed below, with examples of pursuits that use them: more common in some cultures than in others.
Multiple intelligences Howard Gardner’s theory that there are
1. Linguistic (language abilities)—writer, lawyer, comedian several specialized types of intellectual ability.
2. Logical-mathematical (logic and number abilities)— Twin study A comparison of the characteristics of twins who were
raised together or separated at birth; used to identify the relative
scientist, accountant, programmer
impact of heredity and environment.
3. Visual (pictorial abilities)—engineer, inventor, artist

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346 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

➤ Figure 40.3 .86

Identical twins
IQ as a function of genetic relatedness. Approximate .72
correlations between IQ scores for persons with varying
degrees of genetic and environmental similarity. Notice Fraternal twins .60
that the correlations grow smaller as the degree of
genetic similarity declines. Also, note that a shared No data available
environment increases the correlations in all cases.
(Adapted from McGue et al., 1993.) .47
Siblings
.24

Parents and .42 Reared together

children .24
Reared apart

0.0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Correlation coefficient

be done. Such studies compare the IQs of twins who were would seem to be less than 50 percent hereditary (Nisbett
raised together or separated at birth. This allows us to et al., 2012; Turkheimer et al., 2003). Identical twins also
better estimate how much heredity and environment affect tend to have similar personality traits. This suggests that
intelligence. heredity contributes to personality as well as intelligence
(for more information, see Module 53).
Twin Studies Notice in Figure 40.3 that the IQ scores
of fraternal twins are more alike than the IQs of ordinary IQ and Environment
brothers and sisters. Fraternal twins come from two sepa-
Some evidence for an environmental view of intelligence
rate eggs that are fertilized at the same time. They are no
comes from families having one adopted child and one
more genetically alike than ordinary siblings. Why, then,
biological child. As ➤ Figure 40.4 shows, parents contrib-
should the twins’ IQ scores be more similar? The reason is
ute genes and environment to their biological child. With
environmental: Parents treat twins more alike than ordinary
an adopted child, they contribute only environment. If in-
siblings, resulting in a closer match in IQs.
telligence is highly genetic, the IQs of biological children
More striking similarities are observed with identical
should be more like their parents’ IQs than the IQs of adopt-
twins, who develop from a single egg and have identical
ed children. However, studies show that children reared by
genes. At the top of Figure 40.3, you can see that identical
the same mother resemble her in IQ to the same degree. It
twins who grow up in the same family have highly corre-
doesn’t matter whether they share her genes (Kamin, 1981;
lated IQs. This is what we would expect with identical he-
Weinberg, 1989).
redity and very similar environments. Now, let’s consider
How much can environment alter intelligence? It depends
what happens when identical twins are reared apart. As you
on the quality of the environment (Nisbett et al., 2012). One
can see, the correlation drops, but only from .86 to .72. Psy-
way to look at environmental effects is to compare children
chologists who emphasize genetics believe figures like these
adopted by parents of high or low socioeconomic status (SES).
show that differences in adult intelligence are roughly 50
Children who grow up in high SES homes develop higher
percent hereditary (Jacobs et al., 2008; Nisbett et al., 2012).
IQs than those reared by lower SES parents. Presumably, the
How do environmentalists interpret the figures? They
higher SES homes provide an enriched environment, with
point out that some separated identical twins differ by as
much as 20 IQ points. In every case in which this occurs,
there are large educational and environmental differences Parent Environment Adopted child
between the twins. Also, separated twins are almost always
placed in homes socially and educationally similar to those
Environment
of their birth parents. This would tend to inflate apparent ge- Parent Biological child
Genes
netic effects by making the separated twins’ IQs more alike.
Another frequently overlooked fact is that twins grow up in ➤ Figure 40.4
the same environment before birth (in the womb). If this Comparison of an adopted child and a biological child reared
environmental similarity is taken into account, intelligence in the same family. (Adapted from Kamin, 1981.)

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 MODU LE 4 0 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e: i nte lli g e n C e 347

better nutrition, greater educational opportunities, and oth- concrete, functional answer like “Dogs hunt rabbits” (which
er advantages (Nisbett et al., 2012). modern IQ tests are likely to score as wrong).
More importantly, children adopted out of low-SES If this reminds you of the Kpelle people, reluctant to sort
environments can experience great relative gains in intel- things the way a fool would, you’re right. Just like people
ligence. That is, the IQs of low-SES children may be more from other cultures, your grandparents did not automati-
dramatically influenced by environmental factors than cally value the abstract reasoning prized in today’s more
the IQs of high-SES children (Henrich, Heine, & Noren- complex society. Nevertheless, had they been born today,
zayan, 2010). In one study, striking increases in IQ oc- they undoubtedly would have developed abstract reasoning
curred in 25 children who were moved from an orphan- skills just fine. Alternatively, had you been born into their
age and were eventually adopted by parents who gave world, you undoubtedly would have, in the end, answered
them love, a family, and a stimulating home environment. IQ test questions more like them. The takeaway point is that
Once considered intellectually disabled and unadoptable, our intelligence, along with the ways we measure it, cannot
the children gained an average of 29 IQ points. A sec- easily be separated from the social and cultural context of
ond group of initially less intellectually disabled children, particular places and times.
who stayed in the orphanage, lost an average of 26 IQ
IQ and Race The likelihood that environment plays
points (Skeels, 1966).
a major role in shaping intelligence is highly relevant to
The Flynn Effect Many psychologists now agree that IQ many of todays more important social issues. One perni-
scores in Western, industrialized nations have risen over the cious claim is that African Americans are genetically inca-
last 50 or so years (Williams, 2013; Flynn, 2012). Not by a pable of climbing out of poverty (Ossorio, 2011; Rushton
little bit, mind you. If our grandparents scored an IQ of 100 & Jensen, 2005).
(average, remember?) 50 years ago, they might score as low Is there any evidence for or against this claim? His-
as about 70 on today’s IQ tests. Conversely, if your IQ is 100 torically, African-American children in the United States
today, 50 years ago you might have scored as much as 130 on scored an average of about 15 points lower on standard-
the old IQ tests. This rapid rise in IQ, referred to as the Flynn ized IQ tests than European-American children (although
effect after the discoverer, New Zealand psychologist James this gap has been reduced by one-third since 1972; Nisbett
Flynn, has occurred in far too short a time to be explained et al., 2012). As a group, Asian-American children scored
by genetics. It is more likely that the gains reflect environ- above average in IQ. Could such differences be genetic?
mental factors (Flynn, 2012, 2013). Psychologists have responded to such claims with several
But which factors? Flynn (2012) “blames” modern soci- counterarguments.
ety, which is becoming ever more complex, demanding ever To begin, it is no secret that as a group African Ameri-
more abstract, “scientific” skills of its members. If you’ve cans are more likely than European Americans to live in
ever tried to fill out an online tax form or set up a wire- environments that are physically, educationally, and intel-
less network in your home, you’ll understand why people lectually impoverished. When unequal education is part of
may be getting better at answering IQ test questions. Video the equation, IQs may tell us little about how heredity af-
games, the Internet, and even television programming are fects intelligence (Sternberg et al., 2011; Suzuki & Aronson,
becoming ever more complex. As a result, everyday living 2005). Indeed, one study found that placing poor African-
demands ever greater abstract cognitive effort from us. In American children into European-American adoptive fami-
the end, popular culture may well be inviting us to read, lies increased the children’s IQs by an average of 13 points,
reflect, and problem solve more than ever before (Jaeggi bringing them into line with those of European-American
et al., 2008). children (Nisbett, 2005, 2009). That is, providing African-
Does this mean that my grandparents were intellectually American children with the same environmental experi-
disabled or that I am a genius? No. Your grandparents likely ences available to European-American children erased IQ
depended less on abstract reasoning than you do. For ex- differences.
ample, Flynn gives the following question that you might
find on a modern IQ test: “How are dogs and rabbits alike?”
(Crist & Requarth, 2012). While you might abstractly an- Fraternal twins Twins conceived from two separate eggs.
Identical twins Twins who develop from a single egg and so share
swer (correctly, according to the IQ test) that “They are both the same genes.
mammals,” your grandparents were more likely to give a

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348 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r aCtive lear n i n g

Furthermore, although IQ predicts school performance, The Whole human: Wisdom

it does not predict later career success (McClelland, 1994).
In the final analysis, intelligence reflects development as well
In this regard, “street smarts,” or what psychologist Robert
as potential, nurture as well as nature (Richardson, 2013).
Sternberg calls practical intelligence, may be seen by minor-
Moreover, the fact that intelligence is partly determined by
ity cultures as more important than “book learning,” or what
heredity tells us little of any real value. Genes are fixed at
Sternberg calls analytic intelligence (Stemler & Sternberg,
birth. Improving the environments in which children learn
2006; Sternberg, 2017).
and grow is the main way we can ensure that they reach their
Most psychologists have concluded that there is no sci-
full potential (Ormrod, 2014; Roberts & Lipnevich, 2012).
entific evidence that group differences in average IQ are
Perhaps most important, people can be intelligent
based on genetics. In fact, studies that used actual blood
without being wise. For example, a person who does well
group testing found no significant correlations between
in school and on IQ tests may make a total mess of his or
ethnic ancestry and IQ scores. This is because it does not
her life. Likewise, people can be intelligent without being
even make sense to talk about “races” at all—obvious ex-
creative, and clear, rational thinking can lead to correct,
ternal markers, like skin color, have little to do with un-
but uninspired, answers (Solomon, Marshall, & Gardner,
derlying genetic differences (Bonham, Warshauer-Baker,
2005). In many areas of human life, wisdom represents a
& Collins, 2005; Sternberg, 2007). Group differences in IQ
mixture of convergent thinking, intelligence, and reason,
scores are based on cultural and environmental diversity as
spiced with creativity and originality (Meeks & Jeste, 2009).
much as on heredity (Nisbett, 2009; Nisbett et al., 2012). To
People who are wise approach life with openness and toler-
conclude otherwise reflects political beliefs and biases, not
ance (Le, 2011).
scientific facts.

MODULE

40 Summary
40.1 how is human intelligence defined and 40.2 how much does intelligence vary from
measured? person to person?
40.1.1 Intelligence refers to the general capacity (or g-factor) 40.2.1 The distribution of IQ scores approximates a normal
to act purposefully, think rationally, and adapt to the distribution. Most people score in the middle range
environment. on intelligence tests. Only a small percentage of
40.1.2 In practice, intelligence is operationally defined by people have exceptionally high or low IQ scores.
intelligence tests, which provide a useful but narrow 40.2.2 People with IQs in the gifted or “genius” range of
estimate of real-world intelligence. above 140 tend to be superior in many respects.
40.1.3 The first practical intelligence test was assembled by However, by criteria other than IQ, many children
Alfred Binet. A modern version of Binet’s test is the might be considered gifted or talented in one way or
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales—Fifth Edition another.
(SB5). 40.2.3 The term intellectually disabled is applied to those
40.1.4 A second major intelligence test is the Wechsler Adult whose IQ falls below 70 and who lack various adap-
Intelligence Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). The tive behaviors. Causes include genetic abnormalities,
children’s version of this test is the Wechsler Intelli- fetal damage, birth injures, and postnatal problems.
gence Scale for Children—Fifth Edition (WISC-V).
40.3 What are some issues in the study of
40.1.5 Intelligence is expressed as an intelligence quotient intelligence?
(IQ), defined as mental age divided by chronological
40.3.1 Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to any artificial sys-
age and then multiplied by 100.
tem that can perform tasks that require intelligence

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 MODU LE 4 0 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e: i nte lli g e n C e 349

when done by people. Two principal areas of AI 40.3.3 Many psychologists have begun to forge new, broader
research on particular human skills are computer definitions of intelligence. Howard Gardner’s theory
simulations and expert systems. of multiple intelligences is a good example.
40.3.2 Traditional IQ tests often suffer from a degree of 40.3.4 Intelligence is partially determined by heredity. How-
cultural and racial bias. For this and other reasons, ever, environment also is important, as revealed by
it is wise to remember that IQ is merely an index of IQ increases as a result of education and stimulating
intelligence and that intelligence is narrowly defined environments.
by most tests.

Knowledge Builder Cognition and Intelligence: Intelligence

Recite 8. Some people treat IQ as if it were a fixed number, perma-

nently stamped on the forehead of each child. Why is this
1. If we define intelligence by writing a test, we are using
view in error?
a(n) __________________________ definition.
2. By definition, a person has average intelligence when Self-Reflect
a. MA 5 CA
If you were going to write an intelligence test, what kinds
b. CA 5 100
of questions would you include? How much would they
c. MA 5 100
resemble the questions found on the SB5, the WAIS-IV, or
d. MA 3 CA 5 100
culture-fair tests? Can you think of any type of question that
3. The distribution of IQs approximates a
wouldn’t favor the mental skills emphasized by some culture,
___________________________ (bell-shaped) curve.
somewhere in the world?
4. Many cases of intellectual disability without known
How has your understanding of the following concepts
organic causes appear to be _______________________.
changed: IQ, giftedness, intellectual disability?
5. The claim that heredity accounts for racial differences in
A friend says to you, “I think intelligence is entirely inher-
average IQ scores ignores environmental differences and
ited from parents.” What could you tell your friend to make
the cultural bias inherent in standard IQ tests. T or F?
sure she or he is better informed?
6. From a practical point of view, intelligence can most
readily be increased by
a. genetics AN SW E R S
preordain a person’s intellectual capacities.
b. teaching adaptive behaviors heredity establishes a range of possibilities; it does not automatically
c. stimulating environments it: Change the test and you will, to some extent, change the score. Also,
d. applying deviation IQs 8. Because one’s IQ depends on the intelligence test used to measure
usually not what we have in mind when discussing human intelligence.
Reflect solving. However, they are “stone stupid” at everything else. This is
systems may appear “intelligent” within a narrow range of problem
Think Critically 1. operational 2. a 3. normal 4. familial 5. T 6. c 7. Rule-driven expert
7. Is it ever accurate to describe a machine as “intelligent”?

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MODULE

41 Cognition and Intelligence

Skills in Action
Creativity and Innovation

Ideas That Have Legs

Struck by a boat propeller while waterskiing, college
student Van Phillips had his leg severed just below the
knee. His prosthetic limb (basically, a pink foam foot
on the end of an aluminum tube) came with a piece of
medical advice: Get used to your new “best friend.” But
Phillips hated his awkward artificial limb. He set out to build
a better prosthetic—one that would allow users to run, jump,
filrom/iStock/Getty Images Plus/Getty Images

and rebound. He considered the benefits associated with the

C-shape of a cheetah’s hind leg, but eventually settled on
an L-shape that provided spring when weight was applied
to the “heel.” He tested hundreds of prototypes on himself
before founding Flex-Foot, a company that produces high-
quality prosthetic limbs for amputees, including Paralympic
athletes. Not content to stop there, Phillips has now turned You might think that people like Van Phillips are born
to the problem of reducing costs, so that artificial limbs can with innovative minds, but research suggests that this isn’t
be made more widely available to landmine victims in de- the case. In fact, we all have the skills that are needed to be
veloping countries. creative—all it takes is a willingness to practice them.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
41.1 How are creativity and innovation related to the study 41.2 How can creativity and innovation help me in my per-
of psychology? sonal and professional life?

Making Creative Juices

Survey Question 41.1 How are creativity and innovation
across disciplines such as business, science, and the arts
related to the study of psychology?
(Simonton, 2016). Others have examined this fascinating
Psychologists have had a longstanding interest in creativity. topic from diverse psychological perspectives, such as neu-
Some have asked how to define creativity and innovation roscience, cognition, intelligence, and personality (Baas,

350
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 MODU LE 41 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e S k i llS i n aCti o n: C r eativity an d i n n ovati o n 351

Nijstad, & De Dreu, 2015; Silvia, 2015). And some have set & Didier, 2016; Leung & Wang, 2015). For example, many
out to assess creativity with questionnaires, standardized studies of creativity show that it owes as much to persistence
tests and interview questions, and ask which people are and dedication as it does to inspiration (Nijstad et al., 2010).
in the best position to judge the creative worth of an idea These studies are important because they draw attention
(Galati, 2015; Silvia et al., 2012). to the idea that creativity is not a trait that is fixed at birth.
A significant amount of this research has focused on the Instead, it is a characteristic that can be developed in posi-
conditions that enhance (or suppress) creativity (Bonnardel tive ways and shaped by the environment in which we live.

The DNA of Innovation

Survey Question 41.2 How can creativity and innovation adding, “If you’re gonna make connections which are inno-
help me in my personal and professional life? vative . . . you have to not have the same bag of experiences
as everyone else does, or else you’re going to make the same
At a time when the world is becoming more complex, it’s no
connections [as everybody else].”
surprise that creativity and innovative thinking are increas-
Remember, creativity requires divergent thinking. To
ingly seen as valuable skills. In the workforce, these skills
make creative associations, then, you might attempt to shift
are considered an important aspect of problem solving at
your mental “prospecting” to new areas. Try relating a prob-
many organizations. But nurturing your creative side can
lem to random words from the dictionary, for example, or to
have benefits for your personal life as well. In fact, research
novel objects or photos. Imagine how another person would
indicates that people who engage in creative pursuits in their
view the problem. What would a child, engineer, professor,
leisure time are happier and show higher levels of well-being
mechanic, artist, psychologist, judge, or minister ask about
(Cameron et al., 2013).
it? Also, don’t be afraid to ask “silly” or playful questions
How can creative, innovative thinking be fostered? This
such as: If the problem were alive, what would it look like?
is exactly what an international team of researchers asked
If the problem were edible, how would it taste? Is any part of
when they spent six years interviewing some of the most
the problem pretty? Ugly? Stupid? Friendly? (de Bono, 1992;
innovative people in the world (Dyer, Gregersen, & Chris-
Michalko, 2006; Simonton, 2009).
tensen, 2013). They found that these people demonstrated
You can also improve your ability to make novel con-
some key “discovery skills,” which they describe in The Inno-
nections by exploring a range of interests and hobbies. Fi-
vator’s DNA project. The good news? These discovery skills
nally, creative associations can be fostered when you engage
can be cultivated by anyone who’s willing to practice them.
with new people whose values and life experiences differ
Let’s take a closer look at what those skills are.
from your own. You may choose to do this by traveling to
Make Associations other countries, but in many American cities and towns, it’s
easy to find diverse others close to home or where you work.
Associating refers to our ability to connect ideas, questions,
J. K. Rowling, for example, noted in a speech to the graduat-
or concepts that, at first glance, seem to be completely unre-
ing class at Harvard that her experience working with a wide
lated. A good example is Steve Coleman, a jazz musician and
range of individuals at Amnesty International was valuable
composer who won a “genius” award from the MacArthur
in the process of bringing Harry Potter to life in her books.
Foundation in 2014. Coleman creates his unique musical
sound by blending music from several countries, and has
even drawn on patterns derived from nature, including the Ask Questions
pulsing patterns of the human heart. Being creative also includes a willingness to challenge con-
Dyer, Gregersen, & Christensen (2013) pointed out that ventions and a refusal to accept the status quo. This means
such unusual connections are easier to make when you’ve that you should often be asking questions such as “Why?”,
had diverse experiences or when you work with people “Why not?” and “What if?” Van Phillips provides a good
who have had diverse experiences. (Note that the value of example of someone who understood the value of pushing
diversity is also discussed in Module 49.) Steve Jobs, the co- back against conventional wisdom. He didn’t accept, for ex-
founder of Apple, understood this intuitively. He once noted ample, that existing prosthetics were as good as they could
that creativity was simply the process of connecting things, be. And he was willing to ask unconventional questions

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352 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r aCtive lear n i n g

(a)

(a) (b)

➤ Figure 41.1
Mental set problems. (a) Nine dots are arranged in a square.
Can you connect them by drawing four continuous straight lines
without lifting your pencil from the paper? (b) Six matches must be openers, such as the soft seam on a pea pod. Instead of
arranged to make four triangles. The triangles must be the same
size, with each side equal to the length of one match.
a new can-opening tool, the group invented the self-
opening can (Stein, 1974).
But while it’s clear that it can be useful to ask ques-
such as, “What if a prosthetic leg didn’t have to look like a
tions that will help you recognize (and avoid!) the con-
human’s, but(b)instead could look more like a cheetah’s?”
straints imposed by mental sets, it’s interesting to note
Questions that force people to consider constraints can
that sometimes creative ideas can also be fostered by
also spur innovative thinking. For example, creative solu-
imposing constraints on your thinking. For example, at a
tions can sometimes emerge when we consciously work to-
time when one company found itself in a very challenging
ward eliminating mental sets. A mental set is the tendency
and competitive business environment, the CEO asked
to perceive a problem in a way that blinds us to possible so-
the following questions: “What if we were legally pro-
lutions. Mental sets are a major barrier to creative thinking.
hibited from selling to our existing customers next year?
They usually trap us “in a box,” leading us to see a problem
How would we make money?” Thinking in terms of re-
in preconceived terms that impede our problem-solving
strictions like this forced people at the company to think
attempts (Thurson, 2008). (Fixations and functional fixed-
about new possibilities they might not previously consid-
ness, which were described in Module 39, are specific types
ered. Thinking in terms of restrictions is also valued at
of mental sets.) Try the problems pictured in ➤ Figure 41.1.
If you have difficulty, try asking yourself what assumptions Google, where one of the nine principles of innovation is
you are making. The problems are designed to demonstrate “Creativity loves constraint.”
the limiting effects of a mental set. (The answers to these
problems, along with an explanation of the mental sets that Seek Varied Input Through Networking
prevent their solution, are found in ➤ Figure 41.2.) If making associations and questioning are important in
An effective way to break mental sets is to frame the boosting creativity, then it’s worth noting that both of these
problem broadly (Thurson, 2008; Reed, 2013). For instance, skills can be enhanced when you regularly exchange ideas
assume that your problem is to design a better doorway. with a wide range of people. Networking with diverse oth-
This is likely to lead to ordinary solutions. Why not change ers can help you consider new questions that you might ask
the problem to design a better way to get through a wall? to challenge the status quo, and can also assist you in mak-
Now your solutions will be more original. Best of all might ing new associations between ideas that at first may seem
be to state the problem as follows: Find a better way to de- unrelated. For example, another MacArthur creative “ge-
fine separate areas for living and working. This could lead to nius,” lawyer Sarah Deer, has championed the idea of bring-
truly creative solutions. ing together diverse professionals in an effort to investigate
Let’s say that you are leading a group that’s design- potential reforms to the justice system that would provide
ing a new can opener. Wisely, you ask the group to think greater assistance to Native American women who are vic-
broadly about opening in general, rather than about can tims of abuse.
openers. This was just the approach that led to the pop- Sometimes networking can simply involve having
top can. As the design group discussed the concept of conversations with other people during social interac-
opening, one member suggested that nature has its own tions. If you find yourself in this situation, try to listen

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 MODU LE 41 C o g n iti o n an d i nte lli g e n C e S k i llS i n aCti o n: C r eativity an d i n n ovati o n 353

The basic rules for successful brainstorming are

(Kaufman, 2009; Michalko, 2006; Scannell & Mulvilhill,
2012):
1. Absolutely do not criticize ideas until later in the session.
2. Modify or combine ideas freely. Don’t worry about giv-
ing credit for ideas or keeping them neat. Mix them up!
3. Try to generate lots of ideas. In the early stages of brain-
storming, quantity is more important than quality.
(a) (b) 4. Let your imagination run amok! Seek unusual, remote,
or wild ideas.
➤ Figure 41.2 5. Record ideas as they occur.
Mental set problem solutions. (a) The dot problem can be 6. Elaborate or improve on the most promising ideas.
solved by extending the lines beyond the square formed by the
dots. Most people assume incorrectly that they may not do this. Observe and Experiment
(b) The match problem can be solved by building a three-
dimensional pyramid. Most people assume that the matches must Creative individuals practice their observation skills by
be arranged on a flat surface. If you remembered the four-tree watching the behavior of people in their everyday lives, tak-
problem from earlier in the chapter, the match problem may have ing note of what they do and say, what frustrates them, and
been easy to solve.
what makes them happy. Often, this type of observation is
combined with the questioning skills that were described
without judging, but rather with the goal of widening earlier. After watching people, then, you might be inclined
your perspective on the world. In the workplace, though, to ask yourself, “Why do they do that?”, “What if they did it
you may find yourself working with a team to complete a this way instead?”, or “How does what I’m seeing differ from
project that requires creative thought. If this is the case, what I expected?” Of course, you may also want to think
you may find it useful to encourage team members to use about taking your observations one step further. For exam-
their diversity to best advantage through a process called ple, Richard Branson, the CEO of Virgin, isn’t just a keen
brainstorming. observer of what’s going on around him: He is well-known
The essence of brainstorming is that producing and for taking notes about everything that he sees, and every
evaluating ideas are kept separate. This encourages the conversation that’s of interest.
kind of divergent thinking that is promoted when you After observing something interesting and asking ques-
work with people who have had different experiences. tions, you might then attempt to answer those questions in a
In group problem solving, each person is encouraged to process of experimentation. Recall from Module 2 that peo-
produce as many ideas as possible without fear of criti- ple interested in psychological experiments begin with ques-
cism (Henningsen & Henningsen, 2013). Only at the end tions and then develop hypotheses about what they believe
of a brainstorming session are ideas reconsidered and will happen. Consider approaching the world with this type
evaluated. As ideas are freely generated, an interesting of hypothesis-testing mindset, which encourages you to ex-
cross-stimulation effect takes place in which one partici- amine your questions and hypotheses out in the world and
pant’s ideas trigger ideas from others (Brown et al., 1998; watch to see whether the results conform to expectations. It’s
Laughlin, 2011). important to recognize that “experimenting” in this sense
Can brainstorming be applied to individual problem isn’t necessarily something that’s happening in a labora-
solving as well? Absolutely! The essential point to remem- tory—anyone can test an idea that he or she has by simply
ber is to suspend judgment. Creative ideas should first be implementing it and then evaluating the consequences.
produced without regard for logic, organization, accu-
racy, practicality, or any other evaluation. In writing an Mental set A predisposition to perceive or respond in a particular way.
essay, for instance, you would begin by writing ideas in Brainstorming Method of creative thinking that separates the pro-
any order, the more the better, just as they occur to you. duction and evaluation of ideas.
Cross-stimulation effect In group problem solving, the tendency of
Later you can go back and reorganize, rewrite, and criti- one person’s ideas to trigger ideas from others.
cize your efforts.

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354 p SyChOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r aCtive lear n i n g

An important thing to remember, though, is that Psychology and Creativity In promoting the impor-
experimenting with ideas can truly be a process of tri- tance of these four “discovery skills,” the authors of The
al and error—don’t be afraid to fail! When your ideas Innovator’s DNA highlight the value of a psychology degree
don’t work or your hypotheses aren’t confirmed, try to in fostering creativity and innovative thinking. As a disci-
establish whether there’s anything to be learned from the pline that places a great deal of value on observing human
experience and then consider how you might use that behavior, asking questions, testing hypotheses, and promot-
information as you move forward. As Thomas Edison once ing engagement with diverse others, studying psychology
remarked, “I haven’t failed. I have simply found 10,000 will put you in a stronger position to live creatively both at
ways that do not work.” work and at play.

MODULE

41 Summary
41.1 how are creativity and innovation related to 41.2 how can creativity and innovation help me in
the study of psychology? my personal and professional life?
41.1.1 Psychologists study how to define and measure 41.2.1 Researchers have suggested that creativity and in-
creativity. novation can be promoted through four “discovery
41.1.2 Creativity has been linked to many areas of psycho- skills”: making associations, asking questions, seeking
logical research, including personality, neuroscience, varied input, and observing/experimenting.
cognition, and intelligence.
41.1.3 Creativity can be shaped by the environment and
developed with practice.

Knowledge Builder Cognition and Intelligence Skills in Action: Creativity

and Innovation

Recite Self-Reflect
1. Creativity has been linked to many areas of psychology, Review the preceding pages and note which methods you
including personality and intelligence. T or F? could use more often to improve the quality of your thinking.
2. The four “discovery skills” outlined in the Innovator’s Now, mentally summarize the points that you especially want
DNA are making associations, asking questions, network- to remember.
ing with diverse others, and observing/experimenting. T
or F? AN SW E R S
3. Creativity is diminished when we place constraints on higher creativity (Davis, 2009).
1. T 2. T 3. F 4. In general, more intense moods are associated with
our thinking. T or F?

Reflect
Think Critically
4. Do you think there is any connection between your
mood and your creativity?

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 MODULE
Motivation and Emotion
Overview of Motives and Emotions 42
No Need to Tell Adele
Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy once commented, “Music is the short-
hand of emotion.” And it’s true, as any highly motivated, deeply
passionate, award-winning pop singer could tell you. But there is
more to motivation and emotion than getting you all excited about
an upcoming concert. The words motivation and emotion derive
from the Latin word movere (to move). Even getting out of bed in
the morning can be difficult if you are unmotivated. And if you are
unaware of your emotions, you will be vulnerable to health problems
such as depression or addiction.

Robert Gauthier/Los Angeles Times/Getty Images

Motives provide the drumbeat of human behavior, and emotions
color its rhythms. As we will see, both play complex roles in our lives.
Even basic motives and emotions are not solely under the control
of the body and are often influenced by external cues, expectations,
learning, cultural values, and other factors. Let’s move on to explore
our motives and emotions.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
42.1 What is motivation, and are there different types of 42.2 Are some motives more basic than others?
motives? 42.3 What happens when emotions are felt?

Motivation—Forces That Push and Pull

Survey Question 42.1 What is motivation, and are there how Sally’s food seeking was aroused by a physical need. Her
different types of motives? search was maintained because her need was not immediately
met, and her actions were guided by possible sources of food.
Motivation refers to the dynamics of behavior—the ways in
which our actions are aroused, maintained, and guided A Model of Motivation
(Deckers, 2010; Petri & Govern, 2013).
Many motivated activities begin with a need, or inter-
Can you clarify that? Imagine that Sally is studying biolo-
nal deficiency. The need that aroused Sally’s search was a
gy in the library. Her stomach begins to growl. She can’t con-
centrate. She grows restless and decides to go to the cafeteria. Motivation A process that arouses, maintains, and guides behavior
Closed. Sally drives to a nearby fast-food outlet, where she fi- toward a goal.
Need An internal deficiency that may energize behavior.
nally eats. Her hunger satisfied, she resumes studying. Notice

355
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356 p sychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

shortage of key nutrients in her body. Needs cause a drive

(state of bodily tension that arises from an unmet need)
to develop. In Sally’s case, the drive was hunger. Drives
activate a response (an action or series of actions) de-
signed to push us toward a goal (the target of motivated Need Drive Response
behavior). Reaching a goal that satisfies the need ends the
chain of events. Thus, a simple model of motivation can (a) High-incentive value goal

be shown in this way:

NEED DRIVE RESPONSE GOAL

(NEED REDUCTION)
Need Drive Response

Aren’t needs and drives the same thing? No. The

(b) Low-incentive value goal
strength of needs and drives can differ (Deckers, 2014). For
example, it is not unusual for older people to suffer from
dehydration (a physical need for water) despite experienc-
ing a lack of thirst (the drive to drink) (Begg, Sinclair, &
Weisinger, 2012).
Now, let’s observe Sally again. It’s a holiday weekend,

© Chad Zuber/Shutterstock.com
and she’s home from school. For dinner, Sally has soup, sal-
ad, a large steak, a baked potato, two pieces of cheesecake,
and three cups of coffee. After dinner, she complains that
she is “too full to move.” Soon after, Sally’s aunt arrives with
a strawberry pie. Sally exclaims that strawberry pie is her
favorite and eats three large pieces! Is this hunger? Certainly, ➤ Figure 42.1
Sally’s dinner already satisfied her biological needs for food. Drive strength. Needs and incentives interact to determine drive
Sally’s “pie lust” illustrates that motivated behavior can be strength (above). (a) Moderate need combined with a high-incentive
energized by the “pull” of external stimuli, as well as by the goal produces a strong drive. (b) Even when a strong need exists,
drive strength may be moderate if a goal’s incentive value is low. It
“push” of internal needs. is important to remember, however, that incentive value lies “in the
Incentives In addition to their ability to fill a need, some eye of the beholder.” No matter how hungry, few people would be
able to eat the pictured roasted grasshoppers. (Does it help that
stimuli offer a “pull,” or incentive—a reward or other stim- they are garnished with tomato, onions, and lime?)
ulus that motivates behavior. Some goals are so desirable
(strawberry pie, for example) that they can motivate behav- 1. Biological motives are based on innate needs that
ior in the absence of an internal need. Other goals offer such must be met for survival. The most important biologi-
a low incentive that they may be rejected even if they meet cal motives are hunger, thirst, pain avoidance, and the
the internal need. Roasted grasshoppers, for instance, are needs for air, sleep, elimination of wastes, and regula-
nutritious. However, it is doubtful that you would eat one, tion of body temperature.
unless you are a contestant on Naked and Afraid.
2. Stimulus motives express our needs for stimulation
Usually, our actions are energized by a mixture of inter-
and information. Examples include activity, curios-
nal needs and external incentives. That’s why a strong need
ity, exploration, manipulation, and physical contact.
may change an unpleasant incentive into a desired goal. Per-
Although such motives also appear to be innate, they
haps you’ve never eaten a grasshopper, but we’ll bet you’ve
are not strictly necessary for survival.
eaten some pretty horrible leftovers when the refrigerator
3. Learned motives are based on learned needs, drives, and
was empty. The incentive value of goals also helps explain
goals. Often social in nature, learned motives help explain
motives that don’t seem to come from internal needs, such
many human activities, such as running for office or audi-
as drives for success, status, or approval (➤ Figure 42.1).
tioning for The Voice. Many learned motives are related
Types of Motives For our purposes, motives can be di- to learned needs for power, achievement, affiliation (the
vided into three major categories: need to be with others), approval, status, and security.

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 MODU lE 42 M otivAti o n An d e M oti o n: ove rvi ew o f M otives An d e M oti o n s 357

Biological Motives and homeostasis 99°

Core body temperature (°F)

How important is air in your life? Water? Sleep? Food? Tem-
perature regulation? Finding a restroom? For most of us,
satisfying biological needs is so routine that we overlook
98°
how much of our behavior these needs guide. But exagger-
ate any of these needs through famine, shipwreck, poverty,
near drowning, bitter cold, or drinking 10 cups of coffee,
and their powerful grip on behavior becomes evident. 97°
Biological drives are essential because they maintain 12:00 4:00 8:00 12:00 4:00 8:00 12:00
Normal Midnight Noon Midnight
homeostasis (HOE-me-oh-STAY-sis), or bodily equilibri- Time
um (Cooper, 2008). The term homeostasis means “stand-
ing steady” or “steady state.” Optimal levels exist for body Eight 8:00 12:00 4:00 8:00 12:00 4:00 8:00
Noon Midnight
temperature, chemicals in the blood, blood pressure, and so Time Zones
East
forth (Goel, 2012; Young, J. K., 2012). When the body devi-
ates from these “ideal” levels, automatic reactions begin to ➤ Figure 42.2
restore equilibrium (Deckers, 2014). Thus, it might help to Circadian rhythm. Core body temperature is a good indicator of a
think of homeostasis as similar to a thermostat set at a par- person’s circadian rhythm. Rapid travel to a different time zone, shift
work, depression, and illness can throw sleep and waking patterns
ticular temperature. out of synchronization with the body’s core rhythm. Mismatches of
this kind are very disruptive (Reinberg & Ashkenazi, 2008). Most
A (Very) Short Course on Thermostats
people reach a low point two to three hours before their normal
The thermostat in your house constantly compares the ac- waking time. It’s no wonder that both the Chernobyl and Three-Mile
tual room temperature to a set point, or ideal temperature, Island nuclear power plant accidents occurred around 4 a.m.
which you can control. When room temperature falls below
the set point, the heat is automatically turned on to warm more motivated and alert at the high point of their circadian
the room. When the heat equals or slightly exceeds the set
rhythms (Bass & Takahashi, 2010; Chipman & Jin, 2009).
point, it is automatically turned off or the air conditioning is
turned on. In this way, room temperature is kept in a state of People with early peaks in their circadian rhythms are
equilibrium hovering around the set point. “day people,” who wake up alert, are energetic early in the
day, and fall asleep early in the evening. People with later
The first reactions to disequilibrium in the human body peaks are “night people,” who wake up groggy, are lively in
are also automatic. For example, if you become too hot, the afternoon or early evening, and stay up late (Martynhak
more blood will flow through your skin and you will begin et al., 2010).
to perspire, thus lowering body temperature. We are often
unaware of such changes, unless continued disequilibrium Jet Lag, Shift Work, and All-Nighters Circadian
drives us to seek shade, warmth, food, or water. rhythms are most noticeable after a major change in time
schedules. Whether you take a long flight, a late shift at work,
or an all-night study session, your circadian rhythms can fall
circadian Rhythms “out of sync” with day-night cycles. When flying, this is most
Our needs and drives can change from moment to mo- likely if you travel great distances east or west. If the peaks
ment. After eating, our motivation to eat more food tends
to diminish, and a few minutes in the hot sun can leave us Drive A state of bodily tension, such as hunger or thirst, that arises
feeling thirsty. But our motivation also can vary over longer from an unmet need.
Response Any action, glandular activity, or other identifiable
cycles, guided by internal “biological clocks.” Every 24 hours, behavior.
your body undergoes a cycle of changes called a circadian Goal The target or objective of motivated behavior.
rhythm (SUR-kay-dee-AN; circa: about; diem: a day) (Dijk Incentive A reward or other stimulus that motivates behavior.
& Lazar, 2012; Goel, 2012). Throughout the day, activities Biological motives Innate motives based on biological needs.
Stimulus motives Innate needs for stimulation and information.
in the liver, kidneys, and endocrine glands undergo large Learned motives Motives based on learned needs, drives, and goals.
changes. Body temperature, blood pressure, and amino acid Homeostasis The steady state of body equilibrium.
levels also shift from hour to hour. These activities, and many Circadian rhythm A 24-hour biological cycle found in humans and
many other species.
others, peak once a day (➤ Figure 42.2). People are usually

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358 p sychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

and valleys of your circadian rhythms fall out of phase with Light exposure can also help. Bright light affects the tim-
the sun and clocks, sleep difficulties are likely to follow (La- ing of body rhythms by reducing the amount of melatonin
zar et al., 2013; Sack, 2010). For example, you might be wide produced by the pineal gland. For this reason, a few inter-
awake at midnight and feel like you’re sleepwalking during mittent 5-minute periods of exposure to bright light early in
the day (return to Figure 42.2). When body rhythms are dis- the morning are helpful for resetting your circadian rhythm
turbed, performance often suffers as well, due to the accom- (Dodson & Zee, 2010; Duffy & Wright, 2005). In contrast,
panying fatigue, irritability, upset stomach, and depression even dim light at night can upset circadian rhythms, reducing
(Teff & Silva, 2015; Wright, Bogan, & Wyatt, 2013). sleep quality and causing weight gain (Fonken et al., 2013).
What can be done to cope with circadian rhythm distur- If you are planning to “burn the midnight oil,” remem-
bances? Circadian rhythms are partially controlled by varia- ber that departing from your regular schedule may cost
tions in levels of melatonin, a hormone produced by the pi- more than it’s worth. You may be motivated to do as much
neal gland. Normally, when light levels fall in the evening, during 1 hour in the morning as you could have done in 3
melatonin levels rise; conversely, when light levels rise in the hours of work after midnight. You might just as well go to
morning, melatonin levels fall (hence the nickname “Dracula sleep 2 hours earlier.
hormone”). Because of this, taking small doses of melatonin In general, if you can anticipate an upcoming body
just before bedtime for a few evenings may help synchro- rhythm change, it is best to preadapt by gradually match-
nize circadian rhythms to the day-night cycle. (Changes in ing your sleep–waking cycle to a new time schedule. Before
melatonin levels are even thought to partly explain winter traveling, for instance, you should go to sleep 1 hour later
depressions that occur when people endure long months of (or earlier) each day until your sleep cycle matches the time
reduced daylight. See Module 62.) at your destination.

Motives in Perspective—A View from the Pyramid

Survey Question 42.2 Are some motives more basic than
use of personal potential self-actualization.) Think about
others?
the needs that influence your own behavior. Which seem
Are all motives equally important? Abraham Maslow pro- strongest? Which do you spend the most time and energy
posed that we humans experience a hierarchy of needs, in satisfying? Now look at Maslow’s hierarchy (➤ Figure 42.3).
which some needs are more basic or powerful than others. Note that biological needs are at the base of the pyra-
(As you may recall from Module 3, Maslow called the full mid. Because these needs must be met if we are to survive,

Growth Needs
Self-actualization as expressed
through meta-needs:
wholeness, perfection, completion,
justice, richness, simplicity, aliveness,
beauty, goodness, uniqueness,
Self- playfulness, truth, autonomy,
actualization meaningfulness
Esteem and
self-esteem
Basic Needs
Love and belonging Esteem and self-esteem

➤ Figure 42.3
Safety and security
Love and belonging
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Maslow
Safety and security
believed that lower needs in the hierarchy
Physiological needs:
are dominant. Basic needs must be air, food, water, sleep, sex, etc. Physiological needs
satisfied before growth motives are fully
expressed. Desires for self-actualization Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
are reflected in various meta-needs.

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 MODU lE 42 M otivAti o n An d e M oti o n: ove rvi ew o f M otives An d e M oti o n s 359

they tend to be prepotent, or dominant over the higher interesting to note, in this regard, that college students who
needs. Maslow believed that higher, more fragile needs are are concerned primarily with money, personal appearance,
expressed only after we satisfy our biological needs. That’s and social recognition score lower than average in vital-
why, when you are really hungry, you can think of little else ity, self-actualization, and general well-being (Kasser, 2016;
but food. This also is true of needs for safety and security. Nickerson, Diener, & Schwarz, 2011).
Until they are met, we may have little interest in higher pur- Maslow’s hierarchy is not well documented by research,
suits. For instance, a person who is feeling threatened might and parts of it are questionable. How, for instance, do we
have little interest in writing poetry or even talking with explain the actions of a person who fasts as part of a social
friends (Noltemeyer et al., 2012). For this reason, Maslow protest? How can the meta-need for justice overcome the
described the first four levels of the hierarchy as basic more basic need for food? (Perhaps the answer is that fasting
needs. Other basic needs are for love and belonging (family, is temporary and self-imposed.) Despite such objections,
friendship, caring) and esteem and self-esteem (recognition Maslow’s views help us understand and appreciate the rich
and self-respect). interplay of human motives (Kenrick et al., 2010; Peterson
All the basic needs are deficiency motives—that is, they & Park, 2010).
are activated by a lack of food, water, security, love, esteem,
or other basic needs. At the top of the hierarchy, we find Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
growth needs, which are expressed as a need for self-ac- Some people cook for a living and consider it hard work. Oth-
tualization. The need for self-actualization is not based on ers cook for pleasure and dream of opening a restaurant. For
deficiencies; rather, it is a positive, life-enhancing force for some people, mountain biking, gardening, writing, photog-
personal growth (Reiss & Havercamp, 2005). Like other hu- raphy, or making jewelry is fun. For others, the same activi-
manistic psychologists, Maslow believed that people are ba- ties are drudgery that they must be paid to do. How can the
sically good. If our basic needs are met, he said, we tend to same activity be work for one person and play for another?
move on to actualizing our potential (Tay & Diener, 2011). According to self-determination theory, when you freely
How are needs for self-actualization expressed? Maslow choose to do something for enjoyment or to improve your
called the less powerful but humanly important actualiza- abilities, your motivation is usually intrinsic (Olafsen et al.,
tion motives meta-needs (return to Figure 42.3). Meta-needs 2015; Ryan, Curren, & Deci, 2013). Intrinsic motivation
are an expression of tendencies to fully develop your per- occurs when we act based on internal rewards without
sonal potentials (Maslow, 1970). When the meta-needs are any obvious external rewards (Patall, Cooper, & Robinson,
unfulfilled, people fall into a “syndrome of decay” marked 2008). We simply enjoy an activity or see it as an opportuni-
by despair, apathy, and alienation. ty to explore, learn, and actualize our potentials. In contrast,
Maslow’s point is that mere survival or comfort is extrinsic motivation stems from factors outside of the per-
usually not enough to make a full and satisfying life. It’s son, such as pay, grades, rewards, obligations, and approval.
Most of the activities we think of as “work” are extrinsically
rewarded (Niemiec, Ryan, & Deci, 2009).

Turning play into Work

Don’t extrinsic incentives strengthen motivation? Yes,
they can, but not always. In fact, excessive rewards can

Hierarchy of needs Maslow’s classification of human motivations

by order of importance from basic biological function to self-
© Michaelpuche/Shutterstock.com

actualization.
Basic needs The first four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy;
lower needs tend to be more potent than higher needs.
Growth needs In Maslow’s hierarchy, the higher-level needs associ-
ated with self-actualization.
Intrinsic motivation Desire to engage in a behavior based on inter-
nal rewards.
Wheelchair athletes engage in vigorous competition. Maslow
Extrinsic motivation Motivation that comes from outside of the
considered such behavior an expression of the need for
person.
self-actualization.

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360 p sychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

decrease intrinsic motivation and spontaneous interest. For

instance, in one classic study, children who were lavishly
rewarded for drawing with felt-tip pens later showed little
interest in playing with the pens again (Greene & Lepper,
1974). Apparently, “play” can be turned into “work” by
requiring people to do something that they would other-
wise enjoy (Patall, Cooper, & Robinson, 2008). When we
are coerced or “bribed” to act, we tend to feel as if we are
“faking it.” Employees who lack initiative and teenagers

Bloomberg/Getty Images
who reject school and learning are good examples of those
who have such a reaction (Olafsen et al., 2015; Niemiec,
Ryan, & Deci, 2009).
Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity Although sala- Intrinsically motivated people like Elon Musk, the founder of
ries and bonuses may increase the amount of work done, innovative companies such as Tesla and SpaceX, feel free to
people are not motivated solely by money. A chance to do explore creative solutions to problems.
challenging, interesting, and intrinsically rewarding work
is often just as important. Work quality is affected more children. In general, (1) if there’s no intrinsic interest in an
by intrinsic factors, such as personal interest and freedom activity to begin with, you have nothing to lose by using
of choice (Moneta, 2012; Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, extrinsic rewards, (2) if basic skills are lacking, extrinsic
2003). When extrinsic motivation is stressed, people are less rewards may be necessary at first, (3) extrinsic rewards
likely to solve tricky problems and come up with innovative can focus attention on an activity so that real interest will
ideas (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010). develop, and (4) if extrinsic rewards are used, they should be
Should extrinsic motivation always be avoided? No, but small and phased out as soon as possible (Buckworth et al.,
extrinsic motivation shouldn’t be overused, especially with 2007; Cameron & Pierce, 2002).

Inside an Emotion—Caught in That Feeling?

Survey Question 42.3 What happens when emotions
the bloodstream. Such bodily stirrings are what cause us
are felt?
to say we were “moved” by a play, a funeral, or an act of
Now that we have looked at motivation, let’s turn our at- kindness.
tention to emotion. An emotion is a feeling state that has Second, emotions often motivate, or move, us to take
physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components. As action. Many of the goals we seek make us feel good.
such, emotions are characterized by physiological arousal, Many of the activities we avoid make us feel bad. We feel
subjective feelings and thoughts, and behavioral changes in happy when we succeed and sad when we fail. Emotions
facial expressions, gestures, and posture. As mentioned pre- are linked to many basic adaptive behaviors, such as at-
viously, the word emotion also derives from the Latin word tacking, fleeing, seeking comfort, helping others, and re-
meaning “to move.” producing. Such behaviors help us survive and adjust to
What “moves” during an emotion? First, your body is changing conditions.
physically aroused during emotion. A pounding heart, It also is apparent that emotions can have negative
sweating palms, “butterflies” in the stomach, and other effects. Stage fright, or performance anxiety, can spoil
bodily reactions are major elements of fear, anger, joy, and performances. Hate, anger, contempt, disgust, and fear
other emotions. Typical physiological changes take place disrupt behavior and relationships. But more often, emo-
in heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other tions aid survival. As social animals, it would be impos-
bodily stirrings. Most are caused by activity in the sym- sible for humans to live in groups, cooperate in raising
pathetic nervous system and by the hormones adrenaline children, and defend one another without emotions
and noradrenaline, which the adrenal glands release into (Buss, D. M., 2012).

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 MODU lE 42 M otivAti o n An d e M oti o n: ove rvi ew o f M otives An d e M oti o n s 361

Emotional feelings and thoughts (a person’s private

emotional experience) are another major element of emo- st Subm
Tru ission
tion. This is the part of emotion with which we are usually
most familiar. Finally, emotional expressions, or outward
signs of what a person is feeling, are yet another ingredi-

Trust
mism
ent of emotion. For example, when you are intensely afraid,

Aw
Jo

a r
y
your hands tremble, your face contorts, your posture be-

Fe
Opti

e
comes tense and defensive, and your voice changes. In gen-
eral, these expressions tell others what emotions we are ex- Anticipation Surprise
periencing (de Gelder, 2013).

D is
on

a ppoi
Sa
ssi
Basic Emotions

er

dn
re

Disgust
An

es

ntme
gg

s
A
How many different emotions are there? That’s a tough ques-

nt
tion to answer. Let’s start by noting that some emotions may
be more basic than others (Ekman & Cordaro, 2011). For empt mo
Re
Cont
example, Robert Plutchik (2003) has identified eight basic
rse

emotions (➤ Figure 42.4): anticipation, joy, trust (accep-

tance), fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, and anger. Less Basic More
What makes these emotions “basic”? In general, our intense emotion intense
basic emotions can arise quickly and without much Interest Anticipation Vigilance
thought. They appear early in infancy, suggesting they are Serenity Joy Ecstasy
relatively unlearned. All humans, and many mammals, Acceptance Trust Admiration
share these basic biological processes (Ekman & Cordaro, Apprehension Fear Terror
2011; Izard, 2011; Panksepp & Watt, 2011). To better un- Distraction Surprise Amazement
derstand what this means, imagine that you’re hiking in
Pensiveness Sadness Grief
the woods and a bear steps onto the trail right in front of
Boredom Disgust Loathing
you. What happens next?
Annoyance Anger Rage
◗ Basic emotions are fast and automatic: Chances are,
your fear level rises rather quickly and without much
➤ Figure 42.4
Plutchik’s model of emotions. Basic and mixed emotions. Robert
reflective processing. (Who thinks to herself, Hmm, a Plutchik’s model has eight basic emotions, as listed in the inner areas.
bear. Maybe I should be afraid?) This is an example of Adjacent emotions (top part) may combine to give the emotions listed
experiential processing (see Module 37). As we’ll shortly around the perimeter. Mixtures involving more widely separated
emotions also are possible. For example, fear plus anticipation
see, basic emotions such as fear are likely first processed
produces anxiety. (Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological
by subcortical brain structures in the limbic system Association. Adapted with permission from Robert Plutchik, Emotions
(Arnsten, Mazure, & Sinha, 2012). and Life: Perspectives from Psychology, Biology, and Evolution. The
◗ Basic emotions develop early: Recall from Module 13 use of APA information does not imply endorsement by the APA.)

that basic emotions develop early in infancy, unfolding ◗ Basic emotions are shared with other mammals: It
mainly because of maturation (Music, 2011). Simply is highly likely that we share the experience of basic
put, even young children show fast, automatic basic emotions with other mammals. Being chased by a bear
emotional responses (such as fear) to a bear. wouldn’t feel like fun to a deer, either.
◗ Basic emotions are universal among humans: It
appears that people the world around, more or less Emotion A feeling state that has physiological, cognitive, and behav-
independent of their cultures, experience the same basic ioral components.
Adaptive behaviors Actions that aid attempts to survive and adapt
emotions. As we discuss in Module 44, all humans make to changing conditions.
the same facial expressions. You would know instantly, Basic emotions According to Plutchik’s theory, the most basic emo-
just by looking, if someone from, say, the island of Java tions are fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy,
and acceptance.
is afraid. (It’s that pesky bear again.)

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362 p sychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

There must be more than eight emotions, right? If eight 3

seems too few, it’s because each emotion can vary in inten-
sity. When you’re angry, for instance, you may feel anything Pleasant
2
from rage to simple annoyance. Also, as shown in the top
part of Figure 42.4, each pair of adjacent basic emotions can
be mixed to yield a third, more complex emotion. For ex- 1
ample, mixing anger and disgust produces contempt. Other

Daily mood
mixtures also are possible. For example, 5-year-old Tupac
0
feels both joy and fear as he eats a cookie that he stole from
Mom’s cookie jar. The result? Guilt—as you may recall from
your own childhood. Likewise, jealousy could be a mixture –1
of love, anger, and fear.
A mood is the mildest form of emotion (➤ Figure 42.5).
–2
Moods are low-intensity emotional states that can last for
many hours or even days. Moods often affect day-to-day be- Unpleasant

havior by predisposing us to act in certain ways. For exam- –3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
ple, when your neighbor Roseanne is in an irritable mood,
Day
she may react angrily to almost anything you say. When she
is in a happy mood, she can easily laugh off an insult. Happy, ➤ Figure 42.5
positive moods tend to make us more adaptable in several Moods by the week. Folklore holds that people who work or
attend school on a weekly schedule experience their lowest moods
ways. For example, when you are in a good mood, you are on “Blue Monday.” Actually, moods generally tend to be lower for
likely to make better decisions, and you will be more help- most weekdays than they are on weekends. The graph shown here
ful, efficient, creative, and peaceful (Compton & Hoffman, plots the average daily moods of a group of college students over
a five-week period. As you can see, many people find that their
2013; Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005).
moods rise and fall on a seven-day cycle. For most students, a low
Like our motives, our moods are closely tied to circa- point tends to occur around Monday or Tuesday and a peak on
dian rhythms. When your body temperature is at its daily Friday or Saturday. In other words, moods are shaped by weekly
low point, you are more likely to feel “down” emotionally. schedules. (Adapted from Larsen & Kasimatis, 1990.)
When body temperature is at its peak, your mood is likely
to be positive—even if you missed a night of sleep (Boivin,
Mood A low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state.
Czeisler, & Waterhouse, 1997; McClung, 2011).

MODULE

42 summary
42.1 What is motivation, and are there different 42.1.5 Most biological motives operate to maintain homeo-
types of motives? stasis.
42.1.1 Motives arouse, maintain, and guide behavior. 42.1.6 Circadian rhythms of body activity are closely tied to
Motivation typically involves the following sequence: sleep, activity, and energy cycles. Time zone travel,
need, drive, goal, and goal attainment (need shift work, and pulling all-nighters can seriously
reduction). disrupt sleep and body rhythms.
42.1.2 Behavior can be activated either by needs (push) or
42.2 Are some motives more basic than others?
by goals (pull).
42.2.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of motives categorizes needs as
42.1.3 The attractiveness of a goal and its ability to initiate
either basic or growth oriented.
action are related to its incentive value.
42.2.2 Lower needs in the hierarchy are assumed to be pre-
42.1.4 Three principal types of motives are biological mo-
potent (dominant) over higher needs.
tives, stimulus motives, and learned motives.

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 MODU lE 42 M otivAti o n An d e M oti o n: ove rvi ew o f M otives An d e M oti o n s 363

42.2.3 Self-actualization, the highest and most fragile need, 42.3.2 The basic emotions of anticipation, joy, trust (ac-
is reflected in meta-needs. ceptance), fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, and anger
42.2.4 Meta-needs are closely related to intrinsic motivation. can be mixed to produce more complex emotional
In some situations, external rewards can undermine experiences.
intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, and creativity.

42.3 What happens when emotions are felt?

42.3.1 An emotion consists of physiological changes, adap-
tive behavior, emotional expressions, and emotional
feelings.

Knowledge Builder Motivation and Emotion: Overview of Motives

and Emotions

Recite Reflect
1. Needs provide the _______________________ Think critically
of motivation, whereas incentives provide the 8. Many U.S. college freshmen say that “being well-off
______________________. financially” is an essential life goal and that “making
2. The maintenance of bodily equilibrium is called thermo- more money” was a very important factor in their deci-
stasis. T or F? sion to attend college. Which meta-needs are fulfilled by
3. Desirable goals are motivating because they are high in “making more money”?
_________ value.
a. secondary self-Reflect
b. stimulus What effects do high- and low-incentive goals have on your
c. homeostatic behavior?
d. incentive Reflect on some biological, stimulus, and learned
4. The highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of motives motives you have satisfied today. How did each influence
involves your behavior?
a. meta-needs Name an activity you do that is intrinsically motivated and
b. needs for safety and security one that is extrinsically motivated. How do they differ?
c. needs for love and belonging How did your most emotional moment of the past week
d. extrinsic needs affect your behavior, expressions, feelings, and physical state?
5. Intrinsic motivation is often undermined in situations in
AN sW E R s
which external rewards are applied to a naturally enjoy- 1. push, pull 2. F 3. d 4. a 5. T .6 expressions 7. F 8. None of them
able activity. T or F?
6. Emotional ___________________ often communicate a
person’s emotional state to others.
7. Awe, remorse, and disappointment are among the basic
emotions listed by Robert Plutchik. T or F?

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MODULE

43 Motivation and Emotion

Motivation in Detail

Jump!
Where would you prefer to go on your next summer vacation? Your
backyard? A week with your best friends at a cottage on a nearby
lake? A shopping and museum trip to New York City? None of
that will do for Natalie, who loves to skydive. If rapidly falling to
Earth attracts you, you too are probably high in sensation seeking
and would be interested in a vacation that includes activities such as
bungee jumping, skiing, diving with sharks, and white-water rafting.
We are moved each day by a diverse array of motives, from bio-
logical motives such as hunger, to stimulus motives such as sensa-

© Mauricio Graiki/Shutterstock.com
tion seeking, to learned motives such as the need for achievement.
Furthermore, our motives can be surprisingly complex. For exam-
ple, while hunger might seem like a simple motive, it is still not fully
understood. Grab a snack and read on to explore motivation in
greater detail.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
43.1 What causes hunger, overeating, and eating disorders? 43.3 How does arousal relate to motivation?
43.2 In what ways are pain and the sex drive unlike hunger 43.4 What are learned and social motives, and why are
and thirst? they important?

Hunger—Pardon Me, My Hypothalamus Is Growling

Survey Question 43.1 What causes hunger, overeating, Internal Factors in Hunger
and eating disorders?
Don’t feelings of hunger originate in the stomach? To find
You get hungry, you find food, and you eat. What could be out, Walter Cannon and A. L. Washburn (1912) decided
simpler? Yet, hunger is actually a complex motive. Like al- to see whether stomach contractions cause hunger. In an
most every other human motive, our hunger levels are af- early study, Washburn trained himself to swallow a bal-
fected by both internal bodily factors and external environ- loon, which could be inflated through an attached tube.
mental and social ones. To understand how this works, let’s (You, too, will do anything for science, right?) This allowed
begin with a survey of some of the internal factors control- Cannon to record the movements of Washburn’s stomach
ling our hunger. (➤ Figure 43.1). When Washburn’s stomach contracted, he

364
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 MODU LE 43 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: M otivati o n i n d Etai l 365

Record of stomach ➤ Figure 43.1

contractions Measuring hunger. In Walter Cannon’s early study of
Gastric
balloon hunger, a simple apparatus was used to simultaneously
record hunger pangs and stomach contractions. (Adapted
Time record from Cannon, 1934.)
in minutes

Record of
hunger pangs

Record of
breathing

reported that he felt “hunger pangs.” In view of this, the two

scientists concluded that hunger is nothing more than the
contractions of an empty stomach. (This, however, proved
to be an inflated conclusion.)
For many people, hunger produces an overall feeling of
weakness or shakiness, rather than a “growling” stomach. Of
course, eating does slow when the stomach is stretched or
distended (full). (Remember last Thanksgiving?) However,
we now know that the stomach is not essential for feeling Hypothalamus

hunger. Even if the nerve carrying information between

your stomach and brain were severed, you would still feel
hungry and eat regularly (Petri & Govern, 2013).
➤ Figure 43.2
Then what does cause hunger? Many different factors The hypothalamus. Location of the hypothalamus in the human
combine to promote and suppress hunger (Young, A. A., brain.
2012). The brain receives many signals from parts of the di-
gestive system, ranging from the tongue and stomach to the begins eating. (The term lateral simply refers to the sides of
intestines and the liver. the hypothalamus. See ➤ Figure 43.3.) If the same area is
destroyed (hence no “start button”), the animal may never
The Brain and the Short-Term Control of Hunger
eat again.
What part of the brain controls hunger? Although no single
The lateral hypothalamus is normally activated in a
“hunger thermostat” exists, a small subcortical area of the
variety of ways. For example, when you are hungry, your
brain called the hypothalamus (HI-po-THAL-ah-mus) is
stomach lining produces ghrelin (GREL-in), a hormone that
especially important (Young, J. K., 2012). It regulates emo-
activates your lateral hypothalamus (Castañeda et al., 2010).
tional behaviors and basic biological needs, including hun-
Ghrelin also activates parts of your brain involved in learn-
ger, thirst, and the sex drive (➤ Figure 43.2; see Module 10).
ing. This means you should consider studying before you
The hypothalamus is sensitive to levels of a variety of
eat, not immediately afterward (Diano et al., 2006).
substances in the blood, such as sugar. It also receives neu-
How do we know when to stop eating? A second area
ral messages from the digestive system. For example, as the
in the hypothalamus functions as a satiety “stop button”
levels of blood sugar (glucose) drop, the liver responds by
(Ribeiro et al., 2009). If the ventromedial (VENT-ro-
sending nerve impulses to the brain. When combined, these
MEE-dee-al; bottom middle) hypothalamus is destroyed
signals determine whether you are hungry (Freberg, 2016;
(hence no “stop button”), dramatic overeating results. Rats
Woods & Ramsay, 2011).
One part of the hypothalamus acts as a feeding “start
Hypothalamus A small area of the brain that regulates emotional
button.” If the lateral hypothalamus is “turned on” with behaviors and basic biological needs.
an electrified probe, even a well-fed animal immediately

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366 p sycHOLO Gy M o d u lEs fo r activE lEar n i n g

Corpus Lateral
callosum hypothalamus

Ventromedial Paraventricular
hypothalamus nucleus

➤ Figure 43.3
Hypothalamic areas that control eating. This is a cross section
through the middle of the brain (viewed from the front). Indicated
Damage to the hunger satiety system in the hypothalamus can
areas of the hypothalamus are associated with hunger and the
produce a very fat rat, a condition called hypothalamic hyperphagia
regulation of body weight.
(Hi-per-FAGE-yah), which means “overeating.” This rat weighs
1,080 grams. (The pointer has gone completely around the dial and
beyond.) Dr. Neal E. Miller, Yale University.
with such damage eat until they balloon up to weights of
1,000 grams or more. A normal rat weighs about 180 grams.
To put this weight gain in human terms, picture someone The Brain and the Long-Term Control of Weight
you know who weighs 180 pounds growing to a weight of In addition to knowing when to start eating and when meals
1,000 pounds. are over, your brain also controls your weight over long
A chemical called glucagonlike peptide 1 (GLP-1) also periods of time. Like a thermostat, your brain maintains a
is involved in causing eating to cease. After you eat a meal, set point in order to control your weight over the long term.
GLP-1 is released by the intestines. From there, it travels in It does this by monitoring the amount of fat stored in your
the bloodstream to the hypothalamus. When enough GLP-1 body in specialized fat cells (Ahima & Osei, 2004; Gloria-
arrives, your desire to eat ends (Hayes, De Jonghe, & Kanoski, Bottini, Magrini, & Bottini, 2009).
2010). As you might imagine, GLP-1 pills show promise in Your set point is the weight that you maintain when
the treatment of obesity (Hayes, 2012). By the way, it takes at you are not trying to gain or lose weight. When your body
least 10 minutes for the hypothalamus to respond after you weight goes below its set point, you will feel hungry most
begin eating. That’s why you are less likely to overeat if you of the time. On the other hand, fat cells release a substance
eat slowly, which gives your brain time to get the message called leptin when your “spare tire” is well inflated. Leptin
that you’ve had enough (Liu et al., 2000). is carried in the bloodstream to the hypothalamus, where it
The paraventricular (PAIR-uh-ven-TRICK-you-ler) tells us to eat less (Woods & Ramsay, 2011).
nucleus of the hypothalamus also affects hunger (see Can you change your fat set point? Your leptin levels are
Figure 43.3). This area helps keep blood sugar levels steady partly under genetic control. In rare cases, mice (and we hu-
by both starting and stopping eating. The paraventricular mans) inherit a genetic defect that reduces leptin levels in
nucleus is sensitive to a substance called neuropeptide the body, leading to obesity. In such cases, taking leptin can
Y (NPY). If NPY is present in large amounts, an animal help (Berman et al., 2013). For the rest of us, the news is not
will eat until it cannot hold another bite (Petri & Govern, so encouraging. Currently, there is no known way to lower
2013). Incidentally, the hypothalamus also responds to a your set point for fat because the number of fat cells remains
chemical in marijuana, which can produce intense hunger unchanged throughout adult life (Spalding et al., 2008).
(the “munchies”) (Bermudez-Silva et al., 2010). To make matters worse, radical diets do not help. (But you

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 MODU LE 43 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: M otivati o n i n d Etai l 367

knew that already, didn’t you?) They may even raise the set All-you-can-eat dining halls in the dorms and nighttime
point for fat (Ahima & Osei, 2004). You may not be able to snacking appear to be the culprits (Kapinos & Yakusheva,
lose weight by resetting your hypothalamus, but psycholo- 2011). The presence of others also can affect whether people
gists have studied more effective approaches to weight loss. overeat (or undereat), depending on how much everyone
We examine some later in this module. else is eating and how important it is to impress them (Pliner
The substances that we have reviewed here are only & Mann, 2004).
some of the chemical and neural signals that start and stop
Taste and Plenty You may have noticed that if you eat
eating (Turenius et al., 2009). Others continue to be discov-
too much of any particular food, it becomes less appealing.
ered. In time, they may make it possible to artificially influ-
For example, if you are well fed, leptin dulls the tongue’s sen-
ence hunger. If so, better treatments for extreme obesity and
sitivity to sweet tastes (Domingos et al., 2011). If you have
self-starvation could follow (Marco et al., 2012).
noticed that you lose your “sweet tooth” when you are full,
External Factors in Hunger and Obesity you may have observed this effect. Overindulging a particu-
lar food can even lead to a taste aversion, or active dislike,
As we have seen, “hunger” is affected by more than just the
for a particular food. This can happen if a food causes sick-
“push” of our biological needs for food. In fact, if internal
ness or if it is merely associated with nausea (Chance, 2014).
needs alone controlled eating, fewer people would over-
A friend of one of your authors once became ill after eating
eat (Stroebe, Papies, & Aarts, 2008). Nevertheless, roughly
too many cheese Danishes (way too many) and hasn’t been
65 percent of adults in the United States are currently over-
able to face them since.
weight and more than one-third are obese (extremely over-
These shifts in taste probably help us maintain variety
weight) (Fryar, Carroll, & Ogden, 2014; ➤ Figure 43.4). As
in our diets and even avoid severe nutritional imbalances.
a result, obesity is overtaking smoking as a major cause of
For example, if you go on a fad diet and eat only grapefruit,
needless deaths (Dietz, 2015; Freedman, 2011). Let’s con-
you eventually will begin to feel ill. In time, associating your
sider some external influences on hunger and their role in
discomfort with grapefruit may create an aversion to it and
obesity, a major health risk and, for many, a source of social
restore some balance to your diet.
stigma and low self-esteem.
In our society of plenty, unfortunately, shifts in taste
External Eating Cues Most of us are sensitive to the may end up encouraging obesity. The availability of a variety
“pull” of external eating cues, signs and signals linked with of tasty foods means that we can easily shift what we eat.
food. In cultures like ours, in which food is plentiful, eat-
ing cues add greatly to the risk of overeating (Casey et al., Set point (for fat) The proportion of body fat that tends to be main-
tained by changes in hunger and eating.
2008). Many college freshmen gain weight rapidly during Taste aversion An active dislike for a particular food.
their first three months on campus (the famous “Frosh 15”).

Overweight and Obese in America: An Epidemic

80

70
Percentage of Americans who are

60
overweight or obese

50
Obese
40
Overweight
30

20 ➤ Figure 43.4
The obesity epidemic. A near-epidemic of
10 obesity has occurred in the United States
during the last 30 years, with two-thirds of all
0 Americans now classified as overweight or
1960– 1971– 1976– 1988– 2005– 2009– obese. (Adapted from Centers for Disease
1962 1974 1980 1994 2008 2012 Control, 2015d; Fryar, Carroll, & Ogden, 2014.)

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368 p sycHOLO Gy M o d u lEs fo r activE lEar n i n g

If you overdose on hamburgers or French fries, moving on you will lose weight on most fad diets, you will likely gain
to some cookies or chocolate cheesecake certainly won’t do it back when you stop dieting. In fact, many people end up
your body much good (Pinel, Assanand, & Lehman, 2000). weighing even more than before they dieted (Freedman,
2011). Why should this be so? Dieting (starving) slows the
Emotional Eating Is it true that people also overeat when
body’s rate of metabolism (the rate at which energy is used).
they are emotionally upset? Yes. People with weight problems
In effect, a dieter’s body becomes highly efficient at con-
are prone to overeat when they are anxious, angry, or sad
serving calories and storing them as fat (Pinel, Assanand, &
(Macht & Simons, 2011). Furthermore, obese individuals
Lehman, 2000).
are often unhappy in our fat-conscious culture. For them,
Apparently, evolution prepared us to save energy when
overeating leads to more emotional distress and still more
food is scarce and to stock up on fat when food is plentiful.
overeating (Davis & Carter, 2009).
Briefly starving yourself, therefore, may have little lasting
Cultural Factors Learning to think of some foods as desir- effect on weight. “Yo-yo dieting,” or repeatedly losing and
able and others as revolting has a large impact on what we eat. gaining weight, is especially dangerous. Frequent changes in
In North America, we would never consider eating the eyes weight can dramatically slow the body’s metabolic rate. As
out of the steamed head of a monkey, but in some parts of the noted earlier, this may raise the body’s set point for fat and
world they are considered a delicacy. By the same token, veg- make it harder to lose weight each time a person diets and
ans and vegetarians shun eating any kind of meat. In short, easier to regain weight when the diet ends. Frequent weight
cultural preferences greatly affect the incentive value of foods. changes also increase the risk for heart disease and prema-
ture death (Wang & Brownell, 2005). To avoid bouncing be-
Dieting tween feast and famine, a permanent change in eating habits
A diet is not just a way to lose weight. Your current diet is and exercise is required.
defined by the types and amounts of food you regularly eat. To summarize, eating and overeating are related to in-
Some diets actually encourage overeating. For instance, plac- ternal and external influences—to diet, emotions, genetics,
ing animals on a “supermarket” diet leads to gross obesity. In exercise, and many other factors. We live in a culture that pro-
one classic experiment, rats were given meals of chocolate vides inexpensive, good-tasting food everywhere, and have a
chip cookies, salami, cheese, bananas, marshmallows, milk brain that evolved to say, “Eat whenever food is available.”
chocolate, peanut butter, and fat. These pampered rodents People become obese in different ways and for differ-
overate, gaining almost three times as much weight as rats ent reasons. Nevertheless, many people have learned to take
that ate only laboratory chow (Sclafani & Springer, 1976). control of eating by applying psychological principles.
(Rat chow is a dry mixture of several bland grains. If you were
a rat, you’d probably eat more cookies than rat chow, too.) Behavioral Dieting If you really want to lose weight,
People also are sensitive to dietary content. In gener- keep it off, and be healthy, you must overhaul your eating
al, sweetness, high fat content, and variety tend to encour- and exercise habits, an approach called behavioral dieting
age overeating (Dobson & Gerstner, 2010). Unfortunately, (Freedman, 2011; Kiernan et al., 2013). Here are some help-
North American culture provides the worst kinds of foods ful behavioral techniques:
for people who suffer from obesity. For example, restaurant 1. Get yourself committed to weight loss. If you are eat-
and fast food tend to be higher in fat and calories than meals ing healthy and exercising, but still need to lose some
made at home (Kessler, 2009). “Supersized” meals are an- weight, begin by committing yourself to lose that weight
other problem. Food portions at restaurants in the United by restricting your calorie intake and increasing your
States are 25 percent larger, or more, than they are in France. exercise. Involve other people in your efforts. Programs
Far fewer people are obese in France, most likely because such as Overeaters Anonymous or Take Off Pounds
they simply eat less. The French also take longer to eat a Sensibly can be good sources of social support (Mitchell
meal, which discourages overeating (Rozin et al., 2003). et al., 2010).
An added problem faced by people who want to control
2. Learn your eating habits by observing yourself and
their weight concerns “yo-yo” dieting.
keeping a “diet diary.” Begin by making a complete,
The Paradox of Yo-Yo Dieting If dieting works, why two-week record of when and where you eat, what
are hundreds of “new” diets published each year? You can’t you eat, and the feelings and events that occur just
go through life eating only grapefruit and protein. Although before and after eating. Is someone encouraging you

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 MODU LE 43 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: M otivati o n i n d Etai l 369

to overeat? What are your most “dangerous” times and Dull your appetite by filling up on raw carrots, bouillon,
places for overeating? water, coffee, or tea.
3. Chart your daily progress. Record your weight, the 10. Set a “threshold” for weight control. Maintaining
number of calories eaten, and whether you met your weight loss can be even more challenging than losing
daily goal. Set realistic goals by cutting down calories weight. It is easier to maintain weight loss if you set a
gradually. Losing about a pound per week is realistic, regain limit of three pounds or fewer. In other words, if
but remember that you are changing your habits, not you gain more than two or three pounds, you immedi-
just dieting. ately make corrections in your eating habits and amount
4. Eat a balanced, healthy diet that you can stick with of exercise (Kessler, 2009).
over the long run. Resist thinking of dieting as a special
Be patient. It takes years to develop eating habits. You
kind of short-term, restricted-eating regime. Your diet
can expect it to take at least several months to change them.
is simply what you eat over the long term. According to
If you are unsuccessful at losing weight with these tech-
doctor and researcher David Katz, fad diets don’t work.
niques, you might find it helpful to seek the aid of a psy-
The best way to eat is to eat healthy by minimizing intake
chologist familiar with behavioral weight-loss techniques.
of processed foods and meats (Katz & Meller, 2014).
5. Incorporate exercise into your life to stay healthy over Eating Disorders
the long run. No diet can succeed for long without an Under the sheets of her hospital bed, Krystal looks like a
increase in exercise. To lose weight, you must use more skeleton. Victims of anorexia suffer devastating weight loss-
calories than you take in. Burning just 200 extra calo- es from severe, self-inflicted dieting (Kaye et al., 2013). If
ries a day can help prevent rebound weight gains. Add she cannot overcome her anorexia nervosa (AN-uh-REK-
activity to your routine in every way you can think of. see-yah ner-VOH-sah: self-starvation), Krystal may die of
Use a fitness tracker to count the number of steps you malnutrition or other complications. Anorexia is a type of
take every day. The more frequently and vigorously you
exercise, the healthier you will become and more weight
you will lose (Annesi & Marti, 2011).
6. Learn to weaken your personal eating cues. When you
have learned when and where you do most of your eat-
ing, avoid these situations. Try to restrict your eating
to one room, and do not read, watch television, study,
or talk on the phone while eating. Require yourself to
interrupt what you are doing in order to eat.
Pascal Le Segretain/Getty Images

7. Don’t starve yourself. If you have trouble eating less

every day, try dieting four days a week. People who diet
intensely every other day lose as much as those who diet
moderately every day.
8. Develop techniques to control the act of eating.
Whenever you can, check for nutritional information Anorexia nervosa is far more dangerous than many people realize.
This haunting Italian anti-anorexia poster shows 68-pound model
and buy groceries and meals lower in calories and fat.
Isabelle Caro, who suffered from anorexia for years up until her
Begin to take smaller portions. Carry to the table only death in 2010 at age 28. Many celebrities have struggled with
what you plan to eat. Put all other food away before eating disorders, including Karen Carpenter (who died of starvation-
leaving the kitchen. Eat slowly, sip water between bites induced heart failure), Paula Abdul, Kirstie Alley, Fiona Apple,
Victoria Beckham, Princess Diana, Tracey Gold, Janet Jackson, and
of food, leave food on your plate, and stop eating before
Mary-Kate Olsen.
you are completely full.
9. Avoid snacks. It is generally better to eat more small
meals a day than fewer large ones because more calories Behavioral dieting Weight reduction based on changing exercise
are burned. (No, we don’t mean high-calorie snacks in and eating habits, rather than temporary self-starvation.
Anorexia nervosa An eating disorder characterized by a distorted
addition to meals.) If you have an impulse to snack, set a body image and maintenance of unusually low body weight.
timer for 20 minutes and see if you are still hungry then.

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370 p sycHOLO Gy M o d u lEs fo r activE lEar n i n g

feeding and eating disorder—a problem managing food

Table 43.1 recognizing Eating disorders
intake that manifests itself in forms such as a life-threaten-
ing failure to maintain sufficient body weight. Anorexia Nervosa
Do anorexics lose their appetite? Although a compul-
sive attempt to lose weight causes them to not seek or de- ◗ Refusal to maintain body weight in normal range. Body
weight at 85 percent or less of normal for one’s height and age.
sire food, anorexics usually still feel physical hunger. Often,
anorexia starts with “normal” dieting that slowly begins to ◗ Intense fear of becoming fat or gaining weight, even though
dominate the person’s life. In time, anorexics suffer debilitat- underweight.
ing health problems, including the highest mortality rates of ◗ Disturbance in one’s body image or perceived weight. Self-
all the mental illnesses (Krantz et al., 2012). ■ Table 43.1 lists evaluation is unduly influenced by body weight. Denial of
the symptoms of anorexia nervosa. seriousness of abnormally low body weight.
Bulimia nervosa (bue-LIHM-ee-yah) is a second ma-
◗ Purging behavior (vomiting or misuse of laxatives or
jor eating disorder (Bardone-Cone et al., 2008; Dryer, Tyson, diuretics).
& Kiernan, 2013). Bulimic persons gorge on food, and then
vomit or take laxatives to avoid gaining weight (see Table 43.1). Bulimia Nervosa
Binging without purging is a separate disorder called binge ◗ Recurring binge eating. Eating—within an hour or two—an
eating disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). amount of food that is much larger than most people would
Binging and purging seriously damages health. Typical risks consume. Feeling a lack of control over eating.
include sore throat, hair loss, muscle spasms, kidney damage, ◗ Purging behavior (vomiting or misuse of laxatives or
dehydration, tooth erosion, swollen salivary glands, menstrual diuretics). Excessive exercise to prevent weight gain. Fasting
irregularities, loss of sex drive, and even heart attack. to prevent weight gain.
About 1 percent of all adults suffer from anorexia,
◗ Self-evaluation is unduly influenced by body weight.
along with 3 percent who are bulimic. But these are only
the most serious cases. As many as 14 to 22 percent of all
Adapted from American Psychiatric Association (2013).
adolescents experience some form of disordered eating
(Swanson et al., 2011). too far: About 25 percent of anorexics and bulimics are now
males (Jones & Morgan, 2010; Wooldridge & Lytle, 2012).
Men and Eating Disorders While women are more
prone to develop them, eating disorders are on the rise Causes What causes anorexia and bulimia? People who
among men. More and more men also are experiencing suffer from eating disorders are extremely dissatisfied with
muscle dysmorphia, or excessive worry about not being their bodies (Trentowska, Bender, & Tuschen-Caffier, 2013).
muscular enough (Fang & Wilhelm, 2015; Nieuwoudt et al., Usually, they have distorted views of themselves. Women
2012). Currently, one-third of men say they want less body have low self-esteem and exaggerated fears of becoming fat.
fat and another third want more muscles. As a result, many Many overestimate their body size by 25 percent or more. As
men are altering what they eat and exercising excessively a result, they think they are disgustingly “fat” when in reality
(Hartmann, Greenberg, & Wilhelm, 2013). Some are going they are wasting away (➤ Figure 43.5) (Polivy & Herman,

➤ Figure 43.5
Rating body shape. Women with abnormal eating
habits were asked to rate their body shape on a
scale similar to the one you see here. As a group,
they chose ideal figures much thinner than what they
thought their current weights were. (Most women say
they want to be thinner than they currently are, but to
a lesser degree than women with eating problems.)
Notice that the women with eating problems chose 2 3 4 5
an ideal weight that was even thinner than what they
thought men prefer. This is not typical of most women.
In this classic study, only women with eating problems Perceived ideal weight Actually most attractive to men
wanted to be thinner than what they thought men find
attractive (Zellner, Harner, & Adler, 1989). Perceived as most attractive to men Perceived current weight

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 MODU LE 43 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: M otivati o n i n d Etai l 371

2002). Men generally think they are not muscular enough perfect control in their lives by being perfectly slim (Castro
if they are not “cut” or do not have a “six-pack” (Jones & et al., 2004; Keating, 2010). People suffering from bulimia
Morgan, 2010). also are concerned with control (Bardone-Cone et al., 2008).
Many of these problems are related to the idealized Typically, they are obsessed with thoughts of weight, food,
body images presented in the media (Hausenblas et al., eating, and ridding themselves of food. As a result, they feel
2013). Some websites even go so far as to celebrate anorex- guilt, shame, self-contempt, and anxiety. Vomiting reduces
ia and bulimia (referred to by “fans” as “Ana” and “Mia”; their anxiety, which makes purging highly reinforcing.
Borzekowski et al., 2010; Juarez, Soto, & Pritchard, 2012).
Girls who spend a lot of time reading fashion magazines or Treatment Most people suffering from eating disorders do
visiting these websites are more likely to have distorted body not seek help on their own. This is especially true for men
images and unrealistic ideas about how they compare with because eating disorders are still widely perceived to be a
others (Ahern, Bennett, & Hetherington, 2008; Martinez- female problem (Jones & Morgan, 2010; Weltzin et al., 2005).
Gonzalez et al., 2003). Typically, it takes strong urging by family or friends to get
The popularity of fitness, exercise, and sports also has victims into treatment.
contributed to eating disorders. Today, more people are Treatment for anorexia usually begins with giving drugs
changing their diets in search of a lean, muscular look. Peo- to relieve obsessive fears of gaining weight. Then, a medical
ple engaged in sports that require low body fat or extreme diet is used to restore weight and health. Next, a counselor
weight loss (such as wrestling, gymnastics, pole vaulting, may help patients work on the emotional conflicts that
high jumping, and even cycling) are particularly likely to led to weight loss. For bulimia, behavioral counseling may
develop eating disorders (Weltzin et al., 2005). include self-monitoring of food intake. A related cognitive-
People with eating disorders appear to be trying to gain behavioral approach focuses on changing the thinking
some measure of control. Anorexic teen girls are usually patterns and beliefs about weight and body shape that
described as “perfect” daughters—helpful, considerate, con- perpetuate eating disorders (Galsworthy-Francis & Allan,
forming, and obedient. They seem to be rewarded by seeking 2014; Waller et al., 2014).

Biological Motives Revisited—Thirst, Pain, and Sex

Survey Question 43.2 In what ways are pain and the sex A second type of thirst occurs when you eat a salty meal.
drive unlike hunger and thirst? In this instance, your body does not lose fluid. Instead, ex-
cess salt causes fluid to be drawn out of cells. As the cells
Most biological motives work in ways that are similar to
“shrink,” intracellular thirst is triggered. Thirst of this type
hunger. For example, thirst is only partially controlled by
is best quenched by plain water (Thornton, 2010).
dryness of the mouth. If you were to take a drug that made
your mouth constantly wet, or dry, your water intake would pain
remain normal. Like hunger, thirst is regulated by separate
Not all drives are governed by circadian rhythms. While
thirst and thirst satiety systems in the hypothalamus. Also
hunger, thirst, and sleepiness come and go in a fairly regular
like hunger, thirst is strongly affected by learning and cul-
cycle each day, pain avoidance is an episodic (ep-ih-SOD-ik)
tural values.
drive: It occurs in distinct episodes when bodily damage
Thirst
Feeding and eating disorder A problem managing food intake that
You may not have noticed, but there are two kinds of thirst manifests itself in forms such as a life-threatening failure to main-
(Thornton, 2010). Extracellular thirst occurs when water tain sufficient body weight.
Bulimia nervosa A disorder marked by excessive eating followed by
is lost from the fluids surrounding the cells of your body.
inappropriate methods of preventing weight gain.
Bleeding, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, and drinking alco- Extracellular thirst Thirst caused by a reduction in the volume of
hol cause this type of thirst (Petri & Govern, 2013). When a fluids found between body cells.
person loses both water and minerals in any of these ways— Intracellular thirst Thirst triggered when fluid is drawn out of cells
due to an increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the
especially by perspiration—a slightly salty liquid may be cells.
more satisfying than plain water.

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372 p sycHOLO Gy M o d u lEs fo r activE lEar n i n g

takes place or is about to occur. Most drives prompt us to

actively seek a desired goal (food, drink, warmth, and so
forth). Pain prompts us to avoid or eliminate sources of
discomfort.
Some people feel that they must be “tough” and not
show any distress. Others complain loudly at the smallest
ache or pain. The first attitude raises pain tolerance, and the
second lowers it. As this suggests, the drive to avoid pain is
partly learned. That’s why members of some societies en-
dure cutting, burning, whipping, tattooing, and piercing

Reuters/Sivaram V
of the skin that would agonize most people (Chang, 2009).
(Apparently, devotees of piercing and “body art” can relate.)
In general, we learn how to react to pain by observing fam-
ily members, friends, and other role models (McMahon & Tolerance for pain and the strength of a person’s motivation to avoid
Koltzenburg, 2013). discomfort are greatly affected by cultural practices and beliefs,
such as the self-infliction of pain by this penitent at a Hindu festival.
The sex Drive
Human sexual behavior and attitudes are discussed in detail testosterone) provided by the testes. When the supply of an-
in Module 47. For now, it is worth noting that sex is unlike drogens dramatically increases at puberty, so does the male
most other biological motives because sex (contrary to any- sex drive. Likewise, the sex drive in women is related to
thing your personal experience might suggest) is not nec- their estrogen levels (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014). However,
essary for individual survival. It is necessary, of course, for “male” hormones also affect the female sex drive. In addi-
group survival. tion to estrogen, a woman’s body produces small amounts of
The term sex drive refers to the strength of one’s mo- androgens. Testosterone levels decline with age, and various
tivation to engage in sexual behavior. In lower animals, the medical problems can lower sexual desire. In some instanc-
sex drive is directly related to hormones. Female mammals es, taking testosterone supplements can restore the sex drive
(other than humans) are interested in mating only when in both men and women (Crooks & Baur, 2017).
their fertility cycles are in the stage of estrus, or “heat.” Perhaps the most interesting fact about the sex drive is
Estrus is caused by a release of estrogen (one of several types that it is largely nonhomeostatic—relatively independent of
of female sex hormone) into the bloodstream. Hormones body need states. In humans, the sex drive can be aroused
are important in males as well. But in contrast to females, at virtually any time by almost anything. Therefore, it shows
the normal male animal is almost always ready to mate. His no clear relationship to deprivation (the amount of time
sex drive is aroused primarily by the behavior and scent of since the drive was last satisfied). Certainly, an increase in
a receptive female. Therefore, in many species, mating is desire may occur as time passes. But recent sexual activity
closely tied to female fertility cycles. does not prevent sexual desire from occurring again. Notice,
How much do hormones affect human sex drives? Hor- too, that people may seek to arouse the sex drive as well as to
mones affect the human sex drive, but not as directly as in reduce it. This unusual quality makes the sex drive capable
animals (Rosenthal, M., 2013). The sex drive in men is re- of motivating a wide range of behaviors. It also explains why
lated to the amount of androgens (male hormones such as sex is used to sell almost everything imaginable.

Stimulus Motives—Monkey Business

Survey Question 43.3 How does arousal relate to
arousal for different people and different activities? Let’s
motivation?
find out.
Are you full of energy right now, or are you tired? Clear- What do you mean by arousal? Arousal refers to the
ly, the level of arousal that you are experiencing is close- activation of the body and nervous system. Arousal is
ly linked with your motivation. Are there ideal levels of zero at death, low during sleep, moderate during normal

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 MODU LE 43 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: M otivati o n i n d Etai l 373

daily activities, and high at times of excitement, emotion, prevents boredom and overstimulation (Csikszentmihalyi,
or panic. Abuhamdeh, & Nakamura, 2005).
Most people enjoy a steady “diet” of new movies, nov-
Sensation Seekers Sensation seeking is a trait of
els, music, fashions, games, news, websites, and adventures.
people who prefer high levels of stimulation (Lynne-
Yet, stimulus motives, which reflect needs for information,
Landsman et al., 2011). Whether you are high or low
exploration, manipulation, and sensory input, go beyond
in sensation seeking is probably based on how your
mere entertainment. Stimulus motives also help us sur-
body responds to new, unusual, or intense stimulation
vive. As we scan our surroundings, we constantly identify
(Cservenka et al., 2013; Harden, Quinn, & Tucker-Drob,
sources of food, danger, shelter, and other key details. The
2012). People high in sensation seeking tend to be bold,
drive for stimulation is already present during infancy. By
independent, and value change. They also report more
the time a child can walk, few things in the home have not
sexual partners, are more likely to smoke, and prefer
been tasted, touched, viewed, handled, or, in the case of
spicy, sour, and crunchy foods over bland foods. Low
toys, destroyed!
sensation seekers are orderly, nurturant, and giving, and
Stimulus motives are readily apparent in animals as well
they enjoy the company of others.
as humans. For example, monkeys will quickly learn to solve
Exciting lives aside, sensation seeking has a dark side
a mechanical puzzle made up of interlocking metal pins,
(Dunlop & Romer, 2010). High sensation seekers are more
hooks, and latches (Butler, 1954). No food treats or other
likely to engage in high-risk behaviors such as substance
external rewards are needed to get them to explore and ma-
abuse and casual unprotected sex (Delhomme, Chaurand, &
nipulate their surroundings. The monkeys seem to work for
Paran, 2012; Harden, Quinn, & Tucker-Drob, 2012).
the sheer fun of it.

Arousal Theory peak performance

Are stimulus motives homeostatic? Yes. According to arousal Is there an ideal level of arousal for peak performance? If
theory, we try to keep arousal at an optimal level (Hancock we set aside individual differences, most people perform
& Ganey, 2003; Petri & Govern, 2013). Arousal theory as- best when their arousal level is moderate. Let’s say that you
sumes that we become uncomfortable when arousal is too have to take an essay exam. If you are feeling sleepy or lazy
low (“I’m bored”) or when it is too high, as in fear, anxiety, (arousal level too low), your performance will suffer. If you
or panic (“The dentist will see you now”). In other words, are in a state of anxiety or panic about the test (arousal level
when your level of arousal is too low or too high, you will too high), you also will perform below par. Thus, the rela-
seek ways to raise or lower it. Most adults vary music, par- tionship between arousal and performance forms an invert-
ties, sports, conversation, sleep, surfing the web, and the like ed U function (a curve in the shape of an upside-down U;
to keep arousal at moderate levels. The right mix of activities ➤ Figure 43.6) (Petri & Govern, 2013).
The inverted U tells us that at very low levels of arousal,
you’re not sufficiently energized to perform well. Perfor-
mance will improve as your arousal level increases, up to
the middle of the curve. Then, it begins to drop off as you
become emotional, frenzied, or disorganized. For example,
imagine trying to start a car stalled on a railroad track, with

Sex drive The strength of one’s motivation to engage in sexual

Harlow Center for Biological Psychology

behavior.
Estrus Changes in the sexual drives of animals that create a desire
for mating; particularly used to refer to females in heat.
Estrogen Any of a number of female sex hormones.
Androgen Any of a number of male sex hormones, especially
testosterone.
Nonhomeostatic drive A drive that is relatively independent of
physical deprivation cycles or body need states.
Monkeys happily open locks that are placed in their cage. Because Arousal theory Assumes that people prefer to maintain ideal, or
no reward is given for this activity, it provides evidence for the comfortable, levels of arousal.
existence of stimulus needs.

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374 p sycHOLO Gy M o d u lEs fo r activE lEar n i n g

High

High

High
s
es
Efficiency of performance Emotional

rtn
Optimal

ale
disturbance—
level

Performance

Performance
overly

sing
aroused
Increa

Sleep Disorganization
Coma Frenzy Optimum Optimum
Panic
Low

Low

Low
Low High Low High Low High
Arousal level Arousal level Arousal level
(a) Inverted U function (b) Simple task (c) Complex task

➤ Figure 43.6
Relationship between arousal and efficiency. (a) The general relationship between arousal and efficiency can be described by an
inverted U curve. The optimal level of arousal or motivation is higher for a simple task (b) than for a complex task (c).

a speeding train bearing down on you. That’s what the high- too late. That’s why improving your study skills is a good
arousal end of the curve feels like. way to reduce test anxiety (Cassady, 2004). Not studying
Is performance always best at moderate levels of arousal? while remaining calm simply means that you will calmly
No, the ideal level of arousal depends on the complexity of fail the test. The best solution is to overprepare by study-
a task. If a task is relatively simple, it is best for arousal to be ing long before the “big day.” Well-prepared students score
high. When a task is more complex, your best performance higher, worry less, and are less likely to panic (Kaplan, 2008;
will occur at lower levels of arousal. This relationship is Santrock & Halonen, 2013). If test anxiety is a problem for
called the Yerkes-Dodson law (see Figure 43.6). It applies to you, it would be wise to return to Module 1 and review the
a wide variety of tasks and to measures of motivation other learning and test-taking skills described there.
than arousal.
Relaxation Learning to relax is another way to lower test
For example, at a track meet, it is almost impossible
anxiety (Bradley et al., 2010; Mowbray, 2012). (You can learn
for sprinters to get too aroused for a race. The task is di-
self-relaxation skills by reading Module 67.) Emotional sup-
rect and simple: run as fast as you can for a short distance.
port also helps (Stöber, 2004). If you are test anxious, discuss
On the other hand, a golfer making a tournament-deciding
the problem with your professors or study for tests with a
putt faces a more sensitive and complex task. Excessive
supportive classmate.
arousal is almost certain to hurt his or her performance.
In school, most students have had experience with “test Rehearsal To reduce nervousness, rehearse how you will
anxiety,” a familiar example of how too much arousal can cope with upsetting events. Before taking a test, imagine
lower performance. yourself going blank, running out of time, or feeling panicked.
Then, calmly plan how you will handle each situation—by
coping with Test Anxiety keeping your attention on the task, by focusing on one ques-
Then, is it true that by learning to calm down, a person would tion at a time, and so forth (Watson & Tharp, 2014).
do better on tests? Usually, but not always. To begin with,
Restructuring Thoughts Another helpful strategy in-
some arousal is healthy; it focuses us on the task at hand. It is
volves listing the upsetting thoughts that you have during
only when arousal interferes with performance that we refer
exams. Then, you can learn to combat these worries with
to anxiety. Test anxiety is a mixture of heightened physio-
calming, rational replies (Olpin & Hesson, 2016). (These
logical arousal (nervousness, sweating, pounding heart) and
are called coping statements; see Module 59 for more infor-
excessive worry. This combination—arousal plus worry—
mation.) Let’s say you think, “I’m going to fail this test and
tends to distract students with a rush of upsetting thoughts
everybody will think I’m stupid.” A good reply to this upset-
and feelings (Conley & Lehman, 2012; Sparfeldt et al., 2013).
ting thought would be to say, “If I prepare well and control
Here are some suggestions for coping with test anxiety:
my worries, I will probably pass the test. Even if I don’t, it
Preparation Hard work is the most direct antidote for test won’t be the end of the world. My friends will still like me,
anxiety. Many test-anxious students simply study too little, and I can try to do better on the next test.”

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 MODU LE 43 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: M otivati o n i n d Etai l 375

Students who cope well with exams usually try to do increase your scores because it helps you remain calm.
the best they can, even under difficult circumstances. With practice, most people can learn to be less testy at test-
Becoming a more confident test taker can actually taking time.

Learned Motives—The Pursuit of Excellence

Survey Question 43.4 What are learned and social mo- Hall, & Fishburne, 2008).They tend to complete difficult
tives, and why are they important? tasks, they earn better grades, and they tend to excel in their
occupations. College students high in nAch attribute suc-
Some of your friends are more interested than others in suc-
cess to their own ability; they attribute failure to insufficient
cess, achievement, competition, money, possessions, status,
effort. Thus, high nAch students are more likely to renew
love, approval, grades, dominance, power, or belonging to
their efforts when they perform poorly. When the going gets
groups—all of which are social motives or goals. We acquire
tough, high achievers get going.
social motives in complex ways, through socialization and
You may be able to improve your achievement motiva-
cultural conditioning (Deckers, 2014). The behavior of out-
tion by increasing your self-confidence (Hanton, Mellalieu,
standing artists, scientists, athletes, educators, and leaders is
best understood in terms of such learned needs, particularly
the need for achievement.

The Need for Achievement

To many people, being “motivated” means being inter-
ested in achievement (Petri & Govern, 2013; van de Pol &
Kavussanu, 2012). In other modules, we investigate aggres-
sion, helping, affiliation, seeking approval, and other social
motives. For now, let’s focus on the need for achievement
(nAch), which is a drive to excel in one’s endeavors
(McClelland, 1961). People with a high nAch strive to do well
any time they are evaluated (Steinmayr & Spinath, 2009).
Is that like the aggressive businessperson who strives for
success? Not necessarily. It’s true that nAch may lead to
wealth and prestige, but people who are high achievers in
art, music, science, or amateur sports may excel without
MANAN VATSYAYANA/AFP/Getty Images

seeking riches. Such people typically enjoy challenges and

relish a chance to test their abilities.
Characteristics of People High in nAch So you want
to be a success. To best achieve your goals, would it be better
to be naturally talented or determined? (Yes, we know you
would definitely prefer to have it both ways. So would we.) It
probably will not surprise you to learn that, in general, drive Venus and Serena Williams possess high achievement motivation.
and determination, not great natural talent, lead to excep- They have become professional tennis champions by playing with
perseverance, passion, and self-confidence.
tional success (Duckworth et al., 2007). Elite performance
in music, sports, chess, the arts, and many other pursuits
Yerkes-Dodson law A summary of the relationships among arousal,
requires at least 10 years of dedicated practice (Ericsson & task complexity, and performance.
Charness, 1994; Ross, 2006). The old belief that “talent will Test anxiety High levels of arousal and worry that seriously impair
surface” on its own is largely a myth. test performance.
How can this be? When people high in nAch tackle Social motives Learned motives acquired as part of growing up in a
particular society or culture.
a task, they do so with perseverance, passion, and self- Need for achievement (nAch) The drive to excel in one’s endeavors.
confidence (Duckworth et al., 2007; Munroe-Chandler,

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376 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

& Hall, 2004). It is easier to perform an activity or reach a Self-confidence affects motivation by influencing the
goal with perseverance and passion when you believe that challenges you will undertake, the effort you will make, and
you can be successful. When you tackle an important task, how long you will persist when things don’t go well. You can
how many of the items on the following list can you check be confident that self-confidence is worth cultivating.
off? To enhance self-confidence, you would be wise to
do as many as possible (Watson & Tharp, 2014; Munroe- The Need for power
Chandler, Hall, & Fishburne, 2008):
The need for achievement differs from the need for
◗ Set goals that are specific and challenging but attainable. power, which is a desire to have impact or control over
◗ Visualize the steps that you need to take to reach your others (McClelland, 1975; Sommer et al., 2012). People
goal. with strong needs for power want their importance to be
◗ Advance in small steps. visible: they buy expensive possessions, wear prestigious
◗ When you first acquire a skill, your goal should be to clothes, and exploit relationships. In some ways, the pur-
make progress in learning. Later, you can concentrate on suit of power and financial success is the dark side of the
improving your performance compared with other people. American dream. People whose main goal in life is to
◗ Get expert instruction that helps you master the skill. make lots of money tend to be poorly adjusted and un-
◗ Find a skilled model (someone good at the skill) to happy (Kasser, 2016).
emulate.
◗ Get support and encouragement from an observer.
Need for power The desire to have social impact and control over
◗ If you fail, regard it as a sign that you need to try harder, others.
not that you lack ability.

MODULE

43 summary
43.1 What causes hunger, overeating, and eating 43.2 In what ways are pain and the sex drive
disorders? unlike hunger and thirst?
43.1.1 Hunger is influenced by a complex interplay between 43.2.1 Like hunger, thirst and other basic motives are pri-
fullness of the stomach, blood sugar levels, metabo- marily under the central control of the hypothalamus.
lism in the liver, and fat stores in the body. 43.2.2 Thirst may be either intracellular or extracellular.
43.1.2 The hypothalamus exerts the most direct control of 43.2.3 Pain avoidance is unusual because it is episodic as op-
eating, through areas that act like feeding and satiety posed to cyclic. Pain avoidance and pain tolerance are
systems. The hypothalamus is sensitive to both neural partially learned.
and chemical messages, which affect eating. 43.2.4 The sex drive also is unusual in that it is nonhomeo-
43.1.3 Other factors influencing hunger are the body’s set static.
point, external eating cues, the attractiveness and
43.3 how does arousal relate to motivation?
variety of diet, emotions, learned taste preferences
and aversions, and cultural values. 43.3.1 Drives for stimulation are partially explained by
43.1.4 Obesity is the result of internal and external influ- arousal theory, which states that an ideal level of body
ences, diet, emotions, genetics, and exercise. arousal will be maintained if possible.
43.1.5 The most effective way to lose weight is behavioral 43.3.2 The desired level of arousal or stimulation varies
dieting, which is based on techniques that change from person to person.
eating patterns and exercise habits. 43.3.3 Optimal performance on a task usually occurs
43.1.6 Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are two prom- at moderate levels of arousal. This relationship is
inent eating disorders. Both tend to involve conflicts described by an inverted U function. The Yerkes-
about self-image, self-control, and anxiety. Dodson law further states that for simple tasks, the

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 MODU LE 43 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: M otivati o n i n d Etai l 377

ideal arousal level is higher, and for complex tasks, it 43.4.2 Social motives are learned through socialization and
is lower. cultural conditioning.
43.4.3 People high in need for achievement (nAch) are suc-
43.4 What are learned and social motives, and
why are they important? cessful in many situations due to their perseverance,
passion, and self-confidence.
43.4.1 Learned motives, including social motives, account
for much of the diversity of human motivation.

Knowledge Builder Motivation and Emotion: Motivation in Detail

Recite Reflect
1. Maintaining your body’s set point for fat is closely linked Think critically
with the amount of __________ in the bloodstream. 8. Kim, who is overweight, is highly sensitive to external
a. hypothalamic factor-1 eating cues. How might her wristwatch contribute to her
b. ventromedial peptide-1 overeating?
c. NPY
d. leptin Self-Reflect
2. People who frequently diet tend to benefit from practice: A friend of yours is yo-yo dieting. Can you explain to her or
They lose weight more quickly each time they diet. T or F? him why such dieting is ineffective? Can you summarize how
3. In addition to changing eating habits, a key element of behavioral dieting is done?
behavioral dieting is Does arousal theory seem to explain any of your own
a. exercise behavior? Think of at least one time when your performance
b. well-timed snacking was impaired by arousal that was too low or too high.
c. better eating cues Are you high or low in your need for stimulation?
d. commitment to “starving” every day Do you think you are high or low in nAch? When faced
4. Pain avoidance is a(n) _________________________ with a challenging task, are you high or low in perseverance?
drive. Passion? Self-confidence?
5. Exploration, manipulation, and curiosity provide
evidence for the existence of _____________________ AN sW E R s
motives. at mealtimes, regardless of their internal needs for food.
6. Complex tasks, such as taking a classroom test, tend to be ence eating, especially for externally cued eaters, who tend to get hungry
disrupted by high levels of arousal, an effect predicted by 1. d 2. F 3. a 4. episodic 5. stimulus 6. b 7. c 8. The time of day can influ-

a. sensation seeking
b. the Yerkes-Dodson law
c. studies of circadian arousal patterns
d. studies of nAch
7. People high in nAch show high levels of perseverance,
passion, and ____________ .
a. control
b. intelligence
c. self-confidence
d. sensation seeking

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MODULE

44 Motivation and Emotion

Emotion in Detail

Worldwide Anger?
Picture the face of an angry person ready to fight an intruder, and it’s
easy to see that motivation and emotion are closely related. But are
emotional expressions universal? Masks that are meant to be fright-
ening or threatening are strikingly similar around the world. Most
have an open, downward-curved mouth and diagonal or triangular
eyes, eyebrows, nose, cheeks, and chin. (Keep this list in mind next
Halloween.) Obviously, the pictured mask is not meant to be warm
and cuddly. Your ability to “read” its emotional message suggests that
basic emotions and their expressions have universal biological roots.

Günter Flegar/imageBROKER/Alamy Stock Photo

Because emotions shape relationships and color daily activities
worldwide, it is worth seeking answers to questions such as the fol-
lowing: How does the body respond during emotion? Do facial ex-
pressions really reveal what others are feeling? How do culture and
learning affect expressions? Are there different theories of emotion?
Let’s look “under the mask” for some answers.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
44.1 What physiological changes underlie emotion, and can 44.3 How do psychologists explain emotions?
“lie detectors” really detect lies?
44.2 How accurately are emotions expressed by the face
and “body language”?

Physiology and Emotion—Arousal and Lying

Survey Question 44.1 What physiological changes under-
lie emotion, and can “lie detectors” really detect lies?
numerous other body changes. These reactions are nearly
An African Bushman is frightened by a lion. A city dweller universal because they are innate. As you may recall from
is frightened by a prowler. Will they react in much the same Module 7, activity of the ANS is automatic, rather than vol-
way? Yes. Such encounters usually produce muscle tension, untary (Freberg, 2016). Specifically, they are caused by the
a pounding heart, irritability, dryness of the throat and autonomic nervous system (ANS)—the part of the periph-
mouth, sweating, butterflies in the stomach, frequent urina- eral nervous system that connects the brain with internal
tion, trembling, restlessness, sensitivity to loud noises, and organs and glands.

378
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 MODU LE 4 4 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: E M oti o n i n d Etai l 379

Fight or Flight restoring balance, the parasympathetic system helps build

up and conserve the body’s energy.
The ANS has two divisions: the sympathetic branch and the
The parasympathetic system responds much more slow-
parasympathetic branch. The two branches are active at all
ly than the sympathetic system. That’s why a pounding heart,
times. Whether you are relaxed or aroused at any moment
muscle tension, and other signs of arousal don’t fully settle
depends on the relative activity of both branches.
down for 20 or 30 minutes after you feel an intense emo-
What does the ANS do during emotion? In general,
tion, such as fear. Moreover, after a strong emotional shock,
the sympathetic branch activates the body for emergency
the parasympathetic system may overreact and lower blood
action—for “fighting or fleeing.” It does this by arousing
pressure too much. This can cause you to become dizzy or
some body systems and inhibiting others (➤Figure 44.1).
faint after seeing something shocking, such as a horrifying
Sugar is released into the bloodstream for quick energy, the
accident.
heart beats faster to supply blood to the muscles, digestion
is temporarily slowed, blood flow in the skin is restricted to
reduce bleeding, and so forth. Such reactions improve the
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) The system of nerves carrying
chances of surviving an emergency. information to and from the internal organs and glands.
The parasympathetic branch reverses emotional Sympathetic branch The branch of the ANS that arouses the body’s
arousal, calming and relaxing the body. After a period of internal organs.
Parasympathetic branch The branch of the ANS that quiets the
high emotion, the heart is slowed, the pupils return to nor- body’s internal organs.
mal size, blood pressure drops, and so forth. In addition to

Eyes ➤ Figure 44.1

Narrow pupil, stimulate tears
Dilate pupil, inhibit tears The autonomic nervous system.
Mouth The parasympathetic branch of the
Increases saliva
Sweat Glands Decreases saliva ANS calms and quiets the body.
Inhibited, palms The sympathetic branch arouses
are dry the body and prepares it for emergency
Perspiration, palms Heart
action.
are wet Heartbeat slows
Speeds up heartbeat

Hair
Lungs Relaxed
Bronchi narrow, breathing Stands on end
relaxed
Bronchi dilate to take in
more oxygen
Liver
Releases bile for digestion
Releases blood sugar for
quick energy
Skin
Vessels dilate, increase
blood flow
Vessels constrict, skin cold
and clammy Stomach and Intestines
Increase digestion and movement
Decrease digestion, divert blood
to muscles

Parasympathetic
Sympathetic

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380 p sychOLO Gy M o d u lEs fo r activE lEar n i n g

Lie Detectors to your heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and perspi-
ration under such circumstances? Psychologist David
You undoubtedly know that criminals are not always truth-
Lykken (1998, 2001) has documented many cases in which
ful. But what you may not know is that up to 25 percent
innocent people were convicted on the basis of polygraph
of all wrongful convictions include false confessions as evi-
evidence.
dence (Kassin, 2005). The most popular method for detect-
To minimize this problem, skilled polygraph examiners
ing falsehoods measures the bodily changes that accompany
might use the guilty knowledge test (Hakun et al., 2009). A
emotion. Unfortunately, the accuracy of “lie detector” tests
series of multiple-choice questions are asked; one answer is
is doubtful, and they can be a serious invasion of privacy
correct. For example, one question might be: “Was the gun
(Bunn, 2012; Meijer & Verschuere, 2010).
that killed Hensley a: (a) Colt; (b) Smith & Wesson; (c) Wal-
How do lie detectors work? The lie detector is more
ther PPK; or (d) Luger?” A guilty person who knew which
accurately called a polygraph, a word that means “many
gun she had used may show an elevated response to the
writings” (➤ Figure 44.2). The polygraph was invented in
correct answer. Because an innocent person couldn’t know
1915 by psychologist William Marston, who also created
which gun was involved, she could only respond similarly to
the comic book character Wonder Woman, a superhero
all four alternatives (Iacono, 2011).
whose “magic lasso” could force people to tell the truth
Although proponents of lie detection claim it is 95 per-
(Grubin & Madsen, 2005). Although popularly known as
cent accurate, errors may occur even when questioning is
a lie detector because the police use it for that purpose, in
done properly (Bunn, 2012). But in one study, accuracy was
reality, the polygraph is not a lie detector at all. A suspect is
dramatically lowered when people thought about past emo-
questioned while “hooked up” to a polygraph, which typi-
tional experiences as they answered irrelevant questions
cally records changes in heart rate, blood pressure, breath-
(Ben-Shakhar & Dolev, 1996). Similarly, the polygraph may
ing, and the galvanic skin response (GSR). The GSR is
be thrown off by self-inflicted pain, by tranquilizing drugs,
recorded from the hand by electrodes that measure skin
or by people who can lie without anxiety. Worst of all, the
conductance, or, more simply, sweating. Because the de-
test is much more likely to label an innocent person guilty
vice records only general emotional arousal, it can’t tell the
rather than a guilty person innocent (Nahari, 2012). In stud-
difference between lying and fear, anxiety and excitement
ies involving real crimes, an average of one innocent person
(Iacono, 2008).
in five was rated as guilty by the lie detector (Lykken, 2001).
Couldn’t an innocent but nervous person fail a poly-
For such reasons, the National Academy of Sciences (2003)
graph test? Absolutely. In one case, a woman named Donna
has concluded that polygraph tests should not be used to
was arrested for violating a restraining order against Marie.
screen employees.
Even though she claimed she was having lunch instead of
Despite the lie detector’s flaws, you may be tested for
harassing Marie, she failed a polygraph test (Geddes, 2008).
employment or for other reasons. Should this occur, the best
Put yourself in her place, and it’s easy to see why. Imagine
advice is to remain calm; then, actively challenge the results
the examiner asking, “Did you drive up to Marie, curse at
if the machine wrongly questions your honesty.
her, and then drive away?” Because you know Marie, and
Isn’t there a better way to detect lies? Possibly. Harassment
you already know what you have been charged with, it’s no
charges against Donna were dropped when a functional
secret that this is a critical question. What would happen

➤ Figure 44.2
Polygraph. (photo) A typical
polygraph measures heart rate, Respiration
blood pressure, respiration, and
GSR. Pens mounted on the top
of the machine record bodily GSR
Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works

responses on a moving strip of

paper (graph). Changes in the
area marked by the arrow indicate Blood pressure
emotional arousal. If such responses
appear when a person answers a
question, he or she may be lying, Heart rate
but arousal may have other causes.

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 MODU LE 4 4 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: E M oti o n i n d Etai l 381

magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan revealed that she Cingulate gyrus Mammillary body
was indeed telling the truth (see Module 8). Brain scans
Thalamus
like fMRI directly measure brain activity, thus bypassing
the traditional approach of measuring indirect signs of
emotional arousal (Hakun et al., 2009; Lefebvre et al.,
2007). For example, researchers have found that different
brain areas are involved in telling a lie. Psychiatrist Daniel
Langleben (2008) theorizes that a liar must inhibit telling
the truth in order to lie. Thus, extra brain areas must be Fornix

activated to tell a lie, which can be seen in brain images

when people are lying.
Even if new methods are used, the key problem remains: Hippocampus
How can we avoid falsely classifying liars as truth tellers and Hypothalamus
truth tellers as liars? Until that can be done with acceptable
accuracy, any new technique may have no more value than
the polygraph (Choi, 2015).
Amygdala

➤ Figure 44.3
Emotion and the Brain Parts of the limbic system. Parts of the limbic system. An
Imagine this test of willpower: Go to a zoo and place your amygdala can be found buried beneath the temporal lobes on
each side of the brain (see Module 10). The subcortical limbic
face close to the glass in front of a rattlesnake display. Sud-
system is a sort of “primitive core” of the brain strongly associated
denly, the rattlesnake strikes at your face. Do you flinch? with emotion. The amygdala appears to provide “quick and dirty”
Even though you know that you are safe, Joseph LeDoux processing of emotional stimuli that allows us to react involuntarily
predicts that you cannot avoid recoiling from the attack to danger.
(LeDoux, 2000, 2012).
According to LeDoux, this basic fear response is to more or less complicated emotional feelings. Several
automatic and not under the control of higher brain cen- interesting, and very human, curiosities arise because of
ters (it is a form of experiential processing). Instead, the this “two-layer” processing. For example, you can feel very
amygdala, a part of the limbic system, receives sensory in- afraid and yet clearly think that you have nothing to be
formation directly, bypassing the cortex (➤ Figure 44.3; afraid of. You can even have positive and negative emo-
see Module 10 for more information). This subcortical tions at the same time.
circuit allows us to respond quickly to potential danger How is that possible? Positive emotions are processed
before we really know what’s happening (Johansen et al., mainly in the left hemisphere of the brain. In contrast, nega-
2012). The role of the amygdala in fear may explain why tive emotions are processed in the right hemisphere (Nijboer
people who suffer from phobias and disabling anxiety & Jellema, 2012; Simon-Thomas, Role, & Knight, 2005). In
often feel afraid without knowing why (Schlund & one study, people watching their favorite soccer team play
Cataldo, 2010). Other basic emotions also may be well showed activity in both hemispheres but showed activ-
processed first in the limbic system. ity only in the right hemisphere when they were losing (Park
People who suffer damage to the amygdala become et al., 2009).
“blind” to emotion. An armed robber could hold a gun to Later, we will attempt to put all the elements of emo-
a person’s head and the person with damage to his or her tion together into a single picture. But first, we need to
amygdala wouldn’t feel fear. Such people also are unable to look more closely at physiological arousal and emotional
“read” or understand other people’s emotional expressions, expressions
especially as conveyed by their eyes (Adolphs, 2008). Many
lose their ability to relate normally to friends, family, and Polygraph A device for recording heart rate, blood pressure, respira-
coworkers. tion, and galvanic skin response; commonly called a “lie detector.”
Even if they are basic emotions and processed first Guilty knowledge test A polygraph procedure involving testing
people with facts that only a guilty person could know.
in the limbic system, all emotions are eventually sent to Amygdala A part of the limbic system associated with fear responses.
the cortex for reflective processing, where they give rise

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382 p sychOLO Gy M o d u lEs fo r activE lEar n i n g

Expressing Emotions—Making Faces and Talking Bodies

Survey Question 44.2 How accurately are emotions expressions (Prodan, Orbelo, & Ross, 2007). Imagine, for ex-
expressed by the face and “body language”? ample, that you just received an “F” on an unfair test. Quite
Next to our own feelings, the expressions of others are the likely, your eyes, eyebrows, and forehead would reveal anger,
most familiar part of emotion. Are emotional expressions a and your mouth would be turned downward in a sad frown.
carryover from human evolution? Charles Darwin thought
so. Darwin (1872) observed that angry tigers, monkeys, cultural Differences
dogs, and humans all bare their teeth in the same way. in Expressing Emotion
Psychologists believe that emotional expressions evolved Some facial expressions are shaped by learning and may be
to communicate our feelings to others, which aids survival. found only in specific cultures. Among the Chinese, for ex-
Such messages give valuable hints about what other people ample, sticking out the tongue is a gesture of surprise, not
are likely to do next (Kalat & Shiota, 2012). For instance, in of disrespect or teasing. If a person comes from another
one study, people were able to detect angry and scheming culture, it is wise to remember that you may easily misun-
faces faster than happy, sad, or neutral faces (➤ Figure 44.4). derstand his or her expressions. At such times, knowing the
Presumably, we are especially sensitive to threatening faces social context in which an expression occurs helps clarify its
because they warn us of possible harm (Adolphs, 2008; meaning (Carroll & Russell, 1996; Kalat & Shiota, 2012).
Panksepp & Watt, 2011). How many times have you expressed anger this week? If
it was more than once, you’re not unusual. In Western cul-
Facial Expressions tures, expressing anger is widely viewed as a “natural” re-
Are emotional expressions the same for all people? Basic ex- action to feeling that you have been treated unfairly. Very
pressions appear to be fairly universal. Facial expressions of likely this is because our culture emphasizes personal inde-
fear, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise, and happiness (enjoy- pendence and free expression of individual rights and needs.
ment) are fairly well recognized around the world (Dailey In contrast, many Asian cultures place a high value on group
et al., 2010; Smith et al., 2005). Expressions of contempt and harmony. In Asia, expressing anger in public is less com-
interest also may be universal (Ekman, 1993). Notice that mon, and anger is regarded as less “natural.” This is because
this list covers most of the basic emotions described previ- anger tends to separate people. Thus, for many Asians, being
ously. Children who are born blind have little opportunity to angry is at odds with a culture that values cooperation.
learn emotional expressions from others. Even so, they also Culture also influences positive emotions. In the United
display basic expressions in the same way as sighted people States, we tend to have positive feelings such as pride, happi-
(Galati, Scherer, & Ricci-Bitti, 1997). It’s also nice to note ness, and superiority, which emphasize our role as individu-
that a smile is the most universal and easily recognized facial als. In Japan, positive feelings are more often linked with
expression of emotion. membership in groups (friendly feelings, closeness to oth-
There are more than a few facial expressions, aren’t there? ers, and respect) (Markus et al., 2006).
Yes. Your face can produce thousands of different expressions, It is common to think of emotion as an individual event.
which makes it the most expressive part of your body. Most However, as you can see, emotion is shaped by cultural ideas,
of these are facial blends—a mixture of two or more basic values, and practices (Boiger & Mesquita, 2012).

Angry Sad Happy Scheming Neutral

➤ Figure 44.4
Simplified faces. When shown groups of simplified faces (without labels), the angry and scheming faces “jumped out” at people before
the sad, happy, and neutral faces. An ability to rapidly detect threatening expressions probably helped our ancestors survive. (Adapted from
Tipples, Atkinson, & Young, 2002.)

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 MODU LE 4 4 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: E M oti o n i n d Etai l 383

Gender Differences in Expressing Emotion Body Language

Women have a reputation for being “more emotional” than Would you be offended if a friend walked up to you and said,
men. Are they? Compared with women, men in Western cul- “Hey, ugly, how are you doing?” Probably not, because such
tures are more likely to have difficulty expressing their emo- remarks are usually delivered with a big grin. The facial and
tions (Pérusse, Boucher, & Fernet, 2012). In fact, Western body gestures of emotion speak a language all their own and
men are more likely than women to experience alexithymia add to what a person says.
(a-LEX-ih-THIGH-me-ah), from the Latin for “can’t name Kinesics (kih-NEEZ-iks) is the study of communica-
emotions.” tion through body movement, posture, gestures, and facial
According to psychologist Ronald Levant and colleagues expressions (Goman, 2008; Hinzman & Kelly, 2013). In-
(2006, 2009), although male babies start out life more emo- formally, we call it body language. To see a masterful use of
tionally expressive than female babies, little boys soon learn body language, turn off the sound on a television and watch
to “toughen up,” beginning in early childhood. As a result, a popular entertainer or politician at work.
men have learned to curtail the expression of most of their What kinds of messages are sent with body language? It is im-
emotions. Whereas girls are encouraged to express sadness, portant to realize that cultural learning also affects the meaning
fear, shame, and guilt, boys are more likely to be allowed to of gestures. What, for instance, does it mean if you touch your
express only anger and hostility (Fischer et al., 2004). thumb and first finger together to form a circle? In North Amer-
But does this mean that men experience emotions less ica, it means “Everything is fine” or “A-okay.” In France and Bel-
than women? Levant believes that men who fail to express gium, it means “You’re worth zero.” In southern Italy, it means
emotions over time become less aware of their own emo- “You’re an ass!” When the layer of culturally defined meanings is
tions and, hence, less able to name them (Levant, Allen, & removed, it is more realistic to say that body language reveals an
Lien, 2013; Reker et al., 2010). For many men, a learned in- overall emotional tone (underlying emotional state).
ability to express feelings or to even be aware of them is a The most general “messages” involve relaxation or ten-
major barrier to having close, satisfying relationships with sion, and liking or disliking. Relaxation is expressed by casu-
others and also can lead to health problems, such as depres- ally positioning the arms and legs, leaning back (if sitting),
sion or addictive behaviors (Ogrodniczuk, Piper, & Joyce, and spreading the arms and legs. Liking is expressed mainly
2011; Vanheule et al., 2010). Blunted emotions may even by leaning toward a person or object. Thus, body position-
contribute to tragedies such as all-too-common school ing can reveal feelings that would normally be concealed.
shootings. For many young males, anger is the only emotion Who do you “lean toward”?
they can freely feel and express.
© Eviled/Shutterstock.com
ALFREDO ESTRELLA/AFP/Getty Images

Emotions are often unconsciously revealed by gestures and body

positioning.

The expression of emotion is strongly influenced by learning. As

you have no doubt observed, women cry more often, longer, and Alexithymia A learned difficulty expressing emotions, more com-
more intensely than men. Men begin learning early in childhood to mon in men.
suppress crying—possibly to the detriment of their emotional health Kinesics The study of the meaning of body movements, posture, hand
(Williams & Morris, 1996). Many men are especially unwilling to gestures, and facial expressions; commonly called body language.
engage in public displays of emotion.

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384 p sychOLO Gy M o d u lEs fo r activE lEar n i n g

Theories of Emotion—Several Ways to Fear a Bear

Survey Question 44.3 How do psychologists explain In support, James pointed out that we often do not ex-
emotions? perience an emotion until after reacting. For example, imag-
Is it possible to explain what takes place during emotion? ine that you are driving. Suddenly, a car pulls out in front of
Theories of emotion offer different answers to this question. you. You swerve and skid to an abrupt halt. Only then do
Let’s explore some prominent views. Each appears to have a you notice your pounding heart, rapid breathing, and tense
part of the truth, so we will try to put them all together in muscles—and recognize your fear.
the end.
The cannon-Bard Theory
The James-Lange Theory Walter Cannon (1932) and Phillip Bard disagreed with the
Let’s not keep that bear waiting. Remember, you’re hiking in James-Lange theory. According to the Cannon-Bard the-
the woods when a bear steps onto the trail. What will happen ory, emotional feelings and physical arousal occur at the
next? Common sense tells us that we then will feel fear, be- same time (Cannon, 1932; Schultz & Schultz, 2016). Seeing
come aroused, and run (and sweat and yell). But is this the true a bear activates limbic structures in the brain, such as the
order of events? In the 1880s, William James and Carl Lange amygdala, thalamus, and hypothalamus. They, in turn, alert
(LON-geh) proposed that common sense had it backward the peripheral nervous system for action and the cortex for
(Kardas, 2014). According to the James-Lange theory, bodily further reflection. The peripheral nervous system triggers a
arousal (such as increased heart rate) does not follow a feeling chain of events that arouses the body. The cortex produces
such as fear. Instead, they argued, subjective feelings follow bodily our emotional feelings and emotional behavior. Thus, if you
arousal. Thus, we see a bear, run, are aroused, and then feel fear see a dangerous-looking bear, brain activity simultaneously
as we become aware of our body reactions (➤ Figure 44.5). produces body arousal, running, and a feeling of fear (see
Figure 44.5).

schachter’s cognitive Theory of Emotion

Time
The previous theories are concerned mostly with our physi-
James-Lange Theory cal responses. Stanley Schachter realized that cognitive
Emotional ANS arousal Emotional feelings
(mental) factors also enter into emotion, even basic emo-
stimulus Behavior (run) (fear) tions. According to Schachter’s cognitive theory, emotion
Summary: After bodily arousal and behavior occur, you can feel occurs when we apply a particular label to general physiolog-
your pounding heart, rapid breathing, flushed face, and sweating; ical arousal. We likely choose the appropriate label through
this is what makes up the experience of emotion.
a process of attribution, by assigning cause to behavior—
Cannon-Bard Theory
ANS arousal namely, by deciding which source is causing the arousal
(León & Hernández, 1998; Marian & Shimamura, 2012).
Emotional
stimulus Thalamus Behavior (run) Assume, for instance, that someone sneaks up behind
you on a dark street and says, “Boo!” Your body is now
Emotional feelings aroused (pounding heart, sweating palms, and so on). If you
(fear)
attribute your arousal to a total stranger, you might label
Summary: Emotional arousal, behavior, and experience are released
by the thalamus and are nearly simultaneous. your arousal as fear; if you attribute your arousal to a close
Schachter’s Cognitive Theory
friend, you may experience surprise or delight. The label
Emotional feelings
(fear) (such as anger, fear, or happiness) you apply to body arousal
Emotional Arousal plus label is influenced by your past experiences, the situation, and the
stimulus (“I am afraid.”)
Behavior (run)
reactions of others (see Figure 44.5).
Support for the cognitive theory of emotion comes from
Summary: Arousal alone does not produce emotion; arousal must be an experiment in which people watched a hilarious movie
labeled or interpreted.
(Schachter & Wheeler, 1962). Before viewing the movie, ev-
➤ Figure 44.5 eryone got an injection, but no one was told what the injec-
Theories of emotion tion contained. One-third of the people received an arousing

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 MODU LE 4 4 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: E M oti o n i n d Etai l 385

injection of adrenaline, one-third got a placebo (saltwater) in- attributed his “emotion” to the photo. His attribution seems
jection, and one-third were given a tranquilizer. People who to have been, “Now that one I like!”
received the adrenaline rated the movie funniest and laughed That seems somewhat artificial. Does it really make any
the most while watching it. In contrast, those given the tran- difference what arousal is attributed to? Yes. Attribution theory
quilizer were least amused. The placebo group fell in between. predicts that you are most likely to “love” someone who gets
According to the cognitive theory of emotion, individu- you stirred up emotionally (Foster et al., 1998). This is true
als who received adrenaline had a stirred-up body, which even when fear, anger, frustration, or rejection is part of the
they then attributed to the movie, leading them to interpret formula. Thus, if you want to successfully propose marriage,
their arousal as happiness and amusement. This and simi- take your intended to the middle of a narrow, windswept sus-
lar experiments make it clear that emotion is much more pension bridge over a deep chasm and look deeply into his or
than just an agitated body. Perception, experience, attitudes, her eyes. As your beloved’s heart pounds wildly (from being
judgment, and many other mental factors also affect the on the bridge, not from your irresistible charms), say, “I love
emotions that we feel. Schachter’s theory would predict, you.” Attribution theory predicts that your companion will
then, that if you met a bear, you would be aroused and might conclude, “Oh, wow! I must love you, too.”
suddenly find yourself at full gallop. An instant later, if the Really? The preceding is not as farfetched as it may
bear seemed unfriendly, you might confirm your arousal as seem. In an ingenious classic study, a female psychologist
fear, and if the bear was offering to shake your “paw,” you interviewed men in a park. Some were on a swaying sus-
might experience happiness, amazement, and relief! pension bridge, 230 feet above a river. The rest were on a
solid wooden bridge just 10 feet above the ground. After
Misattribution There is, of course, no guarantee that we
the interview, the psychologist gave each man her tele-
always make the correct attributions about our emotions. To
phone number, so he could “find out about the results” of
see this, let’s shift from a fear of bear bodies to an apprecia-
the study. Men interviewed on the suspension bridge were
tion of bare bodies. In a classic study, male college students
much more likely to give the “lady from the park” a call
viewed a series of photographs of nude females while listen-
(Dutton & Aron, 1974). Apparently, these men experienced
ing to an amplified heartbeat that each student believed was
heightened arousal, which they misinterpreted as attraction
his own (Valins, 1967). In reality, students were listening to
to the experimenter—a clear case of love at first fright! (Love
a recorded heartbeat carefully designed to beat louder and
is one basis for interpersonal attraction, but there are others,
stronger when some (but not all) of the photos were shown.
such as similarity and proximity. To learn more about what
After watching the photos, each student was asked to
brings people together, see Module 72.)
say which was most attractive. Students who heard the false
heartbeat consistently rated photos paired with a “pounding
heart” as the most attractive. In other words, when a stu- Emotional Appraisal
dent saw a photo and heard his heart beat louder, he (falsely) According to Richard Lazarus (1991a,b), the role of cogni-
tion in experiencing emotions is not restricted to making
causal attributions about why arousal has occurred. The
emotions you experience are also greatly influenced by your
emotional appraisal, how you evaluate the personal mean-
ing of a stimulus: Is it good/bad, threatening/supportive,
relevant/irrelevant, and so on (Anderson & Hunter, 2012)?

James-Lange theory The proposition that bodily arousal leads to

© Africa Studio/Shutterstock.com

subjective feelings.
Cannon-Bard theory The proposition that thalamus activity causes
emotions and bodily arousal to occur simultaneously.
Schachter’s cognitive theory A theory stating that emotions occur
when physical arousal is labeled or interpreted on the basis of
experience and situational cues.
Attribution The act of assigning cause to behavior.
Which theory of emotion best describes the reactions of these Emotional appraisal Evaluating the personal meaning of a stimulus
people? Given the complexity of emotion, each theory appears to or situation.
possess an element of truth.

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386 p sychOLO Gy M o d u lEs fo r activE lEar n i n g

Emotional appraisals can be experiential and occur quickly,

as with startling fear stimuli, or they can be more reflective
(Bunk & Magley, 2013).
Our discussion suggests that emotion is greatly influ-
enced by how you think about an event. For example, if
another driver “cuts you off ” on the highway, you could
become very angry. But if you do, you will add 15 minutes

Dennis Coon
of emotional upset to your day. By changing your attribu-
tion (“He probably didn’t mean it”) and/or your emotional
appraisal (“No big deal, anyway”), you could just as easily
➤ Figure 44.6
choose to brush off the other driver’s behavior—and mini- Facial feedback and emotion. When people form facial
mize your emotional wear-and-tear (Deutschendorf, 2009). expressions like those normally observed during emotion,
In fact, emotional appraisals have a major impact on the emotionlike changes take place in their bodily activity (Levenson &
ability to cope with threats and stress, which may ultimately Friesen, 1983; Dimberg & Söderkvist, 2011). Give it a try.

affect your health. See Module 56.

In a fascinating experiment, people rated how funny
they thought cartoons were while holding a pen crosswise
The Facial Feedback hypothesis
in their mouths. Those who were told to hold the pen in
Schachter and Lazarus added thinking and interpretation their teeth thought the cartoons were funnier than did peo-
(cognition) to our view of emotion, but the picture still ple who held the pen in their lips. Can you guess why? If you
seems incomplete. What about expressions? As Charles hold a pen with your teeth, you are forced to form a smile.
Darwin observed, the face is central to emotion—perhaps it Holding it with the lips makes a frown. As predicted by the
is more than just an “emotional billboard.” Do facial expres- facial feedback hypothesis, emotional experiences were in-
sions actually influence our felt emotions? fluenced by the facial expressions that people made (Strack,
Psychologist Carroll Izard (1990) was among the Martin, & Stepper, 1988). Next time you’re feeling sad, bite a
first to suggest that the face does, indeed, affect emotion. pen! (Or, at least, make yourself smile.)
According to Izard, emotions cause innately programmed It appears, then, that not only do emotions influence
changes in facial expression. Sensations from the face then expressions, but expressions also influence emotions, as
provide cues to the brain that help us determine what emo- shown in the following list (Duclos & Laird, 2001):
tion we are feeling. This idea is known as the facial feedback
hypothesis (Hennenlotter et al., 2009). Stated another way, Contracted Facial Muscles Felt Emotion
it says that having facial expressions in turn influences our Forehead Surprise
private emotional experience. Brow Anger
Psychologist Paul Ekman takes this idea one step fur- Mouth (down) Sadness
ther. He believes that “making faces” can actually cause emo- Mouth (smile) Joy
tion (Ekman, 1993). In one study, participants were guided
Do people who have Botox injected into their faces experi-
as they arranged their faces, muscle by muscle, into expres-
ence any less emotion? It can certainly be uncanny to watch
sions of surprise, disgust, sadness, anger, fear, and happiness
celebrities whose faces have been injected with Botox. (Ain’t
(➤ Figure 44.6). At the same time, each person’s bodily re-
nothin’ gonna move!) And it is indeed possible that they feel
actions were monitored.
less emotion as a consequence. In one study, compared with
Contrary to what you might expect, “making faces” can
normal participants, participants injected with Botox showed
affect the autonomic nervous system, as shown by changes
less brain activity as they imitated angry faces (Hennenlotter
in heart rate and skin temperature. In addition, each facial
et al., 2009). And yet, reducing the facial feedback contribut-
expression produces a different pattern of activity. An an-
ing to sadness may help alleviate depression (Lewis, 2012).
gry face, for instance, raises heart rate and skin temperature,
whereas disgust lowers both (Ekman, Levenson, & Friesen, Suppressing Emotion If smiling can improve a person’s
1983). Other studies have confirmed that posed expressions mood, is it a good idea to inhibit negative emotions? Accord-
alter emotions and bodily activity (Dimberg & Söderkvist, ing to popular media, we are supposed to be happy all the
2011; Soussignan, 2002). time (Hecht, 2007). However, real emotional life has its ups

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 MODU LE 4 4 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: E M oti o n i n d Etai l 387

and downs. Have you ever been angry with a friend in pub-
lic? Embarrassed by someone’s behavior at a party? Disgust- Time
ed by someone’s table manners? Often, we try to appear less
emotional than we really are, especially when we feel nega- Contemporary Model of Emotion ANS arousal +
tive emotions. In such circumstances, people are quite good Cognitive label
at suppressing outward signs of emotion.
However, restraining emotion can actually increase ac- Behavior (run)
tivity in the sympathetic nervous system. In other words, Emotional Emotional Appraisal
stimulus (Danger!)
hiding emotion requires a lot of effort. Suppressing emo- Emotional expression
(fearful face)
tions also can impair thinking and memory as you devote
energy to self-control. Thus, although suppressing emotion Emotional feelings
allows us to appear calm and collected on the outside, this (fear)
cool appearance comes at a high cost (Gross, 2013). People
who constantly suppress their emotions cope poorly with ➤ Figure 44.7
life and are prone to depression and other problems (Haga, A contemporary model of emotion. Appraisal gives rise
Kraft, & Corby, 2010; Monde et al., 2013). to arousal and cognitive labeling, behavior, facial/postural
Usually, it’s better to manage emotions than it is to sup- expressions, and emotional feelings. Arousal, attribution, behavior,
and expressions add to the emotional feelings. Emotional feelings
press them (Gross, 2013). People who express their emo-
influence appraisal, which further affects arousal, behavior,
tions generally experience better emotional and physical expressions, and feelings.
health (Lumley, 2004; Pennebaker, 2004). This ability to ef-
fectively manage your emotions is referred to as emotional
intelligence (see Module 64). The end result is better deci- that you recognize as the subjective experience of fear. (You
sion making, which can increase our overall happiness in think, Uh oh, big trouble! The intensity of this emotional feel-
the long run (Deutschendorf, 2009). ing is directly related to the amount of ANS arousal taking
place in your body.)
Each element of emotion—ANS arousal, labeling, adap-
A contemporary Model of Emotion
tive behavior, subjective experience, and your emotional ex-
To summarize, James and Lange were right that feedback pressions—may further alter your emotional appraisal of the
from arousal and behavior adds to our emotional experi- situation, as well as your attributions, thoughts, judgments,
ences. Cannon and Bard were right about the timing of and perceptions. Thus, according to the facial feedback
events. Schachter showed us that cognitive attribution is im- hypothesis, your facial expression may further influence
portant. Richard Lazarus stressed the importance of emo- your emotion. Such changes affect each of the other reac-
tional appraisal. In fact, psychologists are increasingly aware tions, which again alters your appraisal and interpretation
that both the attributions you make and how you appraise a of events. Thus, emotion may blossom, change course, or di-
situation greatly affect your emotions (Kalat & Shiota, 2012; minish as it proceeds. Note, too, that the original emotional
León & Hernández, 1998). Carroll Izard focused on facial stimulus can be external, like the attacking bear, or inter-
expressions. Let’s put these ideas together in a single model nal, such as a memory of being chased by a bear, rejected
of emotion (➤ Figure 44.7). by a lover, or praised by a friend. That’s why mere thoughts
Imagine that a large, snarling bear lunges at you with and memories can make us fearful, sad, or happy (Kalat &
its teeth bared. A modern view of your emotional reactions Shiota, 2012).
goes something like this: An emotional stimulus (the bear)
is appraised (judged, probably experientially and quickly in A Look Ahead In Module 45, we look further at the im-
this example) as a threat or other cause for emotion. Your pact of emotional appraisals through an examination of the
appraisal gives rise to ANS arousal (your heart pounds and optimistic explanatory style. Before we continue, you might
your body becomes stirred up). At the same time, your ap- want to appraise your learning with the exercises that follow.
praisal leads to adaptive behavior (you run from the bear) as
it releases innate emotional expressions (your face twists into
Facial feedback hypothesis States that sensations from facial ex-
a mask of fear and your posture becomes tense). In addition, pressions help define what emotion a person feels.
it triggers cognitive labeling and a change in consciousness

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388 p sychOLO Gy M o d u lEs fo r activE lEar n i n g

MODULE

44 summary
44.1 What physiological changes underlie of some facial expressions also occur. Men tend to be
emotion, and can “lie detectors” really less expressive than women.
detect lies? 44.2.3 The formal study of body language is known as kine-
44.1.1 Physical changes associated with emotion are caused sics. Body gestures and movements (body language)
by activity in the autonomic nervous system (ANS). also express feelings, mainly by communicating emo-
44.1.2 The sympathetic branch of the ANS is responsible tional tone rather than specific universal messages.
primarily for arousing the body; the parasympathetic Body positioning expresses relaxation or tension and
branch is responsible for quieting it. liking or disliking.
44.1.3 The polygraph, or “lie detector,” measures emotional
44.3 how do psychologists explain emotions?
arousal (rather than lying) by monitoring heart rate,
blood pressure, breathing rate, and the galvanic skin 44.3.1 Contrary to common sense, the James-Lange theory
response (GSR). The accuracy of the lie detector can says that emotional experience follows bodily reac-
be quite low. tions. In contrast, the Cannon-Bard theory says that
44.1.4 Newer brain-imaging methods, such as fMRI, are bodily reactions and emotional experiences occur at
showing great promise in lie detection. the same time.
44.1.5 The amygdala provides a “quick and dirty” pathway 44.3.2 Schachter’s cognitive theory emphasizes that labeling
for the arousal of fear that bypasses the cerebral cortex. bodily arousal can determine what emotion you feel.
44.1.6 The left hemisphere of the brain primarily processes Appropriate labels are chosen by attribution (ascrib-
positive emotions. Negative emotions are processed ing arousal to a particular source).
in the right hemisphere. 44.3.3 Contemporary views of emotion place greater em-
phasis on the effects of emotional appraisals. One of
44.2 how accurately are emotions expressed by the best ways to manage emotion is to change your
the face and “body language”? emotional appraisal of a situation.
44.2.1 Basic facial expressions of fear, anger, disgust, 44.3.4 The facial feedback hypothesis holds that facial
sadness, surprise, and happiness are universally expressions help define the emotions we feel.
recognized. Facial expressions of contempt and 44.3.5 Contemporary views of emotion emphasize that all
interest may be universal as well. of the elements of emotion are interrelated and
44.2.2 Social context influences the meaning of facial interact with each other.
expressions. Cultural differences in the meaning

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 MODU LE 4 4 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n: E M oti o n i n d Etai l 389

Knowledge Builder Motivation and Emotion: Emotion in Detail

Recite Reflect
1. Emotional arousal is closely related to activity of the Think critically
_________________________ nervous system. 8. People with high spinal injuries may feel almost no signs
2. The sympathetic system prepares the body for “fight or of physiological arousal from their bodies. Nevertheless,
flight” by activating the parasympathetic system. T or F? they still feel emotion, which can be intense at times.
3. What body changes are measured by a polygraph? What theory of emotion does this observation
4. Charles Darwin held that emotional expressions aid sur- contradict?
vival for animals. T or F?
5. According to the James-Lange theory, emotional experi- self-Reflect
ence precedes physical arousal and emotional behavior. What did you think about lie detectors before reading this
(We see a bear, are frightened, and run.) T or F? module? What do you think now?
6. The idea that labeling arousal helps define what emotions Write a list of emotions that you think you can accurately
we experience is associated with detect from facial expressions. Does your list match Paul
a. the James-Lange theory Ekman’s?
b. Schachter’s cognitive theory Which theory seems to best explain your own emotional
c. the Cannon-Bard theory experiences? Try frowning or smiling for 5 minutes. Did facial
d. Darwin’s theory of innate emotional expressions feedback have any effect on your mood?
7. As you try to wiggle your ears, you keep pulling the
corners of your mouth back into a smile. Each time you
AN sW E R s
do, you find yourself giggling. Which of the following helps explain the observation.
provides the best explanation for this reaction? and Schachter’s cognitive theory. The facial feedback hypothesis also
a. attribution galvanic skin response 4. T 5. F 6. b 7. d 8. The James-Lange theory
b. the Cannon-Bard theory 1. autonomic 2. F 3. heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate,
c. appraisal
d. facial feedback

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MODULE

45 Motivation and Emotion

Skills in Action
Positivity and Optimism

Here’s to the Good Life!

Michael J. Fox was only 29 years old and at the height of his acting
career when he found out he had Parkinson’s disease. A diagnosis
like this would be devastating to many people. Not Fox. Instead, he
chose to focus on the positive and the things that he could control,
rather than those he couldn’t. He has continued to act. He founded
the Michael J. Fox Foundation to fund research on Parkinson’s dis-
ease. He even wrote two books: Lucky Man and Always Looking Up:
Adventures of an Eternal Optimist. When asked about his condition,
he said: “I see possibilities in everything. For everything this disease Stephen Lovekin/MJF/WireImage/Getty Images

has taken away, something of greater value has been given.”

You’ve likely met people like Fox—relentlessly hopeful, even
when the deck seems stacked against them. How do they do it? While
optimism is, to some extent, part of your natural disposition, even
the most pessimistic people can work toward becoming more opti-
mistic. If you’re optimistic about becoming more optimistic, read on!

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
45.1 How are positivity and optimism related to the study of 45.2 How can being more positive and optimistic help me
psychology? in my personal and professional life?

Don’t Give Up Hope!

Survey Question 45.1 How are positivity and optimism
topics from positive psychology can be found in this book
related to the study of psychology?
including empathy and helping behavior (Module 72),
Psychologists have always paid attention to the negative side creativity (Modules 39 and 41), effective coping strategies
of human behavior. This is easy to understand because of (Module 57) and emotional intelligence (Module 64).
the pressing need to solve human problems. More recently, In Modules 42 and 44, we examined the role that emo-
psychologists have also become interested in positive tions play in our lives. For researchers who are interested in
psychology, the study of human strengths, virtues, and positive psychology, positive emotions such as joy, hopeful-
optimal behavior (Compton & Hoffman, 2013). Many ness, contentment, and happiness are of particular interest.

390
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 MODU LE 4 5 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n S k i llS i n acti o n: PoS itivity an d o Pti M i S M 391

Optimism and positive emotions are both closely con- people who demonstrate unrealistic optimism and refuse to
nected to feelings of subjective well-being (Diener, 2013), see risks may not take appropriate action to deal with their
which occur when people are generally satisfied with their problems (Weinstein, 1989). The end result is often that their
lives, have frequent positive emotions, and relatively few difficulties worsen because they have not been addressed
negative emotions (Diener, Scollon, & Lucas, 2009; Tay (Dillard, Midboe & Klein, 2009). For example, people who
& Diener, 2011). always expect that things will turn out well may fail to ad-
So good and bad events predict feelings of subjective dress challenging issues that arise in their relationships, or
well-being? Life events themselves are not as important as may fail to seek early treatment for health-related concerns.
a person’s explanatory style—the way that he or she inter- Clearly there’s an important line that needs to be drawn be-
prets those events (Seligman, 1998). And that interpreta- tween hopeful thinking and wishful thinking.
tion is, in turn, influenced by many factors, such as culture, Is optimism part of your personality? To a degree, some
goals, values, and personality (Scollon, Koh, & Au, 2011). people are more temperamentally disposed to be upbeat and
Most importantly, people like Michael J. Fox, who have an hopeful, a characteristic that researchers refer to as disposi-
optimistic explanatory style, tend to have positive emotions tional optimism (Carver & Scheier, 2014; Wrosch, Jobin, &
about events—even the bad ones. As a result, they are hap- Scheier, 2016). However, psychologist Martin Seligman has
pier and seem to negotiate life’s demands more smoothly clearly established that anyone can work toward cultivating
(Wong, 2011). an optimistic view of life events (Seligman, 1998). In other
Ok, but sometimes things actually are bad—surely it’s not words, optimism isn’t necessarily a stable personality trait—
good to assume that everything will always get better! You’re it’s a skill that you can improve upon, with a little practice.
right. Optimism can have negative consequences when To learn why that might be important, and how you can do
people fail to ground their thinking in reality. Specifically, it, read on!

Facing Adversity
Survey Question 45.2 How can being more positive and care of themselves, because they believe that their efforts
optimistic help me in my personal and professional life? to stay healthy will succeed (Peterson & Chang, 2003;
Taylor, 2011).
Good and bad events occur in all lives. What separates opti-
mists and pessimists is largely a matter of attitude. Hopeful, Becoming More Optimistic
positive people tend to see their lives in more positive terms,
Sometimes I find it hard to be optimistic. Can I get better at
even when trouble comes their way. For example, optimistic
thinking this way? Definitely. Psychological research has
people tend to find humor in disappointments. They look
tested a few different ways to increase optimistic thinking.
at setbacks as challenges. They are strengthened by losses
For example, simply imagining your best possible self for
(Lyubomirsky & Tucker, 1998).
5 minutes each day can lead to greater feelings of optimism
Optimists also tend to expect that things will turn
(Meevissen, Peters, & Alberts, 2011; Peters, Meevissen, &
out well. In general, this motivates them to actively cope
Hanssen, 2013).
with adversity. They are less likely to be stymied by tem-
It is also helpful to better understand your explanatory
porary setbacks and more likely to tackle their problems
style (Seligman, 1998). As we just discussed, what’s impor-
head on. In general, pessimists are more likely to ignore
tant is not so much whether you experience negative or
or deny problems. The result of such differences can
positive life events but rather how you interpret those ex-
be seen both at work and in people’s personal lives. At
periences. For example, imagine that you have just received
home, optimists have relationships that last longer and
a poor midterm grade. As you try to make sense of this
are more satisfying (Neff & Geers, 2013). They also tend
to do well at work, especially in jobs where setbacks are
a common occurrence (Forgeard & Seligman, 2012). In Positive psychology The study of human strengths, virtues, and
terms of health, optimists are less stressed and anxious effective functioning.
Subjective well-being General life satisfaction, combined with
than pessimists, and are physically healthier (Carver & frequent positive emotions and relatively few negative emotions.
Scheier, 2014). In general, optimists tend to take better

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392 P SychOLO Gy M o d u lES fo r activE lEar n i n g

negative event, there are likely to be three key components positive and two negative) and imagine that each one has
of your explanation: happened to you. Ask yourself why this might have hap-
pened, and if you come up with multiple reasons, then try to
◗ Pervasiveness. The first relates to the pervasiveness of
narrow them down to the single most important one (from
the event, or the extent to which you believe the event
Peterson et al., 1982).
will impact other aspects of your life. Reacting to your
poor midterm grade with the pessimistic thought “My Your boyfriend/girlfriend has been treating you more
whole life is ruined” is very different from reacting with lovingly.
a more optimistic one, such as “This is just one grade; You can’t get all the work done that others expect of you.
the rest of my grades will be better.” You meet a friend for lunch and s/he is behaving in a
◗ Permanence. A second relates to the permanence of the hostile way toward you.
event—that is, how long you expect the conditions will You apply for a position that you want very badly and
last. A pessimist might look at a poor grade and think you get it.
that the next exam will likely be just as bad, while an
optimist think that the next exam will likely be much Now consider the reasons you thought would lead to these
better. events and ask yourself: Are they likely to be short- or long-
◗ Personal. The third component of explanatory style term? Limited or far-reaching in their effects? The result of
relates to the extent to which you think that the event stable personality traits or temporary circumstances?
is due to something personal about you, as opposed to If you find that your explanatory style is somewhat pes-
something related to your situation. A pessimist is more simistic, challenge your thinking. If you can, ensure that
likely to see negative events as stemming from some- your beliefs about the causes of events—whether positive
thing unchangeable about his or her personality (“I’m or negative—are accurate. For example, before accepting
just so stupid”), while an optimist is more likely to con- that a poor midterm grade is the result of your intelligence,
sider circumstances that can be changed (“I didn’t study look carefully at all of the available evidence and ask yourself
enough for that test”). whether this is really true. In all likelihood it isn’t, because
there are bound to be many other skills that you possess, and
To summarize, optimists view negative events as being many other times when you have been successful.
limited in their effects, short-term, and the result of cir- It may not always be easy to change the way that you
cumstances that can be changed. Conversely, optimists view think about the world, but psychological research has dem-
positive events as being broader in their effects, long-term, onstrated that it is possible to change your explanatory style
and the result of stable aspects of their personality. Upon (Barber et al., 2005). And it’s likely to be well worth the
doing well on an exam, an optimist is more likely to think, effort: Thinking carefully about the explanations that you
“Things are going well,” “I’m on a roll, exam-wise,” and “I’m make about events has important consequences for your
smart enough.” health, relationships, and well-being. Clearly we should all
Challenging Pessimistic Explanations So, do you take heed of the advice that Henry Ford passed along in
have an optimistic or pessimistic explanatory style? To re- 1947: “Whether you believe you can do a thing or not, you
flect on this, take a look at the following four events (two are right.”

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 MODU LE 4 5 M otivati o n an d E M oti o n S k i llS i n acti o n: PoS itivity an d o Pti M i S M 393

MODULE

45 Summary
45.1 how are positivity and optimism related to 45.2 how can being more positive and optimistic
the study of psychology? help me in my personal and professional
45.1.1 The field of positive psychology focuses on people’s life?
experience of positive emotions, optimism, and 45.2.1 In your personal and professional life, optimism
subjective well-being. helps you approach challenges, grow and cope with
45.1.2 Well-being is affected by the way you perceive your adversity, have more satisfying relationships, and it
life events. Optimism can help you overcome and leads to less stress and better health.
grow from negative events; however, “unrealistic 45.2.2 Your explanatory style (the way you frame events)
optimism” can cause people to ignore preventable has important consequences for your health, relation-
risks. ships, and well-being.
45.1.3 To some extent, optimism is a stable characteristic
(dispositionaloptimism),butitisalsoconsideredaskillthat
can be developed.

Knowledge Builder
Motivation and Emotion Skills in Action: Positivity
and Optimism
Recite trying not to think about it because you have too much
schoolwork to do. You tell yourself that you can’t be sick
1. Optimism is only influenced by heredity. T or F?
right now—if you don’t think about it and avoid it, it
2. People with an optimistic explanatory style view negative
might go away. Which of these scenarios represents the
events as being short-term and limited in their effects.
concept of “unrealistic optimism”? Why?
T or F?
3. Subjective well-being refers to the idea that people are Self-Reflect
generally satisfied with their lives, have very few positive
Reflect on your own explanatory style. Do you think you are
emotions, and have many negative emotions. T or F?
more pessimistic or optimistic? What could you do in your
4. Optimism can have negative consequences when people
personal and professional life to try to become more optimistic?
fail to ground their thinking in reality. T or F?
5. What are the three components of explanatory style?
AN SW E R S
Reflect illness from getting worse and will recover much faster.
Think critically you addressed the problem appropriately, you are likely to prevent your
to take appropriate action (e.g., see a doctor, rest in bed). In contrast, if
6. Scenario 1: You just failed a test, but you think to yourself you are sick could actually make the problem worse because you may fail
that it will be okay, because you will try harder next time. scenario is unrealistically optimistic. Ignoring or avoiding the fact that
As a result, you study much harder and receive a better 1. F 2. T 3. F 4. T 5. Pervasiveness, permanence, personal 6. The second
grade. Scenario 2: You feel nauseous and feverish, but are

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MODULE

46 Human Sexuality
Sex and Gender

Welcome to the Rainbow

Girls are girls and boys are boys, right? Maybe not. Even something
as basic as biological sex is not as simple as pink and blue. While
the various biological dimensions of sex “line up” for most people, it
is not unusual to find conflicts among various aspects of a person’s
femaleness or maleness. Factor in the varieties of sexual orientation,
another biological dimension of sex, and you can add a few more
colors to the rainbow.
And then there’s gender, the psychological and social character-
istics usually associated with being female or male. Although many
females are very feminine and many males are very masculine, oth-
ers are not so easily categorized. Some females are more masculine,
some males are more feminine, and some females and males are
androgynous—a bit of both.
Some individuals even experience a sharp inconsistency be-
© Alexey Losevich/Shutterstock.com

tween their biological sex and their gender. Consider Elena, a trans-
sexual who changed her sex. Genetically, Elena remains a male, but
she now has female genitals, is psychologically feminine, and func-
tions socially as a female. So is Elena female or male? Pink or blue?
Welcome to the rainbow.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
46.1 What are the basic dimensions of sex? 46.4 What is psychological androgyny
46.2 What is sexual orientation? 46.5 What is gender variance?
46.3 How does one’s sense of masculinity or femininity
develop?

Sexual Development—Circle One: XX or XY?

Survey Question 46.1 What are the basic dimensions
of sex?
a person’s sex is not a simple either/or proposition. Let’s
The term sex refers to whether you are physically, biologi- begin to understand why by examining the various dimen-
cally female or male. Contrary to popular belief, classifying sions of what it means to be female or male.

394
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 MODU LE 4 6 H u man S e xuality: S e x an d G e n d e r 395

Dimensions of Sex
Urinary Female
What are some dimensions of sex? At the very least, classify- bladder structure
ing a person as female or male must take into account the
following biological dimensions: (1) genetic sex (XX or XY
Gonad
chromosomes), (2) hormonal sex (predominance of estro- Genital
gens or androgens), (3) gonadal sex (ovaries or testes), and tubercle
Male structure
(4) genital sex (clitoris and vagina in females, penis and
scrotum in males). To see why sex must be defined by tak- Rectum
ing these four dimensions into account, let’s trace the events
involved in becoming female or male. (a) Undifferentiated

Genetic Sex Becoming male or female may seem simple

enough. Genetic sex is determined at the instant of conception:
Fallopian
Two X chromosomes initiate female development; an X chro- tube
mosome plus a Y chromosome produces a male. A woman’s Ovary Uterus
ovum always provides an X chromosome because she has two Urinary
bladder Cervix
Xs in her own genetic makeup. In contrast, one-half of the
male’s sperm carry X chromosomes and the other half carry Ys. Pelvic bone
Vagina
Clitoris
Even at conception, however, variations may occur
Rectum
because some individuals begin life with too many or too Labia minora
few sex chromosomes (Crooks & Baur, 2017). For example, Labia majora Urethra
in Klinefelter’s syndrome, a boy is born XXY, with an extra
X chromosome. As a result, when he matures, he may appear (b) Female Chromosomes
feminine, have undersized sexual organs, and be infertile.
In Turner’s syndrome, a girl is born with only one X chro- Urinary
bladder
mosome and no Y chromosome. As an adolescent, she may Seminal
appear boyish and she also will be infertile. Pelvic bone
vesicle

Hormonal and Gonadal Sex While genetic sex stays Prostate

Vas deferens
the same throughout life, it alone does not determine bio-
Rectum
logical sex. In general, sexual characteristics also are related Urethra

to the effects of sex hormones before birth. (Hormones are Epididymis Cowper’s
chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands.) The Glans penis gland
gonads (or sex glands) affect sexual development and be- External urethral
orifice Scrotum
havior by secreting estrogens (female hormones) and
Testis
androgens (male hormones). The gonads in the male are
(c) Male Chromosomes
the testes; female gonads are the ovaries. The adrenal glands
(located above the kidneys) also supply sex hormones. ➤ Figure 46.1

Everyone usually produces estrogens and androgens. Sex Prenatal development of the reproductive organs. Prenatal
development of the reproductive organs. Early development of
differences are related to the proportion of these hormones ovaries or testes affects hormonal balance and alters sexual
found in the body. In fact, prenatal development of male or anatomy. (a) At first, the sex organs are the same in the human
female anatomy is largely due to the presence or absence of female and male. (b) When androgens are absent, female
structures develop. (c) Male sex organs are produced when
testosterone (tes-TOSS-teh-rone), one of the androgens,
androgens are present.
secreted mainly by the testes (LeVay & Baldwin, 2012). For
the first six weeks of prenatal growth, genetically female and Sex One’s physical, biological classification as female or male.
male embryos look identical. However, if a Y chromosome is Genetic sex Sex as indicated by the presence of XX (female) or XY
present, testes develop in the embryo and supply testosterone (male) chromosomes.
Hormonal sex Sex as indicated by a preponderance of estrogens
(Knickmeyer & Baron-Cohen, 2006). This stimulates growth (female) or androgens (male) in the body.
of the penis and other male structures (➤ Figure 46.1).

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396 p SycHOLO Gy m o d u leS fo r active lear n i n G

In the absence of testosterone, the embryo will develop fe- may be born with genitals that are more male than female
male reproductive organs and genitals, regardless of genetic (Kalat, 2016).
sex (LeVay & Baldwin, 2012). It might be said, then, that na-
ture’s primary impulse is to make a female. Without testos- Genital Sex Mature males and females also differ in both
terone, we would all be women. primary and secondary sexual characteristics. Primary sex-
Prenatal growth does not always match genetic sex. For ual characteristics refer to the sexual and reproductive or-
both genetic females and males, hormonal problems before gans themselves: the vagina, ovaries, and uterus in females;
birth may produce an intersexual person (one who has am- and the penis, testes, and scrotum in males. Secondary
biguous sexual anatomy). (The former term, hermaphrodite, sexual characteristics are more superficial physical features
is now regarded as offensive). A genetic male won’t develop that appear at puberty. These features develop in response to
male genitals if too little testosterone is available. Even if tes- hormonal signals from the pituitary gland. In females, sec-
tosterone is present, an inherited androgen insensitivity syn- ondary sexual characteristics include breast development,
drome (unresponsiveness to testosterone) may exist. Again, broadening of the hips, and other changes in body shape.
the result is female development (Cadet, 2011). Males grow facial and body hair, and the voice deepens.
Similarly, androgens must be at low levels or absent for These changes signal that a person is biologically ready
an XX embryo to develop as a female. For instance, a devel- to reproduce. Reproductive maturity is especially evident in
oping female may be masculinized by the anti-miscarriage the female menarche (MEN-are-kee), the onset of menstrua-
drug progestin, or by a problem known as congenital adrenal tion. Soon after menarche, monthly ovulation begins. Ovula-
hyperplasia. In this syndrome, the child’s body produces es- tion refers to the release of ova (eggs) from the ovaries. From
trogen, but a genetic abnormality causes the adrenal glands the first ovulation until menopause—the stage of life when a
to release too much androgen. In such cases, a female child female stops menstruating—women can bear children.

Sexual Orientation—Who Do You Love?

Survey Question 46.2 What is sexual orientation? low side because many nonheterosexuals are unwilling to
identify themselves as such (Bogaert, 2006).
Another aspect of sex is sexual orientation, your enduring
pattern of emotional and erotic attraction. Just as physi-
cal sex does not fall neatly into two categories—male or The Stability of Sexual Orientation
female—sexual orientation is not always exclusively het- Sexual orientation is a deep part of personal identity and is
erosexual (Carroll, 2016). Heterosexuals are romantically usually quite stable. Starting with their earliest erotic feel-
and erotically attracted to members of the opposite sex. ings, most people remember being attracted to either the
Homosexuals are attracted to people whose sex matches opposite sex or the same sex. The chances are practically nil
their own. Bisexuals are attracted to both men and women. of an exclusively heterosexual or homosexual person being
According to a growing number of psychologists, “converted” from one orientation to the other (Glassgold et
asexuality—a lack of attraction to both men and women— al., 2009; Mock & Eibach, 2012). If you are heterosexual, you
constitutes a fourth type of sexual orientation. Unlike are probably certain that nothing could ever make you have
celibates, who choose not to act on their sexual attractions, homoerotic feelings. If so, then you know how homosexual
asexuals experience little or no sexual attraction in the first persons feel about the prospects for changing their sexual
place, although they can experience sexual desire (Bogaert, orientation.
2012; Brotto et al., 2010). But what about people who have had both heterosexual
About 3.4 percent of all adults regard themselves as ho- and homosexual relationships? The fact that sexual orienta-
mosexual or bisexual (Conron, Mimiaga, & Landers, 2010). tion is usually quite stable doesn’t rule out the possibility
Asexuals account for about 1 percent of adults (Bogaert, that for some people, sexual behavior may change during the
2015). This means that over 12 million people in the United course of a lifetime. However, many such instances involve
States alone are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or asexual. Millions homosexual or asexual people who date or marry members
more have a family member who is not heterosexual. It also of the opposite sex because of pressures to fit into hetero-
is worth remembering that these figures are likely on the sexual society. When these people realize that they are being

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 MODU LE 4 6 H u man S e xuality: S e x an d G e n d e r 397

untrue to themselves, their identity and relationships may congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Along the same lines, it is
shift. Other apparent shifts in orientation probably involve entirely possible that variations in prenatal hormone levels
people who are basically bisexual (Mock & Eibach, 2012). can influence the development of sexual orientation in the
What determines a person’s sexual orientation? The fetus (LeVay, 2011).
available evidence suggests that sexual orientation is mainly According to the prenatal hormonal theory of homosexu-
genetic and hormonal, although social, cultural, and psy- ality, some male fetuses are exposed to too little testosterone
chological influences are also involved (LeVay, 2011; LeVay (Bogaert & Skorska, 2011). Similarly, some female fetuses are
& Baldwin, 2012). Read on for a summary of two interesting exposed to too much testosterone. These differences, in turn,
theories about the origins of sexual orientation. can affect sexual orientation (Balthazart, 2012). Regardless,
homosexuality is not caused by hormone imbalances in
The Biology of Sexual Orientation Why are some
adulthood; the hormone levels of most gay men and lesbians
people attracted to the opposite sex whereas others prefer
are within the normal range (Banks & Gartrell, 1995).
members of the same sex? One possibility is that sexual ori-
Hormonal differences during pregnancy may exert their
entation is biologically determined and even at least partly
effect by actually altering areas of the brain that orches-
hereditary (LeVay, 2011). One study found that if one iden-
trate sexual behavior. Support for this idea comes from the
tical twin is homosexual or bisexual, there is a 50 percent
finding that parts of the hypothalamus, which is connected
chance that the other twin is, too. Similar findings lead
with sexual activity, differ in size in heterosexuals and ho-
some researchers to estimate that sexual orientation is 30 to
mosexuals (Kinnunen et al., 2004; LeVay, 2011). Similarly,
70 percent genetic (Alanko et al., 2010; Mustanski, Chivers,
& Bailey, 2002). Recently, the first two candidates have been
identified as genes that influence sexual orientation in males Gonadal sex Sex as indicated by the presence of ovaries (female) or
testes (male).
(Sample, 2014).
Genital sex Sex as indicated by the presence of male or female
But how could homosexuality be genetically transmit- genitals.
ted at all? At first glance, it seems that since homosexual X chromosome The female chromosome contributed by the mother;
sex does not result in genes being passed on to offspring, produces a female when paired with another X chromosome and
a male when paired with a Y chromosome.
those genes would eventually become extinct. But maybe it Y chromosome The male chromosome contributed by the father;
is inaccurate to think of them as “gay genes.” One intriguing produces a male when paired with an X chromosome. Fathers
possibility is that sexually antagonistic selection is at work. may give either an X or a Y chromosome to their offspring.
In other words, the same genes can be expressed differently Gonads The primary sex glands—the testes in males and ovaries in
females.
(antagonistically) in males and females. Estrogen Any of a number of female sex hormones.
How so? Suppose that “ homosexual” genes actually in- Androgen Any of a number of male sex hormones, especially
crease attraction to men and that they are carried by women testosterone.
Testosterone A male sex hormone, secreted mainly by the testes
as well as men. Now imagine a large family. The genes would
and responsible for the development of many male sexual
tend to shift the male’s sexual orientation toward men, re- characteristics.
sulting in homosexuality and fewer offspring. But the genes Intersexual person A person who has genitals suggestive of both
would also tend to shift the female’s sexual orientation toward sexes.
Primary sexual characteristics Sex as defined by the genitals and
men. That is, they would now be especially attracted to men, internal reproductive organs.
with the likely result being more offspring. As it turns out, Secondary sexual characteristics Sexual features other than the
it has just been reported that the female relatives of homo- genitals and reproductive organs—breasts, body shape, facial hair,
sexual men have more offspring than the female relatives of and so forth.
Menopause The stage of life when a female stops menstruating.
heterosexual men (Camperio Ciani et al., 2012). In this theo- Sexual orientation Enduring pattern of attraction to members of
ry, then, the still-unidentified genes in question would result, the same and/or other sex.
overall, in both more offspring and male homosexuality. Heterosexual A person romantically and erotically attracted to
members of the opposite sex.
Another promising approach is to focus on epigenetics,
Homosexual A person romantically and erotically attracted to
the study of how genes are expressed during development. same-sex persons.
Recall our previous discussion of how variations in sex hor- Bisexual A person romantically and erotically attracted to both men
mones in the prenatal environment can dramatically influ- and women.
Asexual A person not romantically or erotically attracted to either
ence prenatal development, resulting in conditions such men or women.
as intersexuality, androgen insensitivity syndrome, and

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398 p SycHOLO Gy m o d u leS fo r active lear n i n G

differences in neurotransmitter levels have been detected in rejection is based on false stereotypes about gay and lesbian
the hypothalamus in homosexual and heterosexual persons people. The following points are a partial reply to such ste-
(Kinnunen et al., 2004). reotypes. Gay and lesbian people
Consistent with the biological view of sexual orienta-
◗ do not try to “convert” others to homosexuality
tion, it is unlikely that parenting makes children homo-
◗ are no more likely to molest children than heterosexuals
sexual. There is little difference between the development of
children with gay or lesbian parents and those who have het- ◗ are no more likely to be mentally ill than heterosexuals
erosexual parents (Hart, Mourot, & Aros, 2012; American ◗ do not hate persons of the opposite sex
Psychological Association, 2008b). Most lesbians and gay ◗ do not, as parents, make their own children gay
men were raised by heterosexual parents, and most children ◗ do have long-term, caring, monogamous relationships
raised by gay or lesbian parents become heterosexual. ◗ are no less able to contribute to society than
Such findings tend to discredit myths about parents heterosexuals
making children homosexual or claims that homosexuality
Homosexual, bisexual, and asexual people are found in
is merely a choice. Although learning contributes to one’s
all walks of life, at all social and economic levels, and in all
sexual orientation, it appears that nature strongly prepares
cultural groups. They are as diverse in terms of race, ethnici-
people to be either homosexual or heterosexual. In view of
ty, age, parenthood, relationships, careers, health, education,
this, discriminating against homosexuals is much like re-
politics, and sexual behavior as the heterosexual commu-
jecting a person for being blue-eyed or left-handed (Smith
nity. Perhaps as more people come to see gay and lesbian
et al., 2011).
people in terms of their humanity, rather than their sexual-
ity, the prejudices that they have faced will wane (American
Sexual Orientation Today Psychological Association, 2008b; Silverstein, 2009).
Psychologists have, for some time, accepted that homo-
sexuality, bisexuality, and asexuality all fall within a nor-
mal range of variations in sexual orientation (Silverstein,
2009). Gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals encounter hostility
because they are members of minority groups, not because
there is anything inherently wrong with them (American
Psychological Association, 2008b).
The problems faced by lesbians and gay men tend to be
related to rejection by family and discrimination in hiring
and housing. Such unfair treatment is based on homopho-
bia and heterosexism in our society (Murray, 2009; Stefurak,
Taylor & Mehta, 2010). Homophobia refers to prejudice,
fear, and dislike directed at homosexuals. Heterosexism is
the belief that heterosexuality is better or more natural than
homosexuality.
Understandably, social rejection tends to produce
higher rates of anxiety, depression, and suicidal thinking
among gay and lesbian people (Bostwick et al., 2014; Lester,
2006). However, anyone facing discrimination and stigma
would react in much the same way (Greene & Britton,
Rick Diamond/Getty Images

2012; Jorm et al., 2002). When such stresses are factored

out, homosexual persons are no more likely to have emo-
tional problems than heterosexual people (Goldfried, 2001;
Meyer et al., 2011).
Contrary to the common stereotype, many lesbian and homosexual
Most homosexual people have at one time or another
couples are in long-term, committed relationships. Actress Portia
suffered verbal abuse—or worse—because of their sexual de Rossi and comedian/television host Ellen DeGeneres have been
orientation (Balsam & Mohr, 2007; Fine, 2011). Much of this together since 2004 and were married in 2008.

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 MODU LE 4 6 H u man S e xuality: S e x an d G e n d e r 399

Gender Identity—It Begins Early

Survey Question 46.3 How does one’s sense of masculin- females are expected to be sensitive, intuitive, passive, emo-
ity or femininity develop? tional, and “naturally” interested in child-rearing.
While the term sex refers to your biological maleness or A look at other cultures shows that our gender roles
femaleness, gender refers to the cultural characteristics as- are by no means “natural” or universal. For example, in
sociated with your maleness or femaleness (Crooks & Baur, some cultures, women do the heavy work because men are
2017). For example, if you are biologically male, do you feel considered too weak for it (Best, 2002). In Russia, roughly
and act in more masculine ways or more feminine ways? In 75 percent of all medical doctors are women, and women
other words, what is your gender identity—your subjective make up a large portion of the workforce. Such cross-
sense of being male or female as expressed in appearance, cultural variability makes it clear that a man is no less a
behavior, and attitudes? man if he cooks, sews, or cares for children. A woman is
Is your gender identity also biologically determined, or no less a woman if she excels in sports, succeeds in busi-
is it learned? That’s a good question. In animals, clear links ness, or works as an auto mechanic. Still, adult personality
exist between prenatal hormones and male or female be- and gender identity are closely tied to cultural definitions of
haviors. Also, as we just saw, in humans, abnormal levels of “masculinity” and “femininity.”
prenatal androgens and estrogens can strongly influence the Despite much progress in the last 40 years, gender role
development of the body, nervous system, and later behav- stereotypes continue to have a major impact on women and
ior patterns, such as sexual preference. Slight variations in
the levels of sex hormones may subtly “sex-type” the brains
of most of us before birth, altering our chances of develop-
ing feminine or masculine traits (Berenbaum, Blakemore, &
Beltz, 2011). Evidence for this idea is provided by females
exposed to small increases in androgens before birth. After
birth, their hormones shift to female, and they are raised as
girls. Nevertheless, prenatal exposure to male hormones has
a relatively slight masculinizing effect. During childhood,
such girls are typically “tomboys” who prefer the company
of boys to girls.
Although it would be a mistake to ignore this biological
biasing effect, most human sex-linked behaviors are influ-
enced more by learning than is the case for animals (Helge-
son, 2012). For example, during adolescence, the tomboy-
ism of masculinized girls usually gives way to more female

John Mitterer
interests and gender characteristics (Van Volkom, 2009). In
contrast, many girls who are highly feminine when they are Is this South American less of a man because he sews? Behaviors
young become more masculine in adolescence as they seek that are considered typical and appropriate for each sex (gender
to explore the social power that comes with more masculine roles) vary a great deal from culture to culture. Undoubtedly, some
gender roles (Halim, Ruble, & Amodio, 2011). Cases like cultures magnify sex differences more than others (Carroll, 2013).

these make it clear that both prenatal hormones and later

Gender Culturally constructed distinctions between male and
social factors contribute to adult gender identity.
female characteristics.
Gender identity One’s personal, private sense of maleness or
femaleness.
Gender Roles Biological biasing effect The hypothesized effect that prenatal ex-
A person’s gender identity usually conforms to the gender posure to sex hormones has on development of the body, nervous
role, or favored pattern of behavior, expected of each sex. system, and later behavior patterns.
Gender role Pattern of behaviors regarded as “male” or “female”
Traditionally, in our culture, boys are encouraged to be within a culture.
strong, fast, aggressive, dominant, and achieving, and

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400 p SycHOLO Gy m o d u leS fo r active lear n i n G

men. Gender role stereotypes are oversimplified beliefs male sexual irresponsibility as part of a larger pattern that
about what men and women are actually like. While gender includes aggression. Some go so far as to say that men suffer
roles influence how we act, gender role stereotypes, in con- from “testosterone poisoning” because men are responsible
trast, turn gender roles into false beliefs about what men and for most violence. Again, this stereotype has an element of
women can and can’t do. truth. Men who have high testosterone levels are more likely to
become aggressive (Mehta & Beer, 2010; Montoya et al., 2012).
Female Gender Role Stereotyping Are women suit-
Then, are high testosterone levels a problem? Not usually.
ed to be fighter pilots, corporate presidents, military com-
For example, men with low testosterone levels may have dif-
manders, or racecar drivers? A person with strong gender
ficulty thinking and concentrating. In such cases, testoster-
role stereotypes might say, “No, because women are not suf-
one supplements can help them think more clearly, rather
ficiently aggressive, dominant, or mechanically inclined for
than less (Fukai et al., 2010). Furthermore, older men with
such roles.” Yet, today’s women have performed successfully
too little testosterone tend to have memory problems and a
in virtually all realms.
greater risk of developing dementia (Carcaillon et al., 2013).
Nevertheless, gender role stereotypes persist and can be
Finally, let’s remember that we have been discussing a gen-
a major career obstacle. For many jobs, your chances of be-
der stereotype, albeit one with some truth to it. Most men,
ing hired could be reduced by your sex, be it male or female.
including those with high testosterone levels, keep their
Unequal pay for comparable work and experience also is a
sexual impulses and aggressiveness within acceptable limits.
major problem for women (National Committee on Pay Eq-
uity, 2015a, b). Overall, women earn only about 79 cents for Acquiring Gender Identity
every dollar earned by men. The rate for women of color is
How is gender identity acquired? As stated previously, gen-
worse—64 cents for African-American women and a mea-
der identity—your personal, private sense of being female or
sly 52 cents for Latinas. This wage gap can cost a woman
male—is at least partly learned. It begins with labeling (“It’s
trained in a professional school as much as $2 million in lost
a girl!” or “It’s a boy!”) (Eagly, 2009). Thereafter, it is shaped
career earnings over the course of her life. The male–female
by gender role socialization—the process of learning gen-
pay difference is even found among teachers in colleges,
der behaviors (stereotyped or not) regarded as appropriate
where greater awareness of gender fairness should prevail
for one’s sex in a given culture. Gender role socialization
(Jaschik, 2011).
reflects all the pressures from parents, peers, and cultural
Like all stereotypes, those based on gender roles ignore
the wonderful diversity of humanity. Fortunately, extreme
gender stereotyping has declined somewhat in the last
20 years (Eagly et al., 2012). Just the same, in most fields
women continue to earn less money and achieve lower
status than men (Brescoll, Dawson, & Uhlmann, 2010;
DeArmond et al., 2006).
Male Gender Role Stereotyping One common gender
stereotype holds that men are vulnerable to thinking with
their . . . well . . . gonads. Actually, there’s a bit of truth to
the stereotype and more to the story. Research confirms
that men may make poorer decisions about sexual behavior
when they are “turned on” (Ariely & Loewenstein, 2006).
Pat Byrnes/The New Yorker Collection/Cartoonbank.com

Compared with unaroused men, those who are sexually ex-

cited are more willing to press women to have sex. They also
are more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior. When
unaroused men were asked if they thought being sexually
aroused might influence their sexual choices, they predicted
that arousal would have little effect. (Wrong!)
Of course, women are not immune to having their heads
turned by sexual passion either. However, many people see

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 MODU LE 4 6 H u man S e xuality: S e x an d G e n d e r 401

forces that urge boys to “act like boys” and girls to “act like
girls” (Orenstein, 2011). By the time they are 30 months of
age, children are aware of gender role differences (Martin &
Ruble, 2009). At 3 or 4 years of age, gender identity is usually
well formed (Martin, 2011).
Historically, parents and other adults in Western coun-
tries like the United States tended to encourage boys to
engage in goal-directed or instrumental behaviors, to

© Ilike/Shutterstock.com
be directly aggressive, to hide their emotions, and to pre-
pare for the world of work. Girls, on the other hand, were
encouraged in emotion-oriented or expressive behaviors,
and, to a lesser degree, were socialized for indirect aggres- One study found that the mothers interacted differently with their
sion and for motherhood (Eagly, 2009). infant sons and daughters as they played with gender-neutral toys.
When parents are told that they treat boys and girls Mothers of girls engaged in more interpretation and conversation,
whereas mothers of boys commented more and offered more
differently, many explain that the sexes are just “naturally” instructions (Clearfield & Nelson, 2006).
different. But what comes first, “natural differences” or the
gender-based expectations that create them? In our culture, By the time children reach kindergarten, they have de-
“male” seems—for many—to be defined as “not female”— veloped a gender identity and have internalized gender roles
that is, parents often have a vague fear of expressive and and stereotypes. They expect that doctors, firefighters, and
emotional behavior in male children. To them, such behavior pilots are men and that nurses, administrative assistants, and
implies that a boy is effeminate or a sissy. Many parents who hairdressers are women (Eagly, 2009). And why not? The
would not be troubled if their daughters engaged in “mas- workforce is still relatively segregated by sex, and children
culine” play might be upset if their sons played with dolls or learn from what they observe. Stereotyped gender roles are
imitated “female” mannerisms (Wiseman & Davidson, 2012). even the norm in various media like TV commercials, chil-
No matter what, learning gender roles begins immedi- dren’s picture books, and video games (Kahlenberg & Hein,
ately after birth. Infant girls are held more gently and treated 2010; Oppliger, 2007).
more tenderly than boys. Both parents play more roughly To summarize, gender role socialization in our society
with sons than with daughters (who are presumed to be prepares children for a world in which men are expected to
more “delicate”). Later, boys are allowed to roam over a wider be instrumental, conquering, controlling, and unemotional.
area without special permission. They also are expected to (In males, a restricted ability to express emotion is one of
run errands earlier than girls. Daughters are told that they the costs of adopting a masculine gender role, at least as it
are pretty and that “nice girls don’t fight.” Boys are told to be is defined in North America; see Module 44.) Women, in
strong and that “tough guys don’t cry.” Sons are more often contrast, are expected to be expressive, emotional, passive,
urged to control their emotions, except for anger and aggres- and dependent. Thus, gender role socialization teaches us to
sion, which parents tolerate more in boys than in girls. be highly competent in some respects and handicapped in
Toys, sports, and play are strongly sex-typed (Hardin others (Levant et al., 2009).
& Greer, 2009). Parents buy dolls for girls; they buy trucks,
tools, and sports equipment for boys. Fathers, especially, Gender Role Strain Of course, many people find tradi-
tend to encourage their children to play with “appropri- tional gender roles acceptable and comfortable. They may
ate” sex-typed toys (Freeman, 2007; Raag & Rackliff, 1998). even enrich many lives. Others, however, may find traditional
Beginning around age 3, boys start to play mostly with boys
and girls play with girls. Girls tend to play indoors and near Gender role stereotypes Oversimplified and widely held beliefs
about the basic characteristics of men and women.
adults. They like to cooperate by playing house and other
Gender role socialization The process of learning gender behaviors
games that require lots of verbal give and take. Boys pre- considered appropriate for one’s sex in a given culture.
fer superhero games and rough-and-tumble play outdoors. Instrumental behaviors Actions directed toward the achievement
Thus, from an early age, males and females tend to grow of some goal.
Expressive behaviors Actions that express or communicate emotion
up in different, gender-defined cultures (Oppliger, 2007; or personal feelings.
Shaffer & Kipp, 2014.)

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402 p SycHOLO Gy m o d u leS fo r active lear n i n G

gender roles, especially gender role stereotypes, burden- and most of his male friends play, too. But Alex doesn’t like
some. If you are, for example, a fiercely independent woman the violence and secretly wants to become a chef. It both-
or a deeply emotional man, you may experience gender role ers him that the family TV is always tuned to hockey. His
strain—stress associated with a conflict between your per- brothers tease him all the time to “man up.” Lately, he has
sonal “reality” and the expectations associated with a gender been secretly watching cooking programs on his laptop.
role (Levant, 2011; Rummell & Levant, 2014). How should Alex deal with his gender role strain? Perhaps
Take Alexander, for example. He is always being pres- he would benefit most if he could set aside the more stereo-
sured to play hockey. His father played, his brothers play, typed aspects of gender roles. The next section explains why.

Androgyny—A Bit of Both

Survey Question 46.4 What is psychological androgyny? Of those surveyed, 50 percent fell into traditional feminine
or masculine categories, 15 percent scored higher on traits
Are you aggressive, ambitious, analytical, assertive, athletic,
of the opposite sex, and 35 percent were androgynous, get-
competitive, decisive, dominant, forceful, independent,
ting high scores on both feminine and masculine items.
individualistic, self-reliant, and willing to take risks? If so,
you are quite “masculine.” Are you affectionate, cheerful, psychological Androgyny
childlike, compassionate, easily flattered, gentle, gullible,
The word androgyny (an-DROJ-ih-nee) literally means
loyal, sensitive, shy, soft-spoken, sympathetic, tender, un-
“man-woman” and refers to having both masculine and
derstanding, warm, and yielding? If so, then you are quite
feminine traits (Helgeson, 2012). Bem is convinced that our
“feminine.” What if you have traits from both lists? In that
complex society requires flexibility with respect to gender
case, you may be androgynous.
roles. She believes that it is necessary for men to also be gen-
The two lists that you just read are from the seminal
tle, compassionate, sensitive, and yielding and for women to
work of psychologist Sandra Bem (1974). By combining 20
also be forceful, self-reliant, independent, and ambitious—
traditionally “masculine” traits (like self-reliant, assertive),
as the situation requires. In short, Bem thinks that more peo-
20 traditionally “feminine” traits (like affectionate, gentle),
ple should feel free to be more androgynous.
and 20 neutral traits (like truthful, friendly), Bem created
the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). (Some psychologists Adaptability Bem has shown that androgynous individu-
prefer to use the term sex role instead of gender role.) Next, als are more adaptable. They seem especially to be less hin-
she and her associates gave the BSRI to thousands of peo- dered by images of “feminine” or “masculine” behavior. For
ple, asking them to say whether each trait applied to them. example, in one study, people were given the choice of doing

© Tyler Olson/Shutterstock.com
iStockphoto.com/sturti

Androgynous individuals adapt easily

to both traditionally “feminine” and
“masculine” situations.

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 MODU LE 4 6 H u man S e xuality: S e x an d G e n d e r 403

either a “masculine” activity (oil a hinge, nail boards together, 14

Masculine
and so forth) or a “feminine” activity (prepare a baby bottle, 12
Feminine
wind yarn into a ball, and so on). Masculine men and femi- Androgynous

Degree of depression
10
nine women consistently chose to do gender-appropriate 8
activities, even when the opposite choice paid more!
6
Bem has concluded that masculine males have great dif-
ficulty expressing warmth, playfulness, and concern—even 4

when they are appropriate (Bem, 1975, 1981). Masculine 2

men, it seems, tend to view such feelings as unacceptably

Few Many
“feminine.” Masculine men also find it hard to accept emo-
Negative life events
tional support from others, particularly women (Levant,
2003). They tend to be interested in sports, have mostly ➤ Figure 46.2
male friends, and dislike feminists. Androgyny and stress. Another indication of the possible benefits
of androgyny is found in a study of reactions to stress. When
Problems faced by highly feminine women are the re- confronted with an onslaught of negative events, strongly masculine
verse of those faced by masculine men. Such women have or feminine persons become more depressed than androgynous
trouble being independent and assertive, even when these individuals do. (Adapted from Roos & Cohen, 1987.)
qualities are desirable. In contrast, more androgynous indi-
viduals are higher in emotional intelligence (see Module 65)
others and more happiness in marriage (Rollero, Gattino, &
(Guastello & Guastello, 2003).
De Piccoli, 2013).
The Whole Human Over the years, androgyny has been In the final analysis, it is worth repeating that many
variously supported, attacked, and debated. Now, as the people remain comfortable with traditional views of gender.
dust begins to settle, the picture looks like this: Having Nevertheless, there are advantages to possessing both “femi-
“masculine” traits primarily means that a person is inde- nine” and “masculine” traits (Guastello & Guastello, 2003;
pendent and assertive. Scoring high in “masculinity,” there- Lefkowitz & Zeldow, 2006). In general, androgynous per-
fore, is related to high self-esteem and to success in many sons are more flexible when it comes to coping with difficult
situations (Moksnes & Espnes, 2012). Having “feminine” situations; they can use both instrumental and emotionally
traits primarily means that a person is nurturing and inter- expressive capacities to enhance their lives and relationships
personally oriented. People who score high in “femininity,” (see ➤ Figure 46.2). As a consequence, androgynous per-
therefore, are more likely to seek and receive social sup- sons tend to experience less gender role strain and be more
port. They tend to experience greater social closeness with satisfied with their lives.

When Sex and Gender Do Not Match—The Binary Busters

Survey Question 46.5 What is gender variance? My 650 coworkers fully accepted me, as did most of my
family” (Kelly, 2010).
About her early life as a boy, Elena remarked, “I have always
As we have just learned, biological sex is not binary; it
known I was a girl. . . . In first grade, I avoided boys like the
comes in shades of male and female. So, too, gender comes
plague. Boys called me ‘sissy’ and ‘crybaby’ and beat me up.”
in shades of masculine and feminine. You will probably not
As an adult, she decided to become the woman she always
be surprised, then, to learn that the relationship between sex
felt she was. As Elena put it, “I was determined to transi-
and gender is also a rainbow of possibility (Carroll, 2016). By
tion. Of course, I was terrified the changes would leave me
adulthood, most males turn out to be more or less mascu-
destitute and friendless, that I would wind up dead in a
line and most females turn out to be more or less feminine.
ditch somewhere, victim of someone else’s fist. . . . Lucky
for me, I had nothing to fear at work. When I came out Gender role strain Stress associated with any conflict between per-
to our company president, he sent an e-mail to the whole sonal identity and the expectations associated with a gender role.
organization (with my permission) stating that I was tran- Androgyny The presence of both “masculine” and “feminine” traits
in a single person (as masculinity and femininity are defined
sitioning from male to female, and that I was to be treated within one’s culture).
with the same respect and dignity [as] any other woman.

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404 p SycHOLO Gy m o d u leS fo r active lear n i n G

At the same time, some males are quite feminine and some their children’s experiences. If there is a trend in the United
females are quite masculine (Note: These variations in the States today, it is toward acceptance and support (Zeiler &
relationship between sex and gender should not be confused Wickström, 2009).
with variations in sexual orientation. Many feminine men When treatment is requested, it may include psycho-
and masculine women are, nonetheless, thoroughly het- therapy and, in more clear-cut cases, sex reassignment sur-
erosexual.) And, like Elena, significant numbers of people gery (Imbimbo et al., 2009). Surgery can reconfigure the ex-
are gender variant (transsexual), in that their biological ternal appearance of the genitals while hormone treatments
sex definitely does not match their preferred gender (Veale, shift the chemical balance in the body, and a deliberate ef-
Clarke, & Lomax, 2010). fort can be made to transform the person’s sense of sexual
Is gender-variance a psychological disorder? Gender vari- identity. Adults who deliberately seek sex reassignment are
ance was once considered a form of psychiatric illness. To- generally happy with the results (Imbimbo et al., 2009).
day, an individual usually is considered for a diagnosis of Sex reassignment surgery is also becoming more com-
gender dysphoria only if he or she is experiencing extreme mon with children. Supporters of early sex assignment argue
distress because of his or her gender variance (American that the benefits usually outweigh the long-term psychologi-
Psychiatric Association, 2013). The emerging consensus is cal costs (Zeiler & Wickström, 2009). Others believe that it
that it is better in the long run for transsexual individuals is better to wait until adulthood, when transsexual (and in-
to accept who they are and for all of us to realize that some tersexual) individuals can choose for themselves whether or
people do not neatly fit into the categories of male and fe- not to have surgery and whether to live as a man or a woman
male (Holmes, 2002). (Thyen et al., 2005).
In this way of thinking, the suffering of many transsex- Only time will tell which approach is more success-
ual individuals stems, not from their gender variance, but ful. Because sex and gender are complex, the best course of
from the prejudice, hostility, and stigmatization of main- treatment will likely prove to be different for different peo-
stream society. Gender-variant individuals deserve our un- ple (Rathus, Nevid, & Fichner-Rathus, 2013).
derstanding and support (Diamond, 2009; Meadow, 2011).
When it comes to children, many parents try to encour- Gender variant (transsexual) A condition in which a person’s
age what they see as gender-appropriate behavior. Others biological sex does not match his or her preferred gender.
Gender dysphoria Distress that may occur when gender identity
wait and see if their children will grow into more gender- does not match a person’s physical sex.
appropriate roles. Still others seek to accept and support

MODULE

46 Summary
46.1 What are the basic dimensions of sex? 46.2 What is sexual orientation?
46.1.1 Male and female are not simple either/or categories; 46.2.1 Sexual orientation refers to one’s degree of emotional
biological sex consists of genetic sex, gonadal sex, and erotic attraction to members of the opposite sex
hormonal sex, and genital sex. (heterosexuality), same sex (homosexuality), both
46.1.2 Sexual development begins with genetic sex (XX or sexes (bisexuality), or neither sex (asexuality). All
XY chromosomes) and is then influenced by prenatal four sexual orientations are part of the normal range
hormone levels. of human variability.
46.1.3 Androgen insensitivity syndrome, exposure to pro- 46.2.2 Sexual orientation tends to be stable over time even if
gestin, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and similar sexual behaviors change.
problems can cause a person to be born with an 46.2.3 Similar factors (heredity, biology, and socialization)
intersexual condition. underlie all sexual orientations.
46.1.4 Estrogens (female sex hormones) and androgens 46.2.4 As a group, homosexual men and women do not
(male sex hormones) influence the development of differ psychologically from heterosexuals. They are,
different primary and secondary sexual characteris- however, often the victims of homophobia and het-
tics in males and females. erosexism.
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 MODU LE 4 6 H u man S e xuality: S e x an d G e n d e r 405

46.3 How does one’s sense of masculinity or 46.4 What is psychological androgyny?
femininity develop? 46.4.1 People who possess both masculine and feminine
46.3.1 Masculine and feminine behavior patterns are related traits are androgynous. Roughly one-third of all per-
to learned gender identity and gender role socializa- sons are androgynous. Approximately 50 percent are
tion. traditionally feminine or masculine.
46.3.2 Many researchers believe that prenatal hormones 46.4.2 Psychological androgyny is related to greater behav-
exert a biological biasing effect that combines with ioral adaptability and flexibility.
social factors to influence psychosexual development.
46.3.3 Gender identity usually becomes stable by age 3 or 46.5 What is gender variance?
4 years. 46.5.1 Gender-variant individuals experience a persistent
46.3.4 Gender role socialization seems to account for most mismatch between their biological sex and their
observed female–male gender differences. Parents experienced gender.
tend to encourage boys in instrumental behaviors 46.5.2 Sex reassignment surgery may be undertaken to help
and girls in expressive behaviors. resolve the discrepancy.
46.3.5 Gender role stereotypes often distort perceptions
about the kinds of activities for which men and
women are suited. Pressuring people to conform to
gender stereotypes can create gender role strain.

Knowledge Builder Human Sexuality: Sex and Gender

Recite Self-Reflect
1. The four basic dimensions of biological sex are the Which of your prior beliefs about sexual orientation are true?
following: Which are false?
________, ________, ________, ________ As a child. do you think that you were encouraged to en-
2. All individuals normally produce both androgens and gage more in instrumental behaviors or expressive behaviors?
estrogens, although the proportions differ in females and Think of three people you know, one who is androgynous,
males. T or F? one who is traditionally feminine, and one who is traditionally
3. Whether a person has erotic fantasies about women or masculine. What advantages and disadvantages do you see in
men is a strong indicator of his or her sexual orientation. each collection of traits?
T or F? Have you experienced gender role strain? How did you
4. One’s private sense of maleness or femaleness is referred cope with it?
to as ________ ________. In 2007, the American Medical Association changed its an-
5. Traditional gender role socialization encourages tidiscrimination policies to include transgender people. This
________ behavior in males. means, for example, that doctors no longer can refuse medical
a. instrumental c. expressive treatment to transgender patients. Do you agree or disagree
b. emotional d. dependent with this change?
6. A person who is androgynous scores high on ratings of
traits usually possessed by the opposite sex. T or F? AN SW E R S
line and feminine traits as they are defined within one’s culture.

Reflect
identity 5. a 6. F 7. Yes. Being androgynous means having both mascu-
1. genetic sex, gonadal sex, hormonal sex, genital sex 2. T 3. T 4. gender
Think critically
7. Could a person be androgynous in a culture where “mas-
culine” and “feminine” traits differ greatly from those on
Bem’s list?
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MODULE

47 Human Sexuality
The Human Sex Drive, Response,
and Attitudes

Too Sexy?
Our sexuality is a natural part of being human; a powerful basic biologi-
cal drive that underlies many of our intimate behaviors. Accordingly, we
begin this module with a discussion of the human sex drive and typi-
cal patterns of sexual behavior, including the female and male sexual
response.
Our sexuality is also shaped by our membership in various social
groups and cultures; as shared attitudes change, so too does sexual behav-
ior. Accordingly, we continue by exploring the explosion of sexual expres-
siveness in contemporary North American culture. From the ubiquitous
presence of sex across the media to pornography of all types and from
hook-up culture to kink, even young children are not immune. What mes-
sages, for example, do beauty pageants for children send to young girls?
Marc Andrew Deley/Getty Images

Our sexuality is also a deep part of our individual identity and,

hence, our intimate relationships; it is fundamentally a form of
communication. We close this module, then, with some advice on
how to foster sexual intimacy.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
47.1 To what extent do females and males differ in sexual 47.3 How can couples keep their relationships sexually
response? satisfying?
47.2 Have recent changes in attitudes affected sexual
behavior?

The Human Sex Drive and Sexual Response—Gotta Have It

Survey Question 47.1 To what extent do females and
factors such as cultural values, attitudes toward sex, and
males differ in sexual response?
sexual experience, it is, in the end, a basic biological drive.
There is no question that the human sex drive—the In lower animals, castration (surgical removal of
strength of one’s motivation to engage in sexual behavior— the testicles or ovaries) tends to abolish sexual activity in
is extraordinarily powerful. Although it is modulated by inexperienced animals. In humans, the effects of male and

406
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 MODU LE 47 H u man S e xuality: tH e H u man S e x D r ive, r eS po n S e, an D attitu D eS 407

female castration vary. At first, some people experience a in her bloodstream. Of course, women produce much small-
loss of sex drive; in others, there is no change. (That’s why er amounts of testosterone than men. But that doesn’t mean
castration of sex offenders does not necessarily curb their their sex drive is weaker. Women’s bodies are more sensitive
behavior.) However, after several years, almost all subjects to testosterone, and their sex drive is comparable to males.
report a decrease in sex drive unless they take hormone One way to gauge the strength of the human sex drive
supplements. is to chart its expression as sexual behavior. As you can see,
The preceding observations have nothing to do with many sexually mature men and women are sexually active at
sterilization (surgery to make a man or woman infertile). every age (See ➤ Figure 47.1).
The vast majority of women and men who choose surgical What about masturbation? As ➤ Figure 47.2 shows,
birth control (such as a tubal ligation or a vasectomy) do masturbation is also a regular feature of the sex lives of many
not lose interest in sex. If anything, they may become more people. Masturbation is an important part of the psychosex-
sexually active when pregnancy is no longer a concern. ual development of most adolescents. Among other things,
A capacity for sexual arousal is apparent at birth it provides a healthy substitute for sexual involvement at a
or soon after. One of the most basic sexual behaviors is time when young people are maturing emotionally. Approx-
masturbation—self-stimulation that causes sexual pleasure imately 70 percent of married women and men masturbate
or orgasm. Self-stimulation has been observed in infants un- at least occasionally. Generally speaking, masturbation is
der 1 year of age. Researcher Alfred Kinsey even verified in- valid at any age and usually has no effect on marital relation-
stances of orgasm in boys as young as 5 months old and girls ships (Herbenick et al., 2010b). Contrary to popular myths,
as young as 4 months (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948, people are not always compelled to masturbate because they
1953). Kinsey also found that 2- to 5-year-old children spon- lack a sexual partner (Kott, 2011). Masturbation is often just
taneously touch and exhibit their genitals. Although various “one more item on the menu” for people with active sex lives.
sexual behaviors continue throughout childhood, the human Does alcohol increase the sex drive? In general, no. Alco-
sex drive normally doesn’t “kick in “ until the early teens. hol is a depressant. As such, it may, in small doses, stimulate
That’s when the hormonal changes of puberty promote rapid erotic desire by lowering inhibitions. This effect no doubt
physical growth and sexual maturity (See Module 15) accounts for alcohol’s reputation as an aid to seduction.
As discussed in Module 43, a male’s sex drive is related
to the amount of androgens (especially testosterone) sup-
Sex drive The strength of one’s motivation to engage in sexual
plied by the testes (Crooks & Baur, 2017). The connection
behavior.
can be very direct: When a man chats with a woman he finds Castration Surgical removal of the testicles or ovaries.
attractive, his testosterone levels actually increase (Roney, Sterilization Medical procedures such as vasectomy or tubal ligation
2003). While the sex drive in females is related to estrogen that make a man or a woman infertile.
Masturbation Producing sexual pleasure or orgasm by directly
levels, testosterone also plays a role (Rosenthal, M., 2013). A stimulating the genitals on your own body.
woman’s sex drive is closely related to the testosterone level

100
90
80
70
60
Percentage

Males
50
Females
40
➤ Figure 47.1
Intercourse across age. Percentage
30 of men and women of various ages who
20 experienced vaginal intercourse during
the last month. Although percentages
10
decline beginning as adults enter their
0 forties, significant percentages of older
14–15 16–17 18–19 20–24 25–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 701 people remain sexually active. (Data
Age range adapted from Herbenick et al., 2010a.)

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408 p SycHOLO Gy m o D u leS fo r active lear n i n g

➤ Figure 47.2 100

Masturbation across age. Percentage 90

of women and men of various ages who
80
masturbated alone during the last year.
(Data adapted from Herbenick et al., 70
2010a.) 60

Percentage
Males
50
Females
40
30
20
10
0
14–15 16–17 18–19 20–24 25–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 701
Age range

(Humorist Ogden Nash once summarized this bit of folk- mouth, breasts, ears, anus, and, to a lesser degree, the entire
lore by saying “Candy is dandy, but liquor is quicker.”) How- surface of the body. It is clear, however, that more than phys-
ever, in larger doses, alcohol suppresses orgasm in women ical contact is involved: A urological or gynecological exam
and erection in men. Getting drunk decreases sexual desire, rarely results in any sexual arousal. Likewise, an unwanted
arousal, pleasure, and performance (Sobczak, 2009). sexual advance may produce only revulsion. Human sexual
Numerous other drugs are reputed to be aphrodisiacs arousal obviously includes a large mental element.
(af-ruh-DEEZ-ee-aks), substances that increase sexual de- The pioneering work of gynecologist William Masters
sire or pleasure.) However, like alcohol, many other drugs and psychologist Virginia Johnson greatly expanded our un-
do not enhance and may even actually impair sexual re- derstanding of sexual responses, regardless of how they are
sponse (McKay, 2005; Shamloul, 2010). Some examples are triggered (Masters & Johnson, 1966, 1970). In a series of ex-
amphetamines, amyl nitrite, barbiturates, cocaine, Ecsta- periments, interviews, and controlled observations, Masters
sy, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and marijuana. (It is and Johnson directly studied sexual intercourse and mas-
worth noting that, around the world, many substances are turbation in nearly 700 males and females. This objective
believed to be aphrodisiacs, such as oysters, chocolate, pow- information has given us a much clearer picture of human
dered rhinoceros horn, and so on. In general, these are, at sexuality.
best, superstitions that might produce a placebo effect.) In According to Masters and Johnson, sexual response
the end, love is the best aphrodisiac (Crooks & Baur, 2017). can be divided into four phases: (1) excitement, (2) plateau,
What happens to the sex drive in old age? A natural de- (3) orgasm, and (4) resolution (➤ Figures 47.3 and 47.4).
cline in sex drive typically accompanies aging. This is related These four phases, which are the same for people of all sexual
to a reduced output of sex hormones, especially testosterone orientations (Carroll, 2016), can be described as follows:
(Carroll, 2016). However, sexual activity need not come to
Excitement phase The first level of sexual response, indi-
an end. Some people in their eighties and nineties continue
cated by initial signs of sexual arousal
to have active sex lives. The crucial factor for an extended
Plateau phase The second level of sexual response, dur-
sex life appears to be regularity and opportunity. (“Use it
ing which physical arousal intensifies
or lose it.”) In some instances, taking testosterone supple-
ments can restore the sex drive in both men and women Orgasm A climax and release of sexual excitement
(Rosenthal, M., 2013). Resolution The final level of sexual response, involving a
return to lower levels of sexual tension and arousal
Human Sexual Response Female Response In women, the excitement phase is
Human sexual arousal is complex. It may, of course, be pro- marked by a complex pattern of changes in the body. The
duced by direct stimulation of the body’s erogenous zones vagina is prepared for intercourse, the nipples become erect,
(eh-ROJ-eh-nus), which means “productive of pleasure or pulse rate rises, and the skin may become flushed or red-
erotic desire.” Human erogenous zones include the genitals, dened. When sexual stimulation ends, the excitement phase

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 MODU LE 47 H u man S e xuality: tH e H u man S e x D r ive, r eS po n S e, an D attitu D eS 409

Orgasm Orgasm

Refractory period Refractory

period

Plateau Plateau
Re
so
lu
tio
n

Resolutio

Reso
Excitement

lutio
A B C (B)

Resoluti
n
n
Excitement
(C) (A)

on
Time Time
➤ Figure 47.3 ➤ Figure 47.4
Female sexual response cycle. The green line shows that sexual Male sexual response cycle. The green line shows that sexual
arousal rises through the excitement phase and levels off for a arousal rises through the excitement phase and levels off for a
time during the plateau phase. Arousal peaks during orgasm and time during the plateau phase. Arousal peaks during orgasm and
then returns to pre-excitement levels. In pattern A, arousal rises then returns to pre-excitement levels. During the refractory period,
from excitement through the plateau phase and peaks in orgasm. immediately after orgasm, a second sexual climax is typically
Resolution may be immediate, or it may first include a return to impossible. However, after the refractory period has passed, there
the plateau phase and a second orgasm (dotted line). In pattern may be a return to the plateau phase, followed by a second orgasm
B, arousal is sustained at the plateau phase and slowly resolved (dotted line). (Adapted from Carroll, 2016.)
without sexual climax. Pattern C shows a fairly rapid rise in arousal
to orgasm. Little time is spent in the plateau phase, and resolution
is fairly rapid. (Adapted from Carroll, 2016.) As a matter of fact, the inner two-thirds of the vagina is
relatively insensitive to touch. Most sensations during
intercourse come from stimulation of the clitoris and other
gradually subsides. If a woman moves into the plateau external areas. For most women, the clitoris is an impor-
phase, physical changes and subjective feelings of arousal tant source of pleasurable sensations. Apparently, sensations
become more intense. Sexual arousal that ends during this from many sources are fused into the total experience of
phase tends to ebb more slowly, which may produce con- orgasm. Thus, to downgrade the “clitoral orgasm” ignores
siderable frustration. Occasionally, women skip the plateau basic female biology (Prause, 2012).
phase (see Figure 47.3). For some women, this is almost
always the case. Male Response Sexual arousal in the male is signaled
During orgasm, 3 to 10 muscular contractions of the by erection of the penis during the excitement phase. A rise
vagina, uterus, and related structures discharge sexual ten- in heart rate, increased blood flow to the genitals, enlarge-
sion. Orgasm is usually followed by resolution, a return to ment of the testicles, erection of the nipples, and numerous
lower levels of sexual tension and arousal. After orgasm, about other body changes also occur. As is true of female sexual re-
15 percent of all women return to the plateau phase and may sponse, continued stimulation moves the male into the pla-
have one or more additional orgasms (Mah & Binik, 2001). teau phase. Again, physical changes and subjective feelings
Before the work of Masters and Johnson, theorists de- of arousal become more intense. Further stimulation during
bated whether “vaginal orgasms” are different from those the plateau phase brings about a reflex release of sexual ten-
derived from stimulation of the clitoris, a small, sensitive sion, resulting in orgasm.
organ located above the vaginal opening. Sigmund Freud
claimed that a “clitoral orgasm” is an “immature” form of Erogenous zones Areas of the body that produce pleasure, provoke
female response. Because the clitoris is the female structure erotic desire, or both.
Excitement phase The first phase of sexual response, indicated by
comparable to the penis, Freud believed that women who
initial signs of sexual arousal.
experienced clitoral orgasms had not fully accepted their Plateau phase The second phase of sexual response, during which
femininity. physical arousal is further heightened.
Masters and Johnson exploded the Freudian myth by Orgasm A climax and release of sexual excitement.
Resolution The fourth phase of sexual response, involving a return
showing that physical responses are the same no matter how to lower levels of sexual tension and arousal.
an orgasm is produced (Carroll, 2016; Mah & Binik, 2001).

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410 p SycHOLO Gy m o D u leS fo r active lear n i n g

In the mature male, orgasm is usually accompanied by exist in flaccid penis size, there tends to be much less varia-
ejaculation—the release of sperm and seminal fluid. Af- tion in size during erection. That’s why erection has been
terward, it is followed by a short refractory period, during called the “great equalizer.” Lovemaking involves the entire
which a second orgasm is impossible. (Many men cannot body. Preoccupation with the size of a woman’s breasts, a
even have an erection until the refractory phase has passed.) man’s penis, and the like are based on myths that under-
Only rarely is the male refractory period immediately fol- mine genuine caring, sharing, and sexual satisfaction (Hyde
lowed by a second orgasm. Both orgasm and resolution in & DeLamater, 2014).
the male usually do not last as long as they do for females. Men almost always reach orgasm during intercourse,
but many women do not. Doesn’t this indicate that women
Comparing Male and Female Responses Although
are less sexually responsive? Again, the evidence argues
male and female sexual responses are generally quite simi-
lar, the differences that do exist can affect sexual compat- against any lack of female sexual responsiveness. It is true
ibility. For example, women typically go through the sexual that about one woman in three does not experience or-
phases more slowly than do men. During lovemaking, 10 to gasm during the first year of marriage, and only about 30
20 minutes is often required for a woman to go from excite- percent regularly reach orgasm through intercourse alone.
ment to orgasm. Males may experience all four stages in as However, this does not imply lack of physical responsive-
little as 3 minutes. However, there is much variation, espe- ness, because 90 percent of all women reach orgasm when
cially in women. (Note that these times refer only to inter- masturbating (Conley et al., 2011). However, women tend
course, not to an entire arousal sequence.) Such differences to place more emphasis on emotional closeness with a
should be kept in mind by couples seeking sexual compat- lover than men (Peplau, 2003). Many women also want
ibility (Carroll, 2016). to be active partners in lovemaking, and they want their
Does that mean that a couple should try to time love- needs and preferences to be acknowledged (Benjamin &
making to promote simultaneous orgasm? Simultaneous Tlusten, 2010).
orgasm (both partners reaching sexual climax at the same In another regard, women are clearly more responsive.
time) can undoubtedly be satisfying (Brody & Weiss, Only about 5 percent of males are capable of multiple or-
2011). But it is usually a mistake to make it the “goal” of gasms (and then only after an unavoidable refractory pe-
lovemaking because “failure” may reduce sexual enjoy- riod). Most men are limited to a second orgasm at best.
ment. It is more advisable for couples to seek mutual sat- In contrast, Masters and Johnson’s findings suggest that
isfaction through a combination of intercourse and erotic most women who regularly experience orgasm are capable
touching (foreplay) than it is to inhibit spontaneity, com- of multiple orgasms (Herbenick et al., 2010a). Remember
munication, and pleasure. though, that only about 15 percent regularly have multiple
Does the slower female response just described mean that orgasms. A woman should not automatically assume that
women are less sexual than men? Definitely not. During something is wrong if she isn’t orgasmic or multiorgasmic.
masturbation, 70 percent of females reach orgasm in 4 min- Many women have satisfying sexual experiences even
utes or less. This casts serious doubt on the idea that women when orgasm is not involved (Komisaruk, Beyer-Flores, &
respond more slowly. Slower female response during inter- Whipple, 2006; Zietsch et al., 2011).
course probably occurs because stimulation to the clitoris is Regardless, male and female sexual patterns are rapidly
less direct. It might be said that men simply provide too little becoming more alike. ➤ Figure 47.5 presents some of the
stimulation for more rapid female response, not that women data on sexual behavior from a major national health survey
are in any way inferior. of American men and women ages 25-44. As you can see,
Does penis size affect female response? Contrary to pop- in any given year, men and women do not differ in their
ular belief, there is no relationship between penis size and average number of opposite-sex partners or in their overall
male sexual potency. Think about it. If a woman’s sexual pattern of sexual activity (Mosher, Chandra, & Jones, 2005).
satisfaction is related to her partner’s attention to clitoral Exaggerating the differences between male and female sexu-
stimulation and foreplay, then why would his penis length ality is not only inaccurate, it can also create artificial bar-
matter? Besides, Masters and Johnson found that the vagina riers to sexual satisfaction (Conley et al., 2011; Wiederman,
adjusts to the size of the penis and that subjective feelings 2001). For example, assuming that men should always initi-
of pleasure and intensity of orgasm are not related to penis ate sex denies the fact that women have comparable sexual
size. They also found that although individual differences interests and needs.

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 MODU LE 47 H u man S e xuality: tH e H u man S e x D r ive, r eS po n S e, an D attitu D eS 411

Any opposite sex contact Vaginal intercourse Oral sex with

Anal sex with opposite sex Same-sex contact opposite sex
No partners One partner Two partners Three or more partners
97 97 98 98
80 100
90 88
70 68
63
80
60
50 60

Percent
Percent

40 40
40 35
30
20 16 15
10 20 11
10 8 8 7 7
0 0
Male Female Male Female
(a) (b)

➤ Figure 47.5
Pattern of sexual behavior of American adults. (a) Men and women do not differ in their average number of sexual partners or (b) in their
overall pattern of sexual activity. (Adapted from Mosher, Chandra, & Jones, 2005.)

Contemporary Sexual Attitudes and

Behavior—Anything Goes?
Survey Question 47.2 Have recent changes in attitudes If a woman and a man living in the year 1934 could be
affected sexual behavior? transported to the present, they would, in turn, be stunned
by today’s North American sexual values and practices.
In 1934, Cole Porter’s musical, Anything Goes, opened on
Unmarried couples (or anyone, for that matter) having
Broadway. The lyrics of the title song started like this:
explicit sex on television; advertisements for provocative
In olden days, a glimpse of stocking undergarments, tampons, and cures for “jock itch”; near-
Was looked on as something shocking nudity at the beach; sexually explicit movies, hook-up cul-
Now heaven knows ture, and, of course, the wide-open Internet—these and
Anything goes many other elements of contemporary culture would shock
someone who was an adult in 1934.
Porter was announcing a sexual revolution. The open-
Has there been a “sexual revolution”? The word revolu-
ness of the 1930s would indeed have shocked a person from
tion suggests rapid change. Perhaps the safest conclusion is
the Victorian era. And yet the revolution didn’t stop there.
that attitudes toward sexuality have, indeed, undergone a
revolution. For example, in a 1959 Roper poll, 88 percent
of those interviewed agreed that premarital sex is wrong. By
2013, more than 70 percent of young men and women ap-
proved of premarital sex (Gallup, 2013). Similar shifts have
occurred in attitudes toward homosexuality, sex education,
having a baby outside of marriage, and related issues.

contemporary Sexual Behavior

HBO/The Kobal Collection/Picture Desk

Have changing attitudes been translated into behavior? It

appears that changes in sexual behavior have paralleled

Ejaculation The release of sperm and seminal fluid by the male at

the time of orgasm.
Even just 40 years ago, television soap operas were tame, gossipy Refractory period A short period after orgasm during which males
melodramas. Today, they are sexy, gossipy melodramas that are unable to again reach orgasm.
frequently feature steamy onscreen lovemaking.

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412 p SycHOLO Gy m o D u leS fo r active lear n i n g

changes in attitudes, only more slowly and less dramatical- What about the rest of the world? A survey of 59 na-
ly. On the one hand, a look at social changes in the United tions found that a “sexual revolution” has not occurred in
States during the 1960s and early 1970s makes it clear that most other countries (Wellings et al., 2006). People from
some fundamental alterations occurred in a relatively short the United States and other industrialized nations are more
time. Liberalized sexual attitudes and access to effective likely to have had two or more recent sexual partners; most
birth control significantly changed sexual behavior. On the people from developing countries have had only one recent
other hand, many changes have occurred over longer peri- sexual partner. On average, teenagers around the world have
ods. For example, traditional values call for female virginity their first sexual experience at the same age as American
before marriage. Yet, even by the 1940s and 1950s, as many teenagers. One finding of particular note concerns Africa,
as 75 percent of married women had engaged in premarital the epicenter of the AIDS epidemic. Contrary to popular
sex (Smith, 2006; Regnerus & Uecker, 2011). opinion elsewhere, Africans are not promiscuous. They re-
Generally, there is greater tolerance for sexual activity, port fewer sexual partners than their counterparts in devel-
especially that engaged in by others. For example, a 1970s oped countries. Instead, it’s likely that high rates of venereal
magazine poll found that 80 percent of all readers consid- disease in Africa result from a lack of knowledge and access
ered extramarital sex acceptable under some circumstances to condoms.
(Athenasiou, Shaver, & Tavris, 1970). But another poll found
that, in practice, only about 30 percent of married persons Sex Among the young
actually had extramarital sexual experience (Rubenstein &
More recent studies of sexuality among American teenagers
Tavris, 1987). These are older studies, but the percentages
and young adults are consistent with our earlier conclusion
have not changed greatly over the last 50 years (Mark, Jans-
that changes in attitudes and behavior reflect a greater ac-
sen, & Milhausen, 2011). More importantly, faithfulness in
ceptance of sexuality rather than a total rejection of earlier
marriage remains a widely shared value. In any given year,
values. More than the “oldies” among us, younger people
only about 4 percent of married people have sex partners
today are grappling with sexual openness. Sometimes it
other than their spouse. Americans actually seem to live up
seems as if they are more liberal than ever; in other ways it
to the norm of marital fidelity quite well (Mosher, Chandra,
appears that a conservative countermovement is gathering
& Jones, 2005).
steam. Let’s look at several examples.
Another interesting trend is the fact that people today
spend as much of their adult lives (on average) alone as Casual Sex On the one hand, young people today are
they do in marriage. As a result, many people are involved growing more conservative when it comes to engaging in sex-
in nonmarried sexual relationships (Lau, 2012). This tends ual intercourse at a young age. The social upheaval that began
to increase the number of sexual partners that adults en- in the 1960s led to an especially sharp rise in sexual activity
counter. Men now report having an average of seven female among teenagers. This increase continued into the 1980s but
sexual partners in their lifetimes, while women report four. has begun to reverse in recent years. In 1988, 60 percent of
Further, in any given year, about 17 percent of men (and teenage males and 51 percent of teenage females had inter-
10 percent of women) reported having two or more sexual course by age 19. By 2013, the rates had dropped to 48 percent
partners (Fryar et al., 2007). for teenage males and 47 percent for teenage females. The
In all, there is ample evidence that sexual behavior in the drop is especially pronounced among younger teens (Centers
United States has generally increased in the last 50 years. Al- for Disease Control, 2014c; Kost & Henshaw, 2014). It has
though this trend has brought problems, it does not seem to also been accompanied by higher rates of contraceptive use
represent a wholesale move toward sexual promiscuity. Even and declining rates of teen pregnancy and abortion (Kost &
premarital intercourse does not appear to represent a major Henshaw, 2014). By 2010, the rate of teen births reached a his-
rejection of traditional values and responsible behavior. The toric low (Centers for Disease Control, 2015f). [Nevertheless,
connection between sexuality and love or affection remains the United States still has the highest teenage pregnancy rates
strong for most people. Both premarital sex and cohabitation among all industrialized nations (Kearney & Levine, 2012)].
are still widely viewed as preludes to marriage or as temporary Apparently as young people learn more about their sexuality
substitutes for it. Likewise, other changes in attitudes and be- they become more likely to delay the age at which they first
havior appear to reflect a greater acceptance of sexuality rather engage in sexual intercourse (Ballonoff Suleiman & Brindis,
than a total rejection of earlier values (Crooks & Baur, 2017). 2014; Kohler, Manhart, & Lafferty, 2008).

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 MODU LE 47 H u man S e xuality: tH e H u man S e x D r ive, r eS po n S e, an D attitu D eS 413

On the other hand, younger Americans nevertheless sexual attitudes has come a glut of free pornography, always
continue to shift toward more liberal sexual scripts favoring just a few clicks away. As a consequence, it is getting harder
casual sex (Lyons et al., 2013; Stephens, 2012; Wentland & and harder (no giggling, now!) to find individuals who haven’t
Reissing, 2011). A sexual script is a mental plan that guides at least taken a curious peek, as public attitudes toward porn
sexual behavior. Such scripts influence when and where have become more accepting (Carroll et al., 2008).
we are likely to express sexual feelings and with whom On the one hand, there is little reason to be concerned
(McCormick, 2010; Ryan, 2011). They provide a “plot” about spicing up a relationship with some occasional audito-
for the order of events in lovemaking and they outline ry/visual stimulation. Women, for example, are more likely
“approved” actions, motives, and outcomes. than men to view porn with a husband or friend. On the other
According to one survey, more than half of all college hand, porn use can become problematic (Hald, Seaman, &
students have followed a friends with benefits script to have Linz, 2014). Men are more likely to view porn alone while
sex without romantic involvement (Mongeau et al., 2013). masturbating, sometimes compulsively (Galatzer-Levy,
Also common and even more casual is the hook-up script, 2012; Hald, 2006). Today, some 25 percent of young men
in which two people having sex are more-or-less strangers worry about their porn use, and some are seeking therapy
(Bradshaw, Kahn, & Saville, 2010; Holman & Sillars, 2012). (Spenhoff et al., 2013; Woods, 2013).
In contrast, traditional sexual scripts stress courtship, ro- What’s the big deal? As one young man, Armando, put
mance, and marriage. Sex in such relationships might be it, after the failure of two relationships, “It really messes up
premarital, but it is still romantic (Roese et al., 2006). your mind for what sex is actually supposed to be . . . . It sets
As casual sexual scripts become more common, the tra- the hopes too high for normal men and women to be able to
ditional focus on intercourse is fading in favor of oral sex, perform at that level. I believe that’s causing a lot of relation-
which tends to be seen as less risky, more acceptable, and “not ship problems among my peers.” (McMahon, 2014).
a big deal.” Casual sexual scripts also are spreading to younger One way to think about porn is as a supernormal
children. One study found that 20 percent of American ninth stimulus, which is more potent than the natural stimuli we
graders have already had oral sex and more than 30 percent have evolved to encounter (Ward, 2013). Idealized women
intend to try it soon (Halpern-Felsher et al., 2005). and men, along with their idealized sexual encounters, may
Casual sex is often viewed as easier than facing the chal- well be the processed sugar or crack cocaine of sex. In other
lenges of romantic attachment and finding a lifelong partner. words, porn can be so exciting that normal sex seems to pale
However, it is not without its own risks. Casual sex is usually by comparison. With excessive use, desensitization sets in.
associated with alcohol use and unsafe sexual behaviors, such
as unprotected sex (Fortunato et al., 2010). Although oral sex is
safer than intercourse, a significant chance of getting a sexually
transmitted disease (STD) remains (Boskey, 2014). Another
downside of casual sex is the letdown that can occur when one
person follows a romantic script and the other follows a casual
script (“He [or she] is just not that into you”). Psychological
distress is also often involved (Bersamin et al., 2014). For
example, young women who are having casual sex are more

© Ollyy/Shutterstock.com
likely to be depressed (Grello, Welsh, & Harper, 2006).
On balance, adolescents and young adults have al-
ways engaged in experimentation and exploration. Most
young people emerge unscathed if they clearly understand
Is too much access to online pornography a problem? What do
that their encounters are casual and if they practice safe you think?
sex. Most eventually also “graduate” to a more traditional
search for love.
Sexual script An unspoken mental plan that defines a “plot,” dia-
Internet Pornography One element of the sexual revo- logue, and actions expected to take place in a sexual encounter.
Supernormal stimulus Any stimulus (often artificial) that is more
lution about which there can be little doubt is the spread potent than the natural stimuli that we have evolved to encounter.
of pornography via the Internet. With the liberalization of

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414 p SycHOLO Gy m o D u leS fo r active lear n i n g

What starts out as a curiosity can, over time, become a com- express their sexuality. As is true elsewhere, freedom must
pulsion (Griffiths, 2012). be combined with responsibility, commitment, and caring if
Like it or not, Internet porn is here to stay. So what’s a it is to have meaning. According to the American Psycho-
young man to do? Fortunately, many young men have al- logical Association (2010b), unhealthy sexualization can be
ready begun to address the problem themselves. Armando, distinguished from healthy sexuality when one or more of
for example, has joined NoFap (“fapping” is a slang term for the following conditions occurs:
masturbating). This online support group has helped him
◗ A person is valued solely due to sexual appearance or
quit viewing porn and slowly get back to healthier relation-
behavior, not other characteristics.
ships with real, flesh-and-blood women (McMahon, 2014).
◗ A person is led to narrowly equate sexual attractiveness
Sexual Freedom Another major change that has oc- with being “sexy.”
curred in sexual behavior is the growing rejection of the ◗ A person is objectified sexually (treated as an object for
double standard, the use of different rules to judge the ap- the gratification of other people).
propriateness of male and female sexual behavior. In the ◗ A person is inappropriately used in a sexual way by
past, for example, males were largely forgiven for engaging another person.
in premarital sex. Young males who “sowed some wild oats”
were widely tolerated. In fact, many were tacitly encouraged From media images to popular fashions, young girls are
to seek casual sex as a step toward manhood. On the other more likely to be oversexualized than are young boys (Roberts
hand, women who were sexually active before marriage ran & Zurbriggen, 2013). Oversexualization leads young girls to see
the risk of being labeled “easy,” “bad,” or “promiscuous.” themselves as having value only as sexual objects. This results
On the one hand, the ability of women (and men) to in low self-esteem, eating disorders, depression, and feelings
more freely to express their sexuality is another positive of shame (Ward, 2004). Some studies have even shown that
side of changing sexual attitudes and values. As the gap be- sexualized girls perform more poorly on intellectual activities
tween female and male sexual patterns continues to close, (Hebl, King, & Lin, 2004). Most worrisome is an increasing
it is increasingly likely that an end to the double standard is tendency for young girls to engage in risky sexual behaviors,
in sight (Kreager & Staff, 2009; Sakaluk & Milhausen, 2012; such as unprotected oral sex (Atwood, 2006; Hatch, 2011).
Schleicher & Gilbert, 2005). According to the American Psychological Association
On the other hand, liberalized attitudes can lead to in- (2010b), parents, educators, and others should encourage
dividuals feeling pressured into sexual behavior (Judson, young girls to develop relationships based on their person-
Johnson, & Perez, 2013). Greater sexual freedom is a posi- alities and interests, rather than on how they look.
tive development only for those ready for it (Hatch, 2011). Looking to the Future It is unlikely that the United
There is, for example, a growing recognition that young girls States will undergo a wholesale return to less sexual open-
are being oversexualized by influences such as beauty pag- ness any time soon. Young people are actively engaged in
eants for very young girls, the stage antics of female singers “working out” what increased sexual openness, particularly
such as Miley Cyrus and Nicki Minaj, and the availability of for women, means to them. The emerging consensus ap-
consumer goods such as padded bras for girls as young as six pears to be that, while “normal” sexual behavior is defined
(Durham, 2009; Lerum & Dworkin, 2009). differently by various cultures, adults typically engage in a
Pressures to engage in sexual behaviors probably come wide variety of sexual behaviors. Apart from evolving cul-
as much from the individual as from others. Regardless, for tural norms, it can be said that any sexual act in which con-
a greater acceptance of sexuality to be constructive, people senting adults engage is “normal” if it does not hurt anyone.
must feel that they have the right to say no, as well as the However, coercive and/or compulsive sexual behaviors are
right to choose when, where, how, and with whom they will emotionally unhealthy. Only time will tell.

Satisfying Relationships—Keeping It Hot

Survey Question 47.3 How can couples keep their
people’s lives. While new lovers might assume their pas-
relationships sexually satisfying?
sion will burn brightly forever, most couples find that their
No matter the age, sex, gender, or sexual orientation, in- sexual interest and passion decline over time (Impett et al.,
timate sexual relationships are important parts of most 2008, 2010).
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 MODU LE 47 H u man S e xuality: tH e H u man S e x D r ive, r eS po n S e, an D attitu D eS 415

Is a loss of sexual interest inevitable in relationships? No. both partners to deal with negative sexual experiences
But nurturing passion does take effort, plus a willingness to when they occur.
resolve other types of problems in a relationship (Strong, 3. Believing that you deserve sexual pleasure. As previously
DeVault, & Cohen, 2011). For example, conflict or anger noted, the essence of satisfying lovemaking is the giving
about other issues frequently takes a toll on sexual adjust- and receiving of pleasure.
ment. Conversely, couples who share positive experiences 4. Valuing intimacy. A sense of closeness and intimacy with
and satisfying relationships also tend to have satisfying sex one’s partner helps maintain sexual desire, especially in
lives (Algoe, Gable, & Maisel, 2010). Sex is not a perfor- long-term relationships (McCarthy, 1995; McCarthy &
mance or a skill to be mastered like playing tennis. It is a Fucito, 2005).
form of communication within a relationship. Couples with
strong and caring relationships can usually remain passion-
Intimacy and communication
ate (Impett et al., 2010; Joel et al., 2013). Conversely, a cou-
ple with a satisfactory sex life but a poor relationship rarely Are there any other guidelines for maintaining a healthy
stays together for long. relationship? A study that compared happy couples with un-
happy couples found that, in almost every regard, the happy
Bridges to Sexual Satisfaction couples showed superior communication skills.
When disagreements arise over issues such as frequency of If you really want a good relationship, you can foster in-
lovemaking, who initiates lovemaking, or what behavior is timacy and communication by doing the following (Driver
appropriate, the rule should be, “Each partner must accept & Gottman, 2004; Gottman & Krokoff, 1989; Haas et al.,
the other as the final authority on his or her own feelings.” 2007; Joel et al., 2013):
Partners are urged to give feedback about their feelings ◗ Be Open About Feelings. Always be ready to talk with
by following what therapists call the “touch and ask” rule: your partner, Happy couples not only talk more, they
Touching and caressing should often be followed by ques- also convey more personal feelings and show greater
tions such as, “Does that feel good?” “Do you like that?” and sensitivity to their partners’ feelings. Persistent nega-
so forth. Satisfying erotic relationships focus on enhancing tive feelings especially need to be expressed. Avoid
sexual pleasure for both partners, not on selfish interest in gunnysacking—saving up feelings and complaints to use
one’s own gratification (Carroll, 2016; Strong, DeVault, & as ammunition in a fight. Gunnysacking is very destruc-
Cohen, 2011). tive to a relationship.
When problems do arise, partners are urged to be
responsive to each other’s needs at an emotional level and
to recognize that all sexual problems are mutual. “Failures”
should always be shared without placing blame. It is par-
ticularly important to avoid the “numbers game”—that is,
couples should avoid being influenced by statistics on the
average frequency of lovemaking, by stereotypes about sex-
ual potency, and by the media. It is especially important not
to be overly influenced by the superhuman sexual exploits
© Syda Productions/Shutterstock.com

portrayed in pornographic media.

According to sex therapist Barry McCarthy, four
elements are necessary for a continuing healthy sexual
relationship:
1. Sexual anticipation. Looking forward to lovemaking
can be inhibited by routine and poor communication Good communication leads to good sex; poor communication
between partners. It is wise for busy couples to set aside leads to . . .
time to spend together. Unexpected, spontaneous love-
making should also be encouraged.
2. Valuing one’s sexuality. This is most likely to occur when Double standard (in sexual behavior) Applying different stan-
dards for judging the appropriateness of male and female sexual
you develop a respectful, trusting, and intimate rela- behavior.
tionship with your partner. Such relationships allow
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416 p SycHOLO Gy m o D u leS fo r active lear n i n g

◗ Don’t Be Defensive. Own your s- -t. Get comfortable ◗ Try to See Things Through Your Partner’s Eyes.
with saying, “I’m sorry” when it’s your fault. Whenever Marital harmony is closely related to the ability to put
possible, expressions of negative feelings should be given yourself in another person’s place. When a conflict
as statements of one’s own feelings, not as statements of arises, always pause and try to take your partner’s per-
blame. It is far more constructive to say, “It makes me spective. Seeing things through your partner’s eyes can
angry when you leave things around the house,” than it be a good reminder that no one is ever totally right or
is to say, “You’re a slob!” Remember, too, that if you use wrong in a personal dispute.
the words always or never, you are probably mounting a ◗ Don’t Be a Mind-Reader. The preceding suggestion
character attack. should not be taken as an invitation to engage in mind-
◗ Don’t Be a “Right Fighter.” Constructive fights are reading. Assuming that you know what your partner is
aimed at resolving shared differences, not at estab- thinking or feeling can muddle or block communication.
lishing who is right or wrong, superior or inferior. Hostile or accusatory mind-reading, as in the follow-
As television’s Dr. Phil likes to say, “How’s that working ing examples, can be very disruptive: “You’re just look-
for you?” ing for an excuse to criticize me, aren’t you?” “You don’t
◗ Recognize That Constructive Anger Is Appropriate. really want my mother to visit, or you wouldn’t say that.”
A fight is a fight. As is the case with any other emo- Rather than telling your partner what she or he thinks,
tion in a relationship, anger should be expressed. ask her or him.
However, it should be expressed constructively by
sticking to the real issues. Destructive anger, such as If it seems to you that following these guidelines requires
“hitting below the belt” or resorting to threats, such as expending some serious energy, you are right. Falling in love
announcing, “This relationship is over,” is damaging may be as easy as falling off a log but staying in love is well
to relationships. worth the effort.

MODULE

47 Summary
47.1 To what extent do females and males differ 47.2 Have recent changes in attitudes affected
in sexual response? sexual behavior?
47.1.1 Sex is a powerful biological motive that finds expres- 47.2.1 In the United States, a rapid liberalization of atti-
sion in most human beings through various sexual tudes toward sex has been paralleled by a more grad-
behaviors, such as masturbation and intercourse. ual, but less dramatic, increase in sexual behavior
47.1.2 The frequency of sexual behavior gradually declines over the last 70 years. Other industrialized nations
with increasing age. However, many elderly persons re- have followed the same pattern while the developing
main sexually active, and large variations exist at all ages. nations remain more conservative.
47.1.3 Sexual arousal is related to the body’s erogenous 47.2.2 Young Americans are searching for the best way to
zones, but mental and emotional reactions are the adapt to sexual openness. They are increasingly likely
ultimate source of sexual responsiveness. to engage in casual sex and yet less likely to engage in
47.1.4 Sexual response can be divided into four phases: intercourse.
excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. 47.2.3 As a supernormal stimulus, pornography poses a
47.1.5 There do not appear to be any differences between challenge to young male sexuality.
“vaginal orgasms” and “clitoral orgasms.” About 47.2.4 In recent years, there has been a greater acceptance
15 percent of women are consistently multiorgasmic. of female sexuality and a narrowing of differences
47.1.6 Males experience a refractory period after orgasm, in female and male patterns of sexual behavior,
and only 5 percent of men are multiorgasmic. accompanied by concerns about oversexualizing
47.1.7 The similarities between female and male sexual young girls.
responses and behaviors far outweigh the differences.

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 MODU LE 47 H u man S e xuality: tH e H u man S e x D r ive, r eS po n S e, an D attitu D eS 417

47.3 How can couples keep their relationships 47.3.2 Communication skills that foster and maintain inti-
sexually satisfying? macy help to maintain successful relationships.
47.3.1 Although solutions exist for many sexual adjustment 47.3.3 Most sexual adjustment problems are closely linked
problems, good communication and a healthy rela- to the general health of a couple’s relationship.
tionship are the real keys to sexual satisfaction.

Knowledge Builder
Human Sexuality: The Human Sex Drive, Response,
and Attitudes
Recite Self-Reflect
1. When exposed to erotic stimuli, men and women vary To what extent does the discussion of sexual arousal and sex
in their most common emotional reactions, but there drive agree with your own experiences and beliefs? What do
appears to be no difference in their levels of physical you want to remember that you didn’t know before?
arousal. T or F? Based on your own observations of attitudes toward sex
2. Some evidence suggests that sexual activity and sex and patterns of sexual behavior, do you think that there has
drives peak later for males than for females. T or F? been a sexual revolution?
3. The term _________________ _______________ We all make mistakes in relationships. Which mistakes
describes the tendency for the sexual behavior of women have you avoided? Which would you like to avoid or correct?
and men to be judged differently.
4. Sexual adjustment is best viewed as a relationship issue, AN SW E R S
not just one partner’s problem. T or F?
ences probably account for these findings.
Greater opportunity plus familiarity with a partner’s needs and prefer-
5. The term gunnysacking refers to the constructive practice couples have better sex and overall well-being (Bersamin et al., 2014).
of hiding anger until it is appropriate to express it. T or F? 7. Contrary to mass-media portrayals of sexy hook-ups, committed
partners to help ensure that children are cared for and not just produced.
Reflect customs, human societies tend to foster enduring bonds between sexual
Think critically 1. T 2. F 3. double standard 4. T 5. F 6. Through marriage laws and

6. Why do you think that fidelity in marriage is strongly

encouraged by law and custom?
7. Who would you expect to have the most frequent sex and
the most satisfying sex, hook-up couples or committed
persons?

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MODULE

48 Human Sexuality
Sexual Problems

39 Million
Even sex has a downside. In this module, we will face some of that
downside, including the crime of rape, some of the more common
sexual dysfunctions couples might experience, and atypical sexuality
(the paraphilic disorders). We close this module with a discussion of
sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS. Pictured here
is the AIDS Memorial Quilt, begun in 1985 to commemorate those
who have died from AIDS. The photo is of the last public display of
the complete quilt, in 1996. Originally, the quilt memorialized only
homosexual victims. It now includes heterosexual men, women, and
children, signifying that AIDS respects no boundaries. Today, it can
be viewed online and is composed of over 90,000 individual 3’ by
6’ panels (each the size of a human grave). If the quilt included panels
for the more than 39,000,000 of the victims of AIDs to date, it would
cover well over a quarter of all of Washington, DC.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
48.1 What are rape myths? 48.4 What impacts have sexually transmitted diseases had
48.2 What are the most common sexual dysfunctions? on sexual behavior?
48.3 What is a paraphilic disorder?

The Crime of Rape—No Means No

Survey Question 48.1 What are rape myths? Forcible Rape
Many women believe that their chances of being raped are Forcible rape, which is distressingly common, is carried out
low, but the facts tell a different story (Centers for Disease under the threat of bodily injury. Rapists often inflict more
Control, 2014b). Nearly 20 percent of all American women violence on their victims than is necessary to achieve their
will be raped in their lifetimes. Because most rape goes un- goal.
reported, the true figure is much higher. Pregnancy is the Most psychologists no longer think of forcible rape as
result of rape in 32,000 cases every year. a primarily sexual act. Rather, it is an act of brutality or

418
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 MODU LE 4 8 H u man S e xuality: S e xual P r o b le m S 419

aggression based on the need to debase others. Many rapists In a classic experimental confirmation of the hypothesis
impulsively take what they want, without concern for the that stereotyped images contribute to rape, male college stu-
feelings of the victim or guilt about their deed. Others har- dents were classified as either high or low in gender role ste-
bor deep-seated resentment or outright hatred of women. reotyping. Each student then read one of three stories: The
Typical aftereffects for the victim include rage, guilt, first described voluntary intercourse; the second depicted
depression, loss of self-esteem, shame, sexual adjustment stranger rape; and the third described date rape. As predict-
problems, and, in many cases, a lasting mistrust of male– ed, college males high in gender role stereotyping were more
female relationships. The impact is so great that most aroused by the rape stories. Their arousal patterns, in fact,
women continue to report fear, anxiety, and sexual dysfunc- were similar to those found among actual rapists. Moreover,
tion a year or two after being raped. Even years later, rape a chilling 44 percent of those tested indicated they would
survivors are more likely to suffer from depression, alcohol consider rape—especially if they could be sure of not being
or drug abuse, and other emotional problems. caught (Check & Malamuth, 1983).
It also is important to be aware that men also can be the Men who commit marital or date rape often believe that
victims of rape, especially homosexual rape (Coxell & King, they have done nothing wrong. One study of college men
2010). Any man who doubts the seriousness of rape should found that many tend to blame women for date rape. Ac-
imagine himself mistakenly placed in jail, where he is violent- cording to them, women who are raped by an acquaintance
ly raped (sodomized) by other inmates. There is no pleasure actually wanted to have sex. A typical explanation is, “Her
in rape for victims of either sex. It is truly a despicable crime. words were saying no, but her body was saying yes.”
This is just one of several widely held beliefs that qualify
Acquaintance Rape as rape myths (Forbes, Adams-Curtis, & White, 2004;
Although it is commonly believed that rapists are usually Suarez & Gadalla, 2010). All these statements are myths:
strangers to their victims, nothing could be further from the ◗ A woman who appears alone in public and dresses
truth (Centers for Disease Control, 2014b; Martin, Taft, & attractively is “asking for it.”
Resick, 2007). It has been found that 85 percent of Ameri- ◗ When a woman says no, she really means yes.
can women who have been sexually or physically assaulted
◗ Many women who are raped actually enjoy it.
reported that the perpetrator was a husband, intimate part-
◗ If a woman goes home with a man on a first date, she is
ner, or acquaintance.
interested in sex.
Similarly, about 20 percent of all female college students
◗ If a woman is sexually active, she is probably lying if she
are victims of rape or attempted rape during their time at
says she was raped.
college. Roughly one-half of these rapes were acquaintance
(date) rape, forced intercourse that occurs in the context of a Men who believe rape myths are more likely to misread
date or other voluntary encounter. In other words, they were a woman’s resistance to unwanted sexual advances, assum-
carried out by first dates, casual dates, or romantic acquain- ing that she really means yes when she says no (Forbes,
tances (Fisher, Cullen, & Daigle, 2005). But forced sex is Adams-Curtis, & White, 2004). Men who believe rape
rape, even if the rapist doesn’t use a knife or become violent. myths and who have been drinking are especially likely to
The effects of rape by someone familiar can be even more ignore signals that a woman wants sexual advances to stop
devastating than those of rape committed by a stranger. (Chapleau & Oswald, 2010; Marx, Gross, & Adams, 1999).
In view of such findings, perhaps the time has come
Gender Role Stereotypes for our culture to make it crystal clear that no means no.
and Rape Myths Educating men about rape myths has been one of the most
Rape is related to traditional gender role socialization. Tradi- successful ways of preventing sexual assault (King, 2012).
tional feminine stereotypes include the idea that women should
Forcible rape Sexual intercourse carried out against the victim’s will,
not show direct interest in sex. Traditional masculine stereo-
under the threat of violence or bodily injury.
types, on the other hand, include the ideas that a man should Acquaintance (date) rape Forced intercourse that occurs in the
take the initiative and persist in attempts at sexual intimacy— context of a date or other voluntary encounter.
even when the woman says no. In general, research has con- Rape myths False beliefs about rape that tend to blame the victim
and increase the likelihood that some men will think that rape is
firmed a link between acceptance of rape myths and sexual vio- justified.
lence toward women (Chapleau & Oswald, 2010; Ryan, 2011).

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420 P SycHOLO Gy m o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

Sexual Dysfunctions—When Intimacy Fails

Survey Question 48.2 What are the most common sexual with another person causes panic or revulsion. People with
dysfunctions? sexual aversions may be diagnosed with a sexual dysfunction
not otherwise specified (American Psychiatric Association,
Even the best-intentioned people may nevertheless experi-
2013).
ence a sexual dysfunction, which is far more common than
Sexual desire disorders are common. Possible physical
many people realize. In general, people who seek sexual
causes include illness, fatigue, hormonal difficulties, and the
counseling have one or more of the following types of prob-
side effects of medicines. Desire disorders also are associ-
lems (Crooks & Baur, 2017; American Psychiatric Associa-
ated with psychological factors such as depression, fearing
tion, 2013):
loss of control over sexual urges, strict religious beliefs, fear
1. Desire disorders: The person has either little or no sex- of pregnancy, marital conflict, fear of closeness, and simple
ual motivation or desire or has too much. loss of attraction to one’s partner (King, 2012).
2. Arousal disorders: The person desires sexual activity Isn’t it possible for someone to experience too much sexual
but does not become sexually aroused. desire? Yes it is. Some psychologists consider hypersexual
3. Orgasm disorders: The person does not have orgasms disorder—an excess of sexual desire—to be a legitimate
or experiences orgasm too soon or too late. diagnosis, although it is not included in the DSM-5 (Reid
4. Sexual pain disorders: The person experiences pain et al., 2012). Again, the excess must be persistent and the
that makes lovemaking uncomfortable or impossible. person must be troubled by it. Plagued by intense and recur-
rent sexual fantasies, urges, and/or behaviors, people with
There was a time when people suffered such problems in hypersexual disorder are sometimes described as sex addicts
silence. However, in recent years, effective treatments have (Kafka, 2010).
been found for many complaints (Carroll, 2016). Medical
treatments or drugs (such as Viagra for men) may be help- Treatment Desire disorders are complex problems. Unless
ful for sexual problems that clearly have physical causes. In they have a straightforward physical cause, they are diffi-
other cases, counseling or psychotherapy may be the best cult to treat. Desire disorders are often deeply rooted in a
approach. Let’s briefly investigate the nature, causes, and person’s childhood, sexual history, personality, and relation-
treatments of sexual dysfunctions. ships. In such instances, counseling or psychotherapy is
recommended (King, 2012).
Desire Disorders
Arousal Disorders
Desire disorders, like most sexual problems, must be de-
A person with an arousal disorder experiences little or no
fined in relation to a person’s age, sex, partner, expectations,
physical arousal. Most men with an arousal disorder usually
and sexual history. It is not at all unusual for a person to
have an inability to maintain an erection but nevertheless
briefly lose sexual desire. Typically, erotic feelings return
desire sex.
when anger toward a partner fades, or fatigue, illness, and
similar temporary problems end. Under what circumstanc- Male Erectile Disorder An inability to maintain an
es, then, is loss of desire a dysfunction? First, the loss of de- erection for lovemaking is called erectile disorder. This
sire must be persistent. Second, the person must be troubled problem, which also is known as erectile dysfunction, was
by it. When these two conditions are met, hypoactive sexual once referred to as impotence. However, psychologists now
desire is said to exist. Diminished desire can apply to both discourage use of the term impotence because of its many
sexes. However, it is somewhat more common in women negative connotations.
(Bitzer, Giraldi, & Pfaus, 2013; Segraves & Woodard, 2006). Erectile disorders can be primary or secondary. Men
Some people don’t merely lack sexual desire; they are re- suffering from primary erectile dysfunction have never had
pelled by sex and seek to avoid it. A person who suffers from an erection. Those who previously performed successfully
a sexual aversion feels fear, anxiety, or disgust about engag- but then developed a problem suffer from secondary erec-
ing in sex. Often, the afflicted person still has some erotic tile dysfunction. Either way, persistent erectile difficulties
feelings. For example, he or she may still masturbate or have tend to be very disturbing to the man and his sexual partner
sexual fantasies. Nevertheless, the prospect of having sex (Riley & Riley, 2009).

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 MODU LE 4 8 H u man S e xuality: S e xual P r o b le m S 421

It is important to recognize that occasional erectile may not be enough to end the problem. Effective treatment
problems are normal. In fact, “performance demands” or should also include counseling to remove fears and psycho-
overreaction to the temporary loss of an erection may gener- logical blocks (Riley & Riley, 2009). It is important for the
ate fears and doubts that contribute to a further inhibition of man to also regain confidence, improve his relationship with
arousal (Thompson & Barnes, 2012). At such times, it is par- his partner, and learn better lovemaking skills. To free him
ticularly important for the man’s partner to avoid expressing of conflicts, the man and his partner may be assigned a se-
anger, disappointment, or embarrassment. Patient reassur- ries of exercises to perform. This technique, called sensate
ance helps prevent the establishment of a vicious cycle. focus, directs attention to natural sensations of pleasure and
How often must a man experience failure for a problem builds communication skills (Weeks & Gambescia, 2009).
to exist? According to the DSM, erectile disorder involves a In sensate focus, the couple is told to take turns caress-
persistent difficulty of at least six months’ duration, although ing various parts of each other’s bodies. They are further in-
ultimately, only the man and his partner can make this judg- structed to carefully avoid any genital contact. Instead, they
ment (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Repeated are to concentrate on giving pleasure and on signaling what
erectile dysfunction should therefore be distinguished from feels good to them. This takes the pressure to perform off the
occasional erectile problems. Fatigue, anger, anxiety, and man and allows him to learn to give pleasure as a means of
drinking too much alcohol can cause temporary erectile dif- receiving it. For many men, sensate focus is a better solution
ficulties in healthy males. True erectile disorders typically than depending on an expensive drug to perform sexually.
persist for months or years (Rowland, 2007). Over a period of days or weeks, the couple proceeds to
What causes erectile disorders? Roughly 40 percent of all more intense physical contact involving the breasts and gen-
cases are organic, or physically caused. The origin of the re- itals. As inhibitions are reduced and natural arousal begins
maining cases is psychogenic (a result of emotional factors). to replace fear, the successful couple moves on to mutually
Even when erectile dysfunction is organic, however, it is al- satisfying lovemaking.
most always made worse by anxiety, anger, and dejection.
Female Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder Because
If a man can have an erection at times other than lovemak-
most women with sexual arousal problems also experience a
ing (during sleep, for instance), the problem probably is not
lack of sexual desire, they are usually diagnosed with female
physical.
sexual interest/arousal disorder. Such women respond with
Organic erectile problems have many causes. Typical
little or no physical arousal to sexual stimulation (American
sources of trouble include alcohol or drug abuse, diabetes,
Psychiatric Association, 2013). As in the male, female sexual
vascular disease, prostate and urological disorders, neuro-
arousal disorder may be primary or secondary. Also, it is
logical problems, and reactions to medication for high blood
again important to remember that all women occasionally
pressure, heart disease, or stomach ulcers. Erectile problems
experience inhibited arousal. In some instances, the prob-
also are a normal part of aging. As men grow older, they
lem may reflect nothing more than a lack of sufficient sexual
typically experience a decline in sexual desire and arousal
stimulation before attempting lovemaking (King, 2012).
and an increase in sexual dysfunction (Albersen, Orabi, &
The causes of inhibited arousal in women are similar
Lue, 2012).
to those seen in men. Sometimes the problem is medical,
Secondary erectile disorders may be related to anxiety
being related to illness or the side effects of medicines or
about sex in general, guilt because of an extramarital affair,
resentment or hostility toward a sexual partner, fear of in-
ability to perform, concerns about STDs, and similar emo- Sexual dysfunctions Problems with sexual desire, arousal, or
tions and conflicts. Often the problem starts with repeated response.
sexual failures caused by drinking too much alcohol or by Hypoactive sexual desire A persistent, upsetting loss of sexual
desire.
premature ejaculation. In any event, initial doubts soon be- Erectile disorder An inability to maintain an erection for
come severe fears of failure—which further inhibit sexual lovemaking.
response. Psychogenic Having psychological origins, rather than physical
causes.
Treatment Drugs or surgery may be used in medical treat- Sensate focus A form of therapy that directs a couple’s attention to
ment of organic erectile disorders. The drug Viagra is suc- natural sensations of sexual pleasure.
Female sexual interest/arousal disorder A lack of interest in sex,
cessful for about 70 to 80 percent of men with erectile disor- lack of physical arousal to sexual stimulation, or both.
ders. However, fixing the “hydraulics” of erectile problems

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422 P SycHOLO Gy m o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

contraceptives. Psychological factors include anxiety, anger to erotic feelings. It is inhibited by ambivalence or hostil-
or hostility toward one’s partner, depression, stress, or dis- ity toward the relationship, by guilt, by fears of expressing
tracting worries (Basson & Brotto, 2009). Some women can sexual needs, and by tendencies to control and intellectual-
trace their arousal difficulties to frightening childhood expe- ize erotic feelings. The woman is unable to let go and enjoy
riences, such as molestations, incestuous relations, a harsh re- the flow of pleasurable sensations (Segraves & Althof, 2002).
ligious background in which sex was considered evil, or cold, Anorgasmic women (those who do not have orgasms) are
unloving childhood relationships. Also common is a need to first trained to focus on their sexual responsiveness through
maintain control over emotions, deep-seated conflicts over masturbation or vigorous stimulation by a partner. As the
being female, and extreme distrust of others, especially males. woman becomes consistently orgasmic in these circumstanc-
es, her responsiveness is gradually transferred to lovemaking
Treatment How does treatment proceed? Treatment typi-
with her partner. Couples also typically learn alternative
cally includes sensate focus, genital stimulation by the wom-
positions and techniques of lovemaking designed to increase
an’s partner, and “nondemanding” intercourse controlled
clitoral stimulation. At the same time, communication be-
by the woman (Segraves & Althof, 2002). With success in
tween partners is stressed, especially with reference to the
these initial stages, full, mutual, intercourse is gradually in-
woman’s expectations, motivations, and preferences (Kelly,
troduced. As sexual training proceeds, psychological con-
Strassberg, & Turner, 2006; Regev, Zeiss, & Zeiss, 2006).
flicts and dynamics typically appear, and as they do, they are
treated in separate counseling sessions. Delayed Ejaculation Among males, delay or absence
of orgasm was once considered a rare problem. But milder
Orgasm Disorders forms of delayed ejaculation account for increasing num-
A person suffering from an orgasm disorder either fails to bers of clients seeking therapy (Rowland, 2007). Typical
reach orgasm during sexual activity or reaches orgasm too background factors are strict religious training, fear of im-
soon or too late (Regev, Zeiss, & Zeiss, 2006). Notice that pregnating, lack of interest in the sexual partner, symbolic
such disorders are very much based on expectations. For inability to give of oneself, unacknowledged homosexuality,
instance, if a man experiences delayed orgasm, one couple or the recent occurrence of traumatic life events. Power and
might define it as a problem but another might welcome it. commitment struggles within relationships may be impor-
It also is worth noting again that some women rarely or nev- tant added factors.
er have orgasm and still find sex pleasurable (King, 2012).
Treatment Treatment for delayed ejaculation consists
Female Orgasmic Disorder The most prevalent sexual of sensate focus, manual stimulation by the man’s partner
complaint among women is a persistent inability to reach or- (which is designed to orient the male to his partner as a
gasm during lovemaking (Clayton & Hamilton, 2009). It is source of pleasure), and stimulation to the point of orgasm
often clear in female orgasmic disorder that the woman is followed by immediate intercourse and ejaculation. Treat-
not completely unresponsive. Rather, she is unresponsive in ment also focuses on resolving personal conflicts and mari-
the context of a relationship—she may easily reach orgasm by tal difficulties underlying the problem (Waldinger, 2009).
masturbation but not during lovemaking with her partner.
Premature (Early) Ejaculation Premature ejaculation
Then, couldn’t the woman’s partner be at fault? Sex thera-
exists when it occurs reflexively or the man cannot tolerate
pists try to avoid finding fault or placing blame. However,
high levels of excitement at the plateau stage of arousal
it is true that the woman’s partner must be committed to
(McMahon et al., 2013). Basically, ejaculation is premature
ensuring her gratification. Roughly two-thirds of all wom-
if it consistently occurs before the man and his partner want
en need direct stimulation of the clitoris to reach orgasm.
it to occur (Rowland, 2007).
Therefore, some apparent instances of female orgasmic dis-
Do many men have difficulties with premature ejacula-
order can be traced to inadequate stimulation or faulty tech-
tion? Approximately 50 percent of young adult men have
nique on the part of the woman’s partner. Even when this
problems with premature ejaculation. Theories advanced
is true, sexual adjustment difficulties are best viewed as a
to explain it have ranged from the idea that it may repre-
problem the couple shares.
sent hostility toward the man’s sexual partner (because it
Treatment If we focus only on the individual, the most deprives the partner of satisfaction) to the suggestion that
common source of orgasmic difficulties is overcontrol of the most early male sexual experiences (such as those taking
sexual response. Orgasm requires a degree of abandonment place in the backseat of a car and masturbation) tend to

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 MODU LE 4 8 H u man S e xuality: S e xual P r o b le m S 423

encourage rapid climax. Excessive arousal and anxiety over vaginismus (VAJ-ih-NIS-mus), a condition in which mus-
performance are usually present. Also, some men simply cle spasms of the vagina prevent intercourse (Binik, 2010).
engage in techniques that maximize sensation and make Together, these disorders constitute the major symptoms of
rapid orgasm inevitable. genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder (American Psy-
Ejaculation is a reflex. To control it, a man must learn to chiatric Association, 2013).
recognize the physical signals that it is about to occur. Some Genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder is often accompa-
men have simply never learned to be aware of these signals. nied by obvious fears of intercourse, and where fear is absent,
Whatever the causes, premature ejaculation can be a serious high levels of anxiety are present (Cherner & Reissing, 2013).
difficulty, especially in the context of long-term relation- This disorder, therefore, appears to often be a phobic response
ships (King, 2012). to intercourse. Predictably, its causes include experiences of
painful intercourse, rape or other brutal and frightening sexual
Treatment The most common treatment for premature
encounters, fear of men and of penetration, misinformation
ejaculation is a “stop-start” procedure called the squeeze
about sex (belief that it is injurious), fear of pregnancy, and fear
technique (Grenier & Byers, 1995). The man’s sexual part-
of the specific male partner (Borg et al., 2012).
ner stimulates him manually until he signals that ejaculation
is about to occur. The man’s partner then firmly squeezes the Treatment Treatment of genito-pelvic pain/penetration
tip of his penis to inhibit orgasm. When the man feels that disorder is similar to what might be done for a nonsexual
he has control, stimulation is repeated. Later, the squeeze phobia. It includes extinction of conditioned muscle spasms
technique is used during lovemaking. Gradually, the man by progressive relaxation of the vagina, desensitization of
acquires the ability to delay orgasm sufficiently for mutu- fears of intercourse, and masturbation or manual stimula-
ally satisfactory lovemaking. During treatment, skills that tion to associate pleasure with sexual approach by the wom-
improve communication between partners are developed, an’s partner (Bergeron & Lord, 2003). Hypnosis also has
along with a better understanding of the male’s sexual re- been used successfully in some cases (Roja & Roja, 2010).
sponse cues (McCarthy & Fucito, 2005).
Summary Solving sexual problems can be difficult. The
problems described here are rarely solved without professional
Sexual Pain Disorders help (a possible exception is premature ejaculation). If a serious
Pain in the genitals before, during, or after sexual inter- sexual difficulty is not resolved in a reasonable amount of time,
course, called dyspareunia (DIS-pah-ROO-nee-ah), is the aid of an appropriately trained psychologist, physician, or
rare in males. In females, this problem is often related to counselor should be sought (Rosenthal, M., 2013).

Atypical Sexual Behavior—Fifty Shades of Unusual

Survey Question 48.3 What is a paraphilic disorder? emotional subject. At one time, engaging in unusual sexual
behaviors such as sadism (deriving sexual pleasure from in-
By strict standards (including the law in some states), al-
flicting pain, humiliation, or both) and masochism (desiring
most any sexual activity other than face-to-face heterosex-
pain, humiliation, or both as part of the sex act) was viewed
ual intercourse between married adults is atypical or “de-
viant.” But public standards are often at odds with private
behavior. Just as the hunger drive is expressed and satisfied Female orgasmic disorder A persistent inability to reach orgasm
during lovemaking.
in many ways, the sex drive also leads to an immense range Delayed ejaculation A persistent delay or absence of orgasm during
of behaviors. lovemaking.
Premature ejaculation Ejaculation that consistently occurs before
Paraphilic Disorders the man and his partner want it to occur.
Squeeze technique A method for inhibiting ejaculation by
I just read Fifty Shades of Grey and really liked it. Is some- compressing the tip of the penis.
thing wrong with me? For those of you who might not know, Genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder A sexual pain disorder
this is a wildly successful novel about bondage/discipline, in women involving dyspareunia (genital pain before, during,
or after sexual intercourse), usually accompanied by vaginismus
dominance/submission, and sadism/masochism (BDSM) (muscle spasms of the vagina).
(Bloom & Bloom, 2012). Sexual deviance is a highly

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424 P SycHOLO Gy m o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

as evidence of a psychiatric disorder. More recently, how- How serious are the effects of a molestation? The impact
ever, we have witnessed a growing social consensus that a varies widely. It is affected by how long the abuse lasts, the
person engaging in unusual sexual practices does not auto- identity of the abuser, and whether genital sexual acts are
matically suffer from a psychiatric disorder (American Psy- involved. Many authorities believe that a single incident of
chiatric Association, 2013). fondling by a relative stranger is unlikely to cause severe
Today, people are usually diagnosed with a paraphilic emotional harm to a child. For most children, the event is
disorder (PAIR-eh-FIL-ick) only if it involves engaging in frightening but not a lasting trauma (Rind, Tromovitch, &
sexual practices that typically cause guilt, anxiety, or dis- Bauserman, 1998). That’s why parents are urged not to over-
comfort for one or more participants. For example, most react to such incidents or to become hysterical. Doing so
sadists and masochists voluntarily associate with people only further frightens the child. This by no means implies,
who share their sexual interests. Thus, their behavior may however, that parents should ignore hints from a child that a
not harm anyone, except when it is extreme. While some molestation may have occurred.
people may see even casual experimentation with deviant Parents should watch for the following hints of trouble:
sexual behaviors as immoral or odd, and while local laws
Recognizing Signs of Child Molestation
may criminalize such behaviors, psychologically, the mark
1. Unusual avoidance of, or interest in, sexual matters
of true sexual disorders is that they are compulsive and
2. Secretiveness (including about Internet access)
destructive.
3. Emotional disturbances such as depression, irritability,
The paraphilic disorders listed in ■ Table 48.1) cover
or withdrawal from family, friends, or school
a wide variety of behaviors (Lackamp, Osborne, & Wise,
2009). Two of the most common and yet misunderstood 4. Nightmares or other sleep problems
deviant sexual behaviors are pedophilia and exhibitionism. 5. Misbehavior, such as unusual aggressiveness, suicidal
behavior, or unusual risk-taking, such as riding a bicycle
Child Molestation The psychiatric label for child mo- dangerously in traffic
lestation is pedophilic disorder (American Psychiatric Asso- 6. Loss of self-esteem or self-worth
ciation, 2013). Child molesters, or pedophiles, are usually
(Adapted from American Academy of Child and Adolescent
males, most are married, and two-thirds are fathers. Many
Psychiatry, 2014)
molesters are rigid, passive, puritanical, or religious. They
are often consumers of child pornography (Seto, Cantor, & How can children protect themselves? Children should be
Blanchard, 2006). As children, child molesters themselves taught to shout “No!” if an adult tries to engage them in sex-
were often witnesses to, or victims of, sexual abuse (Co- ual activity. If children are asked to keep a secret, they should
hen et al., 2010; Nunes et al., 2013). Molesters also are of- reply that they don’t keep secrets. Parents and children also
ten thought of as child rapists, but most molestations rarely need to be aware that the Internet gives pedophiles an easy
exceed fondling (Seto, 2008, 2009). way to make contact with children. If an adult suggests to a

Table 48.1 Paraphilic disorders

Focus of Paraphilia Paraphilic Disorder Primary Symptom

Nonhuman objects Fetishistic disorder Sexual arousal associated with inanimate objects
Transvestic disorder Achieving sexual arousal by wearing clothing of the opposite sex
Nonconsenting people Exhibitionistic disorder “Flashing,” or displaying the genitals to unwilling viewers
Voyeuristic disorder “Peeping,” or viewing the genitals of others without their permission
Frotteuristic disorder Sexually touching or rubbing against a nonconsenting person, usually in
a public place such as a subway
Pedophilic disorder Sex with children or child molesting
Pain or humiliation Sexual masochism disorder Desiring pain, humiliation, or both as part of the sex act
Sexual sadism disorder Deriving sexual pleasure from inflicting pain, humiliation, or both

Adapted from the American Psychiatric Association (2013); Sue et al. (2016).

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 MODU LE 4 8 H u man S e xuality: S e xual P r o b le m S 425

child online that they could meet in person, the child should Exhibitionism The psychiatric label for exhibition-
immediately tell his or her parents. ism is exhibitionistic disorder (American Psychiatric As-
It also helps if children know the tactics typically used sociation, 2013). Exhibitionism, or indecent exposure,
by molesters. Interviews with convicted sex offenders re- is a common disorder (Sue et al., 2016). Between one-
vealed the following (Elliott, Browne, & Kilcoyne, 1995; van third and two-thirds of all sexual arrests are for “flash-
Dam, 2006): ing.” Exhibitionists also have high repeat rates among
sexual offenders. Although it was long thought that exhi-
Tactics of Child Molesters
bitionists are basically harmless, research has shown that
1. Most molesters act alone.
many exhibitionists go on to commit more serious sexual
2. Most assaults take place in the abuser’s home.
crimes and other offenses (Bader et al., 2008; Firestone
3. Many abusers gain access to the child through et al., 2006).
caretaking. Exhibitionists are typically male and married, and most
4. Children are targeted at first through bribes, gifts, and come from strict and repressive backgrounds. Most of them
games. feel a deep sense of inadequacy, which produces a compul-
5. The abuser tries to lull the child into participation sive need to prove their “manhood” by frightening women
through talking about sex and through persuasion. (Murphy & Page, 2008). In general, a woman confronted
(This can take place through e-mail or chat rooms on by an exhibitionist can assume that his goal is to shock and
the Internet.) alarm her. By becoming visibly upset, she actually encour-
6. The abuser then uses force, anger, threats, and bribes to ages him (Sue et al., 2016).
gain continued compliance. As the preceding discussion suggests, the picture of
Repeated molestations, those that involve force or sexual deviance that most often emerges is one of sexual
threats, those that are perpetuated by trusted caregivers, and inhibition and immaturity. Typically, some relatively in-
incidents that exceed fondling can leave lasting emotional fantile sexual expression (like pedophilia or exhibitionism)
scars. As adults, many victims of incest or molestation de- is selected because it is less threatening than more mature
velop sexual phobias. For them, lovemaking may evoke viv- sexuality.
id and terrifying memories of the childhood victimization. All the paraphilic disorders, unless they are very
Serious harm is especially likely to occur if the molester is mild, involve compulsive behavior. As a result, they tend
someone whom the child deeply trusts. Molestations by to emotionally handicap people. There is room in con-
parents, close relatives, teachers, priests, youth leaders, and temporary society for a large array of sexual behaviors.
similar persons can be quite damaging. In such cases, pro- Nevertheless, any behavior that becomes compulsive (be
fessional counseling is often needed (American Academy of it eating, gambling, drug abuse, or sex) is psychologically
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2014). unhealthy.

STDs and Safer Sex—Choice, Risk, and Responsibility

Survey Question 48.4 What impacts have sexually trans- papillomavirus (HPV), chlamydia (klah-MID-ee-ah),
mitted diseases had on sexual behavior? gonorrhea, hepatitis B, herpes, syphilis, and other STDs
(■ Table 48.2). Over 1.7 million new cases of chlamydia,
In general, most adults favor greater freedom of choice
gonorrhea, and syphilis were reported in the United States
for themselves. When it comes to sex, however, greater
in 2013, representing perhaps half of the actual cases
choice is accompanied by greater risk. This is especially
(Centers for Disease Control, 2014a).
true for younger people who are exploring their sexu-
al identities in an era of more casual sex (Wentland &
Reissing, 2011). Paraphilic disorders Deviations in sexual behavior such as
Risk in sexual behavior often comes in the form of a pedophilia, exhibitionism, fetishism, voyeurism, and so on.
sexually transmitted disease (STD), an infection passed Sexually transmitted disease (STD) A disease that is typically
passed from one person to the next by intimate physical contact;
from one person to another by intimate physical con- a venereal disease.
tact. Sexually active people run higher risks for human

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426 P SycHOLO Gy m o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

Table 48.2 common Sexually transmitted diseases

STD Male Symptoms Female Symptoms Prevention Treatment

Gonorrhea Milky discharge from urethra; Vaginal discharge and Condom/safer sex Antibiotics
painful, frequent urination inflammation; painful practices
urination
Chlamydia Painful urination; discharge from Painful urination; Condom/safer sex Antibiotics
urethra discharge from vagina; practices
abdominal pain
Syphilis Painless sores on genitals, rectum, Same Condom/safer sex Antibiotics
tongue, or lips; skin rash; fever; practices
headache; aching bones and joints
Genital herpes Pain or itching on the penis; water Pain or itching in the Condom/safer sex Symptoms can be treated
blisters or open sores genital area; water practices but not cured
blisters or open sores
Human Warty growths on genitals; some Same Condom/safer sex Wart removal by surgery
papillomavirus cancers practices or laser, HPV vaccine for
(HPV) prevention
HIV/AIDS Prolonged fatigue; swollen lymph Same Condom/safer sex Can be treated with
nodes; fever lasting more than practices various drugs but cannot
10 days; night sweats; unexplained be cured
weight loss; purplish lesions on skin;
persistent cough or sore throat; persis-
tent colds; persistent diarrhea; easy
bruising or unexplained bleeding
Hepatitis B Mild cases may have no symptoms, s Vaccination None available
but infection can cause chronic liver
disease, cirrhosis of the liver, or liver
cancer
Pelvic Does not apply Intense pain in lower Condom/safer sex Antibiotics
inflammatory back, abdomen, or practices
disease both; fever

Despite such statistics, many sexually active people un- reality she or he had indirect contact with dozens or even
derestimate their risk for a variety of reasons. One study of hundreds of others (Bearman, Moody, & Stovel, 2004).
sexually active teenage girls engaging in risky sex is a case in Another reason people underestimate their risk is that
point. Nearly 90 percent of the girls thought that they had many individuals who carry STDs remain asymptomatic
virtually no chance of getting an STD. In reality, over the (a-SIMP-teh-mat-ik), lacking obvious symptoms. It is easy
next 18 months, one in four got chlamydia or gonorrhea to have an infection without knowing it. Likewise, it is often
(Ethier et al., 2003). impossible to tell whether a sexual partner is infectious.
One reason for underestimating sexual risk is that Also, because most of the more common STDs are
people who are sexually active may have indirect contact treatable, it is easy to dismiss their impact on health. But
with many other people. One study of sexual relationships STDs such as chlamydia or gonorrhea produce a variety of
at a high school in a Midwestern city found long chains of painful and embarrassing symptoms. Chlamydia can even
sexual contact between students. Thus, a student at the end “silently” (without symptoms) damage a woman’s reproduc-
of the chain might have had sex with only one person, but in tive organs, resulting in infertility. Gonorrhea can damage

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 MODU LE 4 8 H u man S e xuality: S e xual P r o b le m S 427

the fertility of both men and women (Centers for Disease with other men (homosexual and bisexual men), people
Control, 2014a). who have shared needles (for tattoos or for intravenous drug
use), sexual partners of people in the preceding groups, and
HIV/AIDS heterosexuals with a history of multiple partners. Thus, the
For many sexually active people, the human immunodefi- vast majority of people are not at high risk of HIV infection.
ciency virus (HIV) adds a whole new level of risk. Whereas Regardless, HIV could potentially affect anyone.
most other STDs are treatable, HIV infections disable the
immune system, leading to acquired immune deficiency syn- Behavioral Risk Factors for STDs
drome (AIDS), which can be lethal. As the immune system Sexually active people can do much to protect their own
weakens, other “opportunistic” diseases invade the body. health. It is risky to engage in the behaviors listed here with
Most people with AIDS eventually die of multiple infections a person who has an STD:
(although newer multidrug therapies have greatly improved
Risky Behaviors
the odds of survival).
◗ Unprotected vaginal, oral, or anal sex (without a condom)
The first symptoms of AIDS may show up as few as two
with an infected partner
months after HIV infection, but they typically don’t appear ◗ Having two or more sex partners (additional partners
for 10 years. Because of this long incubation period, infect- further increase the risk)
ed persons often pass the HIV virus on to others without ◗ Sex with someone you don’t know well, or with someone
knowing it. Medical testing can detect an HIV infection. you know has had several partners
However, for at least the first six months after becoming ◗ Sex with someone you know injects drugs or shares drug
infected, a person can test negative while carrying the vi- needles and syringes (HIV/AIDS)
rus. Even a negative test result, therefore, is no guarantee It’s important to remember that you can’t tell from exter-
that a person is a “safe” sex partner. In fact, 25 percent of nal appearances if a person is infected. Many people would
HIV-infected individuals are unaware of their infections be surprised to learn that their partners have engaged in
(Nguyen et al., 2008). behavior that places them both at risk. The preceding list
HIV infections are spread by direct contact with body of high-risk behaviors can be contrasted with the following
fluids—especially blood, semen, and vaginal secretions. list of safer sexual practices. (Note, however, that unless a
The HIV virus cannot be transmitted by casual contact. person completely abstains, sex can be made safer, but it’s
People do not get HIV from shaking hands, touching or not risk-free.)
using objects touched by an HIV-infected person, eating
food prepared by an infected person, or from social kissing, Safer Sex Practices
touching sweat or tears, sharing drinking glasses, sharing ◗ Not having sex at all
◗ Having sex with one mutually faithful, uninfected partner
towels, and so forth.
◗ Using a condom
Around the world, 35 million people are currently
◗ Discussing contraception with your partner
living with HIV/AIDS, of whom about 1.2 million live in
◗ Discussing your partner’s sexual health prior to engaging
the United States. Fortunately, the rate of new infections is in sex
slowly falling. Nevertheless, there are still 2.3 million new ◗ Being selective regarding sexual partners
cases worldwide every year, including 50,000 new cases in ◗ Reducing the number of sexual partners
the United States. Similarly, the rate of AIDS deaths is also ◗ Not engaging in sex while intoxicated
falling, although there were still 1.6 million deaths world- ◗ Not injecting drugs (HIV/AIDS)
wide every year. Despite signs of progress, AIDS will kill
Sexually active persons should practice safer sex until
more than 20 million people worldwide over the next 15
their partner’s sexual history and/or health has been clearly
years unless prevention efforts are greatly expanded (Cen-
established. Unfortunately, this message is not always
ters for Disease Control, 2015e; United Nations Programme
getting through to those who most need to hear it. The
on HIV/AIDS, 2013).
HIV/AIDS epidemic initially triggered a sharp decrease
Populations at Risk HIV can be spread by all forms of in risky sex and an increase in monogamous relation-
sexual intercourse, and it has affected persons of all sexual ships among gay men. Unfortunately, this trend has be-
orientations. In North America, those who remain at great- gun to reverse. Once again, rates for many STDs are rising
est risk for HIV infection remain men who have had sex among gay men. In part, this may be because new medical

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428 P SycHOLO Gy m o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

treatments are helping people with HIV live longer. Many Safer Sex
victims simply do not look or act sick. This gives a false im-
The threat of HIV/AIDS has forced many people to face
pression about the dangers of HIV infection and encour-
new issues of risk and responsibility concerning STDs in
ages foolish risk taking (Stevens, Bernadini, & Jemmott,
general. Those who do not ensure their own safety are play-
2013). Regardless, about 15 percent of new HIV infections
ing Russian roulette with their health (Essien et al., 2010).
in the United States are transmitted through heterosexual
One chilling study of HIV patients who knew they were in-
sex (Centers for Disease Control, 2015e). The focus on
fectious found that 41 percent of those who were sexually
HIV/AIDS prevention may also have deemphasized the
active did not always use condoms (Sobel et al., 1996)! Thus,
health impact of the other STDs.
responsibility for “safer sex” rests with each sexually active
High school and college-age students also remain too
individual. It is unwise to count on your sexual partner for
willing to engage in risky behavior (casual sex) and yet
protection against STDs.
unwilling to use condoms (Bauman, Karasz, & Hamilton,
Isn’t it possible that practicing safer sex would be interpreted
2007). A study of heterosexual adults also found that
as a sign that you mistrust your lover? Those who do not
the majority did not practice safer sex with their last
ensure their own safety, or that of their partners, are gambling
partner. Most of these “gamblers” knew too little about
with their health. As is the case with other behavioral risk
their partners to be sure that they were not taking a
factors, taking precautions could, instead, be defined as a
big risk. For many people, drinking alcohol greatly in-
way of showing that you really care about your own health,
creases the likelihood of taking sexual risks (Corbin &
as well as that of your partner (Essien et al., 2010).
Fromme, 2002).

MODULE

48 Summary
48.1 What are rape myths? 48.3.2 The paraphilic disorders include pedophilia, exhi-
48.1.1 Forcible rape, acquaintance rape, and rape-supportive bitionism, voyeurism, frotteurism, fetishism, sexual
attitudes and beliefs are major problems in North masochism, sexual sadism, and transvestic fetishism.
America. The most common paraphilic disorders are pedo-
48.1.2 Rape myths are false beliefs grounded in traditional philia and exhibitionism.
gender role stereotypes. One example is the (false) 48.3.3 The effects of child molestation vary greatly, depend-
belief that a man should persist in attempts at sexual ing on the severity of the molestation and the child’s
intimacy—even when the woman says no. relationship to the molester.
48.1.3 No means no. 48.3.4 Exhibitionists are usually not dangerous but can esca-
late their sexual aggression. They can best be charac-
48.2 What are the most common sexual terized as sexually inhibited and immature.
dysfunctions?
48.2.1 Problems with sexual function can involve desire, 48.4 What impacts have sexually transmitted
diseases had on sexual behavior?
arousal, orgasm, or pain.
48.2.2 Behavioral methods and counseling techniques have 48.4.1 STDs and the spread of HIV/AIDS have had a siz-
been developed to alleviate many sexual problems. able impact on patterns of sexual behavior, including
some curtailment of risk taking.
48.3 What is a paraphilic disorder? 48.4.2 Many sexually active people continue to take unnec-
48.3.1 Compulsive sexual behaviors (paraphilic disorders) essary risks with their health by failing to follow safer
tend to emotionally handicap people. sex practices.

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 MODU LE 4 8 H u man S e xuality: S e xual P r o b le m S 429

Knowledge Builder Human Sexuality: Sexual Problems

Recite Self-Reflect
1. Rape myths are related to _______ _______ _______ To what extent do movies, music videos, and video games
_______. contribute directly to the perpetuation of rape myths? What
2. Sensate focus is the most common treatment for prema- about indirectly, by portraying gender role stereotypes?
ture ejaculation. T or F? In plain language, sexual disorders can be summarized
3. A person is usually diagnosed with a paraphilic disorder this way: The person doesn’t want to do it. The person wants
only if he or she is engaging in an illegal sexual act. to do it but can’t get aroused. The person wants to do it, gets
T or F? aroused, but has problems with orgasm. The person wants
4. Wanting to practice safe sex is an insult to your lover. to do it and gets aroused, but lovemaking is uncomfortable.
T or F? What are the formal terms for each of these situations?

Reflect AN SW E R S
Think critically
STDs and unwanted pregnancies among adolescents (Kirby, 2008).
7. More comprehensive programs are actually more effective at reducing
5. Which do you think would be better suited to reducing 1. traditional gender role stereotypes 2. F 3. F 4. F
STDs and unwanted pregnancies among adolescents:
abstinence-only education programs or more compre-
hensive sex education programs?

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MODULE

49 Human Sexuality Skills in Action

Diversity and Inclusion

Think Pink!
On his first day of grade 9, Charles McNeill wore a pink
polo shirt to school. Outside, bullies called him a homosex-
ual and threatened to beat him up until two grade 12 boys
intervened. But the older boys weren’t satisfied with putting
an end to the harassment. They bought 50 pink shirts from

Carlos Osorio/ZUMA Press/Toronto/ON/Canada/Newscom

a discount store and went online to encourage their friends
to buy one and wear it to school the following day. But it
wasn’t 50 kids who showed up in pink the next morning.
It was hundreds, some of them dressed in pink from head
to toe. What began as a one-day event at a single school
eventually became Anti-Bullying Day, marked annually in
several countries around the world and supported by the
United Nations. It’s a day set aside each year to celebrate our
differences, and to consider the importance of tolerance.
Most people publicly support policies of equality and
fairness. Yet many still have lingering biases and negative work toward greater acceptance and harmony among peo-
images of people seen as being “different.” Is it possible to ple who appear to be so different? Let’s find out.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
49.1 How are diversity and inclusion related to the study 49.2 How can acceptance of diversity help me in my
of psychology? personal and professional life?

Living with Diversity

Survey Question 49.1 How are diversity and inclusion
Rather than expecting everyone to be alike, psycholo-
related to the study of psychology?
gists believe that we must learn to respect and appreciate our
Today’s society is more like a “tossed salad” than a cultural differences. To help us reach a point where this is possible,
“melting pot.” Differences can relate to sexual orientation, psychologists study diversity. Important questions guiding
but they can also be connected to other personal character- this research include (American Psychological Association,
istics such as age, sex, (dis)ability, race, political beliefs, so- 2012a): What do we know about discrimination and ste-
cial class, mental health, or religion. reotyping? How do we foster kindness, compassion and the

430
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 MODU LE 4 9 H u man S e xuality S k i llS i n acti o n: D ive r S ity an D i n c luS i o n 431

acknowledgment of differences without negative judgment? negative consequences of intolerance toward a variety of
How do we protect people from the harmful effects of ex- specific groups, including older adults (Module 15), people
clusion and marginalization? How do we promote a society who are poor (Module 56), individuals who have been
that celebrates inclusion, diversity, and genuine equality? diagnosed with mental illness (Module 60), those with dif-
Throughout this book, we draw your attention to some ferent political beliefs (Module 73), and various racial and
of the answers that psychologists have provided to these ethnic groups (Module 73). The negative consequences
questions. Module 73, for example, explores research by of intolerance include people being unable to reach their
social psychologists interested in understanding prejudice potential, feelings of depression and anxiety, and—in the
and discrimination. And several modules demonstrate the worst case—suicide.

Tolerance and Acceptance

Survey Question 49.2 How can acceptance of diversity at building positive open relationships with a variety of dif-
help me in my personal and professional life? ferent people? Here are a few suggestions:
It’s no secret that the United States is becoming more diverse Seek Individuating Information A good way to devel-
every year. For example, according to US Census Bureau, op a sense of openness is to get to know individuals from
by 2060 the number of senior citizens will have doubled various ethnicities or sexual orientations (Inzlicht, Gutsell,
and this country will become a nation of minorities, with & Legault, 2012; Roets & Van Hiel, 2011). We often apply
no single racial or ethnic group making up 50 percent of stereotypes when we have only minimal information about
the population (Colby & Ortman, 2015). Add to this the a person, but one way to avoid this is to seek individuating
growing acceptance of women into traditionally male roles information—information that helps us see a person as
and people of different sexual orientations into society at an individual rather than as a member of a group (Jussim,
large. These are just some examples of the changing face of Crawford, & Rubinstein, 2015; Lan Yeung & Kashima, 2010).
America, but they raise a point worth thinking about: It will When you meet individuals from various backgrounds,
become increasingly important to have skills that allow you focus on the person, not the label.
to get along with a variety of people, some of whom may A good example of the effects of individuating infor-
appear—at least at first glance—to be quite different than you. mation comes from a Canadian study of English-speaking
These population trends mean that your classroom students in a French-language program. Students who were
and workplace will become more diverse, but psychologists “immersed” (spent most of their waking hours with French
have found that this type of diversity has many benefits. For Canadians) became more positive toward them. Immersed
example, research from the world of work has suggested that students were more likely to say they had come to appreciate
groups with diverse membership are much better at solv- and like French Canadians; they were more willing to meet
ing complex problems. This is likely because bringing to- and interact with them; and they saw themselves as less dif-
gether people with a range of experiences helps to promote ferent from French Canadians (Lambert, 1987).
the creative and divergent thinking that was discussed in Don’t Fall Prey to Just-World Beliefs Do you be-
Module 41 (Homan et al., 2015). How, though, can we start lieve that the world is basically fair and that people gen-
to build skills that encourage tolerance and inclusion? It all erally get what they deserve? It may not be obvious, but
begins with an attitude of openness. such beliefs can reduce the tolerance we feel for other
groups (Bizer, Hart, & Jekogian, 2012; Hafer & Sutton,
Being Open to Openness
2016). As an example, suppose you happen to notice
What do you mean by openness? At the core of successfully Adnan, a member of a visible minority, cleaning the
navigating relationships with diverse others is accepting the toilets at, say, an airport. Just-world beliefs—beliefs that
value of openness to the other, or the ability to genuinely ap-
preciate those who differ from us. It is important to remem- Individuating information Information that helps define a person
ber that being open to someone else does not mean that you as an individual, rather than as a member of a group or social
category.
have to agree with that person or turn your back on your
Just-world beliefs Beliefs that people generally get what they deserve.
own values. How can you work toward improving your skill

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432 p SycHOLO Gy m o D u leS fo r active lear n i n g

people generally get what they deserve—might lead you illustrated by story about Anti-Bullying Day with which we
to assume that Adnan wouldn’t be in this job if he weren’t began this module. Another example is the use of newslet-
inferior in some way. ters to promote understanding at an ethnically diverse high
The reality is often very different. As a result of discrim- school in Houston, Texas. Students wrote stories for the
ination, social conditions, and circumstances (such as re- newsletter about situations in which cooperation led to bet-
cent immigration), many members of minorities are forced ter understanding. For instance, a story about a Hispanic-
to occupy lower socioeconomic positions (Whitley & Kite, Anglo friendship in a sports team had this headline: “Don’t
2010). Assuming that Adnan is too lazy or not intelligent judge somebody until you know them. The color of their
enough overlooks the possibility that, say, discrimination in skin doesn’t matter.” Other stories emphasized the willing-
hiring has made it very difficult for him to find a better job. ness of students to get acquainted with people from other
This bit of faulty thinking can reduce feelings of acceptance ethnic groups and the new perceptions they had of their
toward minorities, and amounts to blaming people who are abilities. After just five months of modeling tolerance, hos-
victims for their problems. Quite often, people like Adnan tility between campus ethnic groups was significantly re-
are highly educated and highly motivated to take whatever duced (McAlister et al., 2000).
work is available. Just ask Adnan.
Remember, Different Does Not Mean Inferior Some
Be Aware of Self-Fulfilling Prophecies As noted conflicts between groups cannot be avoided. What can be
elsewhere (see, for example, Module 71), people tend to act avoided is unnecessary social competition—rivalry among
in accordance with the behavior expected by others. If you groups, each of which regards itself as superior to others.
hold strong opinions about members of various groups, a The concept of social competition refers to the fact that
vicious cycle can occur. When you meet someone who is some individuals seek to enhance their self-esteem by iden-
different from yourself, you may treat him or her in a way tifying with a group. However, this works only if the group
that is consistent with your initial opinions. If the other can be seen as superior to others. Because of social compe-
person is influenced by your behavior, he or she may act tition, groups tend to view themselves as better than their
in ways that seem to match your stereotype. For example, a rivals (Branscombe & Baron, 2017).
person who believes that members of a particular minority In one survey, every major ethnic group in the United
group are hostile and unfriendly will probably treat people States rated itself as better than any other group (Njeri,
in that group in ways that provoke a hostile and unfriendly 1991)! A person who has high self-esteem does not need
response. This creates a self-fulfilling prophecy—an to treat others as inferior in order to feel good about him-
expectation that prompts people to act in ways that make self or herself. Similarly, it is not necessary to degrade other
the expectation come true—in turn reinforcing their belief groups in order to feel positive about one’s own group iden-
in the initial expectation. tity (Fowers & Davidov, 2006).
Living comfortably in a diverse society means being
Look for Commonalities We live in a society that puts open to other groups. Getting acquainted with a person
a premium on competition and individual effort. One who is different from you can be a wonderful learning ex-
problem with this is that competing with others fosters perience (Matsumoto & Juang, 2017). No one group has
desires to minimize and overcome them. When we coop- all the answers or the best ways of doing things, but being
erate with others, we tend to share their joys and suffer inclusive and celebrating human differences can enrich our
when they are in distress (Aronson, 2012). If we don’t find communities and workplaces, as well as being personally
ways to cooperate and live in greater harmony, everyone rewarding (Fowers & Davidov, 2006).
will suffer. That, if nothing else, is one thing that we all
have in common. Everyone knows what it feels like to be
different. Greater tolerance comes from remembering
Self-fulfilling prophecy An expectation that prompts people to act
those times. in ways that make the expectation come true.
Social competition Rivalry among groups, each of which regards
Set an Example for Others People who act in a toler- itself as superior to others.
ant fashion can serve as models of tolerance for others, as

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 MODU LE 4 9 H u man S e xuality S k i llS i n acti o n: D ive r S ity an D i n c luS i o n 433

MODULE

49 Summary
49.1 How are diversity and inclusion related to the 49.2.2 Positive relations with diverse others are promoted
study of psychology? when we remember to seek individuating infor-
49.1.1 Psychologists believe that we must learn to appreciate mation, avoid just-world beliefs and self-fulfilling
and respect differences between individuals. prophecies, look for commonalities, set a good
49.1.2 Intolerance of diversity can cause feelings of depres- example for others and remember that different does
sion, anxiety and in extreme cases, suicide. not mean inferior.

49.2 How can acceptance of diversity help me in

my personal and professional life?
49.2.1 Developing tolerance in the workplace and social
settings facilitates better problem solving and creative
thinking.

Knowledge Builder Human Sexuality Skills in Action: Diversity and Inclusion

Recite Self-Reflect
1. Individuating information is the information that helps Which strategies do you already use to avoid intolerant behav-
us see a person as an individual rather than as a member iors? How could you apply the other strategies mentioned in
of a group. T or F? this module to become more inclusive?
2. A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when one expects some-
thing to happen and the opposite occurs, reinforcing AN SW E R S
their initial belief. T or F?
nies (e.g., related to their workers, company values).
your colleague by looking for commonalities between the two compa-
3. Just-world beliefs are based on the assumption that just world; self-fulfilling prophecies). Finally you can set an example for
people generally get what they deserve. T or F? positive relationships from developing between people (e.g., belief in a
4. Social competition refers to the idea that certain groups company. As well, remind her of biases we sometimes hold that prevent
view themselves as inferior to others. T or F? motes creativity and effective problem solving which would benefit your
1. T 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. You might tell your coworker that diversity pro-
Reflect
Think critically
5. You are in the workplace and your coworker is hesitant
about collaborating with an international company. Your
coworker asks for your opinion. What advice can you
give her, based on what you now know from this chapter?

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MODULE

50 Personality
Overview of Personality

Same Old Freddy

As he walked toward his older college mentor Freddy, James won-
dered what he would be like. After all, it had been almost 15 years
since the day Freddy went off to work. Fifteen years since James last
saw him. And now here they were, at the same business conference.
Although James worried that Freddy might be changed, he was, on
the contrary, more his “old self ” than ever.
Have you had a similar experience? After years of separation, it is
always intriguing to see an old friend. You probably will be delighted

© iofoto/Shutterstock.com
to discover that the semi-stranger before you is still the person you
once knew. It is exactly this core of consistency that psychologists
have in mind when they use the term personality. But how is person-
ality defined and measured? Read on to find out.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
50.1 How do psychologists use the term personality? 50.2 Can personality be measured?

The Psychology of Personality—Do You Have Personality?

Survey Question 50.1 How do psychologists use the term Psychologists use a large number of concepts and theories
personality? to explain personality. It might be wise, therefore, to start with
It’s obvious that we all frequently use the term personality. But if a few key ideas to help you keep your bearings as you read on.
you think that personality means “charm,” “charisma,” or “style,”
you have misused the term. Psychologists regard personality Traits
as a person’s unique long-term pattern of thinking, emotions, We use the idea of traits every day to talk about personal-
and behavior (Engler, 2014). In other words, personality refers ity. For instance, Daryl is sociable, orderly, and intelligent.
to the consistency in who you are, have been, and will become. His sister Hollie is shy, sensitive, and creative. Personality
It also refers to the special blend of talents, values, hopes, loves, traits such as these can be quite stable (Allemand, Steiger,
hates, and habits that makes each of us a unique person. & Hill, 2013; Rantanen et al., 2007). Think about how little

434
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 MODU LE 5 0 P e r s o nality: ove rvi ew o f P e r s o nality 435

your best friends have changed

in the last 5 years. It would be
strange indeed to feel like you
were talking with a different
person every time you met a
friend or an acquaintance. In

CBS Photo Archive/CBS/Getty Images

general, then, a trait is a sta-
ble personality characteristic
that a person shows in most
situations (Mõttus, Johnson, &
Deary, 2012).
Typically, traits are inferred
This man is a personality.
from behavior. If you see Da-
After all, he does have a
certain charm. But does he ryl talking to strangers—first

Bill Stormont/Flirt/Corbis
have a personality? Do you? at a supermarket and later at a
party—you might infer that he
is “sociable.” Once personality traits are identified, they can
be used to predict future behavior. For example, noting that
Psychologists and employers are especially interested in the
Daryl is outgoing might lead you to predict that he will be personality traits of individuals who hold high-risk, high-stress
sociable at school or at work. In fact, such consistencies can positions concerning public safety, such as police, firefighters, air
span many years. traffic controllers, and nuclear power plant employees.
Traits even influence our health as well as our marital
and occupational success (Donnellan et al., 2012; Roberts
et al., 2007). For example, who do you think will be more suc- two categories (or even several) are often inadequate to fully
cessful in her chosen career: Freddy, who is conscientious, or capture differences in personality. That’s why rating people on a
Eric, who is not (Brown et al., 2011; Ng & Feldman, 2010)? list of traits tends to be more informative than classifying them
into two or three types (Engler, 2014).
Types Even though types tend to oversimplify personal-
Have you ever asked the question, “What type of person is ity, they do have value. Most often, types are a shorthand
she (or he)?” A personality type refers to people who have way to label people who have several key traits in com-
several traits in common (Larsen & Buss, 2010). Informally, mon. For example, in Module 58, we discuss hardy per-
your own thinking might include categories such as the ex- sonalities. Hardy people are unusually resistant to stress
ecutive type, the athletic type, the motherly type, the hip-hop (see ➤ Figure 50.1). Similarly, in Module 63, you will read
type, the techno geek, and so forth. If you tried to define these about unhealthy personality types such as the paranoid
informal types, you would probably list a different collection personality, the dependent personality, and the antisocial
of traits for each one. personality. Each problem type is defined by a specific
How valid is it to speak of personality “types”? Over the collection of traits that are not adaptive.
years, psychologists have proposed many ways to categorize
personalities into types. For example, Swiss psychiatrist Carl
Jung proposed that people are either introverts or extroverts. Personality A person’s unique and relatively stable patterns of
An introvert is a shy, reserved person whose attention is usu- thinking, emotions, and behavior.
Trait Stable personality characteristic.
ally focused inward. An extrovert is a bold, outgoing person
Personality type A style of personality defined by a group of related
whose attention is usually directed outward. These terms are traits.
so widely used that you may think of yourself and your friends Introvert A person whose attention is focused inward; a shy,
as being one type or the other. However, knowing if someone is reserved, self-focused person.
Extrovert A person whose attention is directed outward; a bold,
extroverted or introverted tells you little about how conscien- outgoing person.
tious she is, or how kind or open to new ideas he is. In short,

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436 P sychOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

Traits Personality type good grades. With such an inaccurate self-concept, she
tends to be depressed regardless of how well she does.
Agreeable
Self-Esteem In addition to having a faulty self-concept,
Ambitious Alesha has low self-esteem (a negative self-evaluation). A
person with high self-esteem is confident, proud, and self-
Committed respecting. One who has low self-esteem is insecure, lacking
in confidence, and self-critical. Like Alesha, people with low
In Control Hardy self-esteem are usually anxious and unhappy. People who have
low self-esteem typically also suffer from poor self-knowledge.
Honest Their self-concepts are inconsistent, inaccurate, and confused.
Self-esteem tends to rise when we experience success or
Hostile praise. It also buffers us against negative experiences (Brown,
2010). A person who is competent and effective and who is
Open to loved, admired, and respected by others will almost always
Challenge have high self-esteem (Baumeister et al., 2003; Buss, 2012).
➤ Figure 50.1 What if you “think you’re hot,” but you’re not? Genu-
Personality Types. Personality types are defined by the presence ine self-esteem is based on an accurate appraisal of your
of several specific traits. For example, several possible personality strengths and weaknesses. A positive self-evaluation that is
traits are shown in the left column. A person who has a hardy not securely held is unhealthy (Kernis & Lakey, 2010; Lupien,
personality typically possesses all or most of the highlighted traits.
Hardy persons are especially resistant to stress (see Module 58).
Seery, & Almonte, 2010). Someone with fragile self-esteem
may at first seem confident but can quickly become defensive
when challenged.
self-concept
Self-concepts provide another way of understanding per- Self-Esteem and Culture: Hotshot or Team Player?
sonality. Your self-concept consists of all your ideas, percep- The reasons for having high self-esteem can also vary in
tions, stories, and feelings different cultures.
about who you are. It is the You and some friends are playing soccer. Your team
mental “picture” that you wins, in part because you make some good plays. After
have of your own personal- the game, you bask in the glow of having performed well.
ity (Jonkmann et al., 2012; You don’t want to brag about being a hotshot, but your self-
Ritchie et al., 2011). esteem gets a boost from your personal success.
Tom Stoddart Archive/Premium Archive/Getty Images

We creatively build our In Japan, Shinobu and some of his friends are playing
self-concepts out of daily soccer. His team wins, in part because he makes some good
experiences. Then we slow- plays. After the game, Shinobu is happy because his team
ly revise them as we have did well. However, Shinobu also dwells on the ways in which
new experiences. Once a he let his team down. He thinks about how he could im-
stable self-concept exists, it prove, and he resolves to be a better team player.
tends to guide what we pay These sketches illustrate a basic difference in Eastern
attention to, remember, and Western psychology. In individualistic cultures such
and think about. Because as the United States, self-esteem is based on personal suc-
Self-concepts can be remarkably
consistent. In an interesting of this, self-concepts can cess and outstanding performance (Buss, 2012; Ross et al.,
study, old people were asked how greatly affect our behavior 2005). For us, the path to higher self-esteem lies in self-en-
they had changed over the years. and personal adjustment— hancement. We are pumped up by our successes and tend to
Almost all thought that they were
essentially the same person they
especially when they are downplay our faults and failures.
were when they were young (Troll inaccurate (Wouters et al., Asian cultures place a greater emphasis on collectivism
& Skaff, 1997). Nelson Mandela 2011). For instance, Alesha or interdependence among people. For them, self-esteem is
thought of himself as a highly
is a student who thinks she based on a secure sense of belonging to social groups. As a
committed human rights activist
for his entire adult life, until his is stupid, worthless, and result, people in Asian cultures are more apt to engage in
death in 2013 at the age of 95. a failure, despite getting self-criticism (Tafarodi et al., 2011; Kitayama, Markus, &
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 MODU LE 5 0 P e r s o nality: ove rvi ew o f P e r s o nality 437

Table 50.1 comparison of Personality theories

Behaviorist and social
Trait Theories Psychoanalytic Theory humanistic Theories Learning Theories
Role of inheritance Maximized Stressed Minimized Minimized
(genetics)
Role of environment Recognized Recognized Maximized Maximized
View of human nature Neutral Negative Positive Neutral
Is behavior free or Determined Determined Free will Determined
determined?
Principal motives Depends on one’s traits Sex and aggression Self-actualization Drives of all kinds
Personality structure Traits Id, ego, superego Self Habits, expectancies
Role of unconscious Minimized Maximized Minimized Practically nonexistent
Conception of Traits of honesty, etc. Superego Ideal self, valuing Self-reinforcement,
conscience process punishment history
Developmental Combined effects of Psychosexual stages Development of Critical learning
emphasis heredity and environ- self-image situations, identification,
ment and imitation
Barriers to personal Unhealthy traits Unconscious conflicts, Conditions of worth, Maladaptive habits,
growth fixations incongruence unhealthy environment

Kurokawa, 2000). By correcting personal faults, they add to 3. Humanistic theories stress private, subjective experi-
the well-being of the group. And, when the group succeeds, ence and personal growth.
individual members feel better about themselves, which 4. Behaviorist and social learning theories place impor-
raises their self-esteem. tance on the external environment and on the effects
Perhaps self-esteem is still based on success in both of conditioning and learning. Social learning theories
Eastern and Western cultures (Brown et al., 2009). However, attribute differences in personality to socialization,
it is fascinating that cultures define success in such different expectations, and mental processes.
ways (Buss, 2012; Schmitt & Allik, 2005).
Which of the personality theories is right? To date, each
major type of personality theory has added to our under-
The Whole human: Personality Theories standing by providing a sort of lens through which human
As you can already see, it would be easy to get lost without behavior can be viewed. Nevertheless, broad theories often
a framework for understanding the richness of human per- can’t be fully proved or disproved. We can only ask, “Does
sonality. How do our thoughts, actions, and feelings relate to the evidence tend to support this theory or disconfirm it?”
one another? How does personality develop? Why do some Yet, although theories may be neither true nor false, their
people suffer from psychological problems? How can they implications or predictions may be. The best way to judge
be helped? To answer such questions, psychologists have a theory, then, is in terms of its usefulness. Does the theory
created a dazzling array of theories. A personality theory adequately explain behavior? Does it stimulate new research?
is a system of concepts, assumptions, ideas, and principles Does it suggest how to treat psychological disorders? Each
proposed to explain personality (Burger, 2015). Although theory has fared differently in these areas (Cervone & Pervin,
many detailed personality theories have been put forward, 2013). ■ Table 50.1 provides an overview of the four principal
they can be categorized into four broad perspectives:
Self-concept The perception of one’s own personality traits.
1. Trait theories attempt to learn what traits make up Self-esteem Regarding oneself as a worthwhile person; a positive
personality and how they relate to actual behavior. evaluation of oneself.
Personality theory A system of concepts, assumptions, ideas, and
2. Psychodynamic theories focus on the inner workings principles used to understand and explain personality.
of personality, especially internal conflicts and struggles.
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438 P sychOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

approaches to personality. In the final analysis, the challenge of personality (Mayer, 2005; McAdams & Pals, 2006). With
now facing personality theorists is how to integrate the four these broad perspectives in mind, let’s explore some of the
major perspectives into a unified, systematic explanation ways psychologists have attempted to assess personality.

Personality Assessment—Psychological Yardsticks

Survey Question 50.2 Can personality be measured? What were the circumstances?” The counselor might
then follow by asking, “How did you feel about it?” or,
Measuring personality can help predict how people will
“How is what you are now feeling different from what you
behave at work, at school, and in therapy. However, paint-
felt then?”
ing a detailed picture can be a challenge. Psychologists
In addition to providing information, interviews make
use interviews, observation, questionnaires, and projec-
it possible to observe a person’s tone of voice, hand gestures,
tive tests to assess personality (Engler, 2014). Like the
posture, and facial expressions. Such “body language” cues
four personality theories, each method of measuring per-
are important because they may radically alter the message
sonality has strengths and limitations. For this reason,
sent, as when a person claims to be “completely calm” but
they are often used in combination. In many instances,
trembles uncontrollably.
it requires several of the techniques described in this sec-
tion. To capture a personality as unique as Freddy’s, it Limitations Interviews can give rapid insight into per-
might take all of them! sonality, but they have limitations. For one thing, interview-
Formal personality measures are refinements of more ers can be swayed by preconceptions. A person identified
casual ways of judging a person. At one time or another, as a “housewife,” “college student,” “high school athlete,”
you have probably “sized up” a potential date, friend, or “punk,” “geek,” or “ski bum” may be misjudged because of
roommate by engaging in conversation (interview). Per- an interviewer’s personal biases (Forgas, 2011). Second, an
haps you have had the following conversation with a friend: interviewer’s own personality, gender, or ethnicity may in-
“When I’m delayed, I get mad. Do you?” (questionnaire). fluence a client’s behavior. When this occurs, it can accen-
Maybe you watch your professors when they are angry tuate or distort the person’s apparent traits (Perry, Fowler, &
or embarrassed to learn what they are “really” like when Howe, 2008). A third problem is that people sometimes try
they’re caught off-guard (observation). Or possibly you to deceive interviewers. For example, a person accused of a
have noticed that when you say, “I think people feel . . . ,” crime might try to avoid punishment by pretending to be
you may be expressing your own feelings (projection). mentally disabled.
Let’s see how psychologists apply each of these methods to
probe personality.

Interviews
In an interview, direct questioning is used to learn about
a person’s life history, personality traits, or current men-
tal state (Craig, 2013; Murphy & Dillon, 2015). In an
unstructured interview, conversation is informal and
topics are taken up freely as they arise. In a structured
© ampyang/Shutterstock.com

interview, information is gathered by asking a planned

series of questions.
How are interviews used? Interviews are used to select
people for jobs, college, or special programs; to study the
dynamics of personality; and to identify personality dis-
What is your impression of this person awaiting a job interview?
turbances. Interviews also provide information for coun-
If you think that she looks friendly, attractive, or neat, your other
seling or therapy. For instance, a counselor might ask a perceptions of her might be altered by that impression. Interviewers
depressed person, “Have you ever contemplated suicide? are often influenced by the halo effect (see text).

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 MODU LE 5 0 P e r s o nality: ove rvi ew o f P e r s o nality 439

How would you rate the subject’s emotional self-control?

In control at all Remains calm Expresses moderate Is easily aroused to Has little control
times, shows and controlled in emotion at times emotional display over emotions
no emotion most situations

Place a check at the point that describes the person’s degree of introversion/extroversion.

Very introverted, Moderately Balanced mixture Moderately Very extroverted,

withdrawn introverted, shy of introversion extroverted, friendly, active,
and extroversion outgoing and assertive

How would you rate the subject’s potential for leadership?

➤ Figure 50.2
Very low Below average Average Above average Very high Sample Rating Scale
Items. To understand how
How would you describe the subject’s prevailing mood? the scale works, imagine
someone you know well.
Where would you place
Depressed, Sad, subdued Neutral Happy, relaxed Euphoric check marks on each of the
despondent scales to rate that person’s
characteristics?

A fourth problem is the halo effect, which is the ten- Wouldn’t observation be subject to the same problems of
dency to generalize a favorable (or unfavorable) impression misperception as an interview? Yes. Misperceptions can be
to an entire personality (Hartung et al., 2010). Because of the a difficulty, which is why rating scales are sometimes used
halo effect, a person who is likable or physically attractive (➤ Figure 50.2). A rating scale is a list of personality traits
may be rated more mature, intelligent, or mentally healthy or aspects of behavior that can be used to evaluate a person
than she or he actually is. The halo effect is something to (Siefert, 2010). Rating scales limit the chance that some traits
keep in mind at job interviews. will be overlooked while others are exaggerated (Synhorst
Even with their limitations, interviews are a respected et al., 2005). Perhaps they should be a standard procedure
method of assessment. In many cases, interviews are the for choosing a roommate, spouse, or lover!
first step in evaluating personality and an essential prelude An alternative approach is to do a behavioral assess-
to therapy. Nevertheless, interviews are usually not reveal- ment by counting the frequency of specific behaviors
ing enough and must be supplemented by other measures (Cipani & Schock, 2010). In this case, observers record
and tests (Murphy & Dillon, 2015; Meyer et al., 2001). actions, not what traits they think a person has. For example,
a psychologist working with hospitalized mental patients

Direct Observation and Rating scales

Are you fascinated by airports, bus depots, parks, taverns, Interview (personality) A face-to-face meeting held for the purpose
subway stations, or other public places? Many people relish of gaining information about an individual’s personal history,
personality traits, current psychological state, and so forth.
a chance to observe the actions of others. When used for Unstructured interview An interview in which conversation is
assessment, looking at behavior by direct observation informal and topics are taken up freely as they arise.
is a simple extension of this natural interest in “people Structured interview An interview that follows a prearranged plan,
usually a series of planned questions.
watching.” For instance, a psychologist might arrange to ob-
Halo effect The tendency to generalize a favorable or unfavorable
serve a disturbed child as she plays with other children. Is particular impression to unrelated details of personality.
the child withdrawn? Does she become hostile or aggressive Direct observation Assessing behavior through direct surveillance.
without warning? By careful observation, the psychologist Rating scale A list of personality traits or aspects of behavior on
which a person is rated.
can identify the girl’s personality traits and clarify the nature Behavioral assessment Recording the frequency of various behaviors.
of her problems.

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440 P sychOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

might note the frequency of a patient’s aggression, self-care, objective than interviews or observation. (An objective test
speech, and unusual behaviors. Behavioral assessments also gives the same score when different people correct it.) Ques-
can be used to probe thought processes. In one study, for ex- tions, administration, and scoring are all standardized, so that
ample, couples were assessed while talking with each other scores are unaffected by any biases that an examiner may have.
about their sexuality. Couples with sexual difficulties were A good test must also be reliable and valid (Kaplan & Saccuzzo,
less likely to be receptive to discussing their sexuality and 2013). A test has reliability if it yields stable scores over
more likely to blame each other than were couples with no time—that is, if it yields close to the same score each time that
sexual difficulties (Kelly, Strassberg, & Turner, 2006). it is given to the same person. A test has validity if it measures
the trait it was designed to. Unfortunately, many personality
Situational Testing In situational testing, a type of direct
tests that you will encounter, such as those in magazines or on
observation, real-life conditions are simulated so that a per-
the Internet, have little or no validity. Finally, an objective test
son’s spontaneous reactions can be observed. Such tests assume
benefits from extensive norms, standards used to compare an
that the best way to learn how people react is to put them in
individual’s performance on a test with that of others.
realistic situations and watch what happens. Situational tests
Dozens of personality tests are available, including the
expose people to frustration, temptation, pressure, boredom,
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey, the California
or other conditions capable of revealing personality charac-
Psychological Inventory, the Allport-Vernon Study of Values,
teristics (Weekley & Polyhart, 2006). Some popular reality TV
trait scales such as the Sixteen Personality Factor Ques-
programs, such as Naked and Afraid, Survivor, and The Amaz-
tionnaire (16 PF), and many more. One of the best-known
ing Race bear some similarity to situational tests—which may
and most widely used standardized tests is the Minnesota
account for their ability to attract millions of viewers.
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). The current
How are situational tests done? An interesting example
version, the MMPI-2, is composed of 567 items to which
of situational testing is the judgmental firearms training
a test taker must respond “true” or “false” (Butcher, 2011).
provided by many police departments. At times, police of-
Items include statements such as the following:
ficers must make split-second decisions about using their
weapons. A mistake could be fatal. In a typical shoot–don’t Everything tastes the same.
shoot test, actors play the part of armed criminals. As vari- I am very normal, sexually.
ous high-risk scenes are acted out live or online, officers I like birds.
must decide to shoot or hold their fire. I usually daydream in the afternoon.
Mostly, I stay away from other people.
Personality Questionnaires
Someone has been trying to hurt me.
Personality questionnaires are paper-and-pencil tests that
Sometimes I think strange thoughts.*
reveal personality characteristics. Questionnaires are more
How can these items show anything about personality? For in-
stance, what if a person has a cold, so everything really does taste
the same? The answer is that a single item tells little about per-
sonality. For example, a person who agrees that “Everything
tastes the same” might simply have a cold. It is only through
patterns of response that personality dimensions are revealed.
Items on the MMPI-2 were selected for their ability
to correctly identify persons with particular psychological
© Larry St. Pierre/Shutterstock.com

problems (Butcher, 2011). For instance, if depressed persons

consistently answer a series of items in a particular way, it
is assumed that others who answer the same way also are
prone to depression.
The MMPI-2 measures 10 major aspects of personality
(listed in ■ Table 50.2). After the MMPI-2 is scored, results
A police special tactics team undergoes a judgmental firearms
training exercise to protect students from a school shooter.
Variations on this situational test are used by many police *MMPI-2 statements themselves cannot be reproduced, to protect the
departments. All officers must score a passing grade. validity of the test.

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 MODU LE 5 0 P e r s o nality: ove rvi ew o f P e r s o nality 441

Table 50.2 MMPi-2 clinical scales are charted graphically as an MMPI-2 profile (➤ Figure 50.3).
By comparing a person’s profile with scores produced by
1. Hs - Hypochondriasis. Exaggerated concern about one’s typical, normal adults, a psychologist can identify various
physical health personality disorders. Additional scales can identify sub-
2. D - Depression. Feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness, stance abuse, eating disorders, repression, anger, cynicism,
and pessimism low self-esteem, family problems, inability to function in a
job, and other problems (Butcher, 2011).
3. Hy - Hysteria. The presence of physical complaints for
How accurate is the MMPI-2? Personality question-
which no physical basis can be established
naires are accurate only if people tell the truth about them-
4. Pd- Psychopathic deviate. Emotional shallowness in rela- selves. Because of this, the MMPI-2 has additional validity
tionships and a disregard for social and moral standards scales that reveal whether a person’s scores should be dis-
5. Mf - Masculinity/femininity. One’s degree of traditional carded. The validity scales detect attempts by test takers
“masculine” aggressiveness or “feminine” sensitivity to “fake good” (make themselves look good) or “fake bad”
(make it look like they have problems) (Scherbaum et al.,
6. Pa - Paranoia. Extreme suspiciousness and feelings of
persecution 2013). Other scales uncover defensiveness or tendencies
to exaggerate shortcomings and troubles. When taking
7. Pt - Psychasthenia. The presence of obsessive worries,
irrational fears (phobias), and compulsive (ritualistic)
actions Situational test Simulating real-life conditions so that a person’s
reactions may be directly observed.
8. Sc - Schizophrenia. Emotional withdrawal and unusual Personality questionnaire A paper-and-pencil test consisting of
or bizarre thinking and actions questions that reveal aspects of personality.
Objective test A test that gives the same score when different people
9. Ma - Mania. Emotional excitability, manic moods or correct it.
behavior, and excessive activity Reliability Stability of test scores over time.
Validity Degree to which a test measures the trait that it was
0. Si - Social introversion. One’s tendency to be socially designed to.
withdrawn Norm Standard used to compare an individual’s performance on a
test with that of others.
(Reproduced by permission. © 1943, renewed 1970 by the University of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory A standardized
Minnesota. Published by the Psychological Corporation, New York. All test designed to identify problem areas of functioning in an
rights reserved.) individual’s personality.

80
Standard (T) score

70 Start of treatment

60 After three years

50 Normal
sis

ria

ia

ia

ia

n
at

ni
io

io
no

en

an
ria

te

vi

re
ss

rs
sth

M
ys

ra
de

ve
nd

re

ph
Pa
H
ep

ha

tro
ho

zo
ic
D

yc
th

in
hi
oc

pa

Ps

Sc

al
yp

ho

ci
H

So
yc
Ps

➤ Figure 50.3
MMPI-2 Profiles. The MMPI-2 can even track progress in therapy. At the start of treatment, the scores of a group of severely troubled
individuals were elevated on most of the individual scales. (Note that the masculinity/femininity scores are not included.) After 3 years
of therapy, their scores have declined significantly and are much more similar to normal scores, which usually fall in the 45–50 range.
An unusually low score (40 and below) also may reveal personality characteristics or problems. (Adapted from Gordon, 2001.)

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442 P sychOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

the MMPI-2, it is best to answer honestly and not try to Projective tests have no right or wrong answers, which
second-guess the test. makes them difficult to fake. Moreover, projective tests can
A clinical psychologist trying to decide whether a per- be a rich source of information because responses are not
son has emotional problems would be wise to take more restricted to simple true/false or yes/no answers.
than the MMPI-2 into account. Test scores are informa-
tive, but they can incorrectly label some people (Kaplan & The Rorschach Inkblot Test Is the inkblot test a projec-
Saccuzzo, 2013). Fortunately, clinical judgments usually rely tive technique? The Rorschach Inkblot Test (ROAR-shock)
on information from interviews, tests, and other sources. is one of the oldest and most widely used projective tests.
Also, despite their limitations, it is reassuring to note that Developed by Swiss psychologist Hermann Rorschach in
psychological assessments are at least as accurate as com- the 1920s, it consists of 10 standardized inkblots forming
monly used medical tests (Neukrug & Fawcett, 2015). complex, irregular monochromatic shapes.
How does the test work? First, a person is shown
each blot and asked to describe what she or he sees in it
Projective Tests of Personality
(➤ Figure 50.4). Later, the psychologist may return to a
Projective tests take a different approach to personality. In- blot, asking the person to identify specific sections of it, to
terviews, observation, rating scales, and inventories try to expand previous descriptions, or to give new impressions
directly identify overt, observable traits. By contrast, pro- about what it contains. Obvious differences in content—
jective tests seek to uncover deeply hidden or unconscious such as “blood dripping from a dagger” versus “flowers
wishes, thoughts, and needs (Burger, 2015; McGrath & blooming in a basket”—are important for identifying per-
Carroll, 2012). sonal conflicts and fantasies. But surprisingly, content is
As a child, you may have delighted in finding faces and less important than what parts of the inkblot are used to
objects in cloud formations. Or perhaps you have learned organize images. These factors allow psychologists to de-
something about your friends’ personalities from their reac- tect emotional disturbances by observing how a person
tions to movies or paintings. If so, you have some insight into perceives the world (Bornstein, 2012). Schizophrenia and
the rationale for projective tests. In projective tests, a per- other psychotic disorders are associated with severe distur-
son is asked to describe ambiguous or unstructured stimuli bances in thinking and perception (see Module 61). Such
or make up stories about them. Describing an unambiguous disturbances are usually readily apparent during projective
stimulus (a picture of an automobile, for example) tells lit- testing (Moore et al., 2013.)
tle about your personality. But when you are faced with an
unstructured stimulus, you must organize what you see in The Thematic Apperception Test Another popu-
terms of your own life experiences. Everyone sees some- lar projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test
thing different in a projective test, and what is perceived can (TAT), developed by personality theorist Henry Murray
reveal the inner workings of personality. (1893–1988).

➤ Figure 50.4
The Rorschach. Inkblots similar to those used on the Rorschach. What do you see?

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 MODU LE 5 0 P e r s o nality: ove rvi ew o f P e r s o nality 443

How does the TAT differ from the Rorschach? The TAT
consists of 20 sketches depicting various scenes and life situ-
ations (➤ Figure 50.5). During testing, a person is shown
each sketch and asked to make up a story about the people
in it. Later, the person looks at each sketch a second or a
third time and elaborates on previous stories or creates new
stories.
To score the TAT, a psychologist analyzes the content
of the stories. Interpretations focus on how people feel, how
they interact, what events led up to the incidents depicted
in the sketch, and how the story will end. For example, TAT
stories told by bereaved college students typically include
themes of death, grief, and coping with loss (Balk et al.,
1998).
A psychologist might also count how many times the
central figure in a TAT story is angry, overlooked, apathetic,
jealous, or threatened. A student wrote the following story
to describe Figure 50.5: ➤ Figure 50.5
The Thematic Apperception Test. This is a picture like those used
The girl has been seeing this guy her mother doesn’t for the TAT. If you wish to simulate the test, tell a story that explains
like. The mother is telling her that she better not see him what led up to the pictured situation, what is happening now, and
again. The mother says, “He’s just like your father.” The how the action will end.
mother and father are divorced. The mother is smiling be-
cause she thinks she is right. But she doesn’t really know what Despite their drawbacks, projective tests still have value
the girl wants. The girl is going to see the guy again, anyway. (McGrath & Carroll, 2012). This is especially true when they
As this example implies, the TAT is especially good at re- are used as part of a test battery (collection of assessment
vealing feelings about social situations and relationships devices and interviews). In the hands of a skilled clinician,
(Serfass & Sherman, 2013; Teglasi, 2010). projective tests can be a good way to detect major conflicts,
to get clients to talk about upsetting topics, and to set goals
Limitations of Projective Testing Although projective for therapy (Garcia-Barrera et al., 2013; Teglasi, 2010).
tests have been popular, their validity is open to question
(Ackerman, Lewis, & Taylor, 2014; Bornstein, 2012). Objec-
Projective tests Personality tests that use ambiguous or unstructured
tivity and reliability (consistency) also are low for different
stimuli.
users of the TAT and Rorschach. Note that after a person Rorschach Inkblot Test Projective test that consists of complex,
interprets an ambiguous stimulus, the scorer must interpret irregular monochromatic shapes.
the person’s (sometimes) ambiguous responses. In a sense, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) A projective test consisting of
20 different scenes and life situations about which respondents
the interpretation of a projective test may be a projective test make up stories.
for the scorer!

MODULE

50 summary
50.1 how do psychologists use the term 50.1.2 Personality traits are lasting personal qualities that
personality? are inferred from behavior.
50.1.1 Personality refers to a person’s consistent and unique 50.1.3 Personality types group people into categories on the
patterns of thinking, emotion, and behavior. basis of shared traits.

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444 P sychOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

50.1.4 Behavior is influenced by self-concept, which is a bias and misperceptions. The halo effect also may
perception of one’s own personality traits. A positive lower the accuracy of an interview.
self-evaluation leads to high self-esteem. Low self- 50.2.3 Direct observation, sometimes involving situational
esteem is associated with stress, unhappiness, and tests, behavioral assessment, or the use of rating
depression. scales, allows evaluation of a person’s actual behavior.
50.1.5 Each of the four major theories of personality—trait, 50.2.4 Personality questionnaires, such as the Minnesota
psychodynamic, humanistic, and behaviorist and Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2), are
social learning—combines interrelated assumptions, objective and reliable, but their validity is open to
ideas, and principles and is useful for understanding question.
some aspects of personality. 50.2.5 Projective tests ask a person to project thoughts or
feelings onto an ambiguous stimulus or unstructured
50.2 can personality be measured?
situation. Two well-known examples are the Rorschach
50.2.1 Techniques typically used for personality assessment Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
are interviews, observation, questionnaires, and pro- 50.2.6 Projective tests are low in validity and objectivity.
jective tests. Nevertheless, they are considered useful by many
50.2.2 Structured and unstructured interviews provide clinicians, particularly as part of a test battery.
much information, but they are subject to interviewer

Knowledge Builder Personality: Overview of Personality

Recite 6. The use of ambiguous stimuli is most characteristic of

a. interviews
1. An individual’s perception of his or her
b. projective tests
own personality constitutes that person’s
c. personality inventories
___________________________.
d. direct observation
2. The halo effect can be a serious problem in accurate per-
sonality assessment that is based on
Reflect
a. projective testing
b. behavioral recording Think critically
c. interviewing 7. Projective testing would be of greatest interest to which
d. the TAT type of personality theorist?
3. Doing a behavioral assessment requires direct obser-
self-Reflect
vation of the person’s actions or a direct report of the
person’s thoughts. T or F? See if you can define or describe the following terms in your
4. A test is considered valid if it consistently yields the same own words: personality, character, trait, type, self-concept, self-
score when the same person takes it on different occa- esteem.
sions. T or F? How do you assess personality? Do you informally use any
5. Which of the following is considered the most objective of the methods described in this module?
measure of personality?
a. rating scales AN sW E R s
b. personality questionnaires
conflicts.
tive testing is designed to uncover unconscious thoughts, feelings, and
c. projective tests 1. self-concept 2. c 3. T 4. F 5. b 6. b 7. Psychodynamic, because projec-
d. TAT

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 MODULE
Personality
Trait Theories 51
Conscientious Drivers Rarely Do This!
Sam is a good guy and a great friend. He’s talkative, curious,
and good-natured. Conscientious? Not so much. Sam’s more
likely to be found socializing at the local students’ pub than
studying at the library.
Trait theories seek to describe personality in terms of a
small number of underlying personality traits or factors, like
the adjectives we used to describe Sam. The trait approach is
currently the dominant method for studying personality. Of

© Katherine Welles/Shutterstock.com
the various trait theories, the Big Five theory is currently the
most influential. According to this theory, all personalities
can be described as varying along five key factors: extrover-
sion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and open-
ness to experience.
Knowing where a person stands on the “Big Five” per-
sonality traits helps predict his or her behavior. For exam- safe drivers who are less likely to have automobile accidents
ple, people who score high on conscientiousness tend to be (Sam, Sam, what have you done! lol).

~SURVEY QUESTION~
51.1 Are some personality traits more basic or important
than others?

The Trait Approach—Describe Yourself

in 18,000 Words or Less
Survey Question 51.1 Are some personality traits more
basic or important than others?
checked of equal importance? Are some stronger or more
Take a moment to read through ■ Table 51.1 and check the basic than others? Do any overlap? For example, if you
traits that describe your personality. Don’t worry if some of checked “dominant,” did you also check “confident” and
your key traits aren’t in the table. More than 18,000 English “bold”? Answers to these questions would interest a trait
words refer to personal characteristics. Are the traits you theorist.

445
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446 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 51.1 Adjective checklist

check the traits that you feel are characteristic of your personality. Are some more basic than others?

Aggressive Organized Ambitious Clever

Confident Loyal Generous Calm
Warm Bold Cautious Reliable
Sensitive Mature Talented Jealous
Sociable Honest Funny Religious
Dominant Dull Accurate Nervous
Humble Uninhibited Visionary Cheerful
Thoughtful Serious Helpful Emotional
Orderly Anxious Conforming Good-natured
Liberal Curious Optimistic Kind
Meek Neighborly Passionate Compulsive

To better understand personality, trait theorists prefer the Internet because they find it easier to talk with
attempt to analyze, classify, and interrelate traits. In addi- people online (Mitchell, et al., 2011; Rice & Markey, 2009).
tion, trait theorists often think of traits as biological predis- Other interesting links exist between traits and behavior.
positions, a hereditary readiness of humans to behave in For a “dark” example, read on.
particular ways. (We encountered this idea before, in
The Dark Triad: Oh, Oh, Seven Ian Fleming’s charac-
Module 14, in which humans were described as having a
ter, James Bond, is undoubtedly the most famous fictional
biological predisposition to learn language.)
spy of all time, having appeared in 24 official Bond films
Hereditary or not, traits are stable dispositions that a
since 1962. But suppose that he was real and was your boy-
person shows in most situations (Mõttus, Johnson, & Deary,
friend, husband, brother, or best friend. Very cool, no?
2012). For example, if you are usually friendly, optimistic,
Maybe not. According to psychologist Peter Jonason and his
and cautious, these qualities are traits of your personality.
colleagues, Bond is a charming, manipulative, cold-blooded
What if I am also sometimes shy, pessimistic, or unin-
killer who is comfortable operating outside the law. He is
hibited? The original three qualities are still traits so long as
also an impeccable dresser who casually beds women as it
they are most typical of your behavior. Let’s say that James’
suits him (Jonason et al., 2012).
friend Freddy approaches most situations with optimism
There are no real people like 007, right? Don’t be so
but tends to expect the worst each time he applies for a job.
sure. See ■ Table 51.2 to rate yourself on the “Dirty Dozen”
If his pessimism is limited to this situation or just a few oth-
(Jonason & Webster, 2010). A high score on the first four
ers, it is still accurate and useful to describe him as an opti-
questions is associated with the trait of Machiavellianism, a
mistic person.
willingness to manipulate others. A high score on the mid-
dle four questions is associated with the trait of psychopathy,
Predicting Behavior an impulsive lack of empathy for others. A high score on the
As we have noted, separating people into broad types, such last four questions is associated with the trait of narcissism,
as “introvert” or “extrovert,” may oversimplify personality. a self-centeredness often based on feelings of superiority.
However, introversion/extroversion also can be thought of Taken together, these three interrelated traits make up the
as a trait. Knowing how you rate on this single dimension dark triad (Furnham, Richards, & Paulhus, 2013).
allows us to predict how you will behave in a variety of set- Aren’t these traits signs of mental illness? In Chapter 14,
tings. How, for example, do you prefer to meet people—face- we will discuss personality disorders such as narcissistic
to-face or through the Internet? Researchers have found that personality disorder. Individuals with these disorders typi-
students high in the trait of introversion are more likely to cally express dark triad traits, but to the extreme. In contrast,
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 MoDU lE 5 1 P e r s o nAlity: tr Ait th eo r i es 447

Table 51.2 the dirty dozen

on a scale where 1 means strongly disagree and 5 means strongly agree, circle the number which best describes how well
you think each of the following statements applies to you.

Strongly disagree Strongly agree

1. I tend to manipulate others to get my way. 1 2 3 4 5
2. I have used deceit or lied to get my way. 1 2 3 4 5
3. I have used flattery to get my way. 1 2 3 4 5
4. I tend to exploit others towards my own end. 1 2 3 4 5
5. I tend to lack remorse. 1 2 3 4 5
6. I tend to be unconcerned with the morality of my actions. 1 2 3 4 5
7. I tend to be callous or insensitive. 1 2 3 4 5
8. I tend to be cynical. 1 2 3 4 5
9. I tend to want others to admire me. 1 2 3 4 5
10. I tend to want others to pay attention to me. 1 2 3 4 5
11. I tend to seek prestige or status. 1 2 3 4 5
12. I tend to expect special favors from others. 1 2 3 4 5

these traits are subclinical in many dark triad personalities, Secondary traits are more superficial personal quali-
and hence not extreme enough to qualify for a diagnosis. ties, such as food preferences, attitudes, political opinions,
As you might imagine, dark personalities tend to be men musical tastes, and so forth. In Allport’s terms, a personality
who are risk takers and are more likely to smoke, drink, and description might therefore include the following items:
do drugs (Jonason, Koenig, & Tost, 2010). Although these Name: Jane Doe
“bad boys” also tend to be promiscuous and indiscriminate
Age: 22
in their choice of sex partners, women find them strangely
attractive (Aitken, Lyons, & Jonason, 2013; Carter, Camp- Central traits: Possessive, autonomous, artistic, dramatic,
bell, & Muncer, 2014). self-centered, trusting
You think you know someone like that? Try using the Secondary traits: Prefers colorful clothes, likes to work
Dirty Dozen to rate that person. If the scores are high, you alone, politically liberal, always late
might just have identified a real life dark personality. Oh, oh.
Source Traits How can you tell whether a personality trait
is central or secondary? Raymond B. Cattell (1906–1998)
classifying Traits
tried to answer this question by directly studying the traits
Are there different types of traits? Yes. Psychologist Gordon of a large number of people. Cattell began by measuring vis-
Allport (1961) distinguished between central traits and sec- ible features of personality, which he called surface traits.
ondary traits. Soon, Cattell noticed that these surface traits often appeared
Central Traits How do central and secondary traits differ?
Central traits are the basic building blocks of personality. A Trait theorist A psychologist interested in classifying, analyzing,
and interrelating traits to understand personality.
surprisingly small number of central traits can capture the es- Subclinical (traits) Qualities of individuals that are not extreme
sence of a person. For instance, just six traits would provide enough to merit a psychiatric diagnosis.
a good description of Jacintha’s personality: dominant, socia- Central traits The core traits that characterize an individual
ble, honest, cheerful, intelligent, and optimistic. When college personality.
Secondary traits Traits that are inconsistent or relatively superficial.
students were asked to describe someone they knew well, they Surface traits The visible or observable traits of one’s personality.
mentioned an average of seven central traits (Allport, 1961).
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448 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

➤ Figure 51.1 UNSTABLE

Eysenck’s Two-Factor Theory of Personality. English psychologist
Moody Touchy
Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) proposed that many personality traits are
related to whether you are mainly introverted or extroverted and whether An ss
Rig xious stle e
you tend to be emotionally stable or unstable (highly emotional). These Sob id Re essiv ble
Pes er gr a e
characteristics, in turn, are related to four basic types of temperament Ag Excit eabl ve
Res simist n g lsi ic
first recognized by the early Greeks. The types are melancholic (sad, Un erved ic a u
Ch Imp timis
t
soc
gloomy), choleric (hot-tempered, irritable), phlegmatic (sluggish, calm), iab p
le O
and sanguine (cheerful, hopeful). (Adapted from Eysenck, 1981.)

Activ
EXTRO
VERTED
Quiet

e Sociable
VERTED
INTRO
ve
Passi
ul tful Ou
ref Re Talk tgoin
Ca ough ful
Th ace lled Ea spon ative g
Pe ntro le syg siv
o e
Co liab Ca Live ing
Re acid ref ly
ree
Pl

te d
Calm C onten
STABLE

Melancholic Choleric Phlegmatic Sanguine

together in groups. In fact, some traits clustered together so person, we automatically know that you have several other
often that they seemed to represent a single, more basic trait. traits. Thus, imaginative is a source trait, or factor. For ex-
Cattell called these deeper characteristics, or dimensions, ample, ➤ Figure 51.1 shows one of the first trait theories,
source traits (factors) (Cattell, 1965). They are the core of composed of two factors, introversion–extroversion and
an individual’s personality. emotionally stable–unstable.
How do source traits differ from Allport’s central traits? Cattell (1973) identified 16 source traits. According to
Allport classified traits subjectively, and it’s possible that he him, all 16 are needed to fully describe a personality. Source
was wrong at times. To look for connections among traits, traits are measured by a test called the Sixteen Personality
Cattell used factor analysis, a statistical technique used to Factor Questionnaire (often referred to as the 16 PF). Like
correlate multiple measurements and identify general un- many personality tests, the 16 PF can be used to produce a
derlying factors. For example, he found that imaginative trait profile, a graph of a person’s score on each trait. Trait
people are almost always inventive, original, curious, cre- profiles draw a “picture” of individual personalities, which
ative, innovative, and ingenious. If you are an imaginative makes it easier to compare them (➤ Figure 51.2).

1. Affected by feelings Emotionally stable

2. Concrete thinking Abstract thinking
3. Conservative Experimenting
4. Expedient Professors Conscientious
➤ Figure 51.2 Lawyers
5. Forthright Actors Shrewd
Hypothetical 16 PF Profiles. The 16 source
6. Group-dependent Self-sufficient
traits measured by Cattell’s (1973) 16 PF are
listed beside the graph. Scores can be plotted as a 7. Practical Imaginative
profile for an individual or a group. The hypothetical 8. Relaxed Tense
profiles shown here are group averages for college 9. Reserved Outgoing
professors, lawyers, and professional actors. Notice 10. Self-assured Apprehensive
the similarities between professors and lawyers 11. Serious Happy-go-lucky
and the differences between these two groups 12. Shy Bold
and professional actors. (Of course, your authors 13. Submissive Dominant
may only be expressing the common stereotype 14. Tough-minded Sensitive
that professors and lawyers are more reserved
15. Trusting Suspicious
abstract thinkers than actors or that actors are less
16. Undisciplined Self-controlled
emotionally stable and more happy-go-lucky than
professors and lawyers. What do you think?) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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 MoDU lE 5 1 P e r s o nAlity: tr Ait th eo r i es 449

The Big Five is conscientious is self-disciplined, responsible, and achiev-

ing. People low on this factor are irresponsible, careless,
Noel is outgoing and friendly, conscientious, even-tempered,
and undependable. Neuroticism refers to negative, upsetting
and curious. His brother Joel is reserved, hostile, irrespon-
emotions. People who are high in neuroticism tend to be
sible, temperamental, and uninterested in ideas. You will
anxious, emotionally “sour,” irritable, and unhappy. Finally,
be spending a week in a space capsule with either Noel or
people who rate high on openness to experience are creative
Joel. Who would you choose? If the answer seems obvious,
and open to new ideas (Ashcraft, 2015).
it’s because Noel and Joel were described with the Big Five
The beauty of the Big Five theory is that almost any
personality traits, a theory that only a handful of character-
trait that you can name will be related to one of these five
istics account for most individual differences in personality.
factors. If you were selecting a college roommate, hiring an
Five Key Dimensions The “Big Five” traits shown in employee, or answering a post at a singles site, you would
➤ Figure 51.3 attempt to reduce Cattell’s 16 factors to just probably want to know all the personal dimensions covered
five factors, or source traits (McCrae & Costa, 2013; Noftle by the Big Five.
& Fleeson, 2010). The Big Five may be the best answer of all
to the question: What is the essence of human personality?
Source traits (factors) Basic underlying traits, or dimensions, of
If you would like to compare the personalities of two
personality; each source trait is reflected in a number of surface
people, try rating them informally on the five dimensions traits.
shown in Figure 51.3. For extroversion, rate how introverted Factor analysis A statistical technique used to correlate multiple
or extroverted each person is. Agreeableness refers to how measurements and identify general underlying factors.
Big Five personality traits Theory that only a handful of character-
friendly, nurturant, and caring a person is, as opposed to istics account for most individual differences in personality.
cold, indifferent, self-centered, or spiteful. A person who

Extroversion
Loner Joiner
Quiet Talkative
Passive Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 High Active
Reserved Affectionate

Agreeableness
Suspicious Trusting
Critical Lenient
Ruthless Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 High Soft-hearted
Irritable Good-natured

Conscientiousness
Negligent Conscientious
Lazy Hard-working
Disorganized Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 High Well-organized
Late Punctual

Neuroticism
Calm Worried
Even-tempered Temperamental ➤ Figure 51.3
Comfortable Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 High Self-conscious
Unemotional Emotional The Big Five. According to the five-
factor model, basic differences in
personality can be “boiled down” to
Openness to Experience the dimensions shown here. These
Down-to-earth Imaginative dimensions cover a large measure
Uncreative Creative of what we might want to know
Conventional Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 High Original about someone’s personality. (Trait
Uncurious Curious
descriptions adapted from McCrae &
Costa, 2001.)

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450 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

The Big Five traits have been related to different brain to some life experiences, and introversion opens doors to
systems and chemicals (DeYoung et al., 2010; Nettle, 2008). others (Cain, 2012; Nettle, 2005).
They also predict how people will act in various circum- The same is true for agreeableness. Agreeable people at-
stances (Sutin & Costa, 2010). For example, people who tract more friends and enjoy strong social support from oth-
score high in conscientiousness tend to perform well at ers. But agreeable people often put the interests of friends
work, do well in school, and rarely have automobile acci- and family ahead of their own. This leaves such people at a
dents (Brown et al., 2010; Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, disadvantage. To do creative, artistic work or to succeed in
2003). They are healthier and even live longer (Hampson et the business world often involves putting your own interests
al., 2013; Martin, Friedman, & Schwartz, 2007.) first (Nettle, 2008).
How about conscientiousness? Up to a point, conscien-
Which Personality Are You (and Which Is tiousness is associated with high achievement. However,
Best)? Does that mean some Big Five trait scores are bet- having impossibly high standards, a trait called perfec-
ter than others? According to the Big Five theory, your rat- tionism, can be a problem. As you might expect, college
ing on each of five basic personality traits, or factors, gives students who are perfectionists tend to get good grades.
a good overall description of your personality. Try rating Yet some students cross the line into maladaptive perfec-
yourself (see Figure 51.2). How well do you think your rat- tionism, which typically lowers performance at school and
ings describe you? When you were rating yourself, did you elsewhere (Weiner & Carton, 2012). Authentic Navajo rugs
notice that some of the traits don’t seem very attractive? Af- always have a flaw in their intricate designs. Navajo weavers
ter all, who would want to score low in extroversion? What intentionally make a “mistake” in each rug as a reminder
could be good about being a quiet, passive, and reserved that humans are not perfect. There is a lesson in this: It is
loner? In other words, aren’t some personality patterns bet- not always necessary, or even desirable, to be “perfect.” To
ter than others? learn from your experiences, you must feel free to make
You might be surprised to learn that there is no single mistakes. Success, in the long run, is more often based on
“best” personality pattern. For example, extroverts tend to seeking “excellence” rather than “perfection” (Enns, Cox, &
earn more during their careers than introverts, and they Clara, 2005).
have more sexual partners. But they also are more likely to Except for very extreme personality patterns, which
take risks than introverts (and to land in the hospital with an are often maladaptive, most “personalities” involve a mix of
injury). Extroverts also are more likely to divorce. Because costs and benefits (Turiano et al., 2013). We all face the task
of this, extroverted men are less likely to live with their chil- of pursuing life experiences that best suit our own unique
dren. In other words, extroversion tends to open the doors personality patterns (Nettle, 2008).

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 MoDU lE 5 1 P e r s o nAlity: tr Ait th eo r i es 451

MODULE

51 summary
51.1 Are some personality traits more basic or 51.1.4 Source traits are measured by the Sixteen Personality
important than others? Factor Questionnaire (16 PF).
51.1.1 Trait theories identify qualities that are most lasting 51.1.5 The Big Five theory identifies five universal dimen-
or characteristic of a person. sions of personality: extroversion, agreeableness,
51.1.2 Allport made a useful distinction between central conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to
and secondary traits. experience.
51.1.3 Cattell’s theory attributes visible surface traits to the
existence of 16 underlying source traits.

Knowledge Builder Personality: Trait Theories

Recite self-Reflect
1. Eysenck’s early trait theory was composed of two factors, List six or seven traits that best describe your personality.
emotional stability–instability and _______________. Which system of traits seems to best match your list, Allport’s,
2. Traits are stable dispositions that a person shows in most Cattell’s, or the Big Five?
___________________________. Choose a prominent trait from your list. Does its expres-
3. Central traits are those shared by most members of a sion seem to be influenced by specific situations? Do you
culture. T or F? think that heredity contributed to the trait?
4. Cattell believes that clusters of ______________ traits
reveal the presence of underlying ______________ traits. AN sW E R s
5. Which of the following is not one of the Big Five person- related to academic performance.

ality traits?
(Kappe & van der Flier, 2010). Openness to experience is also positively
were better academic performers, but only if they were not too stressed
a. submissiveness performance, as you might expect. Students high in neuroticism also
b. agreeableness 6. In one study, conscientiousness was positively related to academic
c. extroversion 1. introversion-extroversion 2. situations 3. F 4. surface, source 5. a
d. neuroticism

Reflect
Think critically
6. Can you think of a Big Five trait besides conscientious-
ness that might be related to academic achievement?

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MODULE

52 Personality
Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories

The Why of Personality

Meghan is self-conscious around strangers. You could almost say she
is shy. This has been a life-long personality trait. But why, she often
wonders. So, too, do psychodynamic theorists, who are not content
with studying traits. Instead, they try to probe under the surface of
personality—to learn what drives, conflicts, and energies animate
us. A psychodynamic theorist would explain Meghan’s shyness in
terms of hidden, or unconscious, thoughts, needs, and emotions.
While humanistic theorists also seek to explain personality, they
tend to focus on conscious thoughts, needs, and emotions. For exam-
ple, humanists consider self-image a central determinant of behavior
and personal adjustment. Humanistic theories also pay special atten-
tion to the fuller use of human potentials, and they help bring bal-
© Shai Halud/Shutterstock.com

ance to our overall views of personality. A humanist might ask what

it is about the attitudes Meghan holds regarding herself that makes
her feel self-conscious.
So, which is it, Meghan? Let’s look into it.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
52.1 How do psychodynamic theories explain personality? 52.2 What are humanistic theories of personality?

Psychoanalytic Theory—Id Came to Me in a Dream

Survey Question 52.1 How do psychodynamic theories
explain personality?
seemed to be more emotional than physical. From about
As we discussed in Module 3, psychoanalytic theory, the 1890 until his death in 1939, Freud developed a theory of
first and best-known psychodynamic approach, grew out personality that deeply influenced modern thought (Schultz
of the work of Sigmund Freud, a Viennese physician. As a & Schultz, 2017; Tauber, 2010). Let’s consider some of its
doctor, Freud was fascinated by patients whose problems main features.

452
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 MODU LE 52 P e r s o nality: Psyc h o dynam i c an d h u man i sti c th eo r i es 453

The Structure of Personality energies, then, are aimed at discharging tensions related to
sex and aggression.
How did Freud view personality? Freud’s model portrays per-
sonality as a dynamic system directed by three mental struc- The Ego The ego is sometimes described as the “execu-
tures: the id, the ego, and the superego. According to Freud, tive” because it makes decisions about how to direct ener-
most behavior involves activity of all three systems. gies supplied by the id. The id is like a blind warrior whose
power is awesome, but who must rely on others to give it
The Id The id contains primitive drives present at birth.
orders. The id can only form mental images of things that it
The id operates on the pleasure principle. It is self-serving,
desires. The ego wins the power to direct behavior by relat-
irrational, impulsive, and totally unconscious—that is, it
ing the desires of the id to external reality.
seeks to avoid pain and freely express pleasure-seeking urg-
Are there other differences between the ego and the id?
es of all kinds. If we were solely under control of the id, the
Yes. Recall that the id operates on the pleasure principle. The
world would be chaotic beyond belief.
ego, in contrast, is guided by the reality principle. The ego is
The id acts as a power source for the entire psyche
the system of thinking, planning, problem solving, and de-
(SIGH-key), or personality. This energy, called libido
ciding. It is in conscious control of the personality and often
(lih-BEE-doe), flows from Eros, the life instincts. According
delays action until it is practical or appropriate.
to Freud, libido underlies our efforts to survive, as well as
our sexual desires and pleasure seeking. Freud also de- The Superego What is the role of the superego? The super-
scribed Thanatos, the “death” instinct—although today it ego represents moral conscience by acting as a judge or cen-
is more often thought of as an impulse toward aggression sor for the thoughts and actions of the ego. One part of the
and destructive urges. Freud offered humanity’s long his- superego, called the conscience, reflects actions for which a
tory of wars and violence as evidence of such urges. Most id person has been punished. When standards of the conscience
are not met, you are punished internally by guilt feelings.
A second part of the superego is the ego ideal. The ego
ideal reflects all behavior that one’s parents approved or re-
warded. The ego ideal is a source of goals and aspirations.
When its standards are met, we feel pride.
The superego acts as an “internalized parent” to bring
behavior under control. In Freudian terms, a person with a
weak superego will be a delinquent, criminal, or antisocial
personality. In contrast, an overly strict or harsh superego
may cause inhibition, rigidity, or unbearable guilt.

Psychoanalytic theory Freudian theory of personality that empha-

sizes unconscious forces and conflicts.
Id Component of Freud’s personality theory containing primitive
drives present at birth.
Pleasure principle According to Freud, the id’s drive to avoid pain
and seek what feels good.
Psyche The mind, mental life, and personality as a whole.
Libido In Freudian theory, the force, primarily pleasure oriented,
that energizes the personality.
Rykoff Collection/Fine Art Value/Corbis

Eros Freud’s name for the “life instincts.”

Thanatos The death instinct postulated by Freud.
Ego According to Freud, the decision-making part of personality
that operates on the reality principle.
Reality principle Delaying action (or pleasure) until it is appropriate.
Superego According to Freud, the part of personality that represents
moral conscience
Conscience The part of the superego that causes guilt when its
Freud considered personality an expression of two conflicting standards are not met.
forces, life instincts and the death instinct. Both are symbolized Ego ideal The part of the superego representing ideal behavior; a
in this drawing by Allan Gilbert. (If you don’t immediately see the source of pride when its standards are met.
death symbolism, move farther away from the drawing.)

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454 P SycHOLO Gy m o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

The Dynamics of Personality Even though they are beyond awareness, unconscious
thoughts, feelings, or urges may slip into behavior in dis-
How do the id, ego, and superego interact? Freud didn’t pic-
guised or symbolic form (Reason, 2000; yes, these are Freud-
ture the id, ego, and superego as parts of the brain or as “little
ian slips). For example, if you meet someone you would like
people” running the human psyche. Instead, they are con-
to know better, you may unconsciously leave a book or a
flicting mental processes. Freud theorized a delicate balance
jacket at that person’s house to ensure another meeting.
of power among the three. For example, the id’s demands
Are the actions of the ego and superego also uncon-
for immediate pleasure often clash with the superego’s moral
scious, like the id? At times, yes, but they also operate
restrictions. Perhaps an example will help clarify the role of
on two other levels of awareness (➤ Figure 52.1). The
each part of the personality.
conscious level includes everything that you are aware of
Freud in a Nutshell at a given moment, including thoughts, perceptions, feel-
Let’s say that you are sexually attracted to an acquaintance. ings, and memories. The preconscious contains material
The id clamors for immediate satisfaction of its sexual de- that can be easily brought to awareness. If you stop to think
sires but is opposed by the superego (which finds the very
thought of sex shocking). The id says, “Go for it!” The su-
about a time when you felt angry or rejected, you are mov-
perego icily replies, “Never even think that again!” And what ing this memory from the preconscious to the conscious
does the ego say? The ego says, “Hold on—I have a plan!” level of awareness.
The superego’s activities also reveal differing levels of
This is, of course, a drastic oversimplification, but it does
awareness. At times, we consciously try to live up to moral
capture the core of Freudian thinking. To reduce tension,
codes or standards. Yet, at other times, a person may feel
the ego could begin actions leading to friendship, romance,
guilty without knowing why. Psychoanalytic theory credits
courtship, and marriage. If the id is unusually powerful, the
such guilt to unconscious workings of the superego. Indeed,
ego may give in and attempt a seduction. If the superego pre-
Freud believed that the unconscious origins of many feel-
vails, the ego may be forced to displace or sublimate sexual
ings cannot be easily brought to awareness.
energies to other activities (sports, music, dancing, push-ups,
cold showers). According to Freud, internal struggles and re- Personality Development
channeled energies typify most personality functioning.
How does psychoanalytic theory explain personality de-
Is the ego always caught in the middle? Basically, yes, and
velopment? Freud theorized that the core of personality
the pressures on it can be intense. In addition to meeting the
develops before age 6 in a series of psychosexual stages.
conflicting demands of the id and superego, the overworked
Freud believed that erotic urges in childhood have lasting
ego must deal with external reality.
effects on development (Ashcraft, 2015). As you might ex-
According to Freud, you feel anxiety when your ego
pect, this is a controversial idea. However, Freud used the
is threatened or overwhelmed. Impulses from the id cause
terms sex and erotic very broadly to refer to many physical
neurotic anxiety when the ego can barely keep them un-
sources of pleasure.
der control. Threats of punishment from the superego cause
moral anxiety. Each person develops habitual ways of calm-
ing these anxieties, and many resort to using ego-defense
mechanisms to lessen internal conflicts. Defense mechanisms External world

are mental processes that deny, distort, or otherwise block out Ego
Visible
Conscious personality
sources of threat and anxiety. (The ego defense mechanisms
that Freud identified are used as a form of protection against Preconscious
stress, anxiety, and threatening events. See Module 57.)
o

Unconscious
g

Levels of Awareness Like other psychodynamic the-

ere
Sup

orists, Freud believed that our behavior often expresses Id

unconscious (or hidden) forces. The unconscious holds
repressed memories and emotions, plus the instinctual
drives of the id. It is interesting that modern scientists
have found brain circuits that do, in fact, seem to underlie ➤ Figure 52.1
repression and the triggering of unconscious emotions and Freud’s Levels of Consciousness. The approximate relationship
memories (Berlin, 2011; Ceylan & Sayın, 2012). between the id, ego, and superego, and the levels of awareness.
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 MODU LE 52 P e r s o nality: Psyc h o dynam i c an d h u man i sti c th eo r i es 455

Freud identified four psychosexual stages: oral, anal, being “anal,” blame Freud.) The “letting-go,” or anal-
phallic, and genital. (He also described a period of latency expulsive personality, is disorderly, destructive, cruel, or messy.
between the phallic and genital stages. Latency is explained
The Phallic Stage Between the ages of 3 and 6, the
in a moment.) At each stage, a different part of the body be-
phallic stage, psychosexual attention shifts to the geni-
comes a child’s primary erogenous zone—an area capable
tals. Freud theorized that fixations developed in this psy-
of producing pleasure. Each area then serves as the main
chosexual stage result in adults with a phallic personality,
source of pleasure, frustration, and self-expression. Freud
characterized by vanity, exhibitionism, sensitive pride, and
believed that many adult personality traits can be traced to
narcissism (self-love).
fixations in one or more of the stages.
During the phallic stage, increased sexual interest
What is a fixation? A fixation is an unresolved conflict
causes the child to be physically attracted to the parent
or emotional hang-up caused by overindulgence or by frus-
of the opposite sex. In males, this attraction leads to an
tration. As we describe the psychosexual stages, you’ll see
Oedipus complex. In it, the boy aggressively competes with
why Freud considered fixations important.
his father for the affection of his mother. Freud believed
The Oral Stage During the first year of life, the oral that the male child feels threatened by the father (specifi-
stage, most of an infant’s pleasure comes from stimulation cally, the boy fears castration). To ease his anxieties, the boy
of the mouth. If a child is overfed or frustrated, oral traits must identify with the father. Their rivalry ends when the
may be created. Adult expressions of oral needs include boy seeks to become more like his father. As he does, he
gum chewing, nail biting, smoking, kissing, overeating, and begins to accept the father’s values and forms a conscience
alcoholism. (Kupfersmid, 2012).
What if there is an oral fixation? Fixation early in the
oral stage produces an oral-dependent personality. Oral-
dependent persons are gullible (they swallow things eas- Neurotic anxiety Apprehension felt when the ego struggles to
ily!) and passive and need lots of attention (they want to be control id impulses.
Moral anxiety Apprehension felt when thoughts, impulses, or
mothered and showered with gifts). Frustrations later in the actions conflict with the superego’s standards.
oral stage may cause aggression, often in the form of biting. Unconscious Contents of the mind that are beyond awareness,
Fixations here create cynical, oral-aggressive adults who especially impulses and desires.
exploit others. They also like to argue. (“Biting sarcasm” is Conscious The region of the mind that includes all mental contents
that a person is aware of at any given moment.
their forte!) Preconscious An area of the mind containing information that can
be voluntarily brought to awareness.
The Anal Stage Between the ages of 1 and 3, the anal Psychosexual stages How Freud classifies a period of development.
stage, the child’s attention shifts to the anus and the pro- Erogenous zone Any body area that produces pleasurable sensations.
cess of elimination. When parents attempt toilet training, Fixation A lasting conflict developed as a result of frustration or
overindulgence.
the child can gain ap-
Oral stage The period when infants are preoccupied with the mouth
proval or express re- as a source of pleasure and means of expression.
bellion or aggression Oral-dependent personality A person who wants to passively
by “holding on” or by receive attention, gifts, love, and so forth.
Oral-aggressive personality A person who uses the mouth to
“letting go.” There- express hostility by shouting, cursing, biting, and so forth. Also,
fore, harsh or lenient one who actively exploits others.
toilet training can Anal stage Period of psychosexual development where pleasure
cause an anal fixation focuses on the anus, according to Freud.
Anal-retentive personality A person who is obstinate, stingy, or
that may lock such re- compulsive and who generally has difficulty “letting go.”
sponses into personal- Anal-expulsive personality A disorderly, destructive, cruel, or
Corbis

ity. Freud described a messy person.

Was Freud’s ever-present cigar a Phallic stage Period of development in which psychosexual interest
sign of an oral fixation? Was it a “holding-on,” or anal-
focuses on the penis or clitoris, according to Freud.
phallic symbol? Was it both? Or was retentive personality, Phallic personality A person who is vain, exhibitionistic, sensitive,
it neither? Once, when he was asked, as obstinate, stingy, and narcissistic.
Freud himself apparently replied, Oedipus complex According to Freud, a young boy’s sexual interest
orderly, and compul-
“Sometimes a cigar is just a cigar.” An in his mother accompanied by competitive aggression toward his
inability to say for sure is one of the sively clean. (If some- father.
shortcomings of psychoanalytic theory. one accuses you of
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456 P SycHOLO Gy m o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

What about the female child? Girls experience an Electra personality development is hard to believe. His idea of the
complex. In this case, the girl loves her father and competes role of a stern or threatening father in the development of a
with her mother. However, according to Freud, the girl iden- strong conscience in males also has been challenged. Studies
tifies with the mother more gradually. show that a son is more likely to develop a strong conscience
Freud believed that females already feel castrated. Be- if his father is affectionate and accepting rather than stern
cause of this, they are less driven to identify with their and punishing.
mothers than boys are with their fathers. This, he said, is In addition, Freud’s ideas on the development of wom-
less effective in creating a conscience. This particular part en have been thoroughly discredited (Hyde & Else-Quest,
of Freudian thought has been thoroughly—and rightfully— 2013). For example, Freud has been heavily criticized for his
rejected by modern experts in the psychology of women. It views of patients who believed that they were sexually mo-
is better understood as a reflection of the male-dominated lested as children (Marcel, 2005). Freud assumed that such
times in which Freud lived. events were merely childhood fantasies. This view led to a
longstanding tendency to disbelieve children who have been
Latency According to Freud, there is a period of latency
molested and women who have been raped (Brannon, 2011).
from age 6 to puberty. Latency is not so much a stage as
Another important criticism is that Freud’s concepts
it is a quiet time during which psychosexual development
are almost impossible to verify scientifically. His theories
is dormant. Freud’s belief that psychosexual development is
provide numerous ways to explain almost any thought, ac-
“on hold” at this time is hard to accept. Nevertheless, Freud
tion, or feeling after it has occurred. However, they lead to
saw latency as a relatively quiet time compared with the
few predictions, which makes their claims difficult to test.
stormy first 6 years of life.
Although more criticisms of Freud could be listed, the fact
The Genital Stage At puberty, an upswing in sexual en- remains that much of what he said has an element of truth
ergies activates all the unresolved conflicts of earlier years. (Moran, F., 2010; Tauber, 2010).
This upsurge, according to Freud, is the reason that adoles-
cence can be filled with emotion and turmoil. The genital The Neo-Freudians
stage begins at puberty. It is marked, during adolescence, Freud’s ideas quickly attracted a brilliant following, includ-
by a growing capacity for responsible social–sexual relation- ing his daughter, Anna. Some, known as neo-Freudians
ships. The genital stage ends with a mature capacity for love (neo means “new”) created their own opposing theories that
and the realization of full adult sexuality. stressed the role of cultural and social factors in the devel-
opment of the personality. The full story of other psychody-
Critical Comments Is Freudian theory still widely accept-
namic theories must await your first course in personality.
ed? Although few psychologists wholeheartedly embrace
For now, let’s sample the views of two neo-Freudians, Alfred
Freud’s theory today, it remains influential for several rea-
Adler and Carl Jung.
sons. First, it pioneered the general idea of unconscious pro-
cesses. Contemporary psychodynamic theorists generally Alfred Adler (1870–1937) Adler believed that we are
agree that some part of the human mind is unconscious and social creatures governed by social urges, not by biological
yet plays an important role in shaping human behavior, even instincts (Carlson & Maniacci, 2012). In Adler’s view, the
if they do not share Freud’s (over?) focus on the motivating main driving force in personality is a striving for superiority.
power of sex and death (Epstein, 2003). Other motives and This striving, he said, is a struggle to overcome imperfec-
cognitive factors are today seen as having equal importance. tions, an upward drive for competence, completion, and
Second, the general idea that critical events during the mastery of shortcomings.
first years of life help shape adult personality remains widely What motivates “striving for superiority”? Adler believed
accepted. For example, Freud was among the first to pro- that we all experience feelings of inferiority. This occurs
pose that development proceeds through a series of stages mainly because we begin life as small, weak, and relatively
(Shaffer, 2009). (Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages, which powerless children surrounded by larger and more power-
cover development from birth to old age, are a modern off- ful adults. Feelings of inferiority may also come from our
shoot of Freudian thinking. See Module 15.) personal limitations. The struggle for superiority arises
However, when it comes to the details, Freud clearly from such feelings. The failure of this struggle can lead to
was often wrong. His portrayal of the elementary school an inferiority complex, characterized by a chronic lack of
years (latency) as free from sexuality and unimportant for self-worth along with self-doubt (Schultz & Schultz, 2017).

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 MODU LE 52 P e r s o nality: Psyc h o dynam i c an d h u man i sti c th eo r i es 457

Carl Jung (1875–1961) Like Freud, Jung (pronounced also described a collective unconscious, a deeper mental
Yoong) called the conscious part of the personality the ego. storehouse for unconscious ideas and images shared by all
However, he further noted that a persona, or “mask,” exists be- humans. Jung believed that, from the beginning of time, all
tween the ego and the outside world. The persona is the “pub- humans have had experiences with birth, death, power, god
lic self ” presented to others. It is most apparent when we adopt figures, mother and father figures, animals, the earth, en-
particular roles or hide our deeper feelings. As mentioned in ergy, evil, rebirth, and so on. According to Jung, such uni-
Module 50, Jung believed that actions of the ego may reflect versals create archetypes (ARE-keh-types), original ideas,
attitudes of introversion (in which energy is directed inward) images, or patterns.
or of extroversion (in which energy is directed outward). Archetypes, found in the collective unconscious, are un-
Was Jung’s view of the unconscious the same as Freud’s? conscious images that cause us to respond emotionally to
Jung used the term personal unconscious to refer to what symbols of birth, death, energy, animals, evil, and the like
Freud simply called the unconscious (Mayer, 2002). The (Engler, 2014). Jung believed that he detected symbols of
personal unconscious is a mental storehouse for a single such archetypes in the art, religion, myths, and dreams of
individual’s experiences, feelings, and memories. But Jung every culture and age.

Humanistic Theory—Peak Experiences

and Personal Growth
Survey Question 52.2 What are humanistic theories
of personality?

Humanism focuses on human experience, problems, po- Electra complex A girl’s sexual attraction to her father and feelings
tentials, and ideals. As we saw in Module 3, the core of of rivalry with her mother.
Latency (in Freudian theory) According to Freud, a period in
humanism is a positive image of humans as creative be- childhood when psychosexual development is more or less
ings capable of free will—an ability to choose that is not interrupted.
determined by genetics, learning, or unconscious forces. Genital stage Period of psychosexual development in which
In short, humanists seek ways to encourage our potentials sexual pleasure focuses on sexual relations, according to
Freud.
to blossom. Striving for superiority According to Alfred Adler, this basic drive
Humanism is sometimes called a “third force,” in that propels us toward perfection.
it is opposed to both psychodynamic and behaviorist theo- Inferiority complex Arises when feelings of inferiority become
overwhelming; negative pattern characterized by a chronic lack of
ries of personality. Humanism is a reaction to the pessi-
self-worth along with self-doubt.
mism of psychoanalytic theory. It rejects the Freudian view Persona The “mask” or public self presented to others.
of personality as a battleground for instincts and uncon- Introversion An ego attitude in which in which energy is mainly
scious forces. Instead, humanists view human nature— directed inward.
Extroversion An ego attitude in which in which energy is mainly
the traits, qualities, potentials, and behavior patterns most directed outward.
characteristic of the human species—as inherently good. Personal unconscious A mental storehouse for an individual’s
Humanists also oppose the machinelike overtones of the unconscious thoughts.
behaviorist view of human nature (which we discuss in Collective unconscious A mental storehouse for unconscious ideas
and images shared by all humans.
Module 53). We are not, humanists say, merely a bundle of Archetype A universal idea, image, or pattern found in the collective
moldable responses. unconscious.
To a humanist, the person you are today is largely the Humanism An approach that focuses on human experience,
problems, potentials, and ideals.
product of all the choices that you have made. Humanists
Free will The ability to freely make choices that are not controlled
also emphasize immediate subjective experience—private by genetics, learning, or unconscious forces.
perceptions of reality—rather than prior learning. They be- Human nature Those traits, qualities, potentials, and behavior
lieve that there are as many “real worlds” as there are peo- patterns most characteristic of the human species.
Subjective experience Reality as it is perceived and interpreted, not
ple. To understand behavior, we must learn how a person as it exists objectively.
subjectively views the world—what is “real” for her or him.

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458 P SycHOLO Gy m o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

Who are the major humanistic theorists? Many psy- 5. Autonomy. Self-actualizers are free from reliance on
chologists have added to the humanistic tradition. Of these, external authorities or other people. They tend to be
the best known are Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) and resourceful and independent.
Carl Rogers (1902–1987). Because Maslow’s idea of self- 6. Continued freshness of appreciation. The self-actu-
actualization was introduced in Module 42, let’s begin with a alizer seems to constantly renew appreciation of life’s
more detailed look at this facet of his thinking. basic goodness. A sunset or a flower is experienced as
intensely time after time as it was first experienced. Self-
Maslow and Self-Actualization actualizers have an “innocence of vision,” like that of an
Abraham Maslow became interested in people who were artist or child.
living unusually effective lives (Hoffman, 2008). How were 7. Fellowship with humanity. Maslow’s subjects felt a
they different? To find an answer, Maslow began by study- deep identification with others and the human situation
ing the lives of great men and women from history, such as in general.
Albert Einstein, William James, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roo- 8. Profound interpersonal relationships. The interper-
sevelt, Abraham Lincoln, John Muir, and Walt Whitman. sonal relationships of self-actualizers are marked by
From there, he moved on to directly study living artists, deep, loving bonds.
writers, poets, and other creative individuals. 9. Comfort with solitude. Despite their satisfying rela-
Along the way, Maslow’s thinking changed radically. At tionships with others, self-actualizing persons value
first, he studied only people of obvious creativity or high solitude and are comfortable being alone.
achievement. However, it eventually became clear that any- 10. Nonhostile sense of humor. This refers to the wonder-
one could live a rich, creative, and satisfying life (Davidson, ful capacity to laugh at oneself. It also describes the kind
Bromfield, & Beck, 2007). Maslow referred to the process of humor possessed by a man like Abraham Lincoln.
of fully developing personal potentials as self-actualization Lincoln probably almost never made a joke that hurt
(Maslow, 1954). The heart of self-actualization is a continu- anybody. His wry comments were a gentle prodding of
ous search for personal fulfillment (Ivtzan et al., 2013; Peter- human shortcomings.
son & Park, 2010). 11. Peak experiences. All of Maslow’s subjects reported
Characteristics of Self-Actualizers A self-actualizer the frequent occurrence of peak experiences, or tem-
is a person who is living creatively and fully using his or her porary moments of self-actualization. These occasions
potential. In his studies, Maslow found that self-actualizers were marked by feelings of ecstasy, harmony, and deep
share many similarities. Whether famous or unknown, well- meaning. Self-actualizers reported feeling at one with
schooled or uneducated, rich or poor, self-actualizers tend the universe, stronger and calmer than ever before.
to fit the following profile: In summary, self-actualizers feel safe, nonanxious,
1. Efficient perceptions of reality. Self-actualizers are accepted, loved, loving, and alive.
able to judge situations correctly and honestly. They are Although Maslow tried to investigate self-actualization
very sensitive to the fake and dishonest. empirically, his choice of people for study was subjective.
2. Comfortable acceptance of self, others, and nature. Undoubtedly, one can make full use of personal potential
Self-actualizers accept their own human nature, with all in many ways. Maslow’s primary contribution was to draw
its flaws. The shortcomings of others and the contradic- our attention to the possibility of lifelong personal growth
tions of the human condition are accepted with humor (Peterson & Park, 2010).
and tolerance. What steps can be taken to promote self-actualization?
Maslow found no magic formula for leading a more creative
3. Spontaneity. Maslow’s subjects extended their creativity
life. Self-actualization is primarily a process, not a goal or
into everyday activities. Actualizers tend to be unusu-
an end point. As such, it requires hard work, patience, and
ally alive, engaged, and spontaneous.
commitment. Nevertheless, some helpful suggestions can be
4. Task centering. Most of Maslow’s subjects had a
gleaned from his writings (Maslow, 1954, 1967, 1971). Here
mission to fulfill in life or some task or problem
are some ways to begin:
outside themselves to pursue. Humanitarians such
as Albert Schweitzer and Mother Teresa represent 1. Be willing to change. Continually ask yourself, “Am I
this quality. living in a way that is deeply satisfying to me and that

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 MODU LE 52 P e r s o nality: Psyc h o dynam i c an d h u man i sti c th eo r i es 459

truly expresses me?” If not, be prepared to make changes Martin Seligman, Christopher Peterson, and others
in your life. have identified six human strengths that contribute to well-
2. Take responsibility. You can become an architect of self being and life satisfaction. Each strength is expressed by the
by acting as if you are personally responsible for every positive personality traits listed here (Peterson & Seligman,
aspect of your life. Avoid the habit of blaming others for 2004):
your own shortcomings.
◗ Wisdom and knowledge: Creativity, curiosity, open-
3. Examine your motives. Self-discovery involves an ele- mindedness, love of learning, perspective
ment of risk. If your behavior is restricted by a desire
◗ Courage: Bravery, persistence, integrity, vitality
for safety or security, it may be time to test some limits.
◗ Humanity: Love, kindness, social intelligence
4. Experience honestly and directly. Wishful thinking
◗ Justice: Citizenship, fairness, leadership
is another barrier to personal growth. Self-actualizers
◗ Temperance: Forgiveness, humility, prudence, self-
trust themselves enough to accept all kinds of informa-
control
tion without distorting it to fit their fears and desires.
Try to see yourself as others do. ◗ Transcendence: Appreciation of beauty and excellence,
gratitude, hope, humor, spirituality
5. Use your positive experiences. Maslow considered
peak experiences temporary moments of self-actual- These characteristics, combined with Maslow’s descrip-
ization. Therefore, you might actively repeat activities tions of self-actualizers, provide a good guide to the charac-
that have caused feelings of awe, amazement, exal- teristics that help people live happy, meaningful lives.
tation, renewal, reverence, humility, fulfillment, or
joy in you. carl Rogers’s Self Theory
6. Be prepared to be different. Maslow felt that everyone Another well-known humanist, Carl Rogers, also empha-
has a potential for “greatness,” but most fear becoming sized the human capacity for inner peace and happiness (El-
everything that they might become. As part of personal liott & Farber, 2010). The fully functioning person, he said,
growth, be prepared to trust your own impulses and lives in harmony with his or her deepest feelings and im-
feelings; don’t automatically judge yourself by the stan- pulses. Such people are open to their experiences, and they
dards of others. trust their inner urges and intuitions (Rogers, 1961). Rog-
7. Get involved. With few exceptions, self-actualizers tend ers believed that this attitude is most likely to occur when a
to have a mission or “calling” in life. For these people, person receives ample amounts of love and acceptance from
“work” is not done just to fill deficiency needs, but to others.
satisfy higher yearnings for truth, beauty, community, Personality Structure and Dynamics Rogers’s theory
and meaning. Turn your attention to problems outside emphasizes the self, a flexible and changing perception of
yourself. personal identity. Much behavior can be understood as an
8. Assess your progress. There is no final point at which attempt to maintain consistency between our self-image and
one becomes self-actualized. It’s important to gauge our actions. (Your self-image is a total subjective percep-
your progress frequently and to renew your efforts. If tion of your body and personality.) For example, people who
you feel bored at school, at a job, or in a relationship, think of themselves as kind tend to be considerate in most
consider it a challenge. Have you been taking responsi- situations.
bility for your own personal growth? Let’s say that I know a person who thinks she is kind, but
she really isn’t. How does that fit Rogers’s theory? According
The Whole Human: Thriving
It could be said that self-actualizing people are thriving, not Self-actualization The process of fully developing personal
potentials.
just surviving. Like Maslow, proponents of positive psychol-
Peak experiences Temporary moments of self-actualization.
ogy have tried to scientifically study positive personality Fully functioning person A person living in harmony with her or
traits that contribute to happiness and well-being (Ryan, his deepest feelings, impulses, and intuitions.
Curren, & Deci, 2013). Although their work does not always Self A continuously evolving conception of one’s personal identity.
Self-image Total subjective perception of one’s body and personality
fall within the humanistic tradition, their findings are rel- (another term for self-concept).
evant here.

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460 P SycHOLO Gy m o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

to Rogers, we allow into awareness experiences that match The ideal self is similar to Freud’s ego ideal. It is an image
our self-image, where they gradually change the self. Infor- of the person that you would most like to be (Przybylski
mation or feelings inconsistent with the self-image are said et al., 2012).
to be incongruent. Thus, a person who thinks she is kind Is it really incongruent not to live up to your ideal self?
but really isn’t is in a state of incongruence. In other words, Rogers was aware that we never fully attain our ideals. Nev-
there is a discrepancy between her experiences and her ertheless, the greater the gap between the way you see your-
self-image. As another example, it would be incongruent to self and the way you would like to be, the more tension and
believe that you are a person who “never gets angry” if you anxiety you will experience.
spend much of each day seething inside. Rogers emphasized that to maximize our potentials, we
Experiences seriously incongruent with the self-image must accept information about ourselves as honestly as pos-
can be threatening and are often distorted or denied con- sible. In accord with his thinking, researchers have found
scious recognition. Blocking, denying, or distorting expe- that people with a close match between their self-image and
riences prevents the self from changing. This creates a gap ideal self tend to be socially poised, confident, and resource-
between the self-image and reality (Ryckman, 2013). As the ful. Those with a poor match tend to be depressed, anxious,
self-image grows more unrealistic, the incongruent person and insecure (Boldero et al., 2005).
becomes confused, vulnerable, dissatisfied, or seriously mal-
Possible Selves—Telling Stories About Ourselves
adjusted (➤ Figure 52.2). In line with Rogers’s observations,
According to psychologists Hazel Markus and Paula Nurius
a study of college students confirmed that being authentic
(1986), our current ideal self is only one of a number of
is vital for healthy functioning—that is, we need to feel
possible selves—persons that we could become or are afraid
that our behavior accurately expresses who we are (Human
of becoming. Consider William, an intellectually gifted
et al., 2014; Wenzel & Lucas-Thompson, 2012). Please note,
African-American student. He simultaneously welcomes
however, that being authentic doesn’t mean that you can
the possible self who continues to broaden his intellectual
do whatever you want. Being true to yourself is no excuse
horizons and fears the possible self of the stereotyped gang-
for acting irresponsibly or ignoring the feelings of others
sta wearing baggy pants (Frazier, 2012). Like William, you
(Kernis & Goldman, 2005).
may have pondered many possible personal identities.
When your self-image is consistent with what you re-
For example, you may know these two student ste-
ally think, feel, do, and experience, you are best able to ac-
reotypes: the carefree party animal and the conscientious
tualize your potential. Rogers also considered it essential to
bookworm. Perhaps you even think of yourself as one or the
have congruence between the self-image and the ideal self.
other. Is there any truth to these (stereo)types? Can you
change your story?
Incongruence Congruence In general, our personality traits are relatively stable
characteristics (McAdams & Pals, 2006). As a result, a person
high in the Big Five traits of extroversion and agreeableness
Ideal self tends to embrace a carefree college lifestyle. In comparison,
someone high in conscientiousness will find it easier to hit
the books (McGregor, McAdams, & Little, 2006).
Ideal self Does that mean a partier can’t become a bookworm (or
True self Self-image
Self-image
True self vice versa)? It depends: do you mean over a week? Or a life-
time? Personality traits do slowly change as we age (Mõttus,
Johnson, & Deary, 2012). In particular, we tend to become
➤ Figure 52.2 more agreeable, conscientious, and emotionally stable as we
Incongruence vs. Congruence. Incongruence occurs when there grow older (Roberts & Mroczek, 2008).
is a mismatch between any of these three entities: the ideal self Oh, you need to change by the end of the semester?
(the person you would like to be), your self-image (the person you That’s a taller order (Hudson & Fraley, 2015). In that case,
think you are), and the true self (the person you actually are). Self-
esteem suffers when there is a large difference between one’s ideal
you might want to try telling yourself stories about possible
self and self-image. Anxiety and defensiveness are common when selves that you could become. The narrative approach to
the self-image does not match the true self. personality asserts that our personalities are shaped by the

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 MODU LE 52 P e r s o nality: Psyc h o dynam i c an d h u man i sti c th eo r i es 461

stories that we tell about ourselves (Frazier, 2012; McAdams standards of evaluation called conditions of worth. In other
& McLean, 2013). In other words, alternative life stories are words, we learn that some actions win our parents’ love and
not just fantasies or daydreams. They actually influence who approval, whereas others are rejected. More important, par-
we are and who we become. ents may label some feelings as bad or wrong. For example,
So, if you feel that you are being too careless and care- a child might be told that it is wrong to feel angry toward a
free at school, start imagining yourself studying more, get- brother or sister—even when anger is justified. Likewise, a
ting to classes on time, and getting good grades. Listen to little boy might be told that he must not cry or show fear, two
the stories of successful students and use them to revise your very normal emotions.
own story. Visit your campus counseling center to learn Learning to evaluate some experiences or feelings as
more about how to succeed at school. In other words, imag- “good” and others as “bad” is directly related to a later capac-
ine yourself as a bit more of a bookworm. (Don’t worry, your ity for self-esteem, positive self-evaluation, or positive self-
carefree nature won’t desert you!) regard, to use Rogers’s term. To think of yourself as a good,
If you feel you are too conscientious and working too lovable, worthwhile person, your behavior and experiences
hard, imagine yourself going out with friends more often. must match your internal conditions of worth. The problem
Listen to the stories of your extroverted classmates. Imag- is that this can cause incongruence by leading to the denial
ine the benefits of balancing work and play in your life. If of many true feelings and experiences.
you are shy or perfectionistic, visit your campus counsel- To put it simply, Rogers blamed many adult emotion-
ing center to learn how to become more sociable or relaxed. al problems on attempts to live by the standards of others
And, again, don’t worry: Having more fun won’t make you (Ashcraft, 2015). He believed that congruence and self-
irresponsible. actualization are encouraged by replacing conditions of
Whatever possible self you choose to pursue, you are worth with organismic valuing, a natural, undistorted, full-
more likely to become what you imagine if you elaborate body reaction to an experience. Organismic valuing is a di-
your story, making it more detailed and “real” as you gradu- rect, gut-level response to life that avoids the filtering and
ally adopt new patterns. You can create a new narrative distortion of incongruence. It involves trusting one’s own
identity for yourself (Bauer, McAdams, & Pals, 2008; Nelson feelings and perceptions. Rogers felt that organismic valu-
et al., 2012). ing most likely develops when children (or adults) receive
Possible selves translate our hopes, fears, fantasies, and unconditional positive regard—complete, unqualified
goals into specific images of who we could be (Barreto & acceptance of another person as he or she is—when they are
Frazier, 2012; Oyserman et al., 2004). Of course, almost ev- “prized” as worthwhile human beings, just for being them-
eryone over age 30 has probably felt the anguish of realizing selves, without any conditions or strings attached. Although
that some cherished possible selves will never be realized. this may be a luxury that few people enjoy, we are more like-
Nevertheless, there is value in asking yourself not just “Who ly to move toward our ideal selves if we receive affirmation
am I?” but also “Who would I like to become?” and support from a close partner (Drigotas et al., 1999).

Humanistic View of Development

Incongruence A state that exists when there is a discrepancy
Why do mirrors, photographs, video cameras, and the reac- between one’s experiences and self-image or between one’s self-
tions of others hold such fascination and threat for many image and ideal self.
people? Carl Rogers’s theory suggests that it is because they Ideal self An idealized image of oneself (the person that one would
like to be).
provide information about one’s self. The development of a Possible selves A collection of thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and images
self-image depends greatly on information from the envi- concerning the person that one could become.
ronment. It begins with a sorting of perceptions and feel- Conditions of worth Internal standards used to judge the value of
one’s thoughts, actions, feelings, or experiences.
ings: my body, my toes, my nose, I want, I like, I am, and so
Positive self-regard Thinking of oneself as a good, lovable,
on. Soon, it expands to include self-evaluation: I am a good worthwhile person.
person, I did something bad just now, and so forth. Organismic valuing A natural, undistorted, full-body reaction to an
How does development of the self contribute to later per- experience.
Unconditional positive regard Complete, unqualified acceptance of
sonality functioning? Rogers believed that positive and nega- another person as he or she is.
tive evaluations by others cause children to develop internal

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462 P SycHOLO Gy m o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

MODULE

52 Summary
52.1 How do psychodynamic theories explain 52.2.2 Abraham Maslow found that self-actualizers share
personality? characteristics that range from efficient perceptions
52.1.1 Like other psychodynamic approaches, Sigmund of reality to frequent peak experiences.
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory emphasizes uncon- 52.2.3 Positive psychologists have identified six human
scious forces and conflicts within the personality. strengths that contribute to well-being and life satis-
52.1.2 In Freud’s theory, personality is made up of the id, faction: wisdom and knowledge, courage, humanity,
ego, and superego. justice, temperance, and transcendence.
52.1.3 Libido, derived from the life instincts, is the primary 52.2.4 Carl Rogers viewed the self as an entity that emerges
energy running the personality. Conflicts within the from personal experience. We tend to become aware
personality may cause neurotic anxiety or moral anxi- of experiences that match our self-image and exclude
ety and motivate us to use ego-defense mechanisms. those that are incongruent with it.
52.1.4 The personality operates on three levels: the con- 52.2.5 The incongruent person has a highly unrealistic
scious, preconscious, and unconscious. self-image and/or a mismatch between the self-
52.1.5 The Freudian view of personality development is image and the ideal self. The congruent or fully
based on a series of psychosexual stages: the oral, functioning person is flexible and open to experi-
anal, phallic, and genital stages. According to Freud, ences and feelings.
fixation at any stage can leave a lasting imprint on 52.2.6 Like the ideal self, possible selves help us become the
personality. person we would like to become.
52.1.6 Neo-Freudian theorists accepted the broad features of 52.2.7 As parents apply conditions of worth to children’s
Freudian psychology, but developed their own views. behavior, thoughts, and feelings, children begin to do
Two prominent neo-Freudians are Alfred Adler and the same. Internalized conditions of worth then con-
Carl Jung. tribute to incongruence that disrupts the organismic
valuing process.
52.2 What are humanistic theories of personality?
52.2.1 Humanistic theories stress subjective experience, free
will, self-actualization, and positive models of human
nature.

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 MODU LE 52 P e r s o nality: Psyc h o dynam i c an d h u man i sti c th eo r i es 463

Knowledge Builder Personality: Psychoanalytic and Humanistic Theories

Recite Reflect
1. Freud stated that the mind functions on three levels: the Think critically
conscious, the unconscious, and the 8. What role would your “possible selves” have in the choice
a. psyche of a college major?
b. preconscious
c. superego Self-Reflect
d. subconscious Try to think of at least one time when your thoughts, feelings,
2. List the three divisions of personality postulated by or actions seemed to reflect the workings of each of the fol-
Freud: ___________ ___________ ___________ lowing: the id, the ego, and the superego.
3. Freud’s view of personality development is based on the Do you know anyone who seems to have oral, anal, or
concept of ____________________________ stages. phallic personality traits? Do you think Freud’s concept of
4. Humanists view human nature as basically good, and fixation explains their characteristics?
they emphasize the effects of subjective learning and Do you know anyone who seems to be making especially
unconscious choice. T or F? good use of his or her personal potential? Does that person fit
5. Maslow thought of peak experiences as temporary Maslow’s profile of a self-actualizer?
moments of How much difference do you think there is among your
a. congruence self-image, your ideal self, and your true self?
b. positive self-regard
c. self-actualization AN SW E R S
d. self-reinforcement the major decisions we make (Masters & Holley, 2006).
6. According to Rogers, a close match between the self- occupational roles. Such possible “future selves” play a role in many of
image and the ideal self creates a condition called incon- sions almost always involve, in part, picturing oneself occupying various

gruence. T or F?
1. b 2. id, ego, superego 3. psychosexual 4. F 5. c 6. F 7. d 8. Career deci-

7. Carl Rogers believed that personal growth is encouraged

when conditions of worth are replaced by
a. self-efficacy
b. instrumental worth
c. latency
d. organismic valuing

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MODULE

53 Personality
Behavioral and Social Learning Theories

A Boy Named Sue

Why is little Sue so aggressive? His daddy named him Sue af-
ter an old country song. Freud believed that aggressive urges
are “instinctual.” Unlike psychodynamic and humanistic
theorists, behavioral theories assume that personal charac-
teristics such as aggressiveness are learned. Could Sue’s ag-

Phanie/RGB Ventures LLC dba SuperStock / Alamy Stock Photo

gression be the result of observational learning, harsh pun-
ishment, or prior reinforcement?
Sue will tell you himself that his name always trig-
gers giggles from girls. Boys always laugh at and taunt
him. The resulting fights are, to Sue, an inevitable part
of his life. So why did his father name him Sue, you ask?
To toughen him up, the dirty, mangy dog said, before he
abandoned his family when Sue turned three.
All kidding aside, behavioral and social learning theo-
ries are based on scientific research, which makes them developing therapies to help people change, if they should
especially powerful ways of looking at personality and so desire.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
53.1 What do behaviorists and social learning theorists 53.2 How do heredity and environment affect personality?
emphasize in their approach to personality?

Learning Theories of Personality—Habit I Seen You Before?

Survey Question 53.1 What do behaviorists and social
as a collection of relatively stable and definitely learnable,
learning theorists emphasize in their approach to personality?
behavior patterns, see Module 54). Personality, like other
Behaviorists have shown repeatedly that children can learn learned behavior, is acquired through classical and operant
things like kindness, hostility, generosity, or destructiveness. conditioning, observational learning, reinforcement, ex-
What does this have to do with personality? Everything, tinction, generalization, and discrimination. When Mother
according to the behavioral viewpoint. says, “It’s not nice to make mud pies with Mommy’s blender.
Behavioral personality theories emphasize that per- If we want to grow up to be a big girl, we won’t do it again,
sonality is no more (or less) than a collection of relatively sta- will we?” she serves as a model and shapes her daughter’s
ble learned behavior patterns. (For a discussion of leadership personality in other ways.

464
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 MODU LE 53 P e r s o nality: B e havi o r al an d s o c ial lear n i n g th eo r i es 465

Strict learning theorists reject the idea that personality

is made up of traits. They would assert, for instance, that
there is no such thing as a trait of “honesty” (Mischel, 2004).
Certainly some people are honest and others are not. How
can honesty not be a trait? Remember, for many trait theo-
rists, traits are biological dispositions. According to learning
theorists, they are, instead, stable learned responses. If his
parents consistently reward little Alexander for honesty, he
is more likely to become an honest adult. If his parents are
less scrupulous, Alexander might well grow up differently
(Schultz & Schultz, 2017).
Learning theorists also stress the external causes, or
situational determinants, of actions. Knowing that some-
one is honest does not automatically allow us to predict
whether that person will be honest in a specific situation
(Carter, 2013). It would not be unusual, for example, to find
that a person honored for returning a lost wallet had cheat-
ed on a test, bought a term paper, or broken the speed limit.
If you were to ask a learning theorist, “Are you an honest
person?” the reply might be, “In what situation?”
Digital Vision/Photodisc/Getty Images
A good example of how situations can influence behav-
ior is a study in which people were intentionally overpaid
for doing an assigned task. Under normal circumstances,
80 percent kept the extra money without mentioning it. But
as few as 17 percent were dishonest if the situation were
altered. For instance, if people thought the money was com-
ing out of the pocket of the person doing the study, far fewer Seventy-five percent of American college students admit that
were dishonest (Bersoff, 1999). Thus, situations always they have been academically dishonest in one way or another.
What can be done about these high rates of dishonesty? The
interact with our prior learning to activate behavior. behavioral perspective holds that honesty is determined as much
by circumstances as it is by personality. In line with this, simple
How Situations Affect Behavior measures such as announcing in classes that integrity codes will be
enforced can significantly reduce cheating. Using multiple forms of
Situations vary greatly in their impact. Some are power- exams and web-based plagiarism software and educating students
ful. Others are trivial and have little effect on behavior. The about plagiarism also tend to deter dishonesty (Altschuler, 2001;
McKeever, 2006).
more powerful the situation, the easier it is to see what is
meant by situational determinants. For example, each of the
following situations would undoubtedly have a strong in- (for example, in traffic or a checkout line), but not when she
fluence on your behavior: An armed person walks into your misplaces something at home; the other person might get
classroom; you accidentally sit on a lighted cigarette; you angry whenever she misplaces things but not when she is
find your lover in bed with your best friend. Yet, even these delayed. Overall, the two women are equally prone to anger,
situations could provoke very different reactions from dif- but their anger tends to occur in different patterns and dif-
ferent personalities. That’s why behavior is always a prod- ferent situations (Mischel, 2004).
uct of both prior learning and the situations in which we
find ourselves (Mischel, Shoda, & Smith, 2008; Mischel &
Behavioral personality theory Any model of personality that
Shoda, 2010). emphasizes learning and observable behavior.
Ultimately, what is predictable about personality is Learning theorist A psychologist interested in the ways that learning
that we respond in fairly consistent ways to certain situa- shapes behavior and explains personality.
Situational determinants External conditions that strongly
tions. Consider, for example, two people who are easily influence behavior.
angered: One person might get angry when she is delayed

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466 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

Personality 5 Habitual Behavior an accident. It is not enough to know the setting in which a
person responds. We also need to know the person’s psycho-
How do learning theorists view the structure of personality?
logical situation (how the person interprets or defines the
The behavioral view of personality can be illustrated with
situation). As another example, let’s say that you score low
an early theory proposed by John Dollard and Neal Miller
on an exam. Do you consider it a challenge to work harder,
(1950). In their view, learned behavior patterns, or habits,
a sign that you should drop the class, or an excuse to get
make up the structure of personality. As for the dynam-
drunk? Again, your interpretation is important.
ics of personality, habits are governed by four elements of
Our actions are affected by an expectancy, or anticipa-
learning: drive, cue, response, and reward. A drive is any
tion, that making a response will lead to reinforcement. To
stimulus strong enough to goad a person to action (such
continue the example, if working harder has paid off in the
as hunger, pain, lust, frustration, or fear). Cues are signals
past, it is a likely reaction to a low test score. But to predict
from the environment. These signals guide responses (ac-
your response, we also would have to know if you expect
tions) so that they are most likely to bring about reward
your efforts to pay off in the present situation. In fact, ex-
(positive reinforcement).
pected reinforcement may be more important than actual
How does that relate to personality? Let’s say that a child
past reinforcement. And what about the value you attach to
named Amina is frustrated by her older brother, Kelvin, who
grades, school success, or personal ability? The third con-
takes a toy from her. Amina could respond in several ways:
cept, reinforcement value, states that we attach different
She could throw a temper tantrum, hit Kelvin, tell her mother,
subjective values to various activities or rewards. You will
and so forth. The response that she chooses is guided by avail-
likely choose to study harder if passing your courses and ob-
able cues and the previous effects of each response. If telling
taining a degree is highly valued. This, too, must be taken
her mother has paid off in the past, and her mother is present,
into account to understand personality.
telling may be Amina’s immediate response. If a different set
of cues exists (if her mother is absent, or if Kelvin looks par- Self-Efficacy An ability to control your own life is the
ticularly menacing), Amina may select some other response. essence of what it means to be human (Corey & Corey, 2014).
To an outside observer, Amina’s actions seem to reflect her Because of this, Albert Bandura believes that one of the most
personality. To a learning theorist, they simply express the important expectancies we develop concerns self-efficacy
combined effects of drive, cue, response, and reward. Be- (EF-uh-keh-see)—a capacity for producing a desired re-
havioral theories have contributed greatly to the creation of sult. Believing that our actions will produce desired results
therapies for various psychological problems and disorders. influences the activities and environments that we choose
See the discussion of behavior therapy in Module 67. (Bandura, 2001; Schultz & Schultz, 2017). You’re attracted
Doesn’t this analysis leave out a lot? Yes. Learning theo- to someone in your anthropology class. Will you ask him or
rists originally set out to provide a simple, clear model of her out? You’re beginning to consider a career in psychology.
personality. But they eventually had to face a fact that they Will you take the courses that you need to get into gradu-
previously tended to set aside: people think. Contemporary ate school? You’d like to exercise more on the weekends.
behavioral psychologists—whose views include perception, Will you join a hiking club? In these and countless other
thinking, expectations, and other mental events—are called situations, efficacy beliefs play a key role in shaping our lives
social learning theorists. Learning principles, modeling, (Byrne, Barry, & Petry, 2012; Prat-Sala & Redford, 2012).
thought patterns, perceptions, expectations, beliefs, goals,
emotions, and social relationships are combined in social Self-Reinforcement One more idea deserves mention. At
learning theory to explain personality (Brauer & Tittle, times, we all evaluate our actions and may reward ourselves
2012; Mischel, Shoda, & Smith, 2008). with special privileges or treats for “good behavior.” With
this in mind, social learning theory adds the concept of self-
Social Learning Theory reinforcement to the behaviorist view. Self-reinforcement
The “cognitive behaviorism” of social learning theory can be refers to praising or rewarding yourself for having made a
illustrated by three classic concepts proposed by Julian Rot- particular response (such as completing a school assign-
ter: the psychological situation, expectancy, and reinforce- ment). Thus, habits of self-praise and self-blame become an
ment value (Rotter & Hochreich, 1975). Let’s examine each. important part of personality (Schultz & Schultz, 2017). In
Someone trips you. How do you respond? Your reaction fact, self-reinforcement can be thought of as the social learn-
probably depends on whether you think it was planned or ing theorist’s counterpart to the superego.

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 MODU LE 53 P e r s o nality: B e havi o r al an d s o c ial lear n i n g th eo r i es 467

© Brendan Delany/Shutterstock.com
John Mitterer
Parasailing in Key West. We can reward ourselves through
self-reinforcement for personal achievements and other “good”
behavior. (At least that’s the theory, right?)

Adult personality is influenced by identification with parents and

Self-reinforcement is closely related to high self-esteem. imitation of their behavior.
The reverse also is true: Mildly depressed college students
tend to have low rates of self-reinforcement. It is not known love and care. Identification typically encourages imitation,
if low self-reinforcement leads to depression, or the reverse. a desire to act like the admired person. Many “male” or
In either case, higher rates of self-reinforcement are associ- “female” traits come from children’s attempts to imitate a
ated with less depression and greater life satisfaction (Sey- same-sex parent with whom they identify (Helgeson, 2012).
bolt & Wagner, 1997). From a behavioral viewpoint, there is If children are around parents of both sexes, why don’t
value in learning to be “good to yourself.” they imitate behavior typical of the opposite sex as well as of
the same sex? You may recall from Module 28 that learning
Behaviorist View of Development takes place vicariously as well as directly. This means that we
How do learning theorists account for personality develop- can learn without direct reward by observing and remem-
ment? Learning theorists tend to agree with Freud that the bering the actions of others. But the actions that we choose
first six years are crucial for personality development, but to imitate depend on their outcomes. For example, boys and
for different reasons. Rather than thinking in terms of psy- girls have equal chances to observe adults and other children
chosexual urges and fixations, they ask, “What makes early acting aggressively. However, girls are less likely than boys
learning experiences like toilet training so lasting in their to imitate directly aggressive behavior (shouting at or hit-
effects?” Their answer is that childhood is a time of urgent ting another person). Instead, girls are more likely to rely on
drives, powerful rewards and punishments, and crushing
frustrations. These forces combine to shape the core of per- Habit A deeply ingrained, learned pattern of behavior.
sonality (Shaffer, 2009). Social learning theory An explanation of personality that combines
learning principles, cognition, and the effects of social
Social reinforcement, which is based on praise, at-
relationships.
tention, or approval from others, is especially important Psychological situation A situation as it is perceived and interpreted
(Brauer & Tittle, 2012). One obvious example involves by an individual, not as it exists objectively.
learning socially defined “male” and “female” gender Expectancy Anticipation about the effect that a response will have,
especially regarding reinforcement.
roles—which, in turn, affects personality (Cervone & Reinforcement value The subjective value that a person attaches to
Pervin, 2013). a particular activity or reinforcer.
Self-efficacy Belief in your capacity to produce a desired result.
Personality and Gender What does it mean to have a Self-reinforcement Praising or rewarding oneself for having made a
“masculine” or “feminine” personality? From birth onward, particular response (such as completing a school assignment).
children are labeled as boys or girls and encouraged to learn Social reinforcement Praise, attention, approval, and/or affection
from others.
appropriate gender roles—the pattern of behaviors regarded
Gender roles Pattern of behaviors regarded as “male” or “female”
as “male” or “female” within a culture (Fine, 2010; Orenstein, within a culture.
2011). According to social learning theory, identification and Identification Feeling emotionally connected to a person and seeing
imitation contribute greatly to personality development and oneself as like him or her.
Imitation An attempt to match one’s own behavior to another
to sex training. Identification refers to the child’s emotional person’s behavior.
attachment to admired adults, especially those who provide

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468 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

indirectly aggressive behavior (excluding others from friend- We have considered only a few examples of the links
ship, spreading rumors). This could be because expressing between social learning and personality. Nevertheless, the
direct aggression is considered inappropriate for girls. connection is unmistakable. When parents accept their
As a consequence, girls do not as often see direct female children and give them affection, the children become so-
aggression rewarded or approved (Field et al., 2009). In other ciable, positive, and emotionally stable and they have high
words, “girlfighting” is likely a culturally reinforced pattern self-esteem. When parents are rejecting, punishing, sar-
(Brown, 2005). It is intriguing that over the last few years, castic, humiliating, or neglectful, their children become
girls have become more willing to engage in direct aggres- hostile, unresponsive, unstable, and dependent and have
sion as popular culture presents more and more images of impaired self-esteem (Cervone & Pervin, 2013; Triandis &
directly aggressive women (Artz, 2005; Taylor & Ruiz, 2013). Suh, 2002).

Traits and Situations—The Great Debate

Survey Question 53.2 How do heredity and environment emotional. Such differences fall in the realm of behavioral
affect personality? genetics, the study of inherited behavioral traits. We know
that facial features, eye color, body type, and many other
Personality theorists have long grappled with the relative
physical characteristics are inherited. So are many of our
roles of nature and nurture in shaping personalities. Some
behavioral dispositions (Kalat, 2016). Genetic studies have
theories, such as trait theory and psychoanalytic theory,
shown that intelligence, language, some mental disorders,
stress the role of inherited biological predispositions, where-
temperament, and other complex qualities are influenced
as others, including humanist and behavioral theories, stress
by heredity. Behavioral genetic research has helped us better
the role of learning and life experiences. Let’s look at the
understand the hereditary origins of intellectual disability
roles that heredity and biological predispositions (nature)
(see Module 40) and psychological disorders (see Module
and environmental situations (nurture) play in forming
60). In view of such findings, it wouldn’t be a surprise to find
personality.
that genes affect personality as well (Nettle, 2006).
Do We Inherit Personality? Wouldn’t comparing the personalities of identical twins
help answer the question? It would indeed—especially if the
Even newborn babies differ in temperament, which implies
twins were separated at birth or soon after.
that it is hereditary. (See Module 12.) Temperament, the
“raw material” from which personalities are formed, refers Twins and Traits: The Amazing Twins For several
to the general pattern of attention, arousal, and mood that is decades, psychologists at the University of Minnesota have
evident from birth, such as biological predispositions to be been studying identical twins who grew up in different
sensitive, irritable, and distractible and to display a typical homes. Medical and psychological tests reveal that reunited
mood (Shiner et al., 2012). Temperament has a large impact twins are very much alike, even when they are reared apart
on how infants interact with their parents. (Bouchard, 2004; Segal, 2012). If one twin excels at art, mu-
At what age are personality traits firmly established? Per- sic, dance, drama, or athletics, the other is likely to as well—
sonality starts to stabilize at around age 3 and continues to despite wide differences in childhood environment. They
“harden” well past age 50 (Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005; may even be similar in voice quality, facial gestures, hand
Hopwood et al., 2011). However, personality slowly matures movements, and nervous tics, such as nail biting.
during old age, as most people continue to become more It is, however, wise to be cautious about some reports of
conscientious, agreeable, and emotionally stable (Roberts & extraordinary similarities in reunited twins. Many reunited
Mroczek, 2008). It appears that stereotypes of the “grumpy twins in the Minnesota study (the Minnesota Twins?) have
old man” and “cranky old woman” are largely unfounded. displayed similarities far beyond what would be expected on
At the same time, extroversion and openness slowly decline the basis of heredity (Segal, 2012). The “Jim twins,” James
with advancing age (Wortman, Lucas, & Donnellan, 2012). Lewis and James Springer, are one famous example. Both
Does the stability of personality traits mean that they Jims had married and divorced women named Linda. Both
are affected by heredity? Some breeds of dogs have reputa- had undergone police training. One named his firstborn
tions for being friendly, aggressive, intelligent, calm, or son James Allan—and the other named his firstborn son

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 MODU LE 53 P e r s o nality: B e havi o r al an d s o c ial lear n i n g th eo r i es 469

James Alan. Both drove Chevrolets and vacationed at the In fact, one study compared twins with unrelated pairs
same beach each summer. Both listed carpentry and mechan- of students. The unrelated pairs, who were the same age and
ical drawing among their hobbies. Both had built benches sex, were almost as alike as the twins. They had highly simi-
around trees in their yards, and so forth (Holden, 1980). lar political beliefs, musical interests, religious preferences,
Are all identical twins so, well, identical? No, they aren’t. job histories, hobbies, favorite foods, and so on (Wyatt et
Consider identical twins Carolyn Spiro and Pamela Spiro al., 1984). Why were the unrelated students so similar? Ba-
Wagner who, unlike the “Jim twins,” lived together through- sically, it’s because people of the same age and sex live in
out their childhood. While in sixth grade, they found out the same historical times and select from similar societal
that President Kennedy had been assassinated. Carolyn options. As just one example, in nearly every elementary
wasn’t sure why everyone was so upset. Pamela heard voices school classroom, you will find several children with the
announcing that she was responsible for his death. After same first name.
years of hiding her voices from everyone, Pamela tried to It appears then that many of the seemingly “astounding”
commit suicide while the twins were attending Brown Uni- coincidences shared by reunited twins may be yet another
versity. She was diagnosed with schizophrenia. Never to example of confirmation bias, described in Module 2. Re-
be cured, she has gone on to write award-winning poetry. united twins tend to notice the similarities and ignore the
Carolyn eventually became a Harvard psychiatrist (Spiro differences.
Wagner & Spiro, 2005). Some twins reared apart appear
Summary Studies of twins make it clear that heredity has
very similar; some reared together appear rather different.
a sizable effect on each of us. All told, it seems reasonable to
So why are some identical twins, like the Jim twins, so much
conclude that heredity is responsible for about 25 to 55 per-
alike even if they were reared apart? Although genetics is im-
cent of the variation in many personality traits (Caspi, Rob-
portant, it is preposterous to suggest that there are child-nam-
erts, & Shiner, 2005; Kandler, 2012). Notice, however, that
ing genes and bench-building genes. How, then, do we explain
the same figures imply that personality is shaped as much, or
the eerie similarities in some separated twins’ lives? Imagine
more, by environment as it is by biological predispositions
that you were separated at birth from a twin brother or sis-
(Johnson et al., 2009).
ter. If you were reunited with your twin today, what would
Each personality, then, is a unique blend of heredity
you do? Quite likely, you would spend the next several days
and environment, nature and nurture, biology and culture.
comparing every imaginable detail of your lives. Under such
We are not—thank goodness—genetically programmed ro-
circumstances, it is virtually certain that you and your twin
bots whose behavior and personality traits are “wired in”
would notice and compile a long list of similarities. (“Wow! I
for life. Where you go in life is the result of the choices that
use the same brand of toothpaste you do!”) Yet, two unrelated
you make. Although these choices are influenced by inher-
persons of the same age, sex, and race could probably rival
ited tendencies, they are not merely a product of your genes
your list—if they were as motivated to find similarities.
(Funder, 2010).

Personality and Environment

Sally was always quite calm and peaceful. Then one day in
a bar, she decked a man who was harassing her. How could
that happen? Before we try to provide an answer, take a mo-
ment to answer the questions that follow. Doing so will add
to your understanding of a long-running controversy in the
psychology of personality.
© iofoto/Shutterstock.com

Rate Yourself: How Do You View Personality?

1. My friends’ actions are fairly consistent from day to day and
in different situations. T or F?

How similar are the identical twins pictured above? While the “Jim Temperament General pattern of attention, arousal, and mood that
twins” are very similar despite being reared apart, Carolyn Spiro is evident from birth.
and Pamela Spiro Wagner are very different despite being reared Behavioral genetics The study of inherited behavioral traits and
together. Their stories illustrate the complex interplay of forces that tendencies.
shape our adult personalities.

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470 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

2. Whether a person is honest or dishonest, kind or cruel, a Does that mean that to predict how a person will act, it
hero or a coward depends mainly on circumstances. T or F? is better to focus on both personality traits and external cir-
3. Most people I have known for several years have pretty cumstances? Yes, it’s best to take both into account. Because
much the same personalities now as they did when I first personality traits are consistent, they can predict such things
met them. T or F? as job performance, dangerous driving, or a successful mar-
4. People in some professions (such as teachers, lawyers, or riage (Burger, 2015). Yet, as we mentioned earlier, situations
doctors) seem so much alike because their work requires also greatly influence our behavior. A person’s normally
that they act in particular ways. T or F?
calm demeanor, for example, might become aggressive only
5. One of the first things that I would want to know about a
because of an unusual and extreme situation.
potential roommate is what the person’s personality is like.
T or F? Trait–Situation Interactions It would be unusual for
6. I believe that immediate circumstances usually determine you to dance at a movie or read a book at a football game.
how people act at any given time. T or F? Likewise, few people sleep in roller coasters or tell off-color
7. To be comfortable in a particular job, a person’s personality jokes at funerals. However, your personality traits may pre-
must match the nature of the work. T or F? dict whether you choose to read a book, go to a movie, or at-
8. Almost anyone would be polite at a wedding reception; tend a football game in the first place. Typically, traits interact
it doesn’t matter what kind of personality the person has. with situations to determine how we will act (Mischel, 2004).
T or F? In a trait–situation interaction, external circum-
Now count the number of times you marked true for the stances influence the expression of a personality trait. For
odd-numbered items. Do the same for the even-numbered instance, imagine what would happen if you moved from
items. If you agreed with most of the odd-numbered items, a church to a classroom to a party to a football game. As
you tend to view behavior as strongly influenced by per- the setting changed, you would probably become louder
sonality traits or lasting personal dispositions, whether and more boisterous. This change would show situational
biological or learned. If you agreed with most of the even- effects on behavior. At the same time, your personality traits
numbered items, you view behavior as strongly influenced also would be apparent: If you were quieter than average in
by external situations and circumstances. church and class, you would probably be quieter than aver-
What if I answered true about equally for odd and even age in the other settings, too.
items? Then you place equal weight on traits and situations
as ways to explain behavior. This is the view now held by
Trait-situation interaction The influence that external settings or
many personality psychologists (Funder, 2010; Mischel,
circumstances have on the expression of personality traits.
Shoda, & Smith, 2008).

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 MODU LE 53 P e r s o nality: B e havi o r al an d s o c ial lear n i n g th eo r i es 471

MODULE

53 Summary
53.1 What do behaviorists and social learning expectancies, and reinforcement value.
theorists emphasize in their approach to 53.1.5 Identification and imitation are of particular impor-
personality? tance in learning to be “male” or “female.”
53.1.1 Behavioral theories of personality emphasize learn-
53.2 How do heredity and environment affect per-
ing, conditioning, and immediate effects of the envi- sonality?
ronment (situational determinants).
53.2.1 Temperament refers to the hereditary and physiologi-
53.1.2 Learning theorists Dollard and Miller consider habits
cal aspects of one’s emotional nature.
the basic core of personality. Habits express the com-
53.2.2 Behavioral genetics and studies of identical twins
bined effects of drive, cue, response, and reward.
suggest that heredity contributes significantly to adult
53.1.3 Social learning theory adds cognitive elements, such
personality traits.
as perception, thinking, and understanding to the
53.2.3 Biological predispositions (traits) interact with envi-
behavioral view of personality.
ronment (situations) to explain our behavior.
53.1.4 Social learning theory is exemplified by Julian
Rotter’s concepts of the psychological situation,

Knowledge Builder Personality: Behavioral and Social Learning Theories

Recite Self-Reflect
1. Learning theorists believe that personality “traits” Some people love to shop; others hate it. How have the
really are ________________________ that are psychological situation, expectancy, and reinforcement value
acquired through prior learning. They also emphasize affected your willingness to “shop ’til you drop”?
________________________ determinants of behavior. One way to describe personality is in terms of a set of “if–
2. Dollard and Miller consider cues the basic structure of then” rules that relate situations to traits (Kammrath, Mendoza-
personality. T or F? Denton, & Mischel, 2005). For example, Freddy has a trait of
3. To explain behavior, social learning theorists include independence. But he is not independent in every situation.
mental elements, such as _______________________ Here are some if–then rules for Freddy: If Freddy is working
(the anticipation that a response will lead to reinforce- at home, then he is independent. If Freddy is being hassled at
ment). work, then he is very independent. If Freddy has to go for a
4. Self-reinforcement is to behaviorist theory as superego is medical checkup, then he is not very independent. Can you
to psychoanalytic theory. T or F? write some if–then rules that describe your personality?
5. In addition to basic rewards and punishments, a child’s
personality also is shaped by ___________________ AN SW E R S
reinforcement. 7. incentive value

6. Although personality ___________________ are consis-

1. habits, situational 2. F 3. expectancies 4. T 5. social 6. traits, situations

tent, ___________________ also influence behavior.

Reflect
Think critically
7. Rotter’s concept of reinforcement value is closely related
to a motivational principle discussed in Module 42. Can
you name it?

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MODULE

54 Personality Skills in Action

Leadership

Born to Lead?
Jonathan Ferrar is a true leader. That was already clear when
he was growing up in Brooklyn’s Sunset Park. As a teenager,
he recognized that his low-income neighborhood was home
to significant environmental risks: three power plants, a
sludge transfer facility, dozens of industrial sites, and a ma-
jor highway carrying 200,000 cars and trucks each day. He
learned about the effects on residents’ health—above-aver-
age rates of lung cancer and respiratory illnesses.
Some people might resign themselves to accepting the
situation, but not Jonathan. Instead, he worked for Uprose, an
environmental not-for-profit agency. He testified in front of the
Environmental Protection Agency about the risk of storm surg-
Photo Courtesy The Barron Prize

es brought on by climate change. He warned that they could

unleash toxic waste into the air and water from the industrial
waterfront in his community. Sadly, he was proven right when
Hurricane Sandy smashed into the New York coastline eigh-
teen months later. Jonathan has also organized the annual New Are people like Jonathan Ferrar born leaders, or can each
York City Climate Justice Youth Summit so that young people of us develop these skills? If you want to know the answer,
can have a voice in political discussions about the environment. we’ll lead you there.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
54.1 How is leadership related to the study of 54.2 How can leadership skills help me in my personal and
psychology? professional life?

Follow the Leader—Made, Not Born

Survey Question 54.1 How is leadership related to the
study of psychology?
Psychologists focused on traits such as self-confidence,
Most early leadership research focused on the personal- intelligence, extroversion, persistence, and responsibility,
ity of successful leaders. It was generally accepted that although they also examined traits that are more closely
good leaders possessed certain personality traits that en- connected to building relationships, such as sociability,
abled them to effectively manage teams (Northouse, 2016). cooperativeness, and emotional intelligence.

472
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 MODU LE 5 4 P e r s o nality s k i lls i n acti o n: lead e r s h i P 473

Does that mean people are either “born leaders” or they Studying leadership behaviors is also connected to
are not? Just as with early theories of personality, early trait- an interest in the leadership environment and the extent
based approaches to leadership assumed that traits were to which different leadership behaviors are more or less
inborn. More recently, however, psychologists studying lead- effective under different circumstances. For example, more
ership have begun to think of traits as relatively stable learned recent research has examined how different leadership char-
behavior patterns (The same is true of personality psycholo- acteristics are more or less helpful when working in differ-
gists. See Module 53). This behavioral approach to leader- ent cultures, or in different types of organizations (Aktas,
ship refocused research on leadership behaviors, the role of Gelfand, & Hanges, 2016).
environmental circumstances, and the learning of leadership. Most importantly, the behavioral approach to leadership
The behavioral approach examines what successful lead- also suggests the possibility that people can be taught to be
ers actually say and do. In general, two groups of behaviors good leaders. After all, if leadership traits are relatively sta-
appear to be important. The first is related to managing tasks. ble learned behavior patterns, it should be possible to learn
Here, the focus is on the extent to which leaders can manage those patterns, or skills, and how to identify which skills are
time, define responsibilities, and delegate appropriately. The most appropriate for various leadership situations (Day et
second group of behaviors relates to managing people, and al., 2014; Middlehurst, 2015). What are the skills that people
involves actions that build a sense of trust, respect, and liking should develop to improve their leadership abilities? Read
among members of a team (Northouse, 2016). on so that you can lead on. . . .

Becoming a Good Leader—Learning to Lead

Survey Question 54.2 How can leadership skills help me What are the leadership skills that I should consider de-
in my personal and professional life? veloping while completing my studies? There is no simple
answer since different leadership skills may be more or
Employers value employees with leadership potential be-
less effective, depending on the situation. In their research
cause these individuals can take the initiative and advance
with effective college student leaders, however, Kouzes and
projects of importance to an organization. Good leaders
Posner (2014) identified the following abilities as being
also help to develop the skills of their team members, thus
important:
developing a strong pool of talent. But leadership skills can
be helpful in your personal life as well. For example, maybe
you’ll become active in community-based causes that matter Be Inspiring and Commit
to you (like Jonathan Ferrar). Or perhaps you will take on to a Shared Vision
a mentoring role by coaching or teaching others. Taking a Getting others to support your leadership requires that you
leadership role in this way helps to build strong and healthy have a clear sense of the values that guide you (see Mod-
communities, and often provides a great deal of personal ule 16), and that you work toward understanding the val-
satisfaction. ues of other members of the group. Values are important in
In spite of their importance, employers have noted that promoting commitment, because people will always work
graduating students have weak leadership skills (Raderm- harder on projects that appeal to their fundamental beliefs
acher & Walia, 2013). Similarly, graduating students often (Kouzes & Posner, 2014). As a result, good leaders will work
don’t feel as confident about their leadership abilities as toward finding common ground among the values of the
they do about other skills. This may be because leadership people they work with so that all members of the team feel
skills are not readily developed through course assign- dedicated to the work that needs to be done. Establishing
ments, unlike many of the other skills described in this shared values for the group is a process that requires input
book. Instead, students often indicate that leadership abil- from all members. It may take some time to achieve consen-
ities are fostered through extracurricular activities, such sus and considerable skill in negotiating to find compromis-
as clubs, varsity sports, and student government. Students es. Ultimately, though, it’s a good use of time because group
may also hone their leadership skills through work that members will feel as though they have been heard, and are
they perform either for pay or as volunteers (Desmarais more likely to buy into the approach that’s being adopted to
et al., 2013). move a project forward.

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474 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

Ultimately, though, defining the shared values of a group Promote Strong Relationships
is unhelpful unless a leader acts in ways that are in keeping and Individual Talent
with those values (Northouse, 2016). People will be unlikely
A group’s success is enhanced when leaders work to fos-
to follow someone who “talks the talk” but isn’t prepared to
ter positive relationships and a sense of responsibility for
“walk the walk.” For this reason, it’s important to pay close
one another (Kouzes & Posner, 2014). Leaders can do
attention to your own behavior: Are your actions in keeping
this by listening carefully, showing an interest in others’
with the group’s goals and shared values? It’s also important
concerns and circumstances, and by trusting team mem-
that you seek feedback about how your actions are affecting
bers to do their job rather than continually trying to take
the team’s performance. Though it isn’t always easy to hear
control and micromanage. Efforts to build a team can
what others have to say about your performance, keep in
also be advanced when leaders create a climate in which
mind that good leadership is promoted through self-aware-
members can get to know one another as individuals, and
ness and metacognition (Module 26), which are both en-
when tasks are structured in such a way that the goals
hanced when you solicit the views of other people.
allow people to work together cooperatively, rather than
in isolation.
Be Innovative and Challenge It’s important, too, to recognize the unique talents of
the Process people on the team and to help them develop these abilities.
In Module 41, we discussed the skills associated with creativ- Encouraging self-confidence through effective coaching
ity and innovation. These skills are an important part of a can be extremely helpful in this regard. Good mentoring
leader’s toolbox, as is the ability to recognize when those skills involves setting clear goals for people on your team and
are necessary to bring about change. It’s important to note that providing clear and consistent feedback. Providing feed-
leadership isn’t about changing things just because you can— back can be challenging, since people will sometimes take
it’s about creating change that will improve the situation. it as criticism. For this reason, it’s useful to consider the
To determine whether change is necessary, good lead- following tips when providing assessments to people that
ers continually ask why things are done in a particular way, you work with:
and whether doing things differently would lead to im- ◗ Give feedback that focuses on the person’s behaviors
provement. Moreover, they recognize and draw upon the rather than their character.
strengths and insights of other group members, who often ◗ Whenever possible, provide concrete examples that pro-
have had diverse experiences that can help to fuel the cre- vide some basis for your comments so that people can
ative process needed for change (see Module 49 for the ben- see how you have drawn your conclusions.
efits associated with diversity). ◗ Be selective—a few well-chosen suggestions are more
When a team faces big challenges, wise leaders break the likely to be acted upon than a very large number, which
problem down into smaller, more manageable pieces. This people may find overwhelming.
lessens the chances that group members will be overwhelmed
◗ Present your suggestions so that they will invite a dia-
and lose the motivation needed to continue. Generating
logue by stating your thoughts and asking for their
“small wins” can also be helpful in building momentum be-
reaction.
hind the effort to bring about change. People are more likely
◗ Pay careful attention to people’s responses to your feed-
to get behind an effort that is heading in the right direction.
back, including nonverbal cues that might provide
Of course, challenging the process may also result in
insight into their reactions to your suggestions.
failures. When they happen, try to learn from the experi-
ence rather than being defeated by it. Good leaders are ac- Finally, it’s important to make sure that, as a leader,
tive learners, and have a strong belief in the idea that things you take time to note and celebrate the team’s successes.
can be turned around (Burbach, Matkin, & Fritz, 2004). Celebrations don’t need to be big and expensive; sometimes
They are also optimistic and show great resilience in the face they can simply take the form of a congratulatory email that
of setbacks. What’s more, they will work to develop these recognizes a job well done. And always remember that a
characteristics among other group members, so that they leader can go a long way with team members by remember-
can provide each other with support when necessary. ing two small words: Thank you.

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 MODU LE 5 4 P e r s o nality s k i lls i n acti o n: lead e r s h i P 475

MODULE

54 Summary
54.1 how is leadership related to the study of 54.2.1 Leadership skills are beneficial in the workplace
psychology? because they can be used to promote organizational
54.1.1 Trait-based theories of leadership focus on a leader’s goals. Leadership skills also benefit your personal life,
characteristics. because taking on leadership roles can bring great
54.1.2 Behavioral theories of leadership focus on what lead- personal satisfaction.
ers say and do, with an emphasis on how they man- 54.2.2 To be an effective leader one must inspire and com-
age tasks and people. mit to shared values, ask questions, seek feedback,
54.1.3 Early theories argued that leadership characteristics welcome innovation, be a creative problem solver, be
were heritable; however, recent research suggests we optimistic, and promote team success and individual
can actively shape our leadership skills. talents.

54.2 how can leadership skills help me in my

personal and professional life?

Knowledge Builder Personality Skills in Action: Leadership

Recite Self-Reflect
1. Different people, cultures, and organizations benefit from Consider the recommended skills that can increase your
different leadership styles. T or F? leadership ability. Are there any areas in which you perform
2. Employers value leadership because they prefer one per- particularly well? Are there areas you could improve upon?
son to do the work of many. T or F? How could improving these skills benefit your personal and
3. Employers report recent graduates to be deficient in lead- professional life?
ership abilities. T or F?
AN SW E R S
Reflect respond to her reactions and feelings about your comments.
important criticisms, and welcome her feedback in person so you can
Think Critically your peer’s presentation that was unclear, make notes that outline a few
4. In the following scenario, identify effective and inef- with your peer. Improvements: Give concrete examples of a part of
fective leadership practices and provide suggestions to Emailing a list could be overwhelming and does not encourage dialogue
improve ineffective strategies: You are evaluating your
Giving vague criticism such as ‘unclear,’ and emailing a list of suggestions.
instead of framing comment toward the peer’s character. Ineffective:
peer following a presentation she gave. You tell her that 1. T 2. F 3. T 4. Effective: Focusing on speech as behavioral criticism
the pace of her speech could have been slower. You add
that the presentation was unclear, and because you want
to save time, you offer to email a list of other suggestions
to her later on.

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MODULE

55 Health Psychology
Overview of Health Psychology

Regina’s Term from Heck

What a year! Regina barely managed to survive the rush of make-
or-break term papers, projects, and classroom presentations. Sleep
deprivation, gallons of coffee, junk food, and equal portions of
cramming and complaining had carried her through finals. She was
off for a summer of gymnastics, a sport she had grown to love after
emigrating to the United States. At last she could stretch out, relax,
and have some fun. Or could she? Just four days after school ended,
Regina got a bad cold, followed by bronchitis that lasted for nearly
a month.
Regina’s term from heck (well, that’s not exactly what she called
it) illustrates what happens when personal habits, stress, and health
collide. Though the timing of her cold might have been a coinci-
© Volt Collection/Shutterstock.com

dence, odds are it wasn’t. Periods of stress are frequently followed

by illness.
In this module, we explore how our health is affected by a variety
of behavioral health risks, including stress.

~SURVEY QUESTION~
55.1 How do cognition and behavior affect health?

Health Psychology—Here’s to Your Good Health

Survey Question 55.1 How do cognition and behavior
Sometimes an external cause, such as a virus, is the culprit.
affect health?
Sometimes you inflict the damage yourself through poor
For centuries, Western thinking was dominated by the medical lifestyle choices, such as smoking or overeating. In either
model (Ghaemi, 2010; Engel, 2012). From this perspective, event, the problem is physical or biological, and your mind
health is an absence of illness, and your body is a complex has little to do with it. Moreover, physical problems call for
biological machine that can break down and become ill. physical treatments (“Take your medicine”), so your mind

476
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 MODU LE 5 5 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: ove rvi ew o f H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy 477

also has little to do with your recovery. In the medical mod- Deaths attributable to individual risks (thousands)
in both sexes
el, any impact of the mind on health is dismissed as a mere
50 150 250 350 450
placebo effect. (To remind yourself about placebo effects,
see Module 4.) Smoking

Over the last 50 years, the medical model has slowly be- High blood pressure
gun to give way to the biopsychosocial model, which ac- Overweight-obesity
(high BMI)
cepts that both disease and health are strongly influenced by
Physical inactivity
a combination of biological, psychological, and social fac-
tors (Lane, 2014; Suls, Luger, & Martin, 2010). Psychologi- High blood glucose Cardiovascular

cal and social processes often play a role in influencing the High LDL cholesterol Cancer
progress and outcome of “biological” diseases. It is becom- High dietary sodium (salt)
Diabetes
ing clear that medicine works best when doctors help people Low dietary omega-3
fatty acids (seafood)
make sense of their medical condition to maximize health Respiratory
High dietary
(Benedetti, 2009; Moerman, 2002). Further, the biopsycho- trans fatty acids Other NCD
social model defines health as a state of well-being that we Alcohol use
Injury
can actively attain and maintain (Oakley, 2004). As you take Low intake of fruits
and vegetables
responsibility for your own well-being, remember that in
some ways, health is all in your mind. ➤ Figure 55.1
Most of us agree that our health is priceless. Yet, many Causes of Preventable Deaths in the United States. The leading
causes of preventable deaths in the United States are tobacco
diseases and well over half of all deaths each year in North
and alcohol consumption, along with poor diet and exercise habits.
America can be traced to our unhealthy behaviors (Danaei Together they account for over half of all premature deaths and
et al., 2009). Health psychology, then, aims to use cognitive cause no end of day-to-day health problems. (Data adapted from
and behavioral principles to prevent illness and promote Danaei et al., 2009. NCD 5 noncommunicable diseases.)

well-being (Hales, 2015). Health psychologists may work

with doctors in the allied field of behavioral medicine. smoking-related diseases—about 20 percent of all deaths,
Together, they apply psychology to manage medical problems, regardless of the cause (Centers for Disease Control, 2016).
such as diabetes or asthma. Their interests include pain con- This health risk can be reduced by giving up smoking.
trol, helping people cope with chronic illness, stress-related Similarly, roughly two-thirds of all American adults are
diseases, self-screening for diseases (such as breast cancer), overweight. Of those, half are extremely overweight, or obese
and similar topics (Brannon, Feist, & Updegraff, 2014). (Flegal et al., 2010). A person who is overweight at age 20
can expect to lose 5 to 20 years of life expectancy (Fontaine
et al., 2003). In fact, being overweight may soon overtake
Behaviors and Illness smoking as the main cause of preventable death (Danaei et
A century ago, most people died primarily from external al., 2009). This health risk can be reduced by eating healthier
factors, such as infectious diseases and unavoidable inju- and exercising more.
ries. Today, more people than ever are dying from lifestyle Each of the following factors is a major behavioral risk
diseases, which involve risky, health-damaging behaviors (Brannon, Feist, & Updegraff, 2014): high levels of stress,
(Kozica et al., 2012). Examples include heart disease, stroke, untreated high blood pressure, cigarette smoking, abuse
HIV/AIDS, and lung cancer (➤ Figure 55.1). Clearly, some
behaviors promote health, whereas others risk illness and
Biopsychosocial model An approach acknowledging that biological,
death (Hales, 2015). As a poet once put it, “If you don’t take psychological, and social factors interact to influence health and
care of yourself, the undertaker will overtake that responsi- illness.
bility for you.” Health psychology Study of how cognitive and behavioral principles
can be used to prevent illness and promote physical well-being.
What are some unhealthy behaviors? While many ex-
Behavioral medicine A medical specialty focused on the study of
ternal causes of illness are beyond our control, many sub- nonbiological factors influencing physical health and illness.
jective factors, such as behavioral risks, can be controlled Lifestyle disease A disease related to health-damaging personal
and even reversed. Behavioral risk factors are actions that habits.
Behavioral risk factors Behaviors that increase the chances of
increase the chances of disease, injury, or early death. For disease, injury, or premature death.
example, about 480,000 Americans die every year from

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478 P sycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

of alcohol or other drugs, overeating, inadequate exercise, Killer Lifestyles In your mind’s eye, fast-forward an
unsafe sexual behavior, exposure to toxic substances, vio- imaginary film of your life all the way to old age. Do it
lence, excess sun exposure, reckless driving, and disregard- twice—once with a lifestyle including a large number of
ing personal safety (avoidable accidents). About 70 percent behavioral risk factors and again without them. It should
of all medical costs are related to just six of these factors— be obvious that many small risks can add up, dramatically
smoking, alcohol abuse, drug abuse, poor diet, insufficient raising the chance of illness. If stress is a frequent part of
exercise, and risky sexual practices (Brannon, Feist, & Up- your life, visualize your body seething with emotion, day af-
degraff, 2014; Orleans, Gruman, & Hollendonner, 1999). ter day. If you smoke, picture a lifetime’s worth of cigarette
(Unsafe sex is discussed in Module 48.) smoke blown through your lungs in a week. If you drink,
The personal habits that you have by the time you are take a lifetime of alcohol’s assaults on the brain, stomach,
18 or 19 greatly affect your health, happiness, and life ex- and liver and squeeze them into a month: Your body would
pectancy years later (Gurung, 2014). ■ Table 55.1 shows be poisoned, ravaged, and soon dead. If you eat a high-fat,
how many American high school students engage in various high-cholesterol diet, fast-forward a lifetime of heart-stop-
kinds of risky behaviors. ping plaque clogging your arteries.
Specific risk factors are not the only concern. Some We don’t mean to sermonize. We just want to remind
people have a general disease-prone personality that leaves you that risk factors make a big difference. To make mat-
them depressed, anxious, hostile, and frequently ill. In con- ters worse, unhealthy lifestyles almost always create multi-
trast, people who are intellectually resourceful, compassion- ple risks—that is, people who smoke also are likely to drink
ate, optimistic, and nonhostile tend to enjoy good health (Li excessively. Those who overeat usually do not get enough
et al., 2009; Taylor, 2012). Depression, in particular, is likely to exercise, and so on (Lippke, Nigg, & Maddock, 2012). Even
damage health (Gleason et al., 2013; Luppa et al., 2007). Peo- infectious diseases are often linked to behavioral risks. For
ple who are depressed in turn eat poorly, sleep poorly, rarely example, pneumonia and other infections occur at higher
exercise, fail to use seat belts in cars, smoke more, and so on. rates in people who have cancer, heart disease, lung disease,
or liver disease. Thus, many deaths attributed to infections
can be traced back to smoking, poor diet, or alcohol abuse
Table 55.1 Percentage of u.s. High school
(Mokdad et al., 2004).
students who engage in Health-endangering
Behaviors Health-Promoting Behaviors
Risky Behavior Percentage To prevent disease, health psychologists first try to reduce
behavioral risk factors. In many cases, lifestyle diseases can
Rode with drinking driver (previous 30 days) 22
be prevented by making specific, minor changes in behav-
Were in a physical fight (previous 12 months) 25 ior. For example, hypertension (high blood pressure) can be
Carried a weapon (previous 30 days) 18
Drank alcohol (previous 30 days) 35
Used marijuana (previous 30 days) 23
Engaged in sexual intercourse 34
(previous 90 days)
Did not use condom (during last sexual 41
intercourse)
Smoked cigarettes (previous 30 days) 16
Chris Selby/Alamy Stock Photo

Martin Diebel/fstop/Corbis

Did not have any fruit (previous 7 days) 5

Did not have any vegetables (previous 7 days) 7
Played 3 or more hours of video games 41
(average school day)
In the long run, behavioral risk factors and lifestyles do make a
Source: Kann et al., 2014. difference in health and life expectancy.

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 MODU LE 5 5 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: ove rvi ew o f H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy 479

deadly. Yet, consuming less sodium (salt) can help fend off obvious practices such as getting regular exercise, control-
this “silent killer.” Losing weight, using alcohol sparingly, ling smoking and alcohol use, maintaining a balanced diet,
and getting more exercise will also help (Edenfield & Blu- getting good medical care, and managing stress (Zarcadoo-
menthal, 2011). las, Pleasant, & Greer, 2006). In one study, the risk of dy-
You probably won’t be surprised to learn that many ing during a 10-year period was cut by 65 percent for adults
people fail to engage in health-promoting behaviors until ill who were careful about diet, alcohol, exercise, and smoking
health forces it upon them. For example, 75 million Ameri- (Knoops et al., 2004).
cans have hypertension (Koçkaya & Wertheimer, 2011). A Health-promoting behaviors don’t have to be restric-
friend of one of your author’s commented about his recent tive or burdensome. For instance, maintaining a healthy diet
heart attack, “I guess that’s my wake-up call. Time to lose doesn’t mean surviving on tofu and wheatgrass. The healthi-
some weight, exercise more, and eat healthier. I want to be est people in the study just described ate a tasty “Mediter-
around while my grandchildren grow up.” ranean diet” higher in fruit, vegetables, and fish and lower
What may surprise you is that despite being diagnosed, in red meat and dairy products. Likewise, you don’t need
many people still don’t change the habits that led to their ill- to exercise like an Olympic athlete to benefit from physical
nesses. All the medicine in the world might not be enough to activity (Portugal et al., 2013). All you need is 30 minutes of
restore health without changes in behavior. For example, ac- exercise (the equivalent of a brisk walk) three or four times a
cording to one estimate, although 78 percent of people with week. Almost everyone can fit such “lifestyle physical activ-
hypertension know about it, only 68 percent of diagnosed ity” into his or her schedule (Pescatello, 2001).
patients are treated, and of those, only 38 percent comply What about alcohol? Moderation in drinking doesn’t
with their treatment regimens. Overall, only 29 percent of mean that you must be a teetotaler. Consuming one or two
all people with hypertension are receiving optimal treat- alcoholic drinks per day is generally safe for most people, es-
ment. If 100 percent of people with hypertension complied pecially if you remain alcohol-free two or three days a week.
fully with their treatments, the rate of hypertension would A glass of red wine daily may even be healthy (Anekonda,
drop by 32 percent, meaning that 8.5 million fewer Ameri- 2006). However, having three or more drinks a day greatly
cans would need treatment in any given year, resulting in increase the risk for stroke, cirrhosis of the liver, cancer, high
yearly savings of $72 billion (Koçkaya & Wertheimer, 2011). blood pressure, heart disorders, and other diseases (Knoops
In addition to removing specific risk factors, psycholo- et al., 2004; Lamont et al., 2011).
gists are interested in getting people to increase behaviors To summarize, a small number of behavioral patterns
that promote health. Health-promoting behaviors include account for many common health problems (Eaton et al.,
2012; Straub, 2012). ■ Table 55.2 lists several major ways to
promote good health.
To explore an interesting social factor that may underlie
common health problems, read on.
Social Networks and Healthy Behaviors Would
you like to eat better, exercise more, or quit smoking? Re-
searchers Nicholas Christakis and James Fowler believe
that they know why it can be difficult to alter unhealthy
behaviors. Often, social factors are a barrier to change. Un-
FREDERIC J. BROWN/Getty Images

healthy behaviors such as overeating or smoking seem to

spread almost like a “mental virus” (Christakis & Fowler,
2009; Lyons, 2011).
One study of social contagion found that people were 57
percent more likely to become obese if they had a friend who
Too many people diagnosed with lifestyle illnesses, such as this became obese first (Christakis & Fowler, 2007). Similarly,
smoker with severe emphysema, fail to comply with their doctor’s
instructions. Changing long-standing risky behaviors usually Disease-prone personality A personality type associated with poor
involves more than just telling people what they need to do health, marked by persistent negative emotions, including anxiety,
differently. One major goal of health psychology is to find ways to depression, and hostility.
increase compliance with doctor’s advice.

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480 P sycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

Table 55.2 Major Health-Promoting Behaviors

source Desirable Behaviors

Tobacco Do not smoke; do not use smokeless tobacco.

Nutrition Eat a balanced, low-fat diet; have appropriate caloric intake; maintain a healthy body weight.
Exercise Engage in at least 30 minutes of aerobic exercise 5 days per week.
Blood pressure Lower blood pressure with diet and exercise or medicine if necessary.
Alcohol and drugs Drink no more than 2 drinks per day; abstain from using drugs.
Sleep and relaxation Avoid sleep deprivation; provide for periods of relaxation every day.
Sex Practice safer sex; avoid unplanned pregnancy.
Injury Curb dangerous driving habits; use seat belts; minimize sun exposure; forgo dangerous activities.
Stress Learn stress management; lower hostility.

smokers tend to “hang out” with other smokers (Christakis fewer and fewer American adults (now only 17 percent) still
& Fowler, 2008). Another study found that spending time smoke (Centers for Disease Control, 2015a).
with drinkers increases alcohol consumption (Ali & Dw- The implication? Don’t wait for your friends or family
yer, 2010). Apparently, we tend to flock together with like- to adopt healthier habits. Take the lead and inspire them
minded people and adopt many of their habits (Barnett et to join you. Failing that, start hanging out with a healthier
al., 2013; Miller & Prentice, 2016). crowd. You might catch something healthy.
Does that mean I am doomed to be unhealthy if my fam-
ily and friends have unhealthy habits? Not necessarily. Social Early Prevention
networks also can spread healthy behaviors (Fowler & Of the behavioral risks we have discussed, smoking is the
Christakis, 2010). If one smoker in a group of smokers quits, largest preventable cause of death and the single most lethal
others are more likely to follow suit. If your spouse quits smok- factor (Centers for Disease Control, 2016). As such, it illus-
ing, you are 67 percent more likely to quit. If a good friend trates the prospect for preventing illness.
quits smoking, your chances of abandoning tobacco go up by What have health psychologists done to lessen the risks
36 percent (Christakis & Fowler, 2008). The growing social of smoking? Attempts to “immunize” youths against pres-
unpopularity of smoking may be the best explanation of why sures to start smoking are a good example. When humorist
Mark Twain said, “Giving up smoking is the easiest thing in
the world. I know because I’ve done it thousands of times,”
he stated a basic truth—only 1 smoker in 10 has long-term
success at quitting (Krall, Garvey, & Garcia, 2002; García-
Rodríguez et al., 2013). Thus, the best way to deal with
smoking is to prevent it before it becomes a lifelong habit.
For example, prevention programs in schools discourage
smoking with quizzes about smoking, multimedia presen-
tations, antismoking art contests, poster and T-shirt give-
aways, antismoking pamphlets for parents, and questions for
Tony Arruza/ Documentary/Corbis

students to ask their parents (Flynn et al., 2011; Prokhorov

et al., 2010). Such efforts are designed to persuade kids that
smoking is dangerous and “uncool.”
Some antismoking programs include refusal skills
training. In such training, youths learn to resist pressures to
If you are a smoker, do your friends also smoke? Are your family
members fast-food junkies just like you? Are your friends all begin smoking (or using other drugs). For example, junior
drinkers? high students can roleplay ways to resist smoking pressures
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 MODU LE 5 5 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: ove rvi ew o f H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy 481

from peers, adults, and cigarette ads. Similar methods can pressure, respiration, muscle tension, and other ANS re-
be applied to other health risks, such as sexually transmitted sponses. Short-term stresses of this kind can be uncomfort-
diseases and teen pregnancy (Wandersman & Florin, 2003; able, but they rarely do any damage. (Your landing might,
Witkiewitz et al., 2011). however.) Long-term stresses are another matter entirely.
Many health programs also teach students general life
General Adaptation Syndrome The impact of long-
skills. The idea is to give kids skills that will help them cope
term stresses can be understood by examining the body’s de-
with day-to-day stresses. That way, they will be less tempted
fenses against stress, a pattern known as general adaptation
to escape problems through drug use or other destructive
syndrome (GAS). GAS is a series of three stages of stress re-
behaviors. Life skills training includes practice in stress re-
sponse to prolonged stress. Selye (1976) noticed that the first
duction, self-protection, decision making, goal setting, self-
symptoms of almost any disease or trauma (poisoning, infec-
control, and social skills (Allen & Williams, 2012; Corey &
tion, injury, or stress) are almost identical. The body responds
Corey, 2014).
in the same way to any stress, be it infection, failure, embar-
rassment, a new job, trouble at school, or a stormy romance.
community Health How does the body respond to stress? The GAS consists
In addition to early prevention, health psychologists have had of three stages: an alarm reaction, a stage of resistance, and a
some success with community health campaigns. These are stage of exhaustion (➤ Figure 55.2; Selye, 1976).
communitywide education projects designed to lessen ma-
jor risk factors (Hawe, 2015; Lounsbury & Mitchell, 2009).
Health campaigns inform people of risks such as stress, al-
cohol abuse, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, smok-
ing, sexually transmitted diseases, or excessive sun exposure.
This is followed by efforts to motivate people to change their Resistance to stress

behavior (Miller & Prentice, 2016). Campaigns sometimes

provide role models (positive examples) who show people
how to improve their own health. They also direct people to Normal level of
services for health screening, advice, and treatment. Health resistance

campaigns may reach people through mass media, public

schools, health fairs, workplaces, or self-help programs.

stress Phase 1
Alarm
Phase 2
Stage of
Phase 3
Stage
Health psychology pays special attention to the effect that reaction resistance of exhaustion
stress has on health and sickness. Stress can be a major behav-
Time
ioral risk factor if it is prolonged or severe, but it isn’t always
bad. As Canadian stress research pioneer Hans Selye (SEL- ➤ Figure 55.2
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). During the initial alarm
yay) (1976) observed, “To be totally without stress is to be reaction to stress, resistance falls below normal. It rises again as
dead.” That’s because stress is the pressure or demand placed body resources are mobilized, and it remains high during the stage
on an organism to adjust or adapt. Unpleasant events such as of resistance. Eventually, resistance falls again as the stage of
work pressures, marital problems, or financial woes are natu- exhaustion is reached. (Based on Selye, 1976.)

rally stressful. But so are travel, sports, a new job, rock climb-
ing, dating, and other positive activities. Even if you aren’t a
Refusal skills training A program that teaches youths how to resist
thrill seeker, a healthy lifestyle may include a fair amount of pressures to begin smoking (also can be applied to other drugs
eustress (good stress). Activities that provoke “good stress” are and health risks).
usually challenging, rewarding, and energizing. Life skills training A program that teaches stress reduction, self-
protection, decision making, self-control, and social skills.
Regardless of whether it is triggered by a pleasant or
Community health campaign A communitywide education pro-
an unpleasant event, the stress reaction begins with the gram that provides information about how to lessen risk factors
same autonomic nervous system (ANS) arousal that occurs and promote health.
during emotion. Imagine that you are standing at the top Stress Pressure or demand placed on an organism to adjust or adapt.
General adaptation syndrome Three-stage model of stress
of a wind-whipped ski jump for the first time. Internally, response, consisting of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
you experience a rapid surge in your heart rate, blood
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482 P sycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

In the alarm reaction, your body mobilizes its resourc-

es to cope with added stress. The pituitary gland signals the
adrenal glands to produce more adrenaline, noradrenaline,
and cortisol. As these stress hormones are dumped into the
bloodstream, some bodily processes are speeded up and
others are slowed. This allows bodily resources to be applied
where they are needed.
We should all be thankful that our bodies automatically

© Nico Traut/Shutterstock.com
respond to emergencies. But brilliant as this emergency sys-
tem is, it also can cause problems. In the first phase of the
alarm reaction, people have symptoms such as headache,
fever, fatigue, sore muscles, shortness of breath, diarrhea,
upset stomach, loss of appetite, and a lack of energy. Notice
that these also are the symptoms of being sick, of stressful Stress and negative emotions lower immune system activity and
travel, of high-altitude sickness, of final exams week, and increase inflammation. This, in turn, raises our vulnerability to
infection, worsens illness, and delays recovery.
(possibly) of falling in love!
During the stage of resistance, bodily adjustments to
of internal organs, such as the thymus, spleen, and lymph
stress stabilize. As the body’s defenses come into balance,
nodes, was evident, and many animals had stomach ulcers.
symptoms of the alarm reaction disappear. Outwardly, ev-
In addition to such direct effects, stress can disrupt the
erything seems normal. However, this appearance of nor-
body’s immune system.
mality comes at a high cost. The body is better able to cope
Understanding stress and learning to control it can im-
with the original stressor, but its resistance to other stresses
prove not only your health, but also the quality of your life
is lowered. For example, animals placed in extreme cold be-
(Allen, Carlson, & Ham, 2007). (For these reasons, a dis-
come more resistant to the cold but more susceptible to in-
cussion of stress and stress management can be found in
fection. It is during the stage of resistance that the first signs
Modules 56–59.)
of psychosomatic disorders (physical disorders triggered by
psychological factors) begin to appear. The Whole Human: subjective Well-Being
Continued stress leads to a stage of exhaustion, in
Health is not just an absence of disease (Diener & Chan,
which the body’s resources are drained and stress hormones
2011; Diener, 2013). People who are truly healthy enjoy a
are depleted. Some of the typical signs or symptoms of im-
positive state of subjective well-being. Maintaining subjective
pending exhaustion include the following (Friedman, 2002;
well-being is a lifelong pursuit and, hopefully, a labor of love.
Gurung, 2014):
People who attain subjective well-being are both physically
Emotional signs: Anxiety, apathy, irritability, mental and psychologically healthy. They are happy, optimistic,
fatigue self-confident individuals who can bounce back emotion-
Behavioral signs: Avoidance of responsibilities and rela- ally from adversity. People who enjoy a sense of well-being
tionships, extreme or self-destructive behavior, self- also have supportive relationships with others, do meaning-
neglect, poor judgment ful work, and live in a clean environment. Many of these
Physical signs: Excessive worry about illness, frequent aspects of subjective well-being are addressed elsewhere in
illness, exhaustion, overuse of medicines, physical this book.
ailments and complaints
The GAS may sound melodramatic if you are young and Alarm reaction The first stage of the general adaptation syndrome,
during which body resources are mobilized to cope with a stressor.
healthy, or if you’ve never endured prolonged stress. Howev-
Stage of resistance The second stage of general adaptation syn-
er, do not take stress lightly. Unless a way of relieving stress drome, during which the body adjustments to stress stabilize, but
is found, the result will be a psychosomatic disease, a serious at a high physical cost.
loss of health, or complete collapse. When Selye examined Stage of exhaustion The third stage of general adaptation syndrome,
at which time the body’s resources are exhausted and serious
animals in the later stages of GAS, he found that their adre- health consequences occur.
nal glands were enlarged and discolored. Intense shrinkage

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 MODU LE 5 5 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: ove rvi ew o f H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy 483

MODULE

55 summary
55.1 How do cognition and behavior affect 55.1.5 Stress is the mental and physical condition that oc-
health? curs when we adjust or adapt to the environment.
55.1.1 Health psychologists are interested in how cognition Stress is a normal part of life; however, it also is a
and behavior help maintain and promote health. major risk factor for illness and disease.
55.1.2 Studies of health and illness have identified several 55.1.6 The body reacts to stress in a series of stages called
behavioral risk factors that have a major effect on general adaptation syndrome (GAS). The stages of
general health and life expectancy. GAS are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. Bodily
55.1.3 At the minimum, it is important to maintain health- reactions in GAS follow the pattern observed in the
promoting cognitions and behaviors with respect to development of psychosomatic disorders.
diet, alcohol, exercise, and smoking. 55.1.7 Maintaining good health is a personal responsibility,
55.1.4 Health psychologists have pioneered efforts to prevent not a matter of luck. Wellness is based on minimiz-
the development of unhealthy habits and to improve ing risk factors and engaging in health-promoting
well-being through community health campaigns. behaviors.

Knowledge Builder Health Psychology: Overview of Health Psychology

Recite Reflect
1. With respect to health, which of the following is not a Think critically
major behavioral risk factor? 6. The general public is increasingly well informed about
a. overexercise health risks and healthful behavior. Can you apply the
b. cigarette smoking concept of reinforcement to explain why so many people
c. stress fail to act on this information?
d. high blood pressure
2. Lifestyle diseases related to just six behaviors account for self-Reflect
70 percent of all medical costs. The behaviors are smok- Make a list of the major behavioral risk factors that apply to
ing, alcohol abuse, drug abuse, poor diet, insufficient you. Are you laying the foundation for a lifestyle disease?
exercise, and Which of the health-promoting behaviors listed in Table 55.1
a. driving too fast would you like to increase?
b. excessive sun exposure If you were designing a community health campaign, who
c. unsafe sex would you use as role models of healthful behavior?
d. exposure to toxins Are you experiencing any signs of GAS? (Not a joke, guys ☺)
3. Health psychologists tend to prefer _________________ What are they?
rather than modifying habits (like smoking) that become
difficult to break once they are established. AN sW E R s
4. The disease-prone personality is marked by __________, rewards for healthful behavior (Watson & Tharp, 2014).
anxiety, and hostility. iors may be delayed by months or years, greatly lessening the immediate
5. The first signs of psychosomatic disorders begin to result in immediate reinforcement, while the benefits of healthy behav-
1. a 2. c 3. prevention 4. depression 5. c 6. Many unhealthy behaviors
appear during the stage of
a. alarm c. resistance
b. exhaustion d. appraisal

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MODULE

56 Health Psychology
Stressors

The Luckiest Girl in the World

Darya was the luckiest girl in the world. After marrying her
sweetheart, they enjoyed a spectacular honeymoon in Ja-
maica. Now they were moving to a new apartment to begin
their lives together. So why was she feeling run over by a
truck?
What Darya was learning firsthand is that prolonged or
severe stress can lead to health problems, even if it is trig-
gered by positive events. Over the last few months, she had
© Sergey Ryzhov/Shutterstock.com
experienced quite a few major life changes. It had all added
up, and now she had a bad cough and a fever.
We begin this module with the commonsense idea that
stressful events “happen to” people. Although this is some-
times the case, more often stress is a matter of how we per-
ceive events and react to them. We also explore some of the with a look at some different types of stressors, including
factors that determine the intensity of a stressor and close frustration and conflict.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
56.1 What is a stressor, and what factors determine its 56.2 What are some types of stressors?
severity?

Stress—Threat or Thrill?
Survey Question 56.1 What is a stressor, and what fac-
tors determine its severity?
(eustress). Ultimately, stress depends on how you perceive a
A stressor is a specific condition or event that challenges or situation. Our friend Akihito would find it stressful to listen
threatens a person. It goes almost without saying that some to five of his son’s hip-hop CDs in a row. His son Takashi
events are more likely to be stressors than others. would find it stressful to listen to one of his father’s opera
But what makes an event a stressor? It might seem that CDs. To know if you are stressed, we must know what mean-
stressful events “happen to” us. Sometimes this is true, but ing you place on events. As we will see in a moment, when-
as noted in Module 44, our emotions are greatly affected by ever a stressor is appraised as a threat (potentially harmful),
how we appraise situations. That’s why some people are dis- a powerful stress reaction follows (Lazarus, 1991a,b; Smith
tressed by events that others view as a thrill or a challenge & Kirby, 2011).

484
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 MODU LE 5 6 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: str es s o r s 485

Appraising Stressors not be any heavier than that of their classmates (Jacobs &
Dodd, 2003).
You have been selected to give a speech to 300 people. Or a
A sense of control also comes from believing you can
doctor tells you that you must undergo a dangerous and pain-
reach desired goals. It is threatening to feel that we lack com-
ful operation. Or the one true love of your life walks out the
petence to cope with life’s demands (Bandura, 2001; Leiter,
door. What would be your emotional response to these events?
Gascón, & Martínez-Jarreta, 2010).
According to Richard Lazarus (1991a,b), there are two
Unpredictability is another important factor. Police offi-
important steps in dealing with a threat. The first is primary
cers, for instance, suffer from a high rate of stress-related dis-
appraisal, in which you decide whether a situation is rel-
eases. The threat of injury or death—plus occasional confron-
evant or irrelevant, positive or threatening. In essence, this
tations with angry, drunk, or hostile citizens—takes a toll. A
step answers the question, “Am I okay or in trouble?” Then,
major factor is the unpredictable nature of police work. An of-
you make a secondary appraisal, in which you assess your
ficer who stops a car to issue a traffic ticket never knows if a co-
resources and choose a way to meet the threat or challenge.
operative citizen or an armed gang member is waiting inside.
(“What can I do about this situation?”)
A revealing study shows how unpredictability adds to
Thus, the way a situation is “sized up” greatly affects our
stress. In a series of 1-minute trials, college students breathed
ability to cope with it (➤ Figure 56.1). Public speaking, for in-
air through a mask. On random (i.e., unpredictable) trials,
stance, can be appraised as an intense threat or as a chance to
the air contained 20 percent more carbon dioxide (CO2)
perform. Emphasizing the threat—by imagining failure, re-
than normal. If you were to inhale this air, you would feel
jection, or embarrassment—obviously invites disaster (Tripp
anxious, stressed, and a little like you were suffocating. Stu-
et al., 2011). That’s why it’s valuable to learn to think in ways
dents tested this way hated the “surprise” doses of CO2. They
that ward off the body’s stress response. (Some strategies for
found it much less stressful to be told in advance which trials
controlling upsetting thoughts are described in Module 59.)
would include a choking whiff of CO2 (Lejuez et al., 2000).
Several factors contribute to the appraised intensity
Pressure is another element of stress, especially job
of any given threat. In most day-to-day situations, per-
stress. Pressure occurs when a person must meet urgent ex-
ceived threat has to do with the idea of control. We are
ternal demands or expectations (Szollos, 2009). For exam-
particularly prone to feel stressed when we can’t—or think
ple, we feel pressured when activities must be sped up, when
we can’t—control our immediate environment. In short, a
deadlines must be met, when extra work is added, or when
perceived lack of control is just as threatening as a real lack
we must work near maximum capacity for long periods.
of control. For example, college students who feel over-
Most students who have survived final exams are familiar
loaded experience stress even though their workload may
with the effects of pressure.
Primary Appraisal Secondary Appraisal
relevant? coping resources available?
threatening? course of action?
Jason Patterson/The New Yorker Collection/Cartoonbank.com

Stressor
intense?
repeated?
unpredictable?
Notice of uncontrollable?
Workforce pressure?

Reduction
Stressor Specific condition or event that challenges or threatens a person.
Primary appraisal Deciding if a situation is relevant to oneself and
➤ Figure 56.1 if it is a threat.
The Origins of Stress. Stress is the product of an interchange Secondary appraisal Deciding how to cope with a threat or challenge.
between a person and the environment.

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486 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

may be necessary to adjust workloads, rewards, and the

Table 56.1 the top 10 Work stresses amount of control people have in their jobs (Leiter &
Work Stress Rank Maslach, 2005).
Low salary 1
Can college students experience burnout? Yes, they can
(Parker & Salmela-Aro, 2011). If you have a negative atti-
Lack of opportunity for growth 2 tude toward your studies and feel that your college work-
Workload too heavy 3 load is too heavy, you may be vulnerable to burnout (Jacobs
& Dodd, 2003). On the other hand, if you have a positive
Hours too long 4
attitude toward your studies, participate in extracurricular
Job expectations uncertain 5 activities, and enjoy good social support from your friends,
Job expectations unrealistic 6 rock on!
Work interferes with personal time 7
Poverty and Health
Job insecurity 8
A good example of how changing your appraisal may make
Lack of participation in decision making 9 a big difference in your life can be found in the phenom-
Inflexible hours 10 enon of relative poverty. To be clear, being poor is no fun.
It probably won’t surprise you to learn it’s no good for
Source: Data from American Psychological Association (2012b).
your health, either (Fuller-Rowell, Evans, & Ong, 2012).
In general, the poorer people are, the more their health
suffers and the lower is their life expectancy. According to
What if I set deadlines for myself? Does the source of the
the World Bank (2015), in 2012, 2.1 billion people around
pressure make a difference? It can certainly help since that
the world lived in absolute poverty, surviving on less than
would tend to increase your sense of self-control (Leiter,
$3.10 a day. Tragically, absolute poverty wreaks havoc on
Gascón, & Martínez-Jarreta, 2010; Taris et al., 2005). In one
people’s health. But that’s not the whole story. For example,
study, nurses with a high sense of control (e.g., over the pac-
physician Stephen Bezruchka has shown that Greeks earn,
ing of work and the physical arrangement of the working
on average, less than half of what Americans earn and yet
environment) were less likely to get sick, either physically or
they have a longer life expectancy (Bezruchka as cited in
mentally, than nurses with a low sense of control (Ganster,
Sapolsky, 2005).
Fox, & Dwyer, 2001).
How could this be? One possibility is suggested by a
To summarize, when emotional “shocks” are uncontrol-
study that found poorer women in California are more like-
lable, unpredictable, and linked to pressure, stress is mag-
ly to die if they live in better-off neighborhoods than if they
nified and damage is likely to result. At work, people face
live in poorer neighborhoods (Winkleby, Ahn, & Cubbin,
many of these sources of stress every day. (See ■ Table 56.1
2006). Apparently, being constantly reminded that you are
for a list of the most common sources of stress at work.) In
relatively poor piles on an extra measure of stress (Bjorn-
fact, chronic job stress sometimes results in burnout.
strom, 2011; Wilkinson & Pickett, 2006, 2007).
Burnout When workers are physically, mentally, and Relative poverty is not the whole story, though, since
emotionally drained, they may experience burnout (Leiter, even better-off Americans are not as healthy as their coun-
Gascón, & Martínez-Jarreta, 2010). When people be- terparts in other developed countries (Weir, 2013). Instead,
come burned out, they experience emotional exhaustion, income inequality itself may prove to be a chronic social
cynicism or detachment, and feelings of reduced personal stressor (Cushing et al., 2015). The United States currently
accomplishment. has the largest income inequality in the developed world.
Burnout may occur in any job, but it is a special prob- Rich or poor, living in a “rat race” where we are all in compe-
lem in emotionally demanding helping professions, such tition with each other seems to lessen trust and weaken the
as nursing, teaching, social work, childcare, counseling, American social fabric. As a result, we all, to some degree,
or police work (Ray et al., 2013). Also, people who are pay a price with our health.
more passionate about their work are more vulnerable No one should pretend that relative poverty in the Unit-
to burnout (Garrosa et al., 2008; Vallerand, 2010). If we ed States is anywhere near as big a problem as absolute pov-
wish to keep caring people in the helping professions, it erty around the world. Nevertheless, it is a growing problem

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 MODU LE 5 6 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: str es s o r s 487

in the United States as the gap between the rich and poor
continues to widen (Emerson, 2009; Oishi, Kesebir, &
Diener, 2011).
What should I do if I always feel poor? That may be part
of the reason why you are reading this book. First, commit
to changing your circumstances through education and
hard work. That’s called problem-focused coping (you’ll read
about it in Module 57). In the meantime, remember Laza-
rus’s (1991a,b) point about appraisal: Something is a stressor
only if you think it is one. A realistic appraisal of your situa-
© ULU_BIRD/Shutterstock.com

tion may reveal that you are “richer” than you think. Maybe
the best things in life are not all free, but why make yourself
sick comparing yourself to people much better off than you
(Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009)?
Although being poor in the United States may mean living above
an absolute poverty level, it also means constantly living with the
stress of dramatic income inequality (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009).

Types of Stressors—The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly

Survey Question 56.2 What are some types of stressors? Christmas a 30, even though they usually are happy events.)
From major life events, such as getting married or moving to Even a change in social activities rates 27 LCUs, whether the
another country, to minor hassles, such as getting cut off by change is due to an improvement or a decline. A stressful
the car in front of you or having too many things to do, and adjustment may be required in either case. To use the SRRS,
from frustrations to conflicts, almost anything can become a add up the LCUs for all the life events you have experienced
stressor under the right circumstances. Let’s look at stressors during the last year and compare the total to the following
in more detail. standards:

0–150: No significant problems

Life Events and Stress
150–199: Mild life crisis (33 percent chance of illness)
Disaster, depression, and sorrow often precede illness 200–299: Moderate life crisis (50 percent chance of illness)
(Harrington, 2013). More surprising is the finding that life
300 or more: Major life crisis (80 percent chance of
changes—both good and bad (and ugly?)—can increase sus-
illness)
ceptibility to accidents or illness. Major changes in our sur-
roundings or routines require us to be on guard and ready to You have a higher chance of illness or accident when
react. Over long periods, this can be quite stressful. your LCU total exceeds 300 points. Other stressful events—
How can I tell if I am subjecting myself to too much stress? such as entering college, changing majors, or experiencing
Psychiatrist Thomas Holmes and graduate student Richard a breakup in a steady relationship—also affect the health of
Rahe developed the first rating scale to estimate the health college students.
hazards we face when stresses add up (Holmes & Rahe, 1967). Since people differ greatly in their reactions to the same
Still widely used today, a version of the Social Readjustment event, stress scales like the SRRS at best provide a rough index
Rating Scale (SRRS) is reprinted in ■ Table 56.2 (Miller &
Rahe, 1997; Woods, Racine, & Klump, 2010). Notice that the
impact of life events is expressed in life change units (LCUs) Burnout A work-related condition of mental, physical, and
(numerical values assigned to each life event). emotional exhaustion.
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) A scale that rates the
Why is going on vacation on the list? Positive life events impact of various life events on the likelihood of illness.
can be stressful as well. (For example, marriage rates a 50 and

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488 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

Table 56.2 social readjustment rating scale

Life change Life change
Rank Life Event Units Rank Life Event Units

1 Death of spouse or child 119 23 Mortgage or loan greater than 44

$10,000
2 Divorce 98 24 Change in responsibilities at work 43
3 Death of close family member 92 25 Change in living conditions 42
4 Marital separation 79 26 Change in residence 41
5 Fired from work 79 27 Begin or end school 38
6 Major personal injury or illness 77 28 Trouble with in-laws 38
7 Jail term 75 29 Outstanding personal achievement 37
8 Death of close friend 70 30 Change in work hours or condi- 36
tions
9 Pregnancy 66 31 Change in schools 35
10 Major business readjustment 62 32 Christmas 30
11 Foreclosure on a mortgage or loan 61 33 Trouble with boss 29
12 Gain of new family member 57 34 Change in recreation 29
13 Marital reconciliation 57 35 Mortgage or loan less than $10,000 28
14 Change in health or behavior of 56 36 Change in personal habits 27
family member
15 Change in financial state 56 37 Change in eating habits 27
16 Retirement 54 38 Change in social activities 27
17 Change to different line of work 51 39 Change in number of family get- 26
togethers
18 Change in number of arguments 51 40 Change in sleeping habits 26
with spouse
19 Marriage 50 41 Vacation 25
20 Spouse begins or ends work 46 42 Change in church activities 22
21 Sexual difficulties 45 43 Minor violations of the law 22
22 Child leaving home 44

Source: Reprinted from Miller & Rahe (1997).

of stress. Nevertheless, research has shown that if your stress were nothing to sneeze at: If a person had a high stress score,
level is too high, an adjustment in your activities or lifestyle she or he was much more likely to actually get a cold (Cohen,
may be needed. In one classic study, people were deliberately Tyrrell, & Smith, 1993). In view of such findings, higher lev-
exposed to the virus that causes common colds. The results els of stress should be taken seriously (Hales, 2015).

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 MODU LE 5 6 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: str es s o r s 489

The Hazards of Hassles

There must be more to stress than major life changes. Isn’t
there a link between ongoing stresses and health? In addition
to having a direct impact, major life events spawn count-
less daily frustrations and irritations (Henderson, Roberto,
& Kamo, 2010). Also, many of us face ongoing stresses at
work or at home that do not involve major life changes

The Washington Post/Getty Images

(Pett & Johnson, 2005). Such minor but frequent stresses
are called hassles (microstressors). Some common hassles
faced by college students include too many things to do, not
enough money for housing, feeling discriminated against,
people making gender jokes, communication problems with
friends, driving to school, people making fun of their re- One of the best antidotes for acculturative stress is a society that
ligion, fear of losing valuables, work schedule, getting into tolerates or even celebrates ethnic diversity. While some people
shape, and parents’ expectations (Pett & Johnson, 2005). find it hard to accept new immigrants, the fact is, nearly everyone’s
family tree includes people who, like this Syrian family, who had the
In a yearlong study, 100 men and women recorded the courage to become strangers in a strange land.
hassles they endured. Participants also reported on their phys-
ical and mental health. Frequent and severe hassles turned Assimilation: Adopt the new culture as your own and
out to be better predictors of day-to-day health than major have contact with its members.
life events. However, major life events did predict changes in Marginalization: Reject your old culture, but suffer
health one or two years after the events took place. It appears rejection by members of the new culture.
that daily hassles are closely linked to immediate health and
psychological well-being (Crowther et al., 2001). Major life To illustrate each pattern, let’s consider a family that has im-
changes have more of a long-term impact and exacerbate the migrated to the United States from the imaginary country
effects of daily hassles (Woods, Racine, & Klump, 2010). of Heinleinia:
The father favors integration. He is learning English and
Acculturative Stress—Stranger wants to get involved in American life. At the same time,
in a Strange Land he is a leader in the Heinleinian-American community and
spends much of his leisure time with other Heinleinian
One way to guarantee that you will experience a large num- Americans. His level of acculturative stress is low.
ber of life changes and hassles is to live in a foreign culture.
The mother speaks only the Heinleinian language and inter-
Around the world, an increasing number of emigrants and
acts only with other Heinleinian Americans. She remains al-
refugees must adapt to dramatic changes in language, dress, most completely separate from American society. Her stress
values, and social customs. For many, the result is a period level is high.
of culture shock or acculturative stress—stress caused by
The teenage daughter is annoyed by hearing Heinleinian
adapting to a foreign culture. Typical reactions to accultura- spoken at home, by her mother’s serving only Heinleinian
tive stress are anxiety, hostility, depression, alienation, phys- food, and by having to spend her leisure time with her ex-
ical illness, or identity confusion (Castañeda et al., 2015). tended Heinleinian family. She would prefer to speak Eng-
For many young immigrants, acculturative stress is a major lish and to be with her American friends. Her desire to as-
source of mental health problems (Claudat, White, & War- similate creates moderate stress.
ren, 2016; Sirin et al., 2013). The son doesn’t particularly value his Heinleinian heritage,
The severity of acculturative stress is related in part to yet his schoolmates reject him because he speaks with a
how a person adapts to a new culture. Here are four main Heinleinian accent. He feels trapped between two cultures.
patterns (Berry et al., 2005; Sam & Berry, 2010): His position is marginal, and his stress level is high.

Integration: Maintain your old cultural identity but par-

ticipate in the new culture. Hassle (microstressor) Any distressing, day-to-day annoyance.
Acculturative stress Stress caused by the many changes and adapta-
Separation: Maintain your old cultural identity and avoid
tions required when a person moves to a foreign culture.
contact with the new culture.

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490 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

To summarize, those who feel marginalized tend to missed an A by one point—well, frustration builds char-
be highly stressed; those who seek to remain separate also acter, right?
are highly stressed; those who pursue integration into their A final factor affecting frustration is summarized by
new culture are minimally stressed; and those who assimi- the old phrase “the straw that broke the camel’s back.” The
late are moderately stressed. As you can see, integration and effects of repeated frustrations can accumulate until a small
assimilation are the best options. However, a big benefit of irritation sets off an unexpectedly violent response. A case
assimilating is that people who embrace their new culture in point is the fact that people with long daily commutes are
experience fewer social difficulties. For many, this justi- more likely to display “road rage” (angry, aggressive driving)
fies the stress of adopting new customs and cultural values (Sansone & Sansone, 2010).
(Gurung, 2014; Sam & Berry, 2010). Personal frustrations are based on personal characteristics.
If you are 4 feet tall and aspire to be a professional basketball
Frustration player, you very likely will be frustrated. If you want to go to
medical school but can earn only D grades, you likewise will be
Frustration is a negative emotional state that occurs when
frustrated. In both examples, frustration is based on personal
people are prevented from reaching desired goals. If your
limitations (yet failure may be perceived as externally caused).
goal of finding a parking space is blocked by another car,
you may be frustrated and experience stress. Reactions to Frustration One of the most persistent
Obstacles of many kinds cause frustration. A useful dis- and frequent responses to frustration is aggression—any
tinction can be made between external and personal sources physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone
of frustration. External frustration is based on conditions (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2011).
outside a person that impede progress toward a goal. The fol- Does frustration always cause aggression? Aren’t there other
lowing are external frustrations: getting stuck with a flat tire, reactions? Although the connection is strong, frustration does
having a marriage proposal rejected, finding the cupboard not always incite aggression. More often, frustration is met
bare when you go to get your poor dog a bone, and being first with persistence, often in the form of more vigorous efforts
chased out of the house by your starving dog. In other words, and varied responses (➤ Figure 56.2). For example, if you put
external frustrations are based on delays, failure, rejection,
loss, and other direct blocking of motivated behavior.
Notice that external obstacles can be either social (slow
Person
drivers, tall people in theaters, people who cut in line) or Goal Goal
nonsocial (stuck doors, a dead battery, rain on the day of the
baseball game). If you ask your friends what has frustrated Barrier
them recently, most will probably mention someone’s behav- Persistence,
ior (“My sister wore one of my dresses when I wanted to wear Frustration vigorous effort
it,” “My supervisor is unfair,” or “My history teacher grades
too hard”). As social animals, we humans are highly sensitive
to social sources of frustration (Taylor, 2012). That’s prob- Goal Goal
ably why unfair treatment associated with racial or ethnic
prejudice is a major source of frustration and stress in the
lives of many African Americans and other minority group Variability, Direct
circumvention aggression
members (Brondolo et al., 2011; Gurung, 2014).
Frustration usually increases as the strength, urgency,
or importance of a blocked motive increases. An escape
artist submerged in a tank of water and bound with 200 Goal Goal
pounds of chain would become quite frustrated if a trick
lock jammed. Remember, too, that motivation becomes
stronger as we near a goal. As a result, frustration is Displaced aggression Withdrawal, escape
more intense when a person runs into an obstacle when
very close to a goal. If you’ve ever missed an A grade by ➤ Figure 56.2
five points, you were probably very frustrated. If you’ve Common Reactions to Frustration.

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 MODU LE 5 6 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: str es s o r s 491

your last dollar in a vending machine and pressing the button abuse (Weissman, Jogerst, & Dawson, 2003). In a pattern
has no effect, you probably will press harder and faster (vigor- known as scapegoating, a person or a group is blamed for
ous effort). Then, you will press all the other buttons (varied conditions not of their making. A scapegoat is a person
response). Persistence may help you reach your goal by get- who has become a habitual target of displaced aggression.
ting around a barrier. However, if the machine still refuses to Despite recent progress, many minority groups continue
deliver or return your dollar, you may become aggressive and to face hostility based on scapegoating (Vasquez, Lickel, &
kick the machine (or at least tell it what you think of it). Hennigan, 2010). Think, for example, about the hostility
Persistence can be very adaptive. Overcoming a barrier expressed toward illegal immigrants during times of
ends the frustration and allows the need or motive to be satis- economic hardship. In many communities, layoffs and job
fied. The same is true of aggression that removes or destroys a losses are closely linked to increased violence (Glick, 2008).
barrier. Picture a small band of nomadic humans, parched by Or, think about the hostility expressed toward anyone in the
thirst but separated from a water hole by a menacing animal. United States who looked even vaguely “foreign” right after
It is easy to see that attacking the animal may ensure their the recent terrorist attacks in Paris and Brussels.
survival. In modern society, such direct aggression is seldom I have a friend who dropped out of school to hitchhike
acceptable. If you find a long line at the drinking fountain, around the country. He seemed very frustrated before he quit.
aggression is hardly appropriate. Because direct aggression is What type of response to frustration is that? Another major
discouraged, it is frequently displaced (Reijntjes et al., 2013). reaction to frustration is escape, or withdrawal. It is stressful
How is aggression displaced? Directing aggression toward and unpleasant to be frustrated. If other reactions do not
a source of frustration may be impossible, or it may be too reduce frustration, a person may try to escape. Escape may
dangerous. If you are frustrated by your boss at work or by a mean actually leaving a source of frustration (dropping out
teacher at school, the cost of direct aggression may be too high of school, quitting a job, leaving an unhappy marriage), or
(losing your job or failing a class). Instead, the aggression may it may mean getting away psychologically. Two common
be displaced, or redirected, toward whomever or whatever forms of psychological escape are feigned apathy (pretend-
is available. Targets of displaced aggression tend to be safer, ing not to care) and the use of drugs such as cocaine, alco-
or less likely to retaliate, than the original source of frustra- hol, marijuana, or narcotics. Notice that these are examples
tion. At one time or another, you have probably lashed out at of ineffective emotion-focused coping (see Module 57).
a friend or relative who was not the real cause of your annoy-
Coping With Frustration In a classic experiment, a psy-
ance. As this suggests, excessive anger over a minor irritation
chologist studying frustration placed rats on a small plat-
is a common form of displaced aggression (Miller et al., 2003).
form at the top of a tall pole. Then, he forced them to jump
Psychologists attribute much hostility to displaced
off the platform toward two elevated doors, one locked
aggression. A disturbing example is the finding that unem-
and the other unlocked. If the rat chose the correct door, it
ployment and divorce are associated with increased child
swung open and the rat landed safely on another platform.
Rats that chose the locked door bounced off it and fell into
a net far below them.
The problem of choosing the open door was made un-
solvable and very frustrating by randomly alternating which
door was locked. After a time, most rats adopted a stereo-
typed response—that is, they chose the same door every
time. This door was then permanently locked. All the rats
© mariakraynova/Shutterstock.com

Frustration A negative emotional state that occurs when one is

prevented from reaching a goal.
Aggression Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.
Displaced aggression Redirecting aggression to a target other than
the actual source of one’s frustration.
Scapegoating Blaming a person or a group of people for conditions
not of their making.
Paintball seems to bring out aggressive impulses in many players. Escape Reducing discomfort by leaving frustrating situations or by
Wild shootouts are part of the fun, but are some players displacing psychologically withdrawing from them.
aggressive urges related to frustration in other areas of their lives?

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492 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

had to do was jump to the other door to avoid a fall, but time
after time, they bounced off the locked door (Maier, 1949). RENT INCREASE

Isn’t that an example of persistence? No. Persistence that

is inflexible can turn into “stupid,” stereotyped behavior like
that of a rat on a jumping platform. When dealing with frus-
– –
tration, you must know when to quit and establish a new di-
CLERK

Brüderchen & Schwesterchen GmbH/Corbis

rection. Here are some suggestions to help you avoid need- WANTED
less frustration: + Must work
weekends

1. Try to identify the source of your frustration. Is it exter-

nal or personal? + + –
2. Is the source of frustration something that can be
changed? How hard would you have to work to change
it? Is it under your control at all?
3. If the source of your frustration can be changed or
➤ Figure 56.3
Three Basic Forms of Conflict. For this woman, choosing
removed, are the necessary efforts worth it? between pie and ice cream is a minor approach–approach conflict;
choosing between paying higher rent and moving is an avoidance–
The answers to these questions help determine whether avoidance conflict; and deciding whether to take a job that will
persistence will be futile. There is value in learning to accept require weekend work is an approach–avoidance conflict.
gracefully those things that cannot be changed.
Choosing between college and work, marriage and single
conflict life, or study and failure are common conflicts. There are
Conflict occurs whenever a person must choose be- three basic forms of conflict. As we will see, each has its own
tween contradictory needs, desires, motives, or demands. properties (➤ Figure 56.3 and ➤ Figure 56.4).
Av
oi
Ap
ch
d

pr
Av

a
d

oa ro
oi
oi

p
Av

ch Ap
Ap
d

pro
ach

+ + – – +
–

or

➤ Figure 56.4
Conflict Diagrams. As shown by the colored areas in the graphs, desires to approach and to avoid increase near a goal. The effects of
these tendencies are depicted below each graph. The “behavior” of the ball in each example illustrates the nature of the conflict above it. An
approach-approach conflict (left) is easily decided. Moving toward one goal increases its attraction (graph) and leads to a rapid resolution. (If
the ball moves in either direction, it will go all the way to one of the goals.) In an avoidance-avoidance conflict (center), tendencies to avoid
are deadlocked, resulting in inaction. In an approach–avoidance conflict (right), approach proceeds to the point where desires to approach
and avoid cancel each other. Again, these tendencies are depicted (below) by the action of the ball. (Graphs after Miller, 1944.)

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 MODU LE 5 6 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: str es s o r s 493

Approach–Approach Conflicts Having to choose he worked, he could not earn passing grades. His solution
between two positive, or desirable, alternatives poses an after much conflict and indecision? He joined the navy.
approach–approach conflict. Choosing between tutti-frutti-
Approach–Avoidance Conflicts Approach–avoidance
coconut-mocha-champagne ice and orange-marmalade-
conflicts also are difficult to resolve. In some ways, they are
peanut-butter-coffee swirl at the ice cream parlor may throw
more troublesome than avoidance conflicts because people
you into a temporary conflict. However, if you really like both
seldom escape them. A person in an approach–avoidance
choices, your decision will be quick. Even when more impor-
conflict is “caught” by being attracted to, and repelled by,
tant decisions are at stake, approach–approach conflicts tend
the same goal or activity. Attraction keeps the person in the
to be the easiest to resolve. The old fable about the mule that
situation, but its negative aspects cause turmoil and distress.
died of thirst and starvation while standing between a bucket
For example, a high school student arrives to pick up his date
of water and a bucket of oats is obviously unrealistic. When
for the first time. He is met at the door by her father, who is
both options are positive, the scales of decision are easily
a professional wrestler—7 feet tall, 300 pounds, and entirely
tipped in one direction or the other.
covered with hair. The father gives the boy a crushing hand-
Avoidance–Avoidance Conflicts Being forced to shake and growls that he will break him in half if the girl is not
choose between two negative, or undesirable, alternatives home on time. The student considers the girl attractive and
creates an avoidance–avoidance conflict. A person in an has a good time. But does he ask her out again? It depends
avoidance conflict is caught between “the devil and the deep on the relative strength of his attraction and his fear. Almost
blue sea,” “the frying pan and the fire,” or “a rock and a hard certainly he will feel ambivalent about asking her out again,
place.” In real life, avoidance conflicts involve dilemmas such knowing that another encounter with her father awaits him.
as choosing between unwanted pregnancy and abortion, the Ambivalence (mixed positive and negative feelings) is a
dentist and tooth decay, a monotonous job and poverty, or central characteristic of approach–avoidance conflicts. Am-
dorm food and starvation. bivalence is usually translated into partial approach (Miller,
Suppose that I consider any pregnancy sacred and not to 1944). Because the student in our example is still attracted
be tampered with. Or, suppose that I don’t object to abortion. to the girl, he may spend time with her at school and else-
Like many other stressful situations, these examples can be where. But he may not actually date her again. Some more
defined as conflicts only on the basis of personal needs and realistic examples of approach–avoidance conflicts are plan-
values. If a woman would not consider abortion under any ning to marry someone your parents strongly disapprove of,
circumstances, she experiences no conflict. If she wants to wanting to be in a play but suffering stage fright, wanting to
end a pregnancy and does not object to abortion, she also buy a car but not wanting to make monthly payments, and
experiences no conflict. wanting to eat when you’re already overweight. Many of life’s
Avoidance conflicts often have a “damned if you do, important decisions have approach–avoidance dimensions.
damned if you don’t” quality. In other words, both choices
Multiple Conflicts Aren’t real-life conflicts more com-
are negative, but not choosing may be impossible or equally
plex than the ones described here? Yes. Conflicts are rarely
undesirable. To illustrate, imagine the plight of a person
as clear-cut as those described. People in conflict are usu-
trapped in a hotel fire 20 stories from the ground. Should
ally faced with several dilemmas at once, so several types
she jump from the window and almost surely die on the
of conflict may be intermingled. In real life, it is common
pavement? Or, should she try to dash through the flames
to face multiple approach–avoidance conflicts, in which
and almost surely die of smoke inhalation and burns? When
you are simultaneously attracted to and repelled by each of
faced with a choice such as this, it is easy to see why people
often freeze, finding it impossible to decide or take action. In Conflict A stressful condition that occurs when a person must
actual disasters of this sort, people are often found dead in choose between incompatible or contradictory alternatives.
their rooms, victims of an inability to take action. Approach–approach conflict Choosing between two positive, or
Indecision, inaction, and freezing are not the only reac- desirable, alternatives.
Avoidance–avoidance conflict Choosing between two negative,
tions to avoidance conflicts. Because avoidance conflicts are undesirable alternatives.
stressful and difficult to solve, people sometimes pull out of Approach–avoidance conflict Being attracted to and repelled by the
them entirely. This reaction, called leaving the field, is anoth- same goal or activity.
Multiple approach–avoidance conflict Being simultaneously
er form of escape. It may explain the behavior of a student
attracted to and repelled by each of several alternatives.
who could not attend school unless he worked. However, if

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494 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

several alternatives. For example, you are offered two jobs: conflicts. However, here are some additional things to re-
One is in a good city and pays well but offers poor hours and member when you are in conflict or must make a difficult
dull work; the other is in a city you don’t like so much and decision:
pays poorly but offers interesting work and excellent hours.
1. Don’t be hasty when making important decisions. Hasty
Which do you select? Situations like these are more typical
decisions are often regretted. Even if you do make a
of the choices that we must usually make. The options are
faulty decision, it will trouble you less if you know that
neither completely positive nor completely negative.
you did everything possible to avoid a mistake.
As with single approach–avoidance conflicts, people
2. Try out important decisions partially when possible. If
faced with multiple approach–avoidance conflicts tend to
you are thinking about moving to a new town, try to
feel ambivalent about each choice. This causes them to vacil-
spend a few days there first. If you are choosing between
late, or waver, between the alternatives. Just as you are about
colleges, do the same. If classes are in progress, sit in on
to choose one such alternative, its undesirable aspects tend
some. If you want to learn to scuba dive, rent equipment
to loom large. What do you do? You swing back toward the
for a reasonable length of time before buying.
other choice. If you have ever been romantically attracted
to two people at once—each having qualities you like and 3. Look for workable compromises. Again, it is important
dislike—then you have probably experienced vacillation. to get all the available information. If you think that you
Another example that may be familiar is trying to decide have only one or two alternatives and they are undesir-
between two college majors, each with advantages and dis- able or unbearable, seek the aid of a teacher, counselor,
advantages. minister, or social service agency. You may be overlook-
When multiple approach-avoidance conflicts involve ing possible alternatives that these people will know
major life decisions, such as choosing a career, a school, a about.
mate, or a job, they can add greatly to the amount of stress 4. When all else fails, make a decision and live with it.
we experience. Indecision and conflict exact a high cost. Sometimes
it is best to select a course of action and stick with it,
Managing conflicts unless it is obviously wrong after you have started it.
How can I handle conflicts more effectively? Most of the sug- Conflicts are a normal part of life. With practice, you
gestions made earlier concerning frustration also apply to can learn to manage many of the conflicts that you will face.

MODULE

56 Summary
56.1 What is a stressor, and what factors 56.2 What are some types of stressors?
determine its severity? 56.2.1 Work with stress scales like the Social Readjustment
56.1.1 A stressor is a condition or event that challenges or Rating Scale indicates that multiple life changes tend
threatens a person. to increase long-range susceptibility to accident or
56.1.2 Making a primary appraisal greatly affects our emo- illness.
tional responses to a situation. Stress is intensified 56.2.2 Immediate physical and psychological health is more
when a situation is appraised as a threat. closely related to the intensity and severity of daily
56.1.3 During a secondary appraisal, we select a way to hassles (microstressors).
manage stress. Stress also is intensified when a person 56.2.3 Acculturative stress arises during adaptation to a for-
does not feel competent to cope with it. eign culture. Four acculturative patterns are integra-
56.1.4 Stress is more damaging in situations involving tion, separation, assimilation, and marginalization.
a lack of control, unpredictability of the stressor, 56.2.4 Frustration is the negative emotional state that occurs
and pressure. when progress toward a goal is blocked. External
56.1.5 In work settings, prolonged stress can lead to frustrations are based on delay, failure, rejection,
burnout. loss, and other direct blocking of motives. Personal

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 MODU LE 5 6 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: str es s o r s 495

frustration is related to personal characteristics over 56.2.8 Avoidance–avoidance conflicts are difficult to resolve
which one has little control. and are characterized by inaction, indecision, freez-
56.2.5 Major behavioral reactions to frustration include per- ing, and a desire to escape (called leaving the field).
sistence, more vigorous responding, circumvention, 56.2.9 People usually remain in approach–avoidance
direct aggression, displaced aggression (including conflicts but fail to fully resolve them. Approach–
scapegoating), and escape or withdrawal. avoidance conflicts are associated with ambivalence
56.2.6 Three basic types of conflict are approach–approach, and partial approach.
avoidance–avoidance, and approach–avoidance. 56.2.10 Vacillation is a common reaction to multiple ap-
56.2.7 Approach–approach conflicts are usually the easiest proach–avoidance conflicts.
to resolve.

Knowledge Builder Health Psychology: Stressors

Recite a. an approach–approach conflict

1. According to Richard Lazarus, choosing a way to meet a b. an avoidance–avoidance conflict
threat or challenge takes place during the ____________ c. a multiple approach–avoidance conflict
__________________________________. d. an escape situation
a. primary stress reaction
Reflect
b. secondary stress reaction
c. primary appraisal Think critically
d. secondary appraisal 8. Being frustrated is unpleasant. If some action, including
2. Stress tends to be greatest when a situation is appraised as aggression, ends frustration, why might we expect the
a(n) ______________________ and a person does not feel action to be repeated on other occasions?
________________________ to cope with the situation.
3. Emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced accom- Self-Reflect
plishment are characteristics of job ______________. Do you think there is more of a connection between major life
4. The SRRS appears to predict long-range changes in events and your health? Or, have you observed more of a con-
health, whereas the frequency and severity of daily nection between microstressors and your health?
microstressors are closely related to immediate ratings of Suppose that you moved to a foreign country. How much
health. T or F? acculturative stress do you think you would face? Which pat-
5. Which of the following is not a common reaction to tern of adaptation do you think you would adopt?
frustration? Think of a time when you were frustrated. What was your
a. ambivalence goal? What prevented you from reaching it? Was your frustra-
b. aggression tion external or personal?
c. displaced aggression Have you ever displaced aggression? Why did you choose
d. persistence another target for your hostility?
6. Displaced aggression is closely related to the pattern of Review the major types of conflict and think of a conflict
behavior known as you have faced that illustrates each type.
a. scapegoating
b. leaving the field AN SW E R S
c. stereotyped responding
more likely to occur in the future (see Module 29).
d. burnout discomfort, the response has been negatively reinforced. This makes it
7. You would be most likely to experience vacillation if you 1. d 2. threat, competent 3. burnout 4. T 5. a 6. a 7. c 8. If a response ends
found yourself in

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MODULE

57 Health Psychology
Coping with Stress

Malala’s Triumph
There can be no doubt that Malala Yousafzai experienced a trau-
ma. In 2012, while a 15-year-old student in northwest Pakistan, she
was shot in the head by a religious extremist who believed that girls
should not be educated. Not only did she survive, she has thrived
as a global symbol of the power of education. Less than a year later,
addressing the United Nations, she asserted, “They thought that
the bullets would silence us, but they failed. The terrorists thought
they would change my aims and stop my ambitions. But nothing
changed in my life except this: Weakness, fear, and hopelessness
died. Strength, power, and courage was born” (Schifrin, 2013).
Stressful and threatening experiences often produce anxiety.
How do we handle this unpleasant state? Psychodynamic psycholo-
niu xiaolei/Xinhua Press/Corbis Wire/Corbis

gists have identified various defense mechanisms that shield us from

anxiety. You might not always be aware of it, but you have probably
used several of the defenses described here. You’ll also find an inter-
esting perspective on helplessness and depression in this module,
with a special section on the “college blues.”

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
57.1 What are problem-focused and emotion-focused 57.3 What do we know about coping with feelings of
coping? helplessness and depression?
57.2 What are defense mechanisms?

Coping Styles—Making the Best of It

Survey Question 57.1 What are problem-focused and
coping aims at managing or correcting the distressing situa-
emotion-focused coping?
tion. Some examples are making a plan of action or concen-
You have appraised a situation as stressful. What will you do trating on your next step. In contrast, in emotion-focused
next? You have two major choices. Both involve thinking and coping, we try to control our emotional reactions to the
acting in ways that help us handle stress. Problem-focused situation. For example, a distressed person may calm or

496
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 MODU LE 57 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: c o P i n g witH str es s 497

distract hisself by listening to music, taking a walk to relax, Americans faced elevated risks of hypertension and heart
or seeking emotional support from others (Herman & problems for three years after 9/11 (Holman et al., 2008).
Tetrick, 2009; Smith & Kirby, 2011). Indirect exposure to such terrorist attacks, coupled with
In general, problem-focused coping tends to be espe- the ongoing risk of more attacks, has ensured that many
cially useful when you are facing a controllable stressor— people will suffer ongoing stress into the foreseeable future
that is, a situation you can actually do something about. (Marshall et al., 2007).
Emotion-focused efforts are best suited to managing Traumatic stress produces feelings of helplessness and
your reaction to stressors you cannot control (Folkman & vulnerability. Victims realize that disaster could strike again
Moskowitz, 2004; Smith & Kirby, 2011). without warning. In addition to feeling threatened, many
Couldn’t both types of coping occur together? Yes. victims sense that they are losing control of their lives (Fields
Sometimes the two types of coping aid one another. For & Margolin, 2001; Ford, 2012).
instance, quieting your emotions may make it easier for What can people do about such reactions? Psychologists
you to find a way to solve a problem. Say, for example, that recommend the following:
you feel anxious as you step in front of your class to give
◗ Identify what you are feeling and talk to others about
a presentation. If you take a few deep breaths to reduce
your fears and concerns.
your anxiety (emotion-focused coping), you will be better
◗ Think about the skills that have helped you overcome
able to glance over your notes to improve your delivery
adversity in the past and apply them to the present
(problem-focused coping).
situation.
It is also possible for coping efforts to clash. For in-
stance, if you have to make a difficult decision, you may ◗ Continue to do the things that you enjoy and that make
suffer intense emotional distress. In such circumstances, life meaningful.
it is tempting to make a quick, unreflective choice, just to ◗ Get support from others. This is a major element in
end the suffering (Arnsten, Mazure, & Sinha, 2012). Doing recovery from all traumatic events.
so may allow you to cope with your emotions, but it short- ◗ Give yourself time to heal. Fortunately, most people are
changes problem-focused coping. more resilient than they think.
So far, our discussion has focused on everyday stresses. When traumatic stresses are severe or repeated, some
How do people react to the extreme stresses imposed by people have even more serious symptoms (Durand & Bar-
war, violence, or disaster? Read on. . . . low, 2013). They suffer from crippling anxiety or become
emotionally numb. Typically, they can’t stop thinking
Coping With Traumatic Stress about the disturbing event, they anxiously avoid anything
Traumatic experiences produce psychological injury or in- associated with the event, and they are constantly fear-
tense emotional pain. Victims of traumatic stresses, such ful or nervous. Such reactions can leave victims emotion-
as war, torture, rape, assassination, plane crashes, natural ally handicapped for months or years after a disaster. The
disasters, and street violence, may suffer from nightmares, consequences can last a lifetime for children who are the
flashbacks, insomnia, irritability, nervousness, grief, emo- victims of trauma (Gillespie & Nemeroff, 2007; Salloum &
tional numbing, and depression (Durand & Barlow, 2013; Overstreet, 2012). (These are also the symptoms of stress
Sue et al., 2016). For example, the annual parade of torna- disorders, which are discussed in Module 63.) If you feel
does and hurricanes, along with the resulting chaos, are un- that you are having trouble coping with a severe emotional
doubtedly traumatically stressful events. shock, consider seeking help from a psychologist or other
People who personally witness or survive a disaster are professional (American Psychological Association, 2016;
most affected by traumatic stress. For instance, 20 percent Bisson et al., 2007).
of the people who lived close to the World Trade Center in
New York City suffered serious stress disorders after the
Problem-focused coping Directly managing or remedying a stressful
9/11 terrorist attack (Galea et al., 2002). Yet even those or threatening situation.
who experience horror at a distance may be traumatized Emotion-focused coping Managing or controlling one’s emotional
(Galea & Resnick, 2005). In fact, 44 percent of U.S. adults reaction to a stressful or threatening situation.
Traumatic stresses Extreme events that cause psychological injury
who only saw the 9/11 attacks on television had at least or intense emotional pain.
some stress symptoms (Schuster et al., 2001). For example,

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498 P SyCHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

Psychological Defense—Mental Karate?

Survey Question 57.2 What are defense mechanisms? Denial One of the most basic defenses is denial—
protecting oneself from an unpleasant reality by refus-
Threatening situations tend to produce anxiety. When
ing to accept it or believe it. We are prone to deny death,
you are anxious, you feel tense, uneasy, apprehensive,
illness, and similar painful and threatening events. For
worried, and vulnerable. This unpleasant state can lead
instance, if you were told that you had only three months
to emotion-focused coping that is defensive in nature
to live, how would you react? Your first thoughts might be,
(Kramer et al., 2010). Psychodynamic psychologists have
“Aw, come on, someone must have mixed up the X-rays,”
identified various defense mechanisms that allow us to
or, “The doctor must be mistaken,” or simply, “It can’t be
reduce anxiety caused by stressful situations or our own
true!” Similar denial and disbelief are common reactions
shortcomings (Sue et al., 2016). You might not always be
to the unexpected death of a friend or relative: “It’s just not
aware of it, but you have probably used several of the de-
real. I don’t believe it!”
fenses described here.
What are psychological defense mechanisms, and how do Repression Freud noticed that his patients had tre-
they reduce anxiety? A defense mechanism is a protective mendous difficulty recalling shocking or traumatic events
behavior that reduces anxiety. Many of the defenses were from childhood. It seemed that powerful forces were hold-
first identified by Sigmund Freud, who assumed they op- ing these painful memories from awareness. Freud called
erate unconsciously. Often, defense mechanisms create large this repression, and said that we use it to protect ourselves
blind spots in awareness. For instance, you might know an by blocking out threatening thoughts and impulses. Feel-
extremely stingy person who is completely unaware that he ings of hostility toward a family member, the names of
is a tightwad. people we dislike, and past failures are common targets
Everyone has at one time or another used defense mech- of repression. Research suggests that you are most likely
anisms. Let’s consider some of the most common; a more to repress information that threatens your self-image
complete listing is given in ■ Table 57.1 (Sue et al., 2016). (Axmacher et al., 2010).

Table 57.1 Psychological defense Mechanisms

Compensation Counteracting a real or imagined weakness by emphasizing desirable traits or seeking to excel in
the area of weakness or in other areas
Denial Protecting oneself from an unpleasant reality by refusing to acknowledge or perceive it
Displacement (sublimation) Diverting a thought or behavior from its natural target toward a less threatening one
Fantasy Fulfilling unmet desires in imagined achievements or activities
Identification Taking on some of the characteristics of an admired person, usually as a way to compensate for
perceived personal weaknesses or faults
Intellectualization Separating emotion from a threatening or anxiety-provoking situation by talking or thinking
about it in impersonal “intellectual” terms
Isolation Separating contradictory thoughts or feelings into “logic-tight” mental compartments so that they
do not come into conflict
Projection Attributing one’s own feelings, shortcomings, or unacceptable impulses to others
Rationalization Creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior
Reaction formation Preventing dangerous impulses from being expressed in behavior by exaggerating opposite behavior
Regression Retreating to an earlier level of development or to earlier, less demanding habits or situations
Repression Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

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 MODU LE 57 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: c o P i n g witH str es s 499

Reaction Formation In a reaction formation, impulses personal actions by giving plausible “rational” but false
are not just repressed; they also are held in check by exag- reasons for them. When the explanation you give for your
gerating opposite behavior. For example, a mother who behavior is reasonable and plausible—but not the real
unconsciously resents her children may, through reaction reason—you are rationalizing.
formation, become absurdly overprotective and overindul- All the defense mechanisms described seem pretty un-
gent. Her real thoughts of “I hate them” and “I wish they desirable. Do they have a positive side? People who overuse
were gone” are replaced by “I love them” and “I don’t know defense mechanisms become less adaptable because they
what I would do without them.” The mother’s hostile im- consume great amounts of emotional energy to control
pulses are traded for “smother” love so that she won’t have anxiety and maintain an unrealistic self-image. Defense
to admit that she really hates her children. Thus, the basic mechanisms do have value, though. Often, they help keep
idea in a reaction formation is that the individual acts out an us from being overwhelmed by immediate threats. This can
opposite behavior to block threatening impulses or feelings. provide time for a person to learn to cope in a more effective,
problem-focused manner. If you recognize some of your
Regression In its broadest meaning, regression refers
own behavior in the descriptions here, it is hardly a sign that
to any return to earlier, less demanding situations or hab-
you are hopelessly defensive. As noted earlier, most people
its. Most parents who have a second child have to put up
occasionally use defense mechanisms (Diehl et al., 2014).
with at least some regression by the older child. Threat-
Two defense mechanisms that have a decidedly more
ened by a new rival for affection, an older child may regress
positive quality are compensation and displacement.
to childish speech, bed-wetting, or infantile play after the
new baby arrives. If you’ve ever seen a child get homesick Compensation Compensatory reactions are defenses
at summer camp or on a vacation, you’ve observed regres- against feelings of inferiority. Compensation occurs when
sion. The child wants to go home, where it’s “safe.” An adult a person with a defect or weakness (real or imagined) goes
who throws a temper tantrum or a married adult who “goes to unusual lengths to overcome the weakness or to excel in
home to mother” also is regressing. other areas. One of the pioneers of “pumping iron” was Jack
LaLanne, who opened the first modern health club in America.
Projection Projection is an unconscious process that pro-
LaLanne made a successful career out of bodybuilding in spite
tects us from the anxiety that we would feel if we were to
of the fact that he was thin and sickly as a young man. Perhaps
discern our faults. A person who is projecting tends to see
it would be more accurate to say because he was thin and
his or her own feelings, shortcomings, or unacceptable im-
sickly. You can find dozens of examples of compensation at
pulses in others. Projection lowers anxiety by exaggerating
work. A childhood stutterer may excel in debate at college.
negative traits in others. This justifies one’s own actions and
As a child, Helen Keller was unable to see or hear, but she be-
directs attention away from personal failings.
came an outstanding thinker and writer. Perhaps Ray Charles,
One of your authors once worked for a greedy shop
owner who cheated many of his customers. This same man
considered himself a pillar of the community and very mor- Anxiety Apprehension, dread, or uneasiness similar to fear but
based on an unclear threat.
al and religious. How did he justify to himself his greed and Defense mechanism In Freud’s personality theory, a protective
dishonesty? He believed that everyone who entered his store behavior that reduces anxiety.
was bent on cheating him any way they could. In reality, few, Denial Protecting oneself from an unpleasant reality by refusing to
acknowledge or perceive it.
if any, of his customers shared his motives, but he projected
Repression Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the
his own greed and dishonesty onto them. unconscious.
Reaction formation Preventing dangerous impulses from being
Rationalization Every teacher is familiar with this strange expressed in behavior by exaggerating opposite behavior.
phenomenon: On the day of an exam, an incredible wave of di- Regression Retreating to an earlier level of development or to
sasters sweeps through the city. Mothers, fathers, sisters, broth- earlier, less demanding habits or situations.
Projection Attributing one’s own feelings, shortcomings, or
ers, aunts, uncles, grandparents, friends, relatives, and pets of
unacceptable impulses to others.
students become ill or die. Motors suddenly fall out of cars. Rationalization Creating false but plausible excuses to justify
Books are lost or stolen. Alarm clocks go belly-up and ring no unacceptable behavior.
more. All manner of computer equipment malfunctions. Compensation Counteracting a real or imagined weakness by
emphasizing desirable traits or seeking to excel in the area of
The making of excuses comes from a natural tendency weakness or in other areas.
to explain our behavior. Rationalization refers to justifying

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500 P SyCHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

Stevie Wonder, Andrea Bocelli, and other blind entertainers

were drawn to music because of their disability.
Displacement When we divert a thought or behavior
from its natural target toward a less threatening one, we
are engaged in displacement, which is also referred to as
sublimation (sub-lih-MAY-shun). Freud believed that art,
music, dance, poetry, scientific investigation, and other cre-
ative activities could serve to rechannel sexual energies into
productive behavior. Freud also felt that almost any strong
desire could be displaced. For example, a very aggressive
person may find social acceptance as a professional soldier,
boxer, or football player. Greed may be refined into a suc-
cessful business career. Lying may be displaced into story-
telling, creative writing, or politics.

© CHEN WS/Shutterstock.com
Sexual motives appear to be the most easily and widely
sublimated (Moran, 2010). Freud would have had a field day
with such modern pastimes as surfing, motorcycle riding,
drag racing, and dancing to or playing rock music, to name
but a few. People enjoy each of these activities for a multi- For some competitors—and fans—mixed martial arts may well allow
tude of reasons, but it is hard to overlook the rich sexual sublimation of aggressive urges. Call of Duty, Bioshock, and similar
symbolism apparent in each. first-person shooter computer games may serve the same purpose.

Learned Helplessness and Depression—Is There Hope?

Survey Question 57.3 What do we know about coping control the outcome of events such as an inability to over-
with feelings of helplessness and depression? come obstacles and avoid aversive stimuli (Seligman, 1989).
To observe learned helplessness, let’s see what happens when
What would happen if a person’s defenses failed or if the per-
animals are tested in a shuttle box (➤ Figure 57.1). If placed
son appraised a threatening situation as hopeless? Martin
in one side of a divided box, dogs quickly learn to leap to
Seligman studied the case of a young Marine who seemed
the other side to escape an electric shock. If they are given
to have adapted to the stresses of being held prisoner dur-
a warning before the shock occurs (for example, a light that
ing the Vietnam War. The Marine’s health was related to a
dims), most dogs learn to avoid the shock by leaping the
promise made by his captors: If he cooperated, they said, he
barrier before the shock arrives. This is true of most dogs,
would be released on a certain date. As the date approached,
but not those who have learned to feel helpless (Overmier &
his spirits soared. Then came a devastating blow. He had
LoLordo, 1998).
been deceived. His captors had no intention of ever releas-
How is a dog made to feel helpless? Before being tested
ing him. He immediately lapsed into a deep depression, re-
in the shuttle box, a dog can be placed in a harness (from
fused to eat or drink, and died shortly thereafter.
which the dog cannot escape) and then given several pain-
That seems like an extreme example. Does anything simi-
ful shocks. The animal is helpless to prevent these shocks.
lar occur outside concentration camps and wartime scenari-
When placed in the shuttle box, dogs prepared in this way
os? Apparently so. For example, researchers in San Antonio,
react to the first shock by crouching, howling, and whining.
Texas, asked older people if they were hopeful about the fu-
None of them try to escape. They helplessly resign them-
ture. Those who answered “No” died at elevated rates (Stern,
selves to their fate. After all, they have already learned that
Dhanda, & Hazuda, 2001).
there is nothing they can do about getting shocked.
As the shuttle box experiments suggest, helplessness
Learned Helplessness is a psychological state that occurs when events appear to
To explain such patterns, psychologists have focused on the be uncontrollable (Seligman, 1989). Helplessness also af-
concept of learned helplessness, a belief that one cannot flicts humans (Domjan, 2015; Reivich et al., 2013). It is a

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 MODU LE 57 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: c o P i n g witH str es s 501

➤ Figure 57.1
Learned Helplessness. In the normal course of
escape and avoidance learning, a light dims shortly
before the floor is electrified (a). Because the light does
not yet have meaning for the dog, the dog receives a
shock (noninjurious, by the way) and leaps the barrier
(b). Dogs soon learn to watch for the dimming of the
light (c) and to jump before receiving a shock (d). Dogs
(a) (b) made to feel “helpless” rarely even learn to escape
shock, much less to avoid it.

(c) (d)

common reaction to repeated failure and to unpredictable 15-year-old boy. For Archie, school is an unending series
or unavoidable punishment. A prime example is college stu- of shocks and failures. Other students treat him as if he’s
dents who feel helpless about their schoolwork. Such stu- stupid; in class, he rarely answers questions because he
dents tend to procrastinate, give up easily, and drop out of doesn’t know some of the words. He feels knocked down
school (Perry, 2003). everywhere he turns. These may not be electric shocks,
Where humans are concerned, attributions (discussed but they are certainly emotional “shocks,” and Archie has
in Module 44) have a large effect on helplessness. Persons learned to feel helpless to prevent them. When he leaves
who are made to feel helpless in one situation are more school, his chances of success are poor. He has learned to
likely to act helpless in other situations if they attribute passively endure whatever shocks life has in store for him.
their failure to lasting, general factors. An example would Archie is not alone in this regard. Hopelessness is almost
be concluding “I must be stupid” after doing poorly on a always a major element of depression (Durand & Barlow,
test in a biology class. In contrast, attributing a low score 2013; Reivich et al., 2013).
to specific factors in the situation (“I’m not too good at the
Recognizing Depression Most people know, obviously
type of test my biology professor uses” or “I’m not very in-
enough, when they are “down.” But depression is a complex
terested in biology”) tends to prevent learned helplessness
problem that takes many forms and has many causes (see
from spreading (Peterson & Vaidya, 2001; Prochaska &
Module 62.) You should assume that more than a minor
Norcross, 2014).
fluctuation in mood is involved when the following condi-
tions exist (National Institute of Mental Health, 2015):
Depression
1. Persistent sad, anxious, or “empty” feelings
Seligman and others have pointed out the similarities be-
tween learned helplessness and depression. Both are 2. Feelings of guilt, worthlessness, helplessness, or any
marked by feelings of despondency, powerlessness, and combination of the three
hopelessness. “Helpless” animals display decreased activ- 3. Difficulty concentrating, remembering details, and
ity, lowered aggression, blunted appetite, and a loss of sex making decisions
drive. Humans suffer from similar effects and also tend to
see themselves as failing, even when they’re not (Brown &
Displacement Diverting a thought or behavior from its natural
Barlow, 2011; LoLordo, 2001). target toward a less threatening one.
Depression is one of the most widespread emo- Learned helplessness Belief that one cannot control the outcome of
tional problems. While it undoubtedly has many causes, events.
Depression A state of despondency marked by feelings of power-
learned helplessness seems to explain many cases. For lessness and hopelessness.
example, Seligman (1972) describes the fate of Archie, a

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502 P SyCHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

4. Feelings of hopelessness and/or pessimism 1. Stresses from college work and pressures to choose a
5. Loss of interest in activities or hobbies once pleasurable, career can leave students feeling that they are missing
including sex out on fun or that all their hard work is meaningless.
2. Isolation and loneliness are common when students
Hope Does Seligman’s research give any clues about how
leave their support groups behind. Before they went to
to “unlearn” helplessness? With dogs, an effective technique
college, family, a circle of high school friends, and often
is to forcibly drag them away from shock into the “safe”
a boyfriend or girlfriend could be counted on for sup-
compartment. After this is done several times, the animals
port and encouragement.
regain “hope” and feelings of control over the environment.
Just how this can be done with humans is a question psy- 3. Problems with studying and grades frequently trigger
chologists are exploring. It seems obvious, for instance, that depression. Many students start college with high aspi-
someone like Archie would benefit from an educational rations and little prior experience with failure. At the
program that would allow him to “succeed” repeatedly. same time, many lack the basic skills necessary for aca-
In mastery training, responses that lead to mastery of demic success and are afraid of failure.
a threat or control over one’s environment are reinforced. 4. Depression can be triggered by the breakup of an inti-
Animals that undergo such training become more resis- mate relationship, either with a former boyfriend or
tant to learned helplessness (Volpicelli et al., 1983). For girlfriend or with a newly formed college romance.
example, animals that first learn to escape shock become 5. Students who find it difficult to live up to their ide-
more persistent in trying to flee inescapable shock. In ef- alized images of themselves are especially prone to
fect, they don’t give up, even when the situation really is depression.
“hopeless.” 6. An added danger is that depressed students are more
Such findings suggest that we might be able to “im- likely to abuse alcohol, which is a depressant.
munize” people against helplessness and depression by al-
Coping with the College Blues Bouts of the college
lowing them to master difficult challenges (Miltenberger,
blues are closely related to stressful events. Learning to
2016). The Outward Bound program, in which people pit
manage college work and to challenge self-critical think-
themselves against the rigors of mountaineering, whitewater
ing can help alleviate mild school-related depression (Ha-
canoeing, and wilderness survival, might serve as a model
lonen & Santrock, 2013). For example, if you don’t do well
for this concept.
on a test or a class assignment, how do you react? If you
The value of hope should not be overlooked. As fragile
see it as a small, isolated setback, you probably won’t feel
as this emotion seems, it is a powerful antidote to depression
too bad. However, if you feel like you have “blown it” in a
and helplessness (Weingarten, 2010). As an individual, you
big way, depression may follow. Students who strongly link
may find hope in religion, nature, human companionship,
everyday events to long-term goals (such as a successful ca-
or even technology. Wherever you find it, remember its val-
reer or high income) tend to overreact to day-to-day disap-
ue: Hope is among the most important of all human emo-
pointments (McIntosh, Harlow, & Martin, 1995; Halonen &
tions. Having positive beliefs, such as optimism, hope, and
Santrock, 2013).
a sense of meaning and control, is closely related to overall
What does the preceding tell us about the college blues?
well-being (Diener & Chan, 2011).
The implication is that it’s important to take daily tasks one
step at a time and chip away at them (Watson & Tharp,
The College Blues 2014). That way, you are less likely to feel overwhelmed,
During the school year, many college students suffer symp- helpless, or hopeless. When you feel “blue,” you should
toms of depression, which can exert a toll on academic per- make a daily schedule for yourself (Pychyl, 2013). Try to
formance (Lindsey, Fabiano, & Stark, 2009). In one study, schedule activities to fill up every hour during the day. It is
students diagnosed with depression scored half a grade best to start with easy activities and progress to more dif-
point below nondepressed students (Hysenbegasi, Hass, & ficult tasks. Check off each item as it is completed. That
Rowland, 2005). Why do students get “blue”? Various prob- way, you will begin to break the self-defeating cycle of feel-
lems contribute to depressive feelings. Here are some of the ing helpless and falling further behind. (Depressed stu-
most common (Aselton, 2012; Enns, Cox, & Clara, 2005; dents spend much of their time sleeping.) A series of small
Gonzalez, Reynolds, & Skewes, 2011): accomplishments, successes, or pleasures may be all that

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 MODU LE 57 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy: c o P i n g witH str es s 503

you need to get going again. However, if you are lacking end depression if you view them as stable and continuing
skills needed for success in college, ask for help in getting rather than temporary and fragile.
them. Don’t remain “helpless.” Attacks of the college blues are common and should be
Feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness are usually distinguished from more serious cases of depression. Severe
supported by self-critical or negative thoughts. Consider depression is a serious problem that can lead to suicide
writing down such thoughts as they occur, especially those or a major impairment of emotional functioning. In such
that immediately precede feelings of sadness (Pennebaker cases, it would be wise to seek professional help (Corsini &
& Chung, 2007). After you have collected these thoughts, Wedding, 2014).
write a rational answer to each. For example, the thought
“No one loves me” should be answered with a list of those
who do care about you. One more point to keep in mind is
Mastery training Reinforcement of responses that lead to mastery
this: When events begin to improve, try to accept it as a sign of a threat or control over one’s environment.
that better times lie ahead. Positive events are most likely to

MODULE

57 Summary
57.1 What are problem-focused and emotion- rationalization, reaction formation, regression, and
focused coping? repression.
57.1.1 Problem-focused coping involves directly manag- 57.3 What do we know about coping with feelings
ing or remedying a stressful or threatening situa- of helplessness and depression?
tion. Emotion-focused coping relies on managing or
57.3.1 Learned helplessness can be used as a model for
controlling one’s emotional reaction to a stressful or
understanding depression. Depression is a major, and
threatening situation.
surprisingly common, emotional problem.
57.2 What are defense mechanisms? 57.3.2 Actions and thoughts that counter feelings of help-
57.2.1 Defense mechanisms are mental processes used to lessness tend to reduce depression. Mastery training,
avoid, deny, or distort sources of threat or anxiety, optimism, and hope all act as antidotes for learned
including threats to one’s self-image. Overuse of helplessness or depression.
defense mechanisms makes people less adaptable. 57.3.3 The college blues are a relatively mild form of de-
57.2.2 Several defense mechanisms have been identified, pression. Learning to manage college work and to
including compensation, denial, displacement, challenge self-critical thinking can help alleviate the
fantasy, intellectualization, isolation, projection, college blues.

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504 P SyCHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

Knowledge Builder Health Psychology: Coping with Stress

Recite
1. Stress is always better dealt with through problem- 7. Frequent self-criticism and self-blame are a natural con-
focused coping. T or F? sequence of doing college work. T or F?
2. Fulfilling frustrated desires in imaginary achievements or
activities defines the defense mechanism of Reflect
a. compensation Think Critically
b. isolation 8. Learned helplessness is closely related to which of the
c. fantasy factors that determine the severity of stress?
d. displacement
3. In compensation, one’s own undesirable characteristics or Self-Reflect
motives are attributed to others. T or F? What type of coping do you tend to use when you face a
4. Of the defense mechanisms, two that are considered stressor such as public speaking or taking an important exam?
relatively constructive are We tend to be blind to our own reliance on defense mecha-
a. compensation nisms. See if you can think of one example of each defense
b. denial that you have observed yourself or someone else using.
c. isolation Have you ever felt helpless in a particular situation? What
d. projection caused you to feel that way?
e. regression Imagine that a friend of yours is suffering from the college
f. rationalization blues. What advice would you give your friend?
g. displacement
5. Depression in humans is similar to ________________ AN SW E R S
________________ observed in animal experiments. petence and lack of control.
6. Learned helplessness tends to occur when events appear 1. F 2. c 3. F 4. a, g 5. learned helplessness 6. c 7. F 8. Feelings of incom-
to be
a. frustrating
b. in conflict
c. uncontrollable
d. problem focused

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 MODULE
Health Psychology
Stress and Health 58
Type A
Have you ever become ill after facing a stressful final
exam period? Or gotten sick after experiencing one or
more positive life events, like getting married? Was it a
coincidence? Maybe you even got accused of faking it, of
being a hypochondriac, or of having a psychosomatic prob-
lem and needing a psychiatrist. Antoine, a college wide
receiver, got teased when his teammates found out he had

Ariel Skelley/Blend Images/SuperStock

chronic high blood pressure. They even nicknamed him
“Type A.”
What do all of these terms mean? Psychologists have
now firmly established that stress affects our bodily health.
Let’s begin to see how this powerful mind–body connection
is explained by the field of psychoneuroimmunology. (Try We also explore some factors that limit the health risks
dropping that word into a conversation sometime if you we face. Because we live in a fast-paced and often stressful
want to see a stress reaction!) society, these are topics worth stressing.

~SURVEY QUESTION~
58.1 How is stress related to health and disease?

Stress and Health—Unmasking a Hidden Killer

Survey Question 58.1 How is stress related to health and
system is called psychoneuroimmunology (Daruna, 2012;
disease?
Kendall-Tackett, 2010).
How can stress result in a physical illness? An answer can be Studies show that the immune system is weakened in
found in your body’s immune system, which mobilizes de- students during major exam times, as you may already have
fenses (such as white blood cells) against invading microbes unfortunately discovered. Immunity also is lowered by di-
and other disease agents. The immune system is regu- vorce, bereavement, a troubled marriage, job loss, poor
lated, in part, by the brain. Because of this link, stress and sleep, depression, and similar stresses (Motivala & Irwin,
upsetting emotions can affect the immune system in ways 2007; Segerstrom & Miller, 2004). Lowered immunity
that increase susceptibility to disease (Janusek, Cooper, &
Psychoneuroimmunology Study of the links among behavior,
Mathews, 2012; Zachariae, 2009). By the way, the study stress, disease, and the immune system.
of links among behavior, stress, disease, and the immune

505
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506 P SycHolo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

explains why the “double whammy” of getting sick when people resist disease (Phillips et al., 2012; Schneiderman et
you are trying to cope with prolonged or severe stress is so al., 2001). For more detail about how to manage your stress,
common (Pedersen, Bovbjerg, & Zachariae, 2011). Stress see Module 59.
causes the body to release substances that increase inflam- An interesting technique called biofeedback may also be
mation. This is part of the body’s self-protective response helpful for some psychosomatic complaints. The next sec-
to threats, but it can prolong infections and delay healing tion explains how.
(Kiecolt-Glaser, 2010).
Biofeedback Psychologists have discovered that people
can learn to control bodily activities once thought to be in-
Psychosomatic Disorders voluntary. This is done by applying informational feedback
Prolonged stress reactions are closely related to a large to bodily control, a process called biofeedback. If you were
number of psychosomatic (SIKE-oh-so-MAT-ik) illnesses. asked to raise the temperature of your right hand, you prob-
In psychosomatic disorders (psyche: mind; soma: body), ably couldn’t because you wouldn’t know if you were suc-
psychological factors contribute to actual bodily damage ceeding. To make your task easier, a sensitive thermometer
or to damaging changes in bodily functioning (Asmund- could be attached to your hand. The thermometer could be
son & Taylor, 2005; Bourgeois et al., 2009). Psychosomatic wired so that an increase in temperature would activate a
problems, therefore, are not the same as somatic symptom signal light. Then, all you would have to do is try to keep the
disorders. People with somatic symptom disorders imagine light on as much as possible. With practice and the help of
that they have diseases. (The term hypochondriac refers to biofeedback, you could learn to raise your hand temperature
a person who mistakes normal bodily processes as illness; at will.
see Module 63 for more details.) There is nothing imaginary Biofeedback holds promise as a way to treat some
about asthma, a migraine headache, or high blood pressure. psychosomatic problems. For instance, people have been
The most common psychosomatic problems are gas- trained to prevent migraine headaches with biofeedback.
trointestinal and respiratory (stomach pain and asthma, for Sensors are taped to patients’ hands and foreheads. Patients
example), but many others exist. Typical problems include then learn to redirect blood flow away from the head to their
eczema (skin rash), hives, migraine headaches, rheumatoid extremities. Because migraine headaches involve excessive
arthritis, hypertension (high blood pressure), colitis (ulcer- blood flow to the head, biofeedback helps patients reduce
ation of the colon), and heart disease. And these are only the frequency of their headaches (Larsson et al., 2005; Stokes
the major problems. Many lesser health complaints also & Lappin, 2010).
are stress related. Typical examples include sore muscles, Biofeedback also can help relieve muscle-tension head-
headaches, neckaches, backaches, indigestion, constipa- aches and chronic pain (Middaugh & Pawlick, 2002; Sousa
tion, chronic diarrhea, fatigue, insomnia, premenstrual et al., 2009). It shows promise for lowering blood pressure
problems, and sexual dysfunctions (Taylor, 2012). Severe and controlling heart rhythms (Olsson et al., 2010; Peira,
psychosomatic disorders can even be fatal. Thus, the person Fredrikson, & Pourtois, 2013). The technique has been used
who says, “Oh, it’s just psychosomatic” doesn’t understand with some success to control epileptic seizures and hyperac-
how serious stress-related diseases really are. tivity in children (Demos, 2005). Insomnia also responds to
Could reducing stress help prevent illness? Exactly. Vari- biofeedback therapy (McLay & Spira, 2009).
ous psychological approaches, such as support groups, re- How does biofeedback work? Some researchers believe
laxation exercises, guided imagery, and stress-management that many of its benefits arise from general relaxation. Oth-
training, can actually boost immune system functioning ers stress that the method simply acts as a “mirror” to help a
(Kottler & Chen, 2011). By doing so, they help promote and person perform tasks involving self-regulation. Just as a mir-
restore health. For example, stress management reduced the ror does not comb your hair, and a bathroom scale does not
severity of cold and flu symptoms in a group of university reduce your body weight, biofeedback does not do anything
students (Reid, Mackinnon, & Drummond, 2001). by itself. It can, however, help people make desired changes
There is even evidence that stress management can im- in their behavior.
prove the chances of survival in people with life-threatening
diseases, such as cancer, heart disease, and HIV/AIDS. With Personality and Health
some successes to encourage them, psychologists are now It would be a mistake to assume that stress is the sole
searching for the best combination of treatments to help cause of psychosomatic diseases. Genetic differences, organ

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 MoDU lE 5 8 H eAltH Psyc H o lo gy: str es s An d H eAltH 507

anger “bottled up.” Such people seethe with anger but don’t
express it outwardly. This increases their pulse rate and blood
pressure and puts a tremendous strain on the heart (Bongard,
al’Absi, & Lovallo, 1998; Lemogne et al., 2010; Smith &

epa european pressphoto agency b.v./Alamy Stock Photo

Traupman, 2011).
Most recently, other researchers have failed to find any
relationship between the so-called Type A behavior pattern
and coronary heart disease (Kastytis et al., 2015; Petticrew,
Lee, & McKee, 2012). As a result, most psychologists are
now skeptical of the distinction between Type A and Type B
personalities.
As we mentioned in Module 50, theories of personal-
ity types are often oversimplifications. If there is one bit of
In biofeedback training, normally uncontrollable bodily processes wisdom to take away from this discussion, it is that if you
are monitored and processed electronically. A signal is then frequently feel angry and hostile toward others, consider
routed back to the patient through headphones, signal lights, or
other means. This man’s brainwaves are being measured and
this advice from Redford Williams (1989): Reducing hos-
visually displayed. He could use this visual feedback to control his tility involves three goals. First, you must stop mistrusting
brainwaves in order to relax. the motives of others. Second, you must find ways to reduce
how often you feel anger, indignation, irritation, and rage.
weaknesses, and learned reactions to stress combine to do Third, you must learn to be kinder and more considerate. It
damage. Personality also enters the picture. As mentioned is entirely possible to succeed in life without sacrificing your
earlier, a general disease-prone personality type exists. health or happiness in the process.
The Type A Personality Aren’t there also Type A person-
alities who are at a higher risk of heart disease? There has cer-
tainly been a lot of publicity around the possible existence
of a “cardiac personality”—a person at high risk for heart
disease. In an early study of heart problems, two cardiolo-
gists, Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman, classified people
as either a Type A personality, someone who runs a high
risk for heart attack, or a Type B personality, someone who
Donald Reilly/The New Yorker Collection/Cartoonbank.com

is unlikely to have a heart attack. In an eight-year follow-up,

they found more than twice the rate of heart disease in Type
As than in Type Bs (Friedman & Rosenman, 1983).
According to Friedman and Rosenman, Type A people
are hard driving, ambitious, highly competitive, achieve-
ment oriented, and striving. Type A people believe that with
enough effort they can overcome any obstacle, and they
“push” themselves accordingly. Perhaps the most telltale
signs of a Type A personality are time urgency and chronic
anger or hostility. Type As hurry from one activity to an- Psychosomatic disorders Illnesses in which psychological factors
other, racing the clock in self-imposed urgency. As they do, contribute to bodily damage or to damaging changes in bodily
they feel a constant sense of frustration and anger. functioning.
At first, research appeared to support the idea of a Biofeedback Information given to a person about his or her ongoing
bodily activities; aids voluntary regulation of bodily states.
“cardiac personality.” Subsequent research has not. Some Type A personality Proposed personality type with an elevated risk
researchers have found that only feelings of anger and hos- of heart disease; characterized by time urgency, anger, and
tility are reliably related to an increased risk for heart attack hostility.
Type B personality All personality types other than Type A; these
(Brydon et al., 2010; Bunde & Suls, 2006). The most dam-
are proposed to be low cardiac-risk personalities.
aging pattern may occur in hostile persons who keep their

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508 P SycHolo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

The Hardy Personality One more personality type interesting and important. They tend to get involved rather
bears mentioning. Psychologist Salvatore Maddi has stud- than feel alienated.
ied people who have a hardy personality. Such people Persons strong in terms of control believe that more of-
seem to be unusually resistant to stress (Maddi, 2013; ten than not, they can influence the course of events around
Sandvik et al., 2013). The first study of hardiness began them. This prevents them from passively seeing themselves
with two groups of managers at a large utility company. as victims of circumstance.
All the managers held high-stress positions. Yet, some Finally, people strong in terms of challenge find fulfill-
tended to get sick after stressful events, whereas others ment in continual growth. They seek to learn from their expe-
were rarely ill. riences rather than accept easy comfort, security, and routine.
How did the people who were thriving differ from their Indeed, many “negative” experiences can enhance personal
“stressed-out” colleagues? The main difference was that the growth—if you have support from others and the skills need-
hardy group seemed to hold a worldview that consisted of ed to cope with challenge (Garrosa et al., 2008; Stix, 2011).
three traits (Maddi, 2013; Maddi et al., 2009):
A Look Ahead The work that we have reviewed here has
1. They had a sense of personal commitment to self, work, drawn new attention to the fact that each of us has a per-
family, and other stabilizing values. sonal responsibility for maintaining and promoting health.
2. They felt that they had control over their lives and their In Module 59, we look at what you can do to better cope
work. with stress and the health risks that it entails. But first, the
3. They had a tendency to see life as a series of challenges following questions may help you earn a healthy grade on
rather than as a series of threats or problems. your next psychology test.

How do such traits protect people from the effects of

Hardy personality A personality style associated with superior
stress? Persons strong in terms of commitment find ways stress resistance.
to turn whatever they are doing into something that seems

MODULE

58 Summary
58.1 How is stress related to health and disease? the body is doing. Biofeedback allows people to
58.1.1 Studies of psychoneuroimmunology show that stress alleviate some psychosomatic illnesses by altering
lowers the body’s resistance to disease by weakening bodily activities.
the immune system. 58.1.4 People who are angry and hostile may be prone to
58.1.2 Intense or prolonged stress may cause damage in the having heart attacks.
form of psychosomatic problems. 58.1.5 People who have the traits of a hardy personality
58.1.3 During biofeedback training, bodily processes are seem to be unusually resistant to stress.
monitored and converted to a signal that tells what

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 MoDU lE 5 8 H eAltH Psyc H o lo gy: str es s An d H eAltH 509

Knowledge Builder Health Psychology: Stress and Health

Recite 3. Two major elements of biofeedback training appear to be

relaxation and self-regulation. T or F?
1. Students taking stressful final exams are more suscep-
4. Evidence suggests that the most important feature of the
tible to the cold virus, a pattern best explained by the
Type A personality is a sense of time urgency rather than
concept of
feelings of anger and hostility. T or F?
a. the disease-prone personality
5. A sense of commitment, challenge, and control charac-
b. psychoneuroimmunology
terizes the hardy personality. T or F?
c. emotion-focused coping
d. reaction formation
2. Ulcers, migraine headaches, and hypochondria frequent-
ly are all psychosomatic disorders. T or F?

Reflect her problems by saying, “Oh, she’s not really sick. It’s just
psychosomatic.” What’s wrong with this use of the term
Think critically
psychosomatic?
6. People with a hardy personality type appear to be es- Do you think you are basically a hostile? To what extent do
pecially resistant to which of the problems discussed in you possess traits of the hardy personality?
Module 57?
AN SW E R S
Self-Reflect
Mindy complains about her health all the time, but she 1. b 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. T 6. Learned helplessness

seems to be just fine. An acquaintance of Mindy’s dismisses

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MODULE

59 Health Psychology Skills in Action

Stress Management

Bags of Stress
Abandoned backpacks—1,100 of them—were scattered
across the grass on campus, and college students who were
passing stopped to look. They didn’t need to ask where the
owners were, though. The signs next to the bags told them
everything they needed to know.
Send Silence Packing is a travelling art exhibition that
has moved between more than 100 campuses in the Unit-
ed States during the past decade. Each of the backpacks
represents one student who will take his or her life at an
American college this year. Many of these students commit
Richard Levine/Alamy Stock Photo

suicide because they are overwhelmed by the pressure that

comes with the desire to succeed at school, to be liked by
their peers, and to manage other responsibilities, including
work. They may feel unable to cope with the stress they ex-
perience, but are often reluctant to speak up and seek help
for fear of appearing weak. But the message that the back- while dealing with stress is not easy, there are things that
packs provide is clear: Suffering in silence when you are you can do to make things more manageable. Let’s take a
feeling stressed and overwhelmed is not the answer. And closer look.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
59.1 How is stress management related to the study of 59.2 How can stress management help me in my personal
psychology? and professional life?

Here’s to Your Good Health!

Survey Question 59.1 How is stress management related
the extensive psychological literature concerning coping as
to the study of psychology?
a means of managing stress. Psychological research has gone
Stress management is the use of cognitive and behavioral much further in terms of promoting our understanding of
strategies to reduce stress and improve coping skills. We have stress, though. For example, psychologists have begun to
seen in Modules 55–58 that working to minimize stress is document the unique effects of different kinds of stress, such
helpful, given that psychologists have provided considerable as the acculturative stress demonstrated by new immigrants
evidence of its negative effects. These modules also outlined (Suh et al., 2016) and the post-traumatic stress experienced

510
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 MODU LE 59 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy s k i lls i n acti o n: str es s Manag e M e nt 511

after events such as natural disasters, rape, terrorist attacks, can have positive consequences (e.g., post-traumatic growth;
and military deployment (Post et al., 2015). They have also Tsai et al., 2015), as well as the effectiveness of alternative
examined how the effects of stressors change across the forms of treating stress-related responses, such as virtual re-
lifespan (Jamieson & Mendes, 2016) and as a function of ality, drugs that blunt the emotions associated with traumat-
our genes and physiology (Belsky et al., 2015). Finally, new- ic memories, and internet-based therapy (Lane et al., 2015;
er research has begun to examine whether stressful events Morina et al., 2015).

De-Stress!
Survey Question 59.2 How can stress management help of stress. Not all of them will be effective for all people, but
me in my personal and professional life? you should try them out to see what works for you.
Stress can have a number of negative consequences that are Managing Bodily Effects
likely to affect your own life, as well as your relationships
Much of the immediate discomfort of stress is caused by
with others. In addition to doing physical damage to your
fight-or-flight physical responses. The body is ready to act,
body (e.g., increased risk of cardiovascular problems), stress
with tight muscles and a pounding heart. If action is pre-
can also be at the root of psychological issues such as anxiety
vented, we merely remain “uptight.” A sensible remedy is to
and depression. But the effects of stress aren’t restricted to
learn a reliable, drug-free way to relax.
your physical and psychological well-being. Stress can also
prove damaging to your relationships, both at home and at Exercise Stress-based arousal can be dissipated by using
work. People under stress can appear more unmotivated, the body. Any full-body exercise can be effective. Swim-
defensive, short-tempered, or withdrawn than they would ming, dancing, jumping rope, yoga, most other sports, and
be otherwise. Such behaviors can create tension between especially walking are additional valuable outlets. Regu-
people, resulting in strained relationships. lar exercise alters hormones, circulation, muscle tone, and
I can’t help feeling stressed—I have three midterms next several other aspects of physical functioning. Together,
week! Is there anything I can do to manage my stress better? such changes can reduce anxiety and lower the risks for
Obviously, the simplest way of coping with stress is to modify disease (Brannon, Feist, & Updegraff, 2014; Edenfield &
or remove its source—by leaving a stressful job or a bad rela- Blumenthal, 2011).
tionship, for example. As you point out, though, this is often Be sure to choose activities that are vigorous enough to
impossible; there’s simply no way to avoid those midterms! relieve tension, yet enjoyable enough to be done repeatedly.
You can begin to manage your stress by recognizing
that stress triggers bodily effects, ineffective behavior, and up-
Stress management The application of cognitive and behavioral
setting thoughts ➤ Figure 59.1. That’s because there are a strategies to reduce stress and improve coping skills.
number of ways that you can combat these negative effects

Bodily Reactions Ineffective Behavior Upsetting Thoughts

◗ Fight-or-flight response ◗ Too fast-paced ◗ Negative self-statements
◗ Tight muscles ◗ Too disorganized ◗ Fearful
◗ Pounding heart ◗ Too unbalanced ◗ Worried
◗ Shallow breathing ◗ Unrealistic ◗ Distracted
◗ Poor sleep ◗ Indecisive ◗ Obsessive
◗ Tiredness ◗ Avoidant ◗ Excessively body aware
◗ Stress-based illness ◗ Inefficient ◗ Health fears
◗ Poor digestion ◗ Aggressive ◗ Self-doubt

➤ Figure 59.1
Effects of Stress on Body, Behavior, and Thought.

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512 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

Exercising for stress management is most effective when it Slow Down Remember that stress can be self-generated.
is done daily. As little as 30 minutes of total exercise per day, Try to deliberately do things at a slower pace—especially
even if it occurs in short 10- to 20-minute sessions, can im- if your pace has speeded up over the years. Tell yourself,
prove mood and energy (Hansen, Stevens, & Coast, 2001). “What counts most is not if I get there first, but if I get there
at all,” or “My goal is distance, not speed.”
Meditation Many stress counselors recommend medita-
tion for quieting the body and promoting relaxation. Med- Strike a Balance Work, school, family, friends, interests,
itation is one of the most effective ways to relax (Sears & hobbies, recreation, community, church—a satisfying life
Kraus, 2009; Zeidan et al., 2010). Be aware that listening to has many important elements. Damaging stress often comes
or playing music, taking nature walks, enjoying hobbies, and from letting one element—especially work or school—get
the like can be meditative. Anything that reliably interrupts blown out of proportion. Your goal should be quality in life,
upsetting thoughts and promotes relaxation can be help- not quantity. Try to strike a balance between challenging
ful. For now, it is enough to state that meditation is easy to “good stress” and relaxation. Remember, when you are “do-
learn—taking an expensive commercial course is unneces- ing nothing,” you are doing something very important: Set
sary. To learn more about meditation and its effects, read aside time for “me acts” such as loafing, browsing, puttering,
Module 23. playing, and napping.
Progressive Relaxation It is possible to relax system- Recognize and Accept Your Limits Many of us set
atically, completely, and by choice. The basic idea of pro- unrealistic and perfectionist goals. Given that no one can
gressive relaxation is to tighten all the muscles in a given ever be perfect, this attitude leaves many people feeling
area of your body (the arms, for instance) and then volun- inadequate, no matter how well they have performed. Set
tarily relax them. By first tensing and relaxing each area of gradual, achievable goals for yourself. Also, set realistic lim-
the body (also called the tension-release method), you can its on what you try to do on any given day. Learn to say no
learn what muscle tension feels like. Then, when each area to added demands or responsibilities.
is relaxed, the change is more noticeable and more con-
trollable. In this way, it is possible, with practice, to greatly Seek Social Support Social support—close, positive
reduce tension. To learn the details of how this is done, relationships with others—facilitates good health and mo-
consult Module 67. rale (Ai et al., 2013; Winfree & Jiang, 2010). People with
close, supportive relationships have better immune respons-
Guided Imagery In a technique called guided imagery,
es and better health (Smith, Ruiz, & Uchino, 2004; Taylor &
people visualize images that are calming, relaxing, or ben-
Master, 2011). Apparently, support from family, friends, and
eficial in other ways. Relaxation, for instance, can be pro-
even pets serves as a buffer to cushion the impact of stressful
moted by visualizing peaceful scenes. Pick several places
events (Allen, Blascovich, & Mendes, 2002).
where you feel safe, calm, and at ease. Typical locations
might be a beach or lake, the woods, floating on an air mat- Write About Your Feelings If you don’t have someone
tress in a warm pool, or lying in the sun at a quiet park. you can talk to about stressful events, you might try express-
To relax, vividly imagine yourself in one of these locations. ing your thoughts and feelings in writing. Several studies
In the visualized scene, you should be alone and in a com- have found that students who write about their upsetting ex-
fortable position. It is important to visualize the scene as periences, thoughts, and feelings are better able to cope with
realistically as possible. Try to feel, taste, smell, hear, and stress. They also experience fewer illnesses, and they get
see what you would experience in the calming scene. Prac- better grades (Smyth & Pennebaker, 2008). Writing about
tice forming such images several times a day for about five your feelings tends to leave your mind clearer. This makes it
minutes each time. When your scenes become familiar and easier to pay attention to life’s challenges and come up with
detailed, they can be used to reduce anxiety and encourage effective coping strategies. Thus, after you write about your
relaxation. feelings, it helps to make specific plans for coping with upset-
ting experiences (Klein & Boals, 2001; Smyth, Pennebaker,
Modifying Ineffective Behavior & Arigo, 2012).
Stress is often made worse by our misguided responses to As an alternative, you might want to try writing about
it. The following suggestions may help you deal with stress positive experiences. In one study, college students who
more effectively: wrote about intensely positive experiences had fewer

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 MODU LE 59 H ealtH Psyc H o lo gy s k i lls i n acti o n: str es s Manag e M e nt 513

illnesses over the next three months. Writing just 20 minutes Confronting Stressful Situations
a day for three days improved the students’ moods and had Relax, this can’t really hurt me.
a surprisingly long-lasting effect on their health (Burton & Stay organized; focus on the task.
King, 2004). There’s no hurry; take it step by step.
Nobody’s perfect; I’ll just do my best.
counteracting Upsetting Thoughts It will be over soon; just be calm.
Assume that you are taking a test. Suddenly you realize
that you are running short of time. If you say to yourself, Meichenbaum cautions that saying the “right” things to
“Oh no, this is terrible, I’ve blown it now,” your body’s re- yourself may not be enough to improve stress tolerance. You
sponse will probably be sweating, tenseness, and a knot must practice this approach in actual stress situations. Also,
in your stomach. On the other hand, if you say, “I should it is important to develop your own personal list of coping
have watched the time, but getting upset won’t help; I’ll just statements by finding what works for you. Ultimately, the
take one question at a time,” your stress level will be much value of learning this, and other stress-management skills,
lower. ties back into the idea that much stress is self-generated.
As stated previously, stress is greatly affected by the Knowing that you can manage a demanding situation is in it-
views that we take of events. Physical symptoms and a ten- self a major antidote for stress. In one study, college students
dency to make poor decisions are increased by negative who learned stress inoculation not only had less anxiety and
thoughts or “self-talk.” In many cases, what you say to your- depression, but also better self-esteem as well (Schiraldi &
self can mean the difference between coping and collapsing Brown, 2001).
(Smith & Kirby, 2011). Lighten Up It’s also worth noting again the value of posi-
Coping Statements Psychologist Donald Meichenbaum tive emotions. Happiness, laughter, and delight tend to
has popularized a technique called stress inoculation. In strengthen immune system responses. Doing things that
it, clients learn to fight fear and anxiety with an internal make you happy also can protect your health (Diener &
monologue of positive coping statements. First, clients learn Chan, 2011; Rosenkranz et al., 2003).
to identify and monitor negative self-statements—self- Humor is especially worth cultivating as a way to reduce
critical thoughts that increase anxiety. Negative thoughts stress. A good sense of humor can lower your distress/stress re-
are a problem because they tend to directly elevate physi- action to difficult events (Morrison, 2012). In addition, an abil-
cal arousal. To counter this effect, clients learn to replace ity to laugh at life’s ups and downs is associated with better im-
negative statements with coping statements from a supplied munity to disease (Earleywine, 2011). Don’t be afraid to laugh
list. Eventually, they are encouraged to make their own lists at yourself and at the many ways that we humans make things
(Meichenbaum, 2009). difficult for ourselves. You’ve probably heard the following
How are coping statements applied? Coping statements advice about everyday stresses: “Don’t sweat the small stuff ”
are reassuring and self-enhancing. They are used to block and “It’s all small stuff.” Humor is one of the best antidotes for
out, or counteract, negative self-talk in stressful situations. anxiety and emotional distress because it helps put things into
Before giving a short speech, for instance, you would replace perspective (Crawford & Caltabiano, 2011; Kuiper & McHale,
“I’m scared,” “I can’t do this,” “My mind will go blank and I’ll 2009). The vast majority of events are only as stressful as you
panic,” or “I’ll sound stupid and boring” with “I’ll give my allow them to be. Have some fun. It’s perfectly healthy.
speech on something I like,” or “I’ll breathe deeply before
I start my speech,” or “My pounding heart just means I’m Progressive relaxation A method for producing deep relaxation of
psyched up to do my best.” Additional examples of coping all parts of the body.
statements follow: Guided imagery Intentional visualization of images that are
calming, relaxing, or beneficial in other ways.
Preparing for Stressful Situations Social support Close, positive relationships with other people.
I’ll just take things one step at a time. Stress inoculation Use of positive coping statements to control fear
and anxiety.
If I get nervous, I’ll just pause a moment. Negative self-statements Self-critical thoughts that increase anxiety
Tomorrow, I’ll be done with it. and lower performance.
Coping statements Reassuring, self-enhancing statements that are
I’ve managed to do this before.
used to stop self-critical thinking.
What exactly do I have to do?

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514 P SycHOLO Gy M o d u les fo r active lear n i n g

MODULE

59 Summary
59.1 How is stress management related to the 59.2.2 All of the following are good ways to manage bodily
study of psychology? reactions to stress: exercise, meditation, progressive
59.1.1 Psychologists have studied many aspects of stress relaxation, and guided imagery.
besides its negative effects and effective coping strate- 59.2.3 To minimize ineffective behavior when you are
gies. Recent research has focused on different types stressed, you can slow down, get organized, balance
of stress, the role of genetics and physiology, develop- work and relaxation, accept your limits, seek social
mental changes in stress responses, and new forms of support, and write about your feelings.
treatment. 59.2.4 Learning to use coping statements is a good way to
combat upsetting thoughts.
59.2 How can stress management help me in my
personal and professional life?
59.2.1 Stress-management techniques focus on one of three
areas: bodily effects, ineffective behavior, and upset-
ting thoughts.

Knowledge Builder Health Psychology Skills in Action: Stress Management

Recite Reflect
1. Exercise, meditation, and progressive relaxation are con- Think critically
sidered effective ways to counter negative self-statements. 5. Steve always feels extremely pressured when the due date
T or F? arrives for his major term papers. How could he reduce
2. A person using progressive relaxation for stress manage- stress in such instances?
ment is most likely trying to control which component of
stress? Self-Reflect
a. bodily reactions If you were going to put together a “toolkit” for stress manage-
b. upsetting thoughts ment, what items would you include?
c. ineffective behavior
d. the primary appraisal AN SW E R S
3. Research shows that social support from family and manship” (pushing things off to the limits of tolerance).
friends has little effect on the health consequences of amazed at how pleasant college work can be once they renounce “brink-
stress. T or F? & Wertenbroch, 2002). Students who habitually procrastinate are often

4. While taking a stressful classroom test, you say to your-

into many small daily or weekly assignments (Anderson, 2014; Ariely
almost completely eliminated by breaking up a long-term assignment
self, “Stay organized, focus on the task.” It’s obvious that 1. F 2. a 3. F 4. b 5. The stress associated with doing term papers can be
you are using a
a. guided image
b. coping statement
c. defense mechanism
d. guided relaxation

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 MODULE
Psychological Disorders
Defining Psychopathology 60
Break-in or Break Down?
James was busted trying to break into the Federal Bureau of Investiga-
tion (FBI). This account of the episode makes it clear he had suffered
another breakdown: “James said he was overwhelmed lately with feel-
ings of apprehension and fear that he and someone important were
about to be harmed. He could not specify why he felt this way, but he
was sure he had special information that the president of the United
States was going to be harmed soon and that he, James, would also
be harmed because he knew of the plot. These feelings eventually
became so strong that James felt he had to leave his apartment and
warn someone at the FBI office. James said he thought the police were
going to kill him because they were agents responsible for the plot

© gary718/Shutterstock.com
against the president.” (Kearney & Trull, 2015, p. 360).
Is James mentally ill? How is mental illness defined, categorized,
and diagnosed? What causes mental illness? Let’s tackle these impor-
tant questions.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
60.1 How is abnormality defined? 60.3 How are mental disorders diagnosed?
60.2 What are the major mental disorders? 60.4 What causes mental disorders?

Normality—What’s Normal?
Survey Question 60.1 How is abnormality defined? About 90 percent of them had a diagnosable mental disorder
The statistics are grim. The direct cost of treating people (National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2016).
who seek help for mental illness is almost $60 billion a year. A mental disorder is a significant impairment in psy-
Add the indirect costs, such as lost earnings, and the total chological functioning, such as schizophrenia or major de-
exceeds $315 billion a year. Hidden behind the dollar signs is pression. The scientific study of mental disorders is known
the immense human cost. James’s case is but one hint of the as psychopathology, although the term can also refer to
magnitude of mental health problems. Almost 20 percent of
American adults suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder Mental disorder A significant impairment in psychological
in any given year (Kessler, 2010; National Institute of Mental functioning.
Psychopathology The scientific study of mental, emotional, and behav-
Health, 2016a). In 2013, more than 41,000 Americans
ioral disorders; the term is also used to refer to maladaptive behavior.
committed suicide (Centers for Disease Control, 2015h).

515
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 516 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

mental disorders themselves and to behavior patterns that

make people unhappy and impair their personal growth
(Sue et al., 2017). Even though these definitions may seem
obvious, to seriously classify people as mentally unhealthy
raises complex and age-old issues (Luyten & Blatt, 2011).
The conservative, churchgoing housewife down the street
might be flagrantly psychotic and a lethal danger to her

© Eugenio Marongiu/Shutterstock.com
children. The reclusive eccentric who hangs out at the park
could be the sanest person in town.
Let’s begin with the idea of statistical abnormality,
which some psychologists use to define normality more ob-
jectively. Statistical abnormality refers to scoring very high
or low on some dimension, such as intelligence, anxiety, or
depression. Anxiety, for example, is a feature of several psy- Performing a mildly abnormal behavior is a good way to get a sense
chological disorders. To measure it, we could create a test to of how social norms define “normality.” Here’s your assignment:
do something strange in public and observe how people react.
learn how many people show low, medium, or high levels of (Please don’t do anything dangerous or offensive—and don’t get
anxiety. Usually, the results of such tests will form a normal arrested!) Try walking around campus on a sunny day carrying an
(bell-shaped) curve. (Normal here refers only to the shape of open umbrella. Or stick one finger in your nose and another in your
the curve.) Notice that most people score near the middle of ear and walk through a shopping mall. Better yet, wear an animal
mask for a day (no, not Halloween!). As we have noted, social
a normal curve; very few have extremely high or low scores nonconformity is just one facet of abnormal behavior. Nevertheless,
(➤ Figure 60.1). A person who deviates from the average by actions that are regarded as “strange” within a particular culture are
being highly anxious is, by definition, statistically abnormal. often the first sign to others that a person has a problem.
So, too, is a person who never feels anxiety.
But what if a statistically abnormal person is function-
it becomes abnormal? As you can see, statistical boundary
ing well? Right. If people with statistically abnormal levels of
lines tend to be somewhat arbitrary (Comer, 2013).
anxiety are nevertheless functioning well in their lives, why
Another approach is to focus on the nonconformity that
label them mentally ill? Statistical definitions also can’t tell us
may be associated with some disorders. Social nonconfor-
where to draw the line between normality and abnormality.
mity refers to disobeying public standards for acceptable
For example, we could obtain the average frequency of sexual
conduct. Extreme nonconformity can lead to destructive,
intercourse for persons of a particular age, sex, sexual orien-
self-destructive, or illegal behavior. (Think, for instance, of
tation, and marital status. Clearly, a person who feels driven
a drug abuser or a prostitute.)
to have sex dozens of times a day has a problem. But as we
Once again, we must be careful to separate unhealthy
move back toward the norm, we face the problem of drawing
nonconformity from creative lifestyles. Many eccentric
lines. How often does a normal behavior have to occur before
“characters” are charming and emotionally stable. Note,
too, that strictly following social norms is no guarantee of
mental health. In some cases, psychopathology involves
rigid conformity.
Number of cases

Furthermore, before we can even begin to judge a behav-

Abnormal? Abnormal? ior as abnormal or nonconforming, we must also consider
the situational context (social situation, behavioral setting, or
general circumstances) in which it occurs. Is it abnormal to
stand outside and water a lawn with a hose? It depends on
Extremely low Low Moderate High Extremely high whether it is raining. Is it nonconforming for a grown man
Characteristic level of anxiety to remove his pants and expose himself to another man or
woman in a place of business? It depends on whether the
➤ Figure 60.1
other person is a bank clerk or a doctor.
The normal curve and abnormality. The number of people
displaying a personal characteristic may help define what is Almost any imaginable behavior can be considered nor-
statistically abnormal. mal in some contexts. For example, in 2003, a man sawed off

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 MoDU lE 6 0 Psyc h o lo g i cAl d i s o r d e r s: d e f i n i n g Psyc h o PAth o lo gy 517

definitions of psychological disorders. Still, all cultures clas-

sify people as abnormal if they fail to communicate with
others or are consistently unpredictable in their actions.
Yet another approach is to characterize psychopathology by
subjective discomfort (private feelings of pain, unhappiness,
or emotional distress).
But couldn’t a person experience serious distress without
psychopathology, and couldn’t someone be seriously disturbed
without feeling discomfort? Yes on both counts. People who
have, for example, lost a loved one or lived through a natural
disaster such as a massive wildfire normally take some time
to overcome their distress. Also, psychopathology doesn’t
always cause personal anguish. A person suffering from ma-
nia might feel elated and “on top of the world.” A lack of dis-
comfort may actually reveal a problem. For example, if you
showed no signs of grief or distress after the violent death of
a close friend, we might suspect psychopathology. In prac-
tice, though, subjective discomfort explains most instances
in which people voluntarily seek professional help.

Mental Disorders Are Maladaptive

Julio Cesar Aguilar/AFP/Getty Images

If abnormality is so hard to define, how are judgments of psy-

chopathology made? As you can see, categorizing someone
as mentally ill is far from “cut and dried.” Although the stan-
dards we have discussed thus far are relative, psychopatho-
logical behavior does have a core feature: It is maladaptive.
Social nonconformity does not automatically indicate psychopathology. Rather than helping people cope successfully, maladaptive
For example, meet Maria Jose Cristerna, a mother of four and a former behavior arises from an underlying psychological or bio-
lawyer. She is the current Guinness Book of World Records record logical dysfunction that makes it more difficult for them to
holder for the most body piercings and tattoos. Nonconformist? You
bet. Mentally ill? Definitely not.
meet the demands of day-to-day life (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013). Maladaptive behavior most often results
in serious psychological discomfort, disability, and/or loss of
his own arm. Mind you, Aaron Ralston was rock climbing
control of thoughts, behaviors, or feelings, such as James’s
when he fell into a crevasse, trapping his arm between two
overwhelming sense of impending doom.
boulders. After five days of trying to free his arm, and near-
For example, gambling is not a problem if people bet
ing unconsciousness, he did what he needed to do to survive
for entertainment and can maintain self-control. However,
(Ralston, 2004).
compulsive gambling is a sign of psychopathology. Hearing
As implied by our earlier discussion of social norms, cul-
uncontrollable voices is a prime example of what it means
ture is one of the most influential contexts in which any be-
to lose control of one’s thoughts. In the most extreme cases,
havior is judged (Fabrega, 2004; Whitbourne & Halgin, 2013).
people become a danger to themselves or others, which is
In some cultures, it is considered normal to defecate or urinate
clearly maladaptive (Bennett, 2011).
in public or to appear naked in public. In our culture, such
behaviors would be considered unusual or abnormal. In some
Statistical abnormality Abnormality defined on the basis of an
Muslim cultures, women who remain completely housebound
extreme score on some dimension, such as IQ or anxiety.
are considered normal, even virtuous. In some Western cul- Social nonconformity Failure to conform to societal norms or the
tures, they might be suspected of suffering from a disorder usual minimum standards for social conduct.
called agoraphobia. (Agoraphobia is described in Module 63.) Maladaptive behavior Behavior arising from an underlying psycho-
logical or biological dysfunction that makes it difficult to adapt to
Thus, cultural relativity (the idea that judgments are the environment and meet the demands of day-to-day life.
made relative to the values of one’s culture) can affect the

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518 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

In practice, deciding that a person needs help usually You may be surprised to learn that being diagnosed with
occurs when the person does something (assaults a person, a mental disorder does not automatically imply a successful
hallucinates, stares into space, collects too many old pizza insanity defense. For example, someone diagnosed with, say,
cartons, and so forth) that annoys or gains the attention of an anxiety disorder who commits murder might neverthe-
a person in a position of power in the person’s life (an em- less be well aware that murder is against the law. In fact, very
ployer, teacher, parent, spouse, or the person himself or her- few criminal trials end with this verdict (Fuller, 2012; Martin &
self). That person then does something about it. The person Weiss, 2010).
may voluntarily seek help, the person may be urged to see a What if someone suffered brain damage that caused them
psychologist, a police officer may be called, or a relative may to engage in illegal behaviors? Good question. Someone with
start commitment proceedings. brain damage or an intellectual disability such as autism
could plead not guilty by reason of diminished responsibility
Abnormal Behavior and the law (Jones et al., 2013). For example, as Mr. P grew older, his in-
Commitment proceedings are legal proceedings that may re- terest in child pornography also grew. By the age of forty, he
sult in the finding of insanity, which is a legal, not a psychologi- had begun seeking out sexual contacts with his young step-
cal, term (Fuller, 2012). It refers to an inability to manage one’s daughter and at massage parlors. He was arrested and sent
affairs or foresee the consequences of one’s actions. People who to a rehabilitation clinic, where he proceeded to seek sexual
are declared insane are not legally responsible for their actions. contacts with the staff and clients, despite not wanting to go
If necessary, they can be involuntarily committed to a mental to prison. All along, he maintained that he knew he was in
hospital. the wrong but couldn’t stop himself. A magnetic resonance
Legally, insanity is established by testimony from expert imaging (MRI) scan (see Module 8) revealed a large tumor
witnesses (psychologists and psychiatrists) recognized by a growing in a part of his brain responsible for impulse con-
court of law as qualified to give opinions on a specific topic. trol. When it was removed, his abnormal sexual behavior
Involuntary commitments happen most often when people disappeared as well. A few years later, he started collecting
are brought to emergency rooms or are arrested for commit- child pornography again. Another MRI confirmed that the
ting a crime. People who are involuntarily committed are tumor had returned (Burns & Swerdlow, 2003).
usually judged to be a danger to themselves or to others, or With the rise of brain-scanning technologies, cases like
they are severely intellectually disabled. this have become more common (Fabian, 2011). Such cases
What is the insanity defense? Someone accused of a crime also raise serious questions about the plea of not guilty by
may argue that he or she is not guilty by reason of insanity. In reason of diminished responsibility. Should Mr. P. be set free?
practice, this means that the accused, due to a diagnosable Should his sentence be reduced? Is it ever appropriate to
mental disorder, was unable to realize that what he or she blame the person, and not his or her brain? What do you
did was wrong (Gowensmith, Murrie, & Boccaccini, 2013). think?

Classifying Mental Disorders—Problems by the Book

Survey Question 60.2 What are the major mental disorders? discussed elsewhere in this book: sleep–wake disorders in
Mental disorders are classified by using the most recent ver- Module 24, problems with drug abuse and dependence
sion of the DSM, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of in Module 25, eating disorders in Module 43, and sexual
Mental Disorders (5th Edition). The DSM-5 influences most disorders in Modules 46 and 48.)
activities in mental health settings—from diagnosis to ther-
apy to insurance company billing (American Psychiatric As- comorbidity
sociation, 2013). As even a quick scan of the DSM-5 makes In addition, many disturbed people are comorbid—that
clear, a wide variety of psychological disorders are currently is, they suffer from more than one mental disorder at
diagnosed and treated; hundreds of specific disorders are the same time. One way that comorbidity develops is
organized into over 20 major categories. when a primary problem causes secondary problems. For
A partial list of major categories and specific disorders example, someone experiencing a prolonged and deep
can be found in ■ Table 60.1. Many of the disorders on this depression might start taking drugs (legal or otherwise)
list are described in the next three modules. (Others are for treatment and become addicted, complicating the

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 MoDU lE 6 0 Psyc h o lo g i cAl d i s o r d e r s: d e f i n i n g Psyc h o PAth o lo gy 519

primary mood disorder with a secondary, substance use was first published in 1952, neurosis was included. The term
disorder (Fenton et al., 2012). was dropped in later editions because it is too imprecise.
According to sociologist Ronald Kessler, comorbidity Even though neurosis is an outdated term, you may still
is quite common; more than 40 percent of all people with hear it used to loosely refer to problems involving excessive
mental disorders are comorbid (Kessler, 2010). Not only anxiety. Similarly, homosexuality was omitted as a disorder
does comorbidity increase these people’s misery, it also in 1974.
makes it much more difficult for health care providers to Published in 2013, the DSM-5 reflects recent scientific
diagnose and treat them. advances and cultural changes (American Psychiatric Asso-
ciation, 2013; Birgegård, Norring, & Clinton, 2012). Regard-
Mental Illness in other cultures less, the process leading up to publication of the DSM-5 was
As you might well imagine, different cultures around the controversial (Frances, 2012; Marecek & Gavey, 2013). Perhaps
world have identified their own culture-bound syndromes you the most important, and certainly the most contentious, change
won’t find in the DSM-5 (Barlow & Durrand, 2015; López & has been the proliferation of disorders. The original DSM con-
Guarnaccia, 2000; Teo & Gaw, 2010). For example, men in tained about 100 disorders; today, it contains over 350.
some parts of Asia sometimes run amok after they have been Critics charge that more and more previously “normal”
insulted. After a period of brooding, they erupt into an outburst people are being categorized as “mentally ill” (Frances, 2012;
of violent, aggressive, or homicidal behavior randomly directed Lane, 2009). For example, attention deficit hyperactivity dis-
at people and objects. (Yes, this is the origin of the familiar ex- order (ADHD) was not a disorder in the original DSM. Since
pression “to run amok.”) Can amok be understood within the its inclusion, it has become one of the most widely diagnosed
framework of the DSM-5 as a brief psychotic disorder? disorders among young boys, prompting critics to decry the
As another example, in Japan, adolescents or young disorder as “pathologizing boyhood” (Bruchmüller, Margraf,
adults who refuse to leave their parents’ homes for months & Schneider, 2012).
at a time are experiencing hikikomori, an extreme form of A related concern is that psychiatric labels are get-
social withdrawal. Is hikikomori a variation of the DSM-5 ting easier and easier to apply. For example, changes to the
disorder agoraphobia? DSM-5 make it easier to label someone whose husband died
It is clear that people everywhere have a need to label as suffering from major depressive disorder rather than grief
and categorize troubled behavior. With some cultural sen- (Frances, 2012).
sitivity, it is often possible to understand these unusual ex- At the same time, some changes are more widely accepted.
periences (Flaskerud, 2009; Ross, Schroeder, & Ness, 2013). For example, after considerable debate, the now-outdated
By the way, culture-bound syndromes occur in all societ- term gender identity disorder appears in the DSM-5 as gen-
ies. For example, American psychologists Pamela Keel and der dysphoria (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; De
Kelly Klump believe that the eating disorder bulimia nervosa Cuypere, Knudson, & Bockting, 2011). Opponents of the old
is primarily a syndrome of Western cultures such as the terminology argued that many people whose physical sex
United States (Keel & Klump, 2003). does not match their gender identity are well adjusted and
should not be labeled as “disordered” (Hein & Berger, 2012).
Beware Medical Student’s Disease We hope that you
The new label reflects this idea because it applies only to in-
have not already fallen prey to “medical student’s disease.”
dividuals who are deeply troubled by their gender variance.
Medical students, it seems, have a predictable tendency to
Hopefully the updated DSM-5 will result in better diag-
notice in themselves the symptoms of each dreaded disease
nosis and treatment for those of us who need help.
they study. As a psychology student, you may notice what
seem to be abnormal tendencies in your own behavior. If so,
don’t panic. In most instances, this shows only that patho- The Impact of Psychiatric labels
logical behavior is an exaggeration of normal defenses and In case you haven’t yet realized it, labeling someone mentally
reactions, not that your behavior is abnormal. Keep this in ill is serious business. A fascinating classic study carried out
mind as you read on.
Insanity A legal term that refers to a mental inability to manage
The Fluidity of Psychiatric categories one’s affairs or to be aware of the consequences of one’s actions.
Comorbidity (in mental disorders) The simultaneous presence in a
You might be surprised to learn that definitions of mental person of two or more mental disorders.
disorders change over time. For example, when the DSM-I

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520 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 60.1 Major dsM-5 categories of Psychopathology

Problem Primary symptom Typical signs of Trouble Examples

Neurodevelopmental Impairment of nervous You have intellectual, Intellectual developmental

Disorders system development before communication, attentional, or disorder, Autism spectrum
adulthood motor problems that emerge disorder, Attention deficit/
early in your life. hyperactivity disorder

Schizophrenia spectrum and Loss of contact with reality You hear or see things that Delusional disorder, Schizophrenia,
other psychotic disorders others don’t; your mind has Brief psychotic disorder
been playing tricks on you.

Bipolar and related disorders Alternating mania and You feel depressed, or you talk Cyclothymic disorder, Bipolar
depression too loud and too fast and have I disorder, Bipolar II disorder
a rush of ideas and feelings that
others think are unreasonable.

Depressive disorders Depression You feel sad and hopeless. Persistent depressive disorder
(dysthymia), Major depressive
disorder, Postpartum depression,
Seasonal affective disorder

Anxiety disorders High anxiety or anxiety- You have anxiety attacks and Generalized anxiety disorder,
related distortions of behavior feel like you are going to die; Panic disorder, Agoraphobia,
or you are afraid to do things Specific phobia, Social phobia
that most people can do.

Obsessive-compulsive and Unnecessarily repetitious You spend unusual amounts of Obsessive compulsive disorder,
related disorders behavior time doing things such as Hoarding disorder
washing your hands or counting
your heartbeats.

Trauma- and stressor-related Difficulty dealing with a You persistently re-experience Adjustment disorder, Acute stress
disorders traumatic or stressful event a traumatic event; you have disorder, Posttraumatic stress
an exceptionally strong disorder
negative reaction to a traumatic
event such as becoming highly
anxious, depressed, or, being
unable to sleep.

Dissociative disorders Amnesia, feelings of unreality, There are major gaps in Dissociative amnesia,
multiple identities your memory of events; you Dissociative identity disorder
feel like you are a robot
or a stranger to yourself;
others tell you that you have
done things that you don’t
remember doing.

Somatic symptom disorders Body complaints without an You feel physically sick, but Somatic symptom disorder,
organic (physical) basis your doctor says nothing is Factitious disorder, Conversion
wrong with you; you suffer disorder
from pain that has no physical
basis; or you are preoccupied
with thoughts about being sick.

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 MoDU lE 6 0 Psyc h o lo g i cAl d i s o r d e r s: d e f i n i n g Psyc h o PAth o lo gy 521

Table 60.1 Major dsM-5 categories of Psychopathology ( continued )

Problem Primary symptom Typical signs of Trouble Examples

Feeding and eating disorders Disturbance of food intake You eat nonfood items (pica) Anorexia nervosa, Bulimia
into the body or have difficulty eating nervosa, Binge eating disorder
enough food to remain
healthy.
Elimination disorders Disturbance of waste You have trouble controlling Enuresis, Encopresis
elimination from the body the elimination of urine
(enuresis) or feces (encopresis).
Sleep–wake disorders Troubles falling asleep, You have difficulty getting Insomnia disorder, Hypersomnolence
staying asleep, or waking up. a healthy night’s sleep; you disorder, Narcolepsy, Nightmare
snore, have nightmares, or disorder
fall asleep inappropriately
(narcolepsy).
Sexual dysfunctions Problems in sexual You have problems with Erectile disorder, Female sexual
adjustment sexual desire, arousal, orgasm, interest/arousal disorder, Genito-
or pain. pelvic pain/penetration disorder,
Male hypoactive sexual desire
disorder
Gender dysphoria Disturbed gender identity You feel that you are a man Gender dysphoria
trapped in a woman’s body
(or the reverse).
Disruptive, impulse control Difficulties of self-control You are defiant and Oppositional defiant disorder,
and conduct disorders aggressive; you set fires Intermittent explosive disorder,
(pyromania) or are a chronic Pyromania, Kleptomania,
thief (kleptomania).
Substance use and addictive Disturbances related to drug You have been drinking too Opioid use disorder, Stimulant
disorders abuse or dependence as well much, using illegal drugs, use disorder, Alcohol use disorder,
as other addictive behaviors taking prescription drugs Tobacco use disorder, Gambling
more often than you should, disorder
or gambling too much.
Neurocognitive disorders Impairment of nervous Your ability to think and Delirium, Neurocognitive disorder
system development while in remember has suffered a due to Alzheimer’s disease,
adulthood dramatic decline in adulthood. Neurocognitive disorder due to
Parkinson’s disease, Neurocognitive
disorder due to HIV Infection
Personality disorders Unhealthy personality Your behavior patterns Antisocial personality disorder,
patterns repeatedly cause problems at Borderline personality disorder
work, at school, and in your
relationships with others.
Paraphilic disorders Deviant sexual behavior You can gain sexual Pedophilic disorder, Exhibitionistic
satisfaction only by engaging disorder, Voyeuristic disorder,
in highly atypical sexual Fetishistic disorder
behavior.

Source: American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Sue et al., 2017.

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522 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

by psychologist David Rosenhan illustrates the impact of psy- problems that are more severe or long-lasting than most of
chiatric labeling. Rosenhan and several volunteers had them- us experience. Otherwise, though, they may not be that dif-
selves committed to mental hospitals as “schizophrenics” ferent from the rest of us. The terms used to describe men-
(Rosenhan, 1973). After being admitted, each of these “pseu- tal illness are meant to aid communication about human
dopatients” dropped all pretense of mental illness. Yet, even problems. But as we have just seen, the dangers of labeling,
though they acted completely normal, none of the research- including stigmatization, mean that if psychiatric labels are
ers was ever recognized by hospital staff as a phony patient. used carelessly or maliciously, they can oppress people.
Real patients were not so easily fooled: It was not unusual for Can you give an example? Sure. In the mid-1800s, slaves
a patient to say to one of the researchers, “You’re not crazy, who tried to escape were sometimes labeled as suffering
you’re checking up on the hospital!” or “You’re a journalist.” from “drapetomania,” a mental “disorder” that causes slaves
To record his observations, Rosenhan took notes by to run away (Wakefield, 1992). The “cure”? Amputation of
carefully jotting things on a small piece of paper hidden in the toes. As this example suggests, psychiatric terms are eas-
his hand. However, he soon learned that stealth was totally ily abused. Historically, some have been applied to cultur-
unnecessary. Rosenhan simply walked around with a clip- ally disapproved behaviors that are not mental disorders.
board, recording observations. No one questioned this be- Another of our personal favorites is the long-outdated diag-
havior. Rosenhan’s note-taking was just regarded as another nosis of “anarchia,” a form of insanity that leads one to seek
symptom of his “illness.” This observation clarifies why staff a more democratic society (Brown, 1990).
members failed to detect the fake patients. Because they All of the following sexual behaviors were considered
were in a mental ward and because they had been labeled mental disorders not that long ago: childhood masturba-
schizophrenic, anything the pseudopatients did was seen as tion, lack of vaginal orgasm, homosexuality, and nympho-
a symptom of psychopathology. mania (a woman with a healthy sexual appetite) (Wakefield,
To fully appreciate the implications of Rosenhan’s study, 1992). Modern critics suggest that labeling, for example,
imagine being falsely labeled “schizophrenic.” Now imagine homosexuality as a deviant form of sexuality amounts to
struggling to prove to people that you are actually normal nothing more than using medical labels as a way to justify
when even denying you are “crazy” just becomes more proof prejudice.
of how crazy you really are. As Rosenhan’s study implies, it Even today, stereotypes of race, gender, and social
is better to label problems than to label people. Think of the class continue to affect the definitions of various disorders
difference in impact between saying, “You are experienc- (Mizock & Harkins, 2011; Poland & Caplan, 2004). Gender
ing a serious psychological disorder” and “You’re a schizo- is probably the most common source of bias in judging nor-
phrenic.” Which statement would you prefer to have said mality because standards tend to be based on males (Fine,
about yourself? 2010; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2011). According to psychologist
Paula Caplan, women are penalized both for ignoring fe-
Social Stigma An added problem with psychiatric labeling
male stereotypes and for conforming to them. If a woman
is that it frequently leads to prejudice and discrimination—
is independent, aggressive, and unemotional, she may be
that is, the mentally ill in our culture are often stigmatized
considered “overmasculinized.” Yet a woman who is vain,
(rejected and disgraced). People who have been labeled
emotional, irrational, and dependent on others (all “femi-
mentally ill (at any time in their lives) are less likely to be
nine” traits in our culture) may be classified as having a per-
hired. They also tend to be denied housing and are more
sonality disorder. Indeed, a majority of persons classified as
likely to be falsely accused of crimes. Sadly, the fear of stig-
having dependent personality disorder are women. In view
matization, including self-stigmatization, is one major rea-
of this, Caplan asks, why isn’t there a category called “delu-
son many people do not seek help for their mental illness
sional dominating personality disorder” for obnoxious men
(Mojtabai et al., 2011). Thus, people who are grappling with
(Caplan, 1995)?
mental illness may be harmed by social stigma as well as
Because biases and prejudices can influence perceptions
by their immediate psychological problems (Elkington
of disorder and normality, it is worth being extra cautious
et al., 2012).
before you leap to conclusions about or label the mental
The Oppressive Side of Psychiatric Labels Every- health of others (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
one has felt or acted “crazy” during brief periods of stress or Animal-mask-wearing disorder? They might be doing an as-
high emotion. People with psychological disorders may have signment for their psychology class!

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 MoDU lE 6 0 Psyc h o lo g i cAl d i s o r d e r s: d e f i n i n g Psyc h o PAth o lo gy 523

Diagnosing Mental Illness—Attaching a Label to the Person

Survey Question 60.3 How are mental disorders diagnosed? positive and negative symptoms (Rollins et al., 2010). Positive
Like physical illness, mental illness is typically diagnosed by symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, are excesses
confirming the presence and/or absence of a number of symp- or exaggerations compared to normal behavior. People who
toms (Durand & Barlow, 2016). Consider the diagnosis of suffer from delusions hold strong false beliefs that they insist
major depressive episode. Of course, one of the symptoms is are true, regardless of how much the facts contradict them.
being in a depressed (sad, empty, or hopeless) mood. But al- An example is a 34-year-old woman who was convinced
most everybody gets a little depressed from time to time. This that she would become “President of the United States of the
symptom won’t qualify for this diagnosis unless the mood is World” (Mendelson & Goes, 2011).
unusually intense and has gone nearly all day, every day, for at Hallucinations are imaginary perceptions, such as see-
least two weeks. Furthermore, there are eight additional main ing, hearing, or smelling things that don’t exist in the real
symptoms to consider, such as loss of interest or pleasure, dif- world. The most common hallucination is hearing voices.
ficulties with sleep, fatigue or loss of energy, and thoughts of Sometimes these voices command patients to hurt them-
suicide. At least five of these nine main symptoms must have selves or others and, unfortunately, sometimes they obey
occurred nearly all day, every day, for at least two weeks. (Barrowcliff & Haddock, 2006).
At the same time, there can’t have been any manic epi- In contrast, negative symptoms are absences or defi-
sodes (or else this may be bipolar disorder) and no drug use ciencies compared to normal behavior. Sometimes pa-
(or this may be a substance use disorder). A further com- tients may be apathetic or display a lack of emotion—flat
plicating factor is the potential presence of other symptoms affect—a condition in which the face is frozen in a blank
not usually part of the diagnosis under consideration. Al- expression. Brain images from patients with “frozen
though depressed people do not typically report psychotic faces” reveal that their brains process emotions abnor-
symptoms such as hallucinations, it is not unheard of and mally (Lepage et al., 2011). Similarly, a reduced capacity
may indicate comorbidity. to communicate verbally is a common symptom of some
In reality, diagnosing a major depressive episode is sub- disorders such as psychosis. In fact, psychotic speech can
stantially more complicated than we have portrayed here. It be so garbled and chaotic that it sometimes sounds like a
takes a skilled practitioner to make accurate diagnoses. This “word salad.”
is critical since treatments are only as good as the diagnoses It is one thing to identify symptoms or to diagnose a
they are based on (Sue et al., 2017). mental disorder; it is another matter entirely to understand
what causes it. While much mystery still remains, in the next
Types of symptoms section we begin by describing the general factors that un-
As you begin to think about the symptoms underlying men- derlie all mental illnesses.
tal illness, you might find it helpful to distinguish between

Causes of Mental Illness—What Went Wrong?

Survey Question 60.4 What causes mental disorders? Biological Factors
Like different physical diseases, different mental illnesses A variety of mental illnesses are directly associated with
undoubtedly have different underlying causes. Regardless, biological factors such as genetic defects, very low birth
a small number of general factors underlie all illnesses, weight, chronic physical illness or disability, exposure to
mental or otherwise. In the modules on health psychology toxic chemicals or drugs, or head injuries. Mr. P’s abnormal
we stressed the biopsychosocial model. As you surely recall sexual behaviors clearly arose due to a tumor in his brain.
(right?), combinations of biological, psychological, and/or
social factors can underlie both poor and good health. In
Delusion Strongly held thought or belief that is at odds with reality.
the same vein, biological, psychological, and/or social fac- Hallucination Perception with no basis in reality.
tors play a role in mental illness (Yim et al., 2015).

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524 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Ryan Garza/Detroit Free Press/ZUMA Press/Newscom

The Mad Hatter, from Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in
Wonderland, was modeled after an occupational disease of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In that era, hat makers
were heavily exposed to mercury used in the preparation of
Zephyr / Science Source felt. Consequently, many suffered brain damage and became
psychotic, or “mad” (Kety, 1979). Such environmental exposure to
toxic chemicals remains a problem to this day. Unacceptably high
concentrations of lead in water supplies are currently plaguing the
mostly poor families living in cities such as Flint, Michigan.

This MRI scan of a human brain (viewed from the top) reveals a
tumor (red spot). Mental disorders, like Mr. P’s abnormal sexual
behaviors, sometimes have organic causes of this sort. However, major disturbances in memory, reasoning, judgment, im-
in many instances, no organic damage can be found. pulse control, and personality (Treves & Korczyn, 2012).
This combination usually leaves people confused, suspi-
cious, apathetic, or withdrawn. Some common causes of
Similarly, poisoning by chemicals such as lead or mer- neurocognitive disorders are circulatory problems, re-
cury can damage the brain, causing intellectual disability, peated strokes, or general shrinkage and atrophy of the
hallucinations, delusions, and a loss of emotional control brain.
(Kern et al., 2012). Children with high levels of lead in their Alzheimer’s disease (ALLS-hi-merz) is the most com-
blood are more likely to be arrested as adults for criminal of- mon neurocognitive disorder. Alzheimer’s victims slowly
fenses (Wright et al., 2008). That is why the current lead poi- lose the ability to work, cook, drive, read, write, or do arith-
soning crisis centered in Flint, Michigan, is so frightening metic. Eventually, they are mute and bedridden. Alzheimer’s
to parents. On a much larger scale, “poisoning” of another disease appears to be related to unusual webs and tangles
type, in the form of drug abuse, also can produce deviant in the brain that damage areas important for memory and
behavior and psychotic symptoms (American Psychiatric learning (Hanyu et al., 2010; Stix, 2010). Genetic factors
Association, 2013.) can increase the risk of developing this devastating disease
In general, problems directly related to nervous sys- (Treves & Korczyn, 2012).
tem damage that arise before adulthood, such as autism,
are termed neurodevelopmental disorders. For exam- The Genetics of Mental Illness A variety of mental
ple, Down syndrome, a form of intellectual disability, is disorders from narcolepsy to schizophrenia run in families,
caused by a genetic defect. It is also known as trisomy likely indicating the involvement of an inherited genetic
21 because the defect involves an extra 21st chromosome factor. For example, one recent study identified 128 gene
(Module 40). variations associated with schizophrenia (Schizophrenia
Problems not arising until adulthood, such as Parkin- Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium,
son’s disease, are termed neurocognitive disorders. These 2014). While any progress in understanding schizophrenia
are often serious mental impairments in old age caused is welcome, this still leaves researchers with more questions
by deterioration of the brain. In these disorders, we see than answers (Sharma et al., 2016). How do particular genes,

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 MoDU lE 6 0 Psyc h o lo g i cAl d i s o r d e r s: d e f i n i n g Psyc h o PAth o lo gy 525

➤ Figure 60.2 The Stress-Vulnerability Model

Stress-vulnerability model. Various combinations Vulnerability
of vulnerability and stress may produce psychological Stress
problems. The top bar shows low vulnerability and
low stress. The result? No problem. The same is
true of the next bar down, in which low vulnerability
is combined with moderate stress. Even high
vulnerability (third bar) may not lead to problems
if stress levels remain low. However, when high
vulnerability combines with moderate or high stress
(bottom two bars), the person “crosses the line” and Low Medium High
suffers from psychopathology. Degree of psychopathology

once they are identified, affect the brain? Do they modify conditions, homelessness, social disorganization, and over-
brain structure? Do they alter neurotransmitter function? crowding. Of these, the most important are stress and early
Most importantly, does any of this lead to new therapies for psychological trauma—a psychological injury or shock.
schizophrenia?
The Stress-Vulnerability Model Most psychologists
Our current understanding of the genetics of most men-
now accept that most mental illnesses are caused by a blend
tal illnesses is, like our understanding of schizophrenia, a
of environmental, psychosocial stress and inherited vulner-
work in progress (e.g., Halmai et al., 2013). Nevertheless,
ability (Jones & Fernyhough, 2007; Yim et al., 2015). This
genetic analyses will undoubtedly continue to contribute to
type of explanation is called the stress-vulnerability model
our rapidly expanding knowledge of the causes of mental
(or the diathesis-stress model; see ➤ Figure 60.2).
illness.

Psychosocial Factors Neurodevelopmental disorders Psychopathologies due to various

forms of damage to the nervous system arising before adulthood.
A variety of psychosocial factors also are associated with a Neurocognitive disorders Psychopathologies due to various forms
variety of mental illnesses. Relevant psychological factors in- of damage to the nervous system not arising until adulthood.
Alzheimer’s disease Age-related condition characterized by memo-
clude stress; psychological trauma; learning disorders; and
ry loss, confusion, and increasing loss of mental abilities.
lack of knowledge, control or mastery. Contributing family Psychological trauma A psychological injury or shock, such as that
factors include parents who are immature, mentally disturbed, caused by violence, abuse, neglect, separation, etc.
criminal, or abusive; severe marital strife; extremely poor child Stress-vulnerability (diathesis-stress) model A model that attri-
butes mental illness to a combination of environmental stress and
discipline; and disordered family communication patterns. inherited susceptibility.
Relevant social conditions include poverty, stressful living

MODULE

60 summary
60.1 how is abnormality defined? 60.1.4 Insanity is a legal term defining whether a person
60.1.1 Psychopathology refers to the scientific study of men- may be held responsible for his or her actions.
tal disorders and to maladaptive behavior. Insanity is determined in court on the basis of
60.1.2 Factors that typically affect judgments of abnormality testimony by expert witnesses.
include statistical abnormality, nonconformity, con- 60.2 What are the major mental disorders?
text, culture, and subjective discomfort.
60.2.1 Psychological problems are classified by using the Diag-
60.1.3 The key element in judgments of disorder is that a
nostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th
person’s behavior is maladaptive. The result is usually
Edition) (DSM-5). Many disturbed people are comorbid.
serious psychological discomfort or disability and loss
60.2.2 Culture-bound syndromes are not found in the
of control.
DSM-5 and occur every culture.

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526 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

60.2.3 Definitions of mental disorders change over time. drug abuse. Neurocognitive disorders, such as
60.2.4 Psychiatric labels can take on a life of their own and Alzheimer’s disease, strike in old age.
can be misused to harm and stigmatize people. 60.4.2 Psychosocial factors that contribute to psychopathol-
ogy include psychological factors, family factors, and
60.3 how are mental disorders diagnosed?
social conditions.
60.3.1 Mental illness is typically diagnosed by confirming the 60.4.3 A promising explanation for many mental illnesses is
presence and/or absence of a number of symptoms. the stress-vulnerability model, which emphasizes
60.3.2 Symptoms can be divided into positive and negative a combination of inherited susceptibility and
symptoms. environmental stress.
60.4 What causes mental disorders?
60.4.1 Some mental disorders are due to known injuries or
diseases of the brain, such as poisoning and

Knowledge Builder Psychological Disorders: Normality and Psychopathology

Recite Reflect
1. One of the most powerful contexts in which judgments Think critically
of normality and abnormality are made is 7. Many states began to restrict the use of the insanity
a. the family defense after John Hinckley, Jr., who tried to assassinate
b. occupational settings President Ronald Reagan in 1981, was found not guilty
c. religious systems by reason of insanity. What does this trend reveal about
d. culture insanity?
2. The core feature of abnormal behavior is that it is
a. statistically unusual self-Reflect
b. maladaptive Think of an instance of abnormal behavior that you have
c. socially nonconforming witnessed. By what formal standards would the behavior be
d. a source of subjective discomfort regarded as abnormal? In every society? Was the behavior
3. Which of the following is a legal concept? maladaptive in any way?
a. neurosis How are the mentally ill stigmatized in movies and
b. psychosis television dramas? Can you think of any positive portrayals
c. drapetomania (such as the film A Beautiful Mind)? How do you think such
d. insanity portrayals affect attitudes about mental disorders?
4. Comorbidity is said to occur when a person suffers from
_________________________ . AN sW E R s
5. Mental illness is typically diagnosed by confirming the seek to alter definitions of legal responsibility.
a. absence of symptoms community standards. When those standards change, lawmakers may
b. presence of symptoms insanity is a legal concept, not a psychiatric diagnosis. Laws reflect
c. presence of atypical symptoms 1. d 2. b 3. d 4. more than one disorder 5. d 6. b 7. It emphasizes that

d. all of the above

6. According to the stress-vulnerability model, mental illness
is caused by a blend of environmental stress and
a. lack of knowledge
b. inherited susceptibility
c. brain damage
d. psychological trauma

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 MODULE
Psychological Disorders
Psychotic Disorders 61
Edna
Edna has problems. Here is a part of her intake interview:
“Dr.: Tell me, how do you feel?
Patient: London’s bell is a long, long dock. Hee! Hee! (Giggles
uncontrollably.)
Dr.: Do you know where you are now?
Patient: D_____n! S_____t on you all who rip into my internals! The
grudgerometer will take care of you all! (Shouting) I am the Queen,
see my magic, I shall turn you all into smidgelings forever!
Dr.: Your husband is concerned about you. Do you know his name?
Patient: (Stands, walks to and faces the wall) Who am I, who are we,
who are you, who are they (turns) I . . . I . . . I . . . I! (Makes grotesque
faces.)” (Suinn, 1975*).

Edna is suffering from an extreme form of schizophrenia marked

by silliness, laughter, and bizarre or obscene behavior. While not all of
Eric Audras/Getty Images
the psychotic disorders are this extreme, they all involve a break with
reality, placing them among the most dramatic and serious of all men-
tal problems. Let’s take a closer look at some major psychotic disorders.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
61.1 What is a psychotic disorder? 61.3 What is schizophrenia, and what causes it?
61.2 What is the nature of a delusional disorder?

Psychotic Disorders—Loss of Contact

Survey Question 61.1 What is a psychotic disorder? spectrum and other psychotic disorders: delusional disor-
At their core, the psychoses (psychosis, singular; psycho- ders and schizophrenia (see ■ Table 61.1). These diagnoses
ses, plural) involve a loss of contact with shared views of are usually applied only after psychotic disturbances are
reality (Durand & Barlow, 2016.) Psychosis can occur in a Psychosis A withdrawal from reality marked by hallucinations and
variety of mental illnesses including Alzheimer’s disease, delusions, disturbed thoughts and emotions, and personality
bipolar disorder, and drug use disorder. In this section, disorganization.
however, we will focus on two major types of schizophrenia Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders Severe
mental disorders characterized by delusions, hallucinations,
disturbed thought and/or speech, disturbed motor behavior, and/
*From Fundamentals of Behavior Pathology by R. M. Suinn. Copyright © 1975. or retreat from reality.
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

527
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528 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 61.1 dsM - 5 classification

of schizophrenia spectrum and other
Psychotic disorders

Problem Typical signs of Trouble

Delusional disorder You have some deeply held and bizarre

but false beliefs.
Schizophrenia Your personality has disintegrated; you

Eric Audras/Getty Images

have hallucinations, delusions, or both.
Brief psychotic You suffer a sudden, but short-lived
disorder loss of contact with reality.

Source: American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Sue et al., 2017.

A psychotic individual in a state mental hospital.

evident for weeks or months (American Psychiatric Asso- thoughts, emotions, and/or actions. Psychotic disorders are
ciation, 2013; Sue et al., 2017). severely disabling. They also are among the most difficult
Psychoses are characterized by one or more of the fol- to treat. Drug therapies offer some hope; however, many
lowing: delusions, hallucinations, disturbed thought and/ psychotic individuals end up in prison or committed to a
or speech, disturbed motor behavior, or social/emotional mental hospital.
isolation. Typically, psychotic patients cannot control their

Delusional Disorders—An Enemy Behind Every Tree

Survey Question 61.2 What is the nature of a delusional (If the famous person is alive, the deluded person
disorder? regards her or him as an imposter.)
People with delusional disorders usually do not suffer from ◗ Jealous type: An example of this type of delusion would
hallucinations, disturbed motor behavior, emotional excesses, be having an all-consuming, but unfounded, belief that
or personality disintegration. Even so, their break with re- your spouse or lover is unfaithful.
ality is unmistakable. The main symptom of a delusional ◗ Persecutory type: Delusions of persecution involve the
disorder is the presence of deeply held false beliefs. While belief that you are being conspired against, cheated,
many different delusions are possible, most people with spied on, followed, poisoned, maligned, or harassed.
delusional disorder can be categorized into these types ◗ Somatic type: People suffering from somatic delusions
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Sue et al., 2017): typically believe that their bodies are diseased or rot-
ting, infested with insects or parasites, or that parts of
◗ Erotomanic type: In this disorder, people have erotic their bodies are defective.
delusions that they are loved by another person, espe-
cially by someone famous or of higher status. As you Although false and sometimes far-fetched, these delu-
might imagine, some celebrity stalkers suffer from sions tend to be about experiences that could conceivably
erotomania. occur in real life. In other types of psychosis, delusions tend
◗ Grandiose type: In this case, people suffer from the to be more bizarre (Brown & Barlow, 2011). For example, a
delusion that they have some great, unrecognized tal- person with schizophrenia might believe that space aliens
ent, knowledge, or insight. They also may believe that have replaced all his internal organs with electronic moni-
they have a special relationship with an important toring devices. In contrast, people with ordinary delusions
person or with God, or that they are a famous person. merely believe that someone is trying to steal their money,

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 MoDU lE 6 1 Psyc h o lo g i cAl d i s o r d e r s: Psyc h oti c d i s o r d e r s 529

that they are being deceived by a lover, that the FBI is watch- It is difficult to treat people suffering from paranoid de-
ing them, and the like. lusions because it is almost impossible for them to accept
that they need help. Anyone who suggests that they have
Paranoid Psychosis a problem is simply incorporated into the “conspiracy” to
The most common delusional disorder, paranoid psychosis, “persecute” them. Consequently, paranoid people frequently
centers on delusions of persecution. Many self-styled reform- lead lonely, isolated, and humorless lives dominated by
ers, crank letter writers, conspiracy theorists, and the like constant suspicion and hostility.
suffer paranoid delusions. Paranoid individuals often believe Although paranoid people are not necessarily dan-
that they are being cheated, spied on, followed, poisoned, gerous to others, they can be. People who believe that the
harassed, or plotted against. Usually they are intensely suspi- Mafia, “government agents,” terrorists, or a street gang is
cious, believing that they must be on guard at all times. slowly closing in on them may be moved to violence by their
The evidence that such people find to support their irrational fears. Imagine that a stranger comes to the door
beliefs generally fails to persuade others. Every detail of to ask a paranoid person for directions. If the stranger has
the paranoid person’s existence is woven into a private his hand in his coat pocket, he could become the target of a
version of “what’s really going on.” For instance, buzzing paranoid attempt at “self-defense.”
during a telephone conversation may be interpreted as Delusional disorders, fortunately, are rare. By far the
“someone listening,” or a stranger who comes to the door most common form of psychosis is schizophrenia. Let’s ex-
asking for directions may be seen as “really trying to get plore schizophrenia in more detail and see how it differs
information.” from a delusional disorder.

Schizophrenia—Shattered Reality
Survey Question 61.3 What is schizophrenia, and what focus on one item of information at a time. Having an im-
causes it? paired “sensory filter” in their brains may be why they are
Do people with schizophrenia have two personalities? No. How overwhelmed by a jumble of thoughts, sensations, images,
many times have you heard people say something like, “Lau- and feelings (Cellard et al., 2010; Heinrichs, 2001).
rence was so warm and friendly yesterday, but today he’s as Positive symptoms such as delusions also frequently
cold as ice. He’s so schizophrenic that I don’t know how to re- occur in schizophrenia. Paranoid delusions are especially
act.” Such statements show how often the term schizophrenic is common. As in paranoid delusional disorders, paranoia
misused. As we will see in Module 63, a person who displays in schizophrenia centers on delusions of grandeur and
two or more integrated personalities has a dissociative disorder persecution. However, schizophrenics with paranoia also
and is not schizophrenic. Neither, of course, is a person like hallucinate, and their delusions are generally more bizarre
Laurence, whose behavior is merely inconsistent. and unconvincing than those in a delusional disorder
(Corcoran, 2010; Freeman & Garety, 2004). Schizophrenic
symptoms of schizophrenia delusions may include the idea that the person’s thoughts
In any given year, one person in 100 has schizophrenia and actions are being controlled, that thoughts are being
(SKIT-soh-FREN-ee-uh), a disorder characterized by dis- broadcast (so others can hear them), that thoughts have
turbances in thought, perceptions, emotions, and behavior been “inserted” into the person’s mind, or that thoughts
(National Institute of Mental Health, 2016a). In schizophre-
nia, these disturbances are so severe that a person’s thoughts, Delusional disorder A psychosis marked by severe delusions of
actions, and emotions are no longer coordinated, resulting grandeur, jealousy, persecution, or similar preoccupations.
in personality disintegration along with a consequent break Paranoid psychosis A delusional disorder centered especially on
delusions of persecution.
with reality.
Schizophrenia Severe disorder characterized by disturbances in
Disturbed Thinking Many schizophrenic symptoms thought, perceptions, emotions, and behavior.
appear to be related to problems with selective attention. Paranoia A symptom marked by a preoccupation with delusions
related to a single theme, especially grandeur or persecution.
In other words, it is hard for people with schizophrenia to

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530 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

that he was “going hunting humans,” Huberty had been

hearing command hallucinations.
How dangerous are the mentally ill? Horrific crimes, such
as the San Ysidro murders, publicized by sensationalized
media reports, lead many people to believe that the men-
tally ill are dangerous. Unfortunately, there is an element of
truth to this belief (Markowitz, 2011; Walters, 2011). At the
same time, the pattern of results is more complex than such
a simple generalization suggests. For example, according to
one large study, mentally ill individuals who are substance
abusers are more prone to violence than normal individu-
als. What can be lost when reading the previous sentence
is that most mentally ill individuals are not substance abus-
ers and are not more prone to violence than normal indi-
viduals (Monahan et al., 2001). Similarly, while people with
psychotic disorders are more prone to violence, it is usually
only when they are actively psychotic and currently experi-
encing psychotic symptoms (Douglas, Guy, & Hart, 2009).
Handout/Getty Images

In fact, the risk of violence from mental patients is many

times lower than that from persons who have the following
attributes: young, male, poor, and intoxicated (Corrigan &
Watson, 2005). It is also worth noting that the mentally ill
In 2011, Jared Lee Loughner went on a shooting rampage in Tucson, are more often the victims of violence than are normal in-
Arizona, severely injuring his intended target, U.S. Representative
dividuals; this is particularly true of mentally ill homeless
Gabrielle Giffords. Of the other 18 people he shot, 12 died of
their wounds. Diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, he was individuals (Markowitz, 2011).
nevertheless found competent to stand trial. He was convicted
and sentenced to life in prison. Disturbed Emotions Also, during a psychotic episode,
the emotions of a person with schizophrenia may become
have been removed. Schizophrenics whose predominant very inappropriate or blunted. For instance, if a person
symptom is paranoia are sometimes referred to as paranoid with schizophrenia is told his mother just died, he may
schizophrenics. smile, giggle, or become wildly elated or hyperemotional.
But sometimes psychotic patients may be depressed or
Disturbed Perception Another positive symptom, hal- apathetic, displaying no emotion at all (the negative symp-
lucinations, is also characteristic of schizophrenia. While tom of flat affect).
the most common hallucinations center on hearing voices,
psychotic people may feel “insects crawling under their Disturbed Behavior Schizophrenia also often involves
skin,” taste “poisons” in their food, or smell “gas” that their withdrawal from contact with others, apathy, loss of interest
“enemies” are using to “get” them. Sensory changes, such in external activities, a breakdown of personal habits, and an
as anesthesia (numbness, or a loss of sensation) or extreme inability to deal with daily events (Neufeld et al., 2003; Ziv,
sensitivity to heat, cold, pain, or touch also can occur. Leiser, & Levine, 2011).
Unfortunately, thinking that God, the government, Schizophrenics sometimes display catatonia, remain-
or “cosmic rays from space” are controlling their minds, ing mute (not speaking) while holding odd postures for
or that someone is trying to poison them, people suffer- hours or even days at a time (Tandon et al., 2013). These
ing from paranoid schizophrenia may feel forced to com- periods of stupor may be similar to the tendency to “freeze”
mit violence to “protect” themselves. An example is James at times of great emergency or panic. Catatonic individu-
Huberty, who in 1984 brutally murdered 21 people at a als appear to be struggling desperately to control their
McDonald’s restaurant in San Ysidro, California. Huberty, inner turmoil (Fink, 2013). One sign of this is the fact that
who had paranoid schizophrenia, felt persecuted and stupor may occasionally give way to agitated outbursts or
cheated by life. Shortly before he announced to his wife violent behavior. As you might imagine, catatonic patients

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 MoDU lE 6 1 Psyc h o lo g i cAl d i s o r d e r s: Psyc h oti c d i s o r d e r s 531

Such extreme schizophrenia typically develops in ado-

lescence or young adulthood. As with most disorganized
schizophrenics, Edna’s chances of improvement are limited,
and her social impairment is extreme (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013).

causes of schizophrenia
An increased risk of developing schizophrenia may begin
at birth or even before. Women who are exposed to the
influenza (flu) virus or to rubella (German measles) dur-
ing the middle of pregnancy have children who are more
likely to become schizophrenic (Barlow & Durand, 2015;
Vuillermot et al., 2010). Malnutrition during pregnancy
and complications at the time of birth can have a similar
impact. Such events likely disturb brain development, leav-

Grunnitus Studio/Science Source

ing people more vulnerable to a psychotic break with reality
(Walker et al., 2004).
Psychosocial Factors in Schizophrenia What about
psychosocial factors? Often the victims of schizophrenia were
Catatonia, with its rigid postures and stupor, occurs along with exposed to a psychological trauma, such as sexual abuse,
schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, and several other death, divorce, separation, or other stresses in childhood
conditions, including drug abuse (Tandon et al., 2013). (Walker et al., 2004). Living in a troubled family is a related
risk factor. In a disturbed family setting, stressful relation-
ships, communication patterns, and negative emotions
are difficult to “reach.” Schizophrenics whose predominant
prevail. Deviant communication patterns cause anxiety,
symptom is catatonia are sometimes referred to as catatonic
confusion, anger, conflict, and turmoil. Typically, disturbed
schizophrenics.
families interact in ways that are laden with guilt, prying, crit-
Disorganized Schizophrenia Not all of these symp- icism, negativity, and emotional attacks (Bressi, Albonetti, &
toms are equally prominent in every schizophrenic. Simi- Razzoli, 1998; Davison & Neale, 2006).
larly, the different symptoms in any individual can become Although they are attractive, psychosocial explanations
more or less prominent over time. For these reasons, the alone are not enough to account for schizophrenia. For ex-
various manifestations of schizophrenia are referred to as ample, when the children of schizophrenic parents are raised
schizophrenia spectrum disorders (American Psychiatric away from their chaotic homes, they still are more likely to
Association, 2013). However, when a person’s personality become psychotic (Walker et al., 2004).
disintegration is almost complete and thinking, perception,
Heredity and Schizophrenia Does that mean that he-
feeling, and behavior are all highly disorganized, the result
redity affects the risk of developing schizophrenia? There is
comes close to matching the stereotyped images of “mad-
now little doubt that heredity is a factor in schizophrenia
ness” seen in movies. Such schizophrenics are sometimes
(Gejman, Sanders, & Duan, 2010). It appears that some in-
referred to as disorganized or hebephrenic.
dividuals inherit a potential for developing schizophrenia.
We started this section with an interview with Edna,
They are, in other words, more vulnerable to the disorder
who was diagnosed as a disorganized schizophrenic. After
(Levy et al., 2010; Walker et al., 2004).
admission to a mental hospital, Edna was placed in the
How has that been shown? If one identical twin becomes
women’s ward where she proceeded to masturbate. Occa-
schizophrenic (remember, identical twins have identi-
sionally, she would scream or shout obscenities. At other
cal genes), then the other twin has a 48 percent chance of
times, she giggled to herself. She was known to attack other
patients. She began to complain that her uterus was attached
to Moscow, Russia by a pipeline that communists were using Catatonia A disorder marked by stupor, rigidity, unresponsiveness,
posturing, mutism, and sometimes agitated, purposeless behavior.
to invade (Suinn, 1975).

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532 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Genetic
Relationship Risk
➤ Figure 61.1
relatedness Lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia. The
risk of developing schizophrenia over a person’s
100% Identical twin 48%
lifetime is associated with how closely the person
is genetically related to a schizophrenic. A shared
— Offspring of two patients 46%
environment also increases the risk. (Estimates from
Lenzenweger & Gottesman, 1994.)
50% Fraternal twin 17%

50% Offspring of one patient 17%

50% Sibling 9%

25% Nephew or niece 4%

0% Spouse 2%

Unrelated person in the

0% 1%
general population

also becoming schizophrenic (Insel, 2010; Lenzenweger & drugs (phenothiazines) used to treat LSD overdoses tend to
Gottesman, 1994). The figure for twins can be compared alleviate psychotic symptoms. Observations such as these
with the risk of schizophrenia for the population in general, suggest that schizophrenic people may be on a sort of drug
which is 1 percent. (See ➤ Figure 61.1 for other relation- trip caused by their own brains.
ships.) In general, schizophrenia is clearly more common One likely candidate is dopamine (DOPE-ah-meen),
among close relatives and tends to run in families. There’s an important neurotransmitter naturally found in the brain
even a case on record of four identical quadruplets all de- (➤ Figure 61.2). In schizophrenia, dopamine receptors in
veloping schizophrenia (Mirsky et al., 2000). In light of such one part of the brain appear to become super-responsive to
evidence, researchers are beginning to search for specific normal amounts of dopamine, triggering a flood of unrelated
genes related to schizophrenia (Curtis et al., 2011; Schwab &
Wildenauer, 2013). Antipsychotic
drug
A problem exists with current genetic explanations of Presynaptic
axon terminal
schizophrenia: very few people with schizophrenia have Postsynaptic
children (Bundy, Stahl, & MacCabe, 2011). How could a dendrite
genetic defect be passed from one generation to the next
if afflicted people don’t reproduce? One possibility is sug-
gested by the fact that the older a man is (even if he doesn’t
suffer from schizophrenia) when he fathers a child, the
more likely it is that the child will develop schizophrenia
(Helenius, Munk-Jørgensen, & Steinhausen, 2012). Appar-
ently, genetic mutations occur in aging male reproductive Receptor site

cells and increase the risk of disturbed brain development, Dopamine

Synaptic
leading to schizophrenia (as well as other medical prob- vesicle
lems) (Sipos et al., 2004).
Synaptic gap
Neurotransmitters and Schizophrenia One way that ➤ Figure 61.2
disturbed brain development might result in a vulner- Dopamine and schizophrenia. Dopamine normally crosses
ability to schizophrenia is by disturbing neurotransmitter the synapse between two neurons, activating the second cell.
Antipsychotic drugs bind to the same receptor sites as does
functions. For example, drugs such as amphetamine and
dopamine, blocking its action. In people suffering from schizophrenia,
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) produce effects that par- a reduction in dopamine activity can quiet a person’s agitation and
tially mimic the symptoms of schizophrenia. Also, the same psychotic symptoms.

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 MoDU lE 6 1 Psyc h o lo g i cAl d i s o r d e r s: Psyc h oti c d i s o r d e r s 533

thoughts, feelings, and perceptions, which may account for ensuing trial, Hinckley was declared insane. As you can see,
the positive symptoms (voices, hallucinations, and delusions) his brain had wider than normal surface fissuring. Simi-
of schizophrenia (Citrome, 2011; Madras, 2013). larly, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans indicate
The neurotransmitter glutamate also appears to be that schizophrenic people tend to have enlarged ventricles
related to schizophrenia. People who take the hallucino- (fluid-filled spaces within the brain), again suggesting that
genic drug phencyclidine (PCP, or angel dust) have symp- surrounding brain tissue has withered (Andreasen et al.,
toms that closely mimic schizophrenia (Javitt et al., 2012). 2011; Barkataki et al., 2006).
This occurs because PCP affects glutamate, another neu- One possible explanation is that the schizophrenic
rotransmitter that influences brain activity in areas that brain may be unable to continually create new neurons to
control emotions, cognition, and sensory information replace old ones that have died. In contrast, normal brains
(Citrome, 2011; Volk et al., 2015). Another tantalizing continue to produce new neurons (a process referred to as
connection is the fact that stress alters glutamate levels, neurogenesis; see Module 7) throughout life. It is telling
which in turn alters dopamine systems (Holloway et al., that the affected areas are crucial for regulating motivation,
2013; Moghaddam, 2002). emotion, perception, actions, and attention (DeCarolis &
The story is far from complete, but it appears that Eisch, 2010; Inta, Meyer-Lindenberg, & Gass, 2011; Kawada
abnormalities in dopamine, glutamate, and other neurotrans- et al., 2009).
mitters partly explain the devastating symptoms of schizo- Other methods provide images of brain activity, includ-
phrenia (Walker et al., 2004). ing positron emission tomography (PET) scans. To make
a PET scan, a radioactive sugar solution is injected into a
The Brain and Schizophrenia Another way that dis- vein. When the sugar reaches the brain, an electronic de-
turbed brain development might result in a brain-based vice measures how much is used in each area. These data
vulnerability to schizophrenia is by disrupting overall brain are then translated into a color map, or scan, of brain
structure and/or function. For example, structural brain activity (➤ Figure 61.4). Researchers are finding patterns
imaging methods have revealed that the brains of schizo- in such scans that are consistently linked with schizophre-
phrenics are shrunk, or atrophied (Bora et al., 2011; see nia, affective disorders, and other problems. For instance,
Module 8). ➤ Figure 61.3 shows a computed tomography activity tends to be abnormally low in the frontal lobes of
(CT) scan of the brain of John Hinckley, Jr., who shot Presi- the schizophrenic brain (Barlow & Durrand, 2015; Roffman
dent Ronald Reagan and three other men in 1981. In the et al., 2011). In the future, PET scans may be used to accu-
rately diagnose schizophrenia. For now, such scans show that
there is a clear abnormality in schizophrenic brain activity.

The stress-Vulnerability hypothesis

Most psychologists today accept that the stress-vulnerability
hypothesis (see Module 60) best fits our current understand-
ing of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. It takes this
Dennis Brack/Black Star

form: Anyone subjected to enough stress may be pushed to a

psychotic break. (Battlefield psychosis is an example of such
a phenomenon.) However, some people inherit a difference
in brain chemistry or brain structure/function that makes
➤ Figure 61.3 them more susceptible to developing psychotic disorders,
Brain fissures and schizophrenia. (left) A CT scan of a normal even when experiencing normal life stresses. Thus, the right
25-year-old’s brain. In most young adults, the surface folds of the
brain are pressed together too tightly to be seen. (right) A CT scan
mix of environmental stress and inherited potential brings
of would-be presidential assassin John Hinckley Jr., taken when he about mind-altering changes in the brain (Jones & Ferny-
was 25. The image shows widened fissures in the wrinkled surface hough, 2007; Walker et al., 2004).
of Hinckley’s brain. As a person ages, the surface folds of the brain Despite advances in our understanding, psychosis re-
normally become more visible. Pronounced brain fissuring in young
adults may be a sign of schizophrenia, chronic alcoholism, or other
mains a mystery. Let’s hope that recent progress toward a
problems. cure for schizophrenia will continue.

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534 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

The Brookhaven National Laboratory

Normal Schizophrenic Manic Depressive

➤ Figure 61.4
Patterns of activity in normal and abnormal brains. In the PET scans of the human brain shown here, red, pink,
and orange indicate lower levels of brain activity; white and blue indicate higher activity levels. Notice that activity in the
schizophrenic brain is quite low in the frontal lobes (top area of each scan; Velakoulis & Pantelis, 1996). Activity in the
manic-depressive brain is low in the left-brain hemisphere and high in the right-brain hemisphere. The reverse is more
often true of the schizophrenic brain. Researchers are trying to identify consistent patterns like these to aid the diagnosis
of mental disorders.

MODULE

61 summary
61.1 What is a psychotic disorder? perceptions (hallucinations), abnormal mood (flat or
61.1.1 Psychosis is a break in contact with reality that is inappropriate affect), abnormal behavior (inability to
marked by delusions, hallucinations, sensory changes, cope, catatonia), and a disintegrated personality.
disturbed emotions, disturbed communication, and 61.3.2 Environmental factors that increase the risk for
personality disintegration. schizophrenia include viral infection or malnu-
trition during the mother’s pregnancy and birth
61.2 What is the nature of a delusional disorder? complications.
61.2.1 Delusional disorders are almost totally based on the 61.3.3 Psychosocial factors include early psychological
presence of deeply held false beliefs of grandeur, trauma and a disturbed family environment.
persecution, infidelity, romantic attraction, 61.3.4 Heredity is a major factor in schizophrenia.
or physical disease. Recent biochemical studies have focused on the
61.2.2 Paranoid psychosis is the most common delusional neurotransmitters glutamate and dopamine and
disorder. Paranoid persons may be violent if they their receptor sites.
believe they are threatened. 61.3.5 The stress-vulnerability hypothesis currently offers
the best general explanation for schizophrenia.
61.3 What is schizophrenia, and what causes it?
61.3.1 Schizophrenia spectrum disorder involves varying
degrees of abnormal cognition (delusions, paranoia),

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 MoDU lE 6 1 Psyc h o lo g i cAl d i s o r d e r s: Psyc h oti c d i s o r d e r s 535

Knowledge Builder Psychological Disorders: Psychotic Disorders

Recite 6. Biochemical explanations of schizophrenia have focused on

disturbed functioning of __________________ in the brain.
1. People are said to have “retreated from reality” when they
a. radioactive sugar
suffer from __________________.
b. webs and tangles
a. psychotic disorders
c. PCP
b. schizophrenia
d. dopamine and glutamate
c. delusional disorder
d. all of the above Reflect
2. Angela wrongly believes that her body is “rotting away.”
She is suffering from __________________. Think critically
a. depressive hallucinations 7. Enlarged surface fissures and ventricles are frequently
b. a delusion found in the brains of chronic schizophrenics. Why
c. flat affect is it a mistake to conclude that such features cause
d. Alzheimer’s disease schizophrenia?
3. Colin, who has suffered a psychotic break, is hearing voices. self-Reflect
This symptom is referred to as __________________.
If you were asked to play the role of a paranoid person for a
a. flat affect theater production, what symptoms would you emphasize?
b. a hallucination You have been asked to explain the causes of schizophrenia
c. a word salad to the parents of a schizophrenic teenager. What would you
d. an organic delusion tell them?
4. Hallucinations and personality disintegration are princi-
pal features of schizophrenia. T or F? AN sW E R s
5. Psychosocial explanations of schizophrenia emphasize They could be additional symptoms, rather than causes, of the disorder.
emotional trauma and Structural brain abnormalities are merely correlated with schizophrenia.
a. manic parents 1. d 2. b 3. b 4. T 5. d 6. d 7. Correlation does not confirm causation.
b. schizoaffective interactions
c. psychedelic interactions
d. disturbed family relationships

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MODULE

62 Psychological Disorders
Mood Disorders

Mood Swings
For some people, minor bouts of depression are as common as
colds. But extreme swings of mood can be as disabling as a se-
rious physical illness. In fact, depression can be deadly because
depressed persons may be suicidal. It is difficult to imagine how
bleak and hopeless the world looks to a person who is deeply
depressed.
By the same token, it can be “crazy” to ride a wave of true mania.
Manic patients may go bankrupt in a matter of days, get arrested,
or go on a binge of promiscuous sex and then have to deal with the
consequences of their actions. In the most severe cases of depression
and/or mania, the person may even lose touch with reality and dis-
© Image Point Fr/Shutterstock.com

play psychotic symptoms.

Unfortunately, mood disorders have resisted adequate explana-
tion and treatment. Nevertheless, scientific progress continues to be
made, so let’s explore mood disorders and their causes.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
62.1 What are mood disorders, and what causes 62.2 Why do people commit suicide, and can they be
them? stopped?

Mood Disorders—Peaks and Valleys

Survey Question 62.1 What are mood disorders, and Depressive Disorders
what causes them?
In depressive disorders, sadness and despondency are ex-
Psychologists have come to realize that mood disorders— aggerated, prolonged, or unreasonable. Signs of a depres-
the presence of unusual disturbances in the emotions— sive disorder are dejection, hopelessness, and an inability to
are among the most serious of all psychological condi- feel pleasure or to take interest in anything. Other common
tions. In any given year, roughly 9.5 percent of the U.S. symptoms are fatigue, disturbed sleep and eating patterns,
population suffers from a mood disorder (National Insti- feelings of worthlessness, a very negative self-image, and
tute of Mental Health, 2016a). Two general types of mood thoughts of suicide.
disorder are depressive disorders and bipolar disorders Some depressive disorders are long-lasting but relatively
(see ■ Table 62.1.) moderate. If a person is mildly depressed for at least two

536
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 MODU LE 62 Psyc h o lo g i cal D i s o r D e r s: M o o D D i s o r D e r s 537

Table 62.1 DSM-5 classification of Mood Disorders

Problem Typical Signs of Trouble

Depressive Disorders
Persistent depressive disorder You feel down and depressed more days than not; your self-esteem and energy levels have been
(dysthymia) low for many months.
Major depressive disorder You feel extremely sad, worthless, fatigued, and empty; you are unable to feel pleasure; you are
having thoughts of suicide.
Bipolar and Related Disorders
Cyclothymic disorder You have been experiencing upsetting emotional ups and downs for many months.
Bipolar I disorder At times, you have little need for sleep, you can’t stop talking, your mind races, and everything
you do is of immense importance; at other times, you feel extremely sad, worthless, and empty.
Bipolar II disorder Most of the time, you feel extremely sad, worthless, fatigued, and empty; however, at times, you
feel unusually good, cheerful, energetic, or “high.”
Source: American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Sue et al., 2017.

years, the problem is called a persistent depressive dis- In a bipolar II disorder, the person is mostly sad and
order (dysthymia) (dis-THY-mee-ah). Even at this level, guilt ridden but has had one or more mildly manic episodes
depressive disorders can be debilitating. However, major (called hypomania). That is, in a bipolar II disorder, both
depressions are much more damaging. mania and depression occur, but the person’s mania is not as
In major depressive disorder, the depression is much extreme as in a bipolar I disorder. Bipolar II patients who are
deeper. Everything looks bleak and hopeless. The person hypomanic usually just manage to irritate everyone around
has feelings of failure, worthlessness, and total despair. In them. They are excessively cheerful, aggressive, or irritable,
serious cases of depression, it is impossible for a person to and they may brag, talk too fast, interrupt conversations, or
function at work or at school. Sometimes, depressed indi- spend too much money (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2011).
viduals cannot even feed or dress themselves. The suffering
is intense, and the person may become extremely subdued, Causes of Mood Disorders
withdrawn, or intensely suicidal. Suicide attempted during Some scientists are focusing on the biology of mood chang-
the depths of a major depression is rarely a “cry for help.” es. They are interested in disturbed transmitter function,
Usually, the person intends to succeed and may give no especially serotonin, noradrenaline, and dopamine levels.
prior warning.
Depressive disorders Class of disorders marked by chronic feelings
Bipolar and Related Disorders of sadness and despondency.
Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia) Moderate depression
When depression alternates with periods of mania, one of that persists for two years or more.
the bipolar and related disorders is involved (American Major depressive disorder Mood disorder in which the person has
Psychiatric Association, 2013; Ellison-Wright & Bullmore, suffered one or more intense episodes of depression.
Bipolar and related disorders Mood disorders characterized by
2010). During a manic episode, the person is loud, elated, alternating periods of mania and depression.
hyperactive, grandiose, and agitated. Manic episode Period of abnormally excessive energy and elation.
A long-lasting but relatively moderate alternation be- Cyclothymic disorder Moderate manic and depressive behavior that
persists for two years or more.
tween depression and mania is a cyclothymic disorder
Bipolar I disorder A mood disorder in which a person has episodes
(SIKE-lo-THY-mik). Like depressive disorders, however, of mania (excited, hyperactive, energetic, or grandiose behavior)
major bipolar disorders are much more severe. In a bipo- and also periods of deep depression.
lar I disorder, people experience both extreme mania and Bipolar II disorder A mood disorder in which a person is mostly
depressed (sad, despondent, guilt-ridden) but also has had one or
deep depression. During periods of depression, the person more episodes of mild mania (hypomania).
is deeply despondent and possibly suicidal.

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538 P SyChOLO Gy M o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

The findings are incomplete, but progress has been made. severe depression that begins within three months follow-
For example, the chemical lithium carbonate can be effec- ing childbirth. Typical signs of postpartum depression are
tive for treating some cases of bipolar depression (Malhi mood swings, despondency, feelings of inadequacy, an in-
et al., 2012). ability to cope with the new baby, and an increased risk of
Other researchers seek psychological explanations. Psy- self-harm (Healey et al., 2013; National Institute of Mental
choanalytic theory, for instance, holds that depression is Health, 2013b). Unlike other types of depression, postpar-
caused by repressed anger turned inward as self-blame and tum depression also features unusually high levels of rest-
self-hate. As discussed in Module 57, behavioral theories lessness and difficulty concentrating (Bernstein et al., 2008).
of depression emphasize learned helplessness (Durrand & Depression of this kind may last anywhere from two months
Barlow, 2016; Reivich et al., 2013). Cognitive psychologists to about a year. Women are not the only ones to suffer when
believe that self-criticism and negative, distorted, or self- postpartum depression strikes. A depressed mother can se-
defeating thoughts underlie many cases of depression. (This riously affect her child’s development (Cooper & Murray,
view is discussed in Module 66.) 2001; Tikotzky et al., 2012).
Clearly, life stresses trigger many mood disorders (Ca- Stress and anxiety before birth and negative attitudes
labrese et al., 2009). This is especially true for people who toward child rearing increase the risk of postpartum depres-
have personality traits and thinking patterns that make sion (Phillips et al., 2010; Yim, 2015). A troubled marriage
them vulnerable to depression (Weber et al., 2012). and lack of support from the father also are danger signs.
Part of the problem may be hormonal: After a woman gives
Gender and Depression Overall, women are 50 percent
birth, her estrogen levels can drop, altering her mood (Fer-
more likely than men to experience depression (National
nandez, Grizzell, & Wecker, 2013). Educating new parents
Institute of Mental Health, 2016a). Hormonal fluctuations
about the importance of supporting one another may re-
likely play a role in cases of depression involving pregnancy,
duce the risk of depression. Groups where new mothers can
menstruation, and menopause (Lokuge et al., 2011). Never-
discuss their feelings also are helpful. If depression is severe
theless, researchers believe that psychosocial and environ-
or long-lasting, new mothers should seek professional help.
mental conditions are the main reason for this difference
(Jack & Ali, 2010; McGuinness, Dyer, & Wade, 2012). Biology and Depression Is heredity involved in major
Psychosocial factors that contribute to women’s greater mood disorders? Yes, especially in bipolar disorders (Curtis
risk for depression include conflicts about birth control and et al., 2011; Scharinger et al., 2010). As a case in point, if
pregnancy, work and parenting, and the strain of provid- one identical twin is depressed, the other has a 67 percent
ing emotional support for others. Marital strife, sexual and chance of suffering depression, too. For fraternal twins, the
physical abuse, and poverty also are factors. Nationwide, probability is 19 percent. This difference may be related to
women and children are most likely to live in poverty. As a the finding that people who have a particular version of a
result, poor women frequently suffer the stresses associated gene are more likely to become depressed when they are
with single parenthood, loss of control over their lives, poor stressed (Halmai et al., 2013). As we have noted, psychologi-
housing, and dangerous neighborhoods (Grant et al., 2011; cal causes are important in many cases of depression. But
Stoppard & McMullen, 2003). for major mood disorders, biological factors seem to play a
larger role. Surprisingly, one additional source of depression
Postpartum Depression One source of women’s de-
is related to the seasons.
pression is fairly easy to identify. After pregnancy and child-
birth, many women face an elevated risk of becoming de- Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) Unless you have
pressed (Phillips et al., 2010). An estimated 25 to 50 percent experienced “cabin fever” in the far north in the winter, you
of women experience maternity blues, a mild depression may be surprised to learn that the rhythms of the seasons un-
that usually lasts from one to two days after childbirth. For derlie seasonal affective disorder (SAD), or depression that
most women, brief, mild bouts of crying, fitful sleep, ten- occurs only during the fall and winter months (now known
sion, anger, and/or irritability are a normal part of adjusting as major depressive disorder with seasonal pattern). Almost
to childbirth. anyone can get a little depressed when days are short, dark,
For some women, maternity blues can be the begin- and cold. But when a person’s symptoms are lasting and dis-
ning of a persistent depressive disorder or even major de- abling, the problem may be SAD.
pressive disorder. Roughly 13 percent of all women who Starting in the fall, people with SAD sleep longer, but
give birth develop postpartum depression, a moderately more poorly. During the day they feel tired and drowsy, and
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 MODU LE 62 Psyc h o lo g i cal D i s o r D e r s: M o o D D i s o r D e r s 539

they tend to overeat. With each passing day, they become

sadder, anxious, irritable, and socially withdrawn (Rosen-
thal, 2013). Although their depressions are usually not se-
vere, many victims of SAD face each winter with a sense
of foreboding. SAD is especially prevalent in northern
latitudes (think of countries such as Sweden and Canada),
where days are very short during the winter. For instance,
9 percent of those who live in Alaska experience SAD com-

© Image Point Fr/Shutterstock.com

pared to one percent in Florida (Melrose, 2015).
Seasonal depressions are related to the release of more
melatonin during the winter. This hormone, which is se-
creted by the pineal gland in the brain, regulates the body’s
response to changing light conditions (Delavest et al.,
2012). That’s why 80 percent of SAD patients can be helped An hour or more of bright white or blue light a day can dramatically
reduce the symptoms of SAD. Treatment is usually necessary from
by a remedy called phototherapy, which involves exposing
fall through spring. Light therapy is best done early in the morning,
SAD patients to one or more hours of very bright fluores- when it simulates dawn in the summer (Avery et al., 2001).
cent light each day. This is best done early in the morn-
ing, where it simulates dawn in the summer (Rosenthal, producing SAD, melatonin regulates normal circadian
2013; Vandewalle et al., 2011). (In addition to its role in rhythms. See Module 42.)

Suicide—Too Permanent a Solution?

Survey Question 62.2 Why do people commit suicide, and Spirito, & Donaldson, 1998). Typically, suicidal people
can they be stopped? isolate themselves from others; feel worthless, helpless, and
misunderstood; and want to die (Britton et al., 2008; Heisel,
No discussion of depression would be complete without
Flett, & Hewitt, 2003).
exploring suicide. Talk show host Phil Donahue once com-
mented that “suicide is a permanent solution to a temporary Factors Affecting Suicide Rates Suicide rates in the
problem.” Why suicide? The best explanation may simply United States reveal some general patterns:
come from a look at the conditions that precede it.
◗ Sex. Although four times as many men complete suicide,
Is it mostly depressed people who attempt suicide? A di-
women make more attempts. While men typically use
agnosable mental disorder (usually depression or substance
a gun or an equally fatal method, women most often
use disorder) is a factor in 90 percent of all suicides. However,
attempt a drug overdose, so there’s a better chance of
the following are also risk factors: a prior suicide attempt;
help arriving before death occurs (Denney et al., 2009;
a family history of suicidal behavior; the availability of a
Centers for Disease Control, 2015h).
firearm; feelings of hopelessness or worthlessness; antiso-
◗ Ethnicity. Caucasians generally have higher suicide
cial, impulsive, or aggressive behavior; severe anxiety, panic
rates than non-Caucasians (National Institute of Mental
attacks, shame, humiliation, failure, or rejection (National
Health, 2016a). Sadly, the suicide rate among Native
Alliance on Mental Illness, 2016; Joiner, 2010).
Americans is by far the highest in the country (Goldston
Anyone may temporarily reach a state of depression se-
et al., 2008).
vere enough to impulsively attempt suicide. Most dangerous
for the average person are times of divorce, separation, rejec-
Postpartum depression A mild to moderately severe depression
tion, failure, and bereavement. Among ethnic adolescents,
that begins within three months following childbirth.
loss of face, acculturative stress, racism, and discrimination Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) Depression that occurs only
have been identified as additional risk factors (Goldston during fall and winter; presumably related to decreased exposure
et al., 2008). to sunlight.
Phototherapy A treatment for SAD that involves exposure to bright,
Such situations can seem intolerable and motivate an full-spectrum light.
intense desire to escape, to obtain relief, or to die (Boergers,

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540 P SyChOLO Gy M o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

Suicidal Suicidal Suicide Completed

thoughts threats attempts suicide

➤ Figure 62.1
The slippery slope of suicide. Suicidal behavior usually progresses from suicidal thoughts, to threats, to attempts. A person is unlikely to
make an attempt without first making threats. Thus, suicide threats should be taken seriously (Leenaars, Lester, & Wenckstern, 2005).

◗ Age. Although most suicide victims are white males misunderstood. You should offer support, acceptance, and
over 45, suicide rates among younger people are of legitimate caring. Try to accept and understand the feelings
special concern. Suicide is the second-leading cause of the person is expressing. It is completely acceptable to ask,
death among 15- to 24-year-olds (Centers for Disease “Are you thinking of suicide?” Establishing communica-
Control, 2015h). School is a factor in some youth sui- tion with suicidal persons may be enough to carry them
cides, as are illegal drug or alcohol use, chronic health through a difficult time. You also may find it helpful to get
problems, and interpersonal difficulties (Barlow & day-by-day commitments from them to meet for lunch,
Durrand, 2015; Garlow, Purselle, & Heninger, 2007). share a ride, and the like. Such small commitments can be
◗ Marital status. Married individuals have lower sui- enough to tip the scales when a person is alone and think-
cide rates than divorced, widowed, or single per- ing about suicide.
sons, at least among men (Denney et al., 2009; Yip & If a suicide attempt seems to be imminent, remember,
Thorburn, 2004). most cities have mental health crisis intervention teams
or centers for suicide prevention trained to talk with sui-
Suicide Threats Is it true that people who talk about cidal persons over the phone (Spencer-Thomas & Jahn,
or threaten suicide are rarely the ones who try it? Actually, 2012). Give a person who seems to be suicidal the num-
all suicide threats should be taken seriously. Eighty per- ber of one of these services. Urge the person to call you
cent of potential suicides give warning beforehand. (See or the other number if she or he becomes frightened or
➤ Figure 62.1). Some warning signs, especially if they are impulsive. Better yet, help the person make an appoint-
observed in combination, are: direct threats to commit sui- ment to get psychological treatment (Kleiman, Miller,
cide, preoccupation with death, depression/hopelessness, & Riskind, 2012; Weishaar, 2006). If the person shares a
rage/anger or seeking revenge, aggressive risk taking, specific, workable plan, and the means to carry it out, you
alcohol/drug use, withdrawal from contact with others, no should accompany that person to the emergency ward of
sense of purpose in life, sudden swings in mood, personality a hospital.
change, gift giving of prized possessions, and recent occur- Needless to say, you should call for the police or a res-
rence of a life crisis or an emotional shock (Centers for Dis- cue unit immediately if a person is in the act of attempting
ease Control, 2015h; Leenaars, Lester, & Wenckstern, 2005). suicide or if a drug has already been taken. The majority of
suicide attempts come at temporary low points in a person’s
How to Help What should I do if someone hints that he life and may never be repeated. Get involved—you may
or she is thinking about suicide? Suicidal persons often feel save a life!

MODULE

62 Summary
62.1 What are mood disorders, and what causes states. Severe mood disorders may include psychotic
them? features.
62.1.1 Mood disorders primarily involve disturbances of 62.1.2 In a persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia),
mood or emotion, producing manic or depressive depression is long lasting but moderate. In contrast,

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 MODU LE 62 Psyc h o lo g i cal D i s o r D e r s: M o o D D i s o r D e r s 541

major depressive disorder involves extreme sadness 62.1.6 After birth, many women experience a short bout of
and despondency. the maternity blues. Some women suffer from a more
62.1.3 Bipolar disorders combine mania and depression. In serious and lasting postpartum depression.
a cyclothymic disorder, people suffer from long- 62.1.7 Seasonal affective disorder (SAD), which occurs
lasting, though moderate, swings between depression during the winter months, is another common form
and elation. In a bipolar I disorder, the person swings of depression. SAD is typically treated with photo-
between severe mania and severe depression. In a therapy.
bipolar II disorder, the person is mostly depressed
62.2 Why do people commit suicide, and can they
but has had periods of mild mania.
be stopped?
62.1.4 Mood disorders are partially explained by genetic
64.2.1 In individual cases, the potential for suicide is best
vulnerability and changes in brain chemistry. Mood
identified by a desire to escape, unbearable psycho-
disorders also are partially explained by psychologi-
logical pain, and frustrated psychological needs.
cal factors such as loss, anger, learned helplessness,
62.2.2 Suicide is statistically related to such factors as sex,
stress, and self-defeating thinking patterns.
ethnicity, age, and marital status.
62.1.5 Women are more likely than men to become de-
64.2.3 The impulse to attempt suicide is usually temporary.
pressed. Risk factors include hormonal fluctuations
Efforts to prevent suicide are worthwhile.
and stressful social and environmental conditions.

Knowledge Builder Psychological Disorders: Mood Disorders

Recite Self-Reflect
1. Dysthymic disorder is to depression as cyclothymic dis- Have you ever suffered a bout of the “blues” or got “on a roll”?
order is to manic depression. T or F? What is the difference between normal mood swings and a
2. Learned helplessness is emphasized by ______________ mood disorder?
theories of depression. You’re working a suicide hotline, and you take a call from a
a. humanistic very distressed young man. What risk factors will you look for
b. biological as he tells you about his anguish?
c. behaviorist
d. psychoanalytic AN SW E R S
3. The drug lithium carbonate has been shown to be an ef- (Cambron, Acitelli, & Pettit, 2009).
to mention issues such as job loss, legal problems, and work problems
fective treatment for anxiety disorders. T or F? and illnesses suffered by people they care about. Depressed men tend
4. The maternity blues and postpartum depression are the as loss of a friend, spouse, or lover; problems getting along with others;
same thing. T or F? women consistently report higher rates of relationship problems, such
5. The risk that a person may attempt suicide is greatest if ships than men are. When listing the stresses in their lives, depressed
the person has 1. T 2. c 3. F 4. F 5. a 6. Women tend to be more focused on relation-
a. a concrete, workable plan
b. had a recent life crisis
c. withdrawn from contact with others
d. frustrated psychological needs

Reflect
Think Critically
6. How might relationships contribute to the higher rates of
depression experienced by women?

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MODULE

63 Psychological Disorders
Anxiety, Anxiety-Related,
and Personality Disorders

High Anxiety
Imagine that you are waiting to find out whether you have a serious
illness. It would be quite normal for you to experience some fear or
anxiety—feelings of apprehension, dread, or uneasiness. However,
people who suffer from extreme anxiety are miserable most of the
time, and their behavior can become distorted and self-defeating.
Anxiety can arise in many ways. It can be generalized and unre-
lated to any particular life stressor. It may also be triggered by spe-
cific events, such as the annual U.S. tornado season, which upsets
many lives. In the aftermath of such disasters, many survivors suffer
from stress reactions that can affect them for years. In this module,
we begin by discussing anxiety and anxiety-related disorders and
why they occur.
Anton Oparin/Alamy Stock Photo

You probably know someone whose personality characteristics

make life difficult for her or him. Imagine that person’s traits becom-
ing more extreme. If they did, the person would have a personality
disorder, our final topic in this module.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
63.1 What problems result when a person suffers high 63.3 What is a personality disorder?
levels of anxiety?
63.2 What are anxiety-related disorders?

Anxiety Disorders—When Anxiety Rules

Survey Question 63.1 What problems result when a
simply cannot stop worrying. People with anxiety disorders
person suffers high levels of anxiety?
feel threatened and don’t know what to do about it. They
If anxiety is a normal emotion, when does it signify a prob- struggle to control themselves but remain ineffective and
lem? Anxiety becomes a problem when it becomes so in- unhappy (Cisler et al., 2010; Sheppes, Suri, & Gross, 2015).
tense that it prevents people from doing what they want or An example is a college student named Jian, who be-
need to do. Usually their anxieties are out of control—they came unbearably anxious when he took exams. By the time

542
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 MODU LE 63 Psyc h o lo g i cal D i s o r D e r s: an x i ety, an x i ety-r e late D, an D P e r s o nality D i s o r D e r s 543

Jian went to see a counselor, he had skipped several tests Table 63.1 DSM -5 classification of anxiety
and was in danger of flunking out of school. In general, Disorders
people with anxiety problems like Jian’s display the follow-
ing characteristics: Type of Disorder Typical Signs of Trouble

◗ High levels of anxiety, restrictive, self-defeating behavior Anxiety Disorders

patterns, or both Generalized anxiety You have been extremely anxious or
◗ A tendency to use elaborate defense mechanisms or disorder worried for six months.
avoidance responses to get through the day. (Excessive Panic disorder You are anxious much of the time and
use of psychological defense mechanisms is a feature of have sudden panic attacks. You are
many anxiety disorders. See Module 57.) afraid that your attacks might occur in
◗ Pervasive feelings of stress, insecurity, inferiority, and public places, so you rarely leave home.
dissatisfaction with life
Agoraphobia You fear that something extremely
embarrassing will happen if you leave
Anxiety Disorders home (but you don’t have panic attacks).
Particular anxiety disorders involve feelings of panic. Others Specific phobia You have an intense fear of particular
take the form of phobias (irrational fears) or just overwhelming objects, activities, or locations.
anxiety and nervousness. In most anxiety disorders, distress
Social phobia You fear social situations in which
seems greatly out of proportion to a person’s circumstances.
people can watch, criticize, embarrass,
For example, consider the following description of Adrian H: or humiliate you.
She becomes very anxious that her children “might have Source: American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Sue et al., 2017.
been hurt or killed if they were out of the neighborhood
playing and she hadn’t heard from them in a couple of
hours.” She also worries all the time about her job perfor-
Panic Disorder In a panic disorder, people are highly
mance and her relationships with men. Adrian believes anxious and also feel sudden, intense, unexpected panic.
that men rarely call back after a date or two because “they During a panic attack, victims experience chest pain, a rac-
can sense I’m not a fun person.” She never really relaxes, ing heart, dizziness, choking, feelings of unreality, trembling,
has difficulty focusing at work, has frequent headaches, or fears of losing control. Many believe that they are having
and suffers from insomnia. (Adapted from Brown & a heart attack, are going insane, or are about to die. Needless
Barlow, 2011.)
to say, this pattern leaves victims unhappy and uncomfort-
Distress like Adrian H’s is a key ingredient of the anxi- able much of the time. Again, the majority of people who
ety disorders. In any given year, roughly 18 percent of the suffer from panic disorder are women (Cannon et al., 2013).
adult population suffers from an anxiety disorder (Na- Imagine that you are trapped in your stateroom on a
tional Institute of Mental Health, 2016a). To deepen your sinking ocean liner (the Titanic?). The room fills with water.
understanding, let’s directly examine the anxiety disorders When only a small air space remains near the ceiling and you
(■ Table 63.1). are gasping for air, you’ll know what a panic attack feels like.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder A person with a Agoraphobia Agoraphobia (ah-go-rah-FOBE-ee-ah) is an

generalized anxiety disorder experiences nearly constant, excessive, irrational fear of being in public places. It usually
exaggerated worries. He or she has been extremely anxious involves the fear that something extremely threatening will
and worried for at least six months. Sufferers typically
complain of sweating, a racing heart, clammy hands, dizzi- Anxiety disorders Class of disorders marked by feelings of excessive
apprehension and worry.
ness, upset stomach, rapid breathing, irritability, and poor
Generalized anxiety disorder Psychological disorder characterized
concentration. Overall, more women than men have these by nearly constant, exaggerated worries.
symptoms (Brown & Barlow, 2011). Panic disorder Chronic state of anxiety, with brief moments of
Was Adrian H’s problem a generalized anxiety disorder? sudden, intense, unexpected panic.
Yes. However, if she also experienced anxiety attacks, then Agoraphobia The fear that something extremely embarrassing will
she would likely be diagnosed with panic disorder (Batelaan happen if one leaves the house or enters an unfamiliar situation;
excessive, irrational fear of being in public places.
et al., 2010).

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544 P SychOLO Gy M o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

happen in public, such as a panic attack, dizziness, diarrhea, triskaidekaphobia (fear of the number 13), xenophobia (fear
or shortness of breath. Going outside the home alone, be- of strangers), and hematophobia (fear of blood). One of
ing in a crowd, standing in line, crossing a bridge, or riding your authors’ favorites is coulrophobia (fear of clowns).
in a car can be impossible for an agoraphobic person. As a Almost everyone has a few mild phobias, such as fear
result, some agoraphobics are prisoners in their own homes of heights, closed spaces, or bugs and crawly things. True
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013). phobias may lead to overwhelming fear, vomiting, wild
Although they are considered to be separate disorders, climbing and running, or fainting. For a phobic disorder to
agoraphobia and panic attacks can occur together in the exist, the person’s fear must disrupt his or her daily life. Pho-
same individual. About 4.2 percent of all adults suffer from bic persons are so threatened that they will go to almost any
agoraphobia (with or without panic) during their lifetime length to avoid the feared object or situation, such as driving
(Grant et al., 2006). 50 miles out of the way to avoid crossing a bridge.

Social Phobia Phobias are intense, irrational fears that a Anxiety Disorders—Four Pathways
person cannot shake off, even when there is no real dan- to Trouble
ger. In social phobia, people fear situations in which they What causes anxiety disorders? Anxiety disorders may be
can be scrutinized, evaluated, or humiliated by others. This best explained by the stress-vulnerability model. Suscep-
leads them to avoid certain social situations, such as eating, tibility to anxiety disorders appears to be partly inherited
writing, using the restroom, or speaking in public. When (Rachman, 2013). Studies show that being high-strung, ner-
such situations cannot be avoided, people endure them vous, or emotional runs in families. For example, 60 percent
with intense anxiety or distress. It is common for them to of children born to parents suffering from panic disorder
have uncomfortable physical symptoms, such as a pound- have a fearful, inhibited temperament. Such children are ir-
ing heart, shaking hands, sweating, diarrhea, mental confu- ritable and wary as infants, shy and fearful as toddlers, and
sion, and blushing. Social phobias greatly impair a person’s quiet and cautious introverts in elementary school. By the
ability to work, attend school, and form personal relation- time they reach adulthood, they are at high risk for anxi-
ships (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). About ety problems, such as panic attacks (Barlow, 2000; Barlow &
6.8 percent of all adults are affected by social phobias in a Durrand, 2015).
given year (National Institute of Mental Health, 2016a). There are at least four major psychological perspectives
on the causes of anxiety disorders. These are (1) the psycho-
Specific Phobia In a specific phobia, the person’s fear,
dynamic approach, (2) the humanistic-existential approach,
anxiety, and avoidance are focused on specific objects, activ-
(3) the behavioral approach, and (4) the cognitive approach.
ities, or situations (Ipser, Singh, & Stein, 2013). Specific pho-
bias can be linked to nearly any object or situation (Stinson Psychodynamic Approach The term psychodynamic
et al., 2007). People affected by phobias recognize that their refers to internal motives, conflicts, unconscious forces, and
fears are unreasonable, but they cannot control them. For ex- other dynamics of mental life. Freud was the first to pro-
ample, a person with a spider phobia would find it impossi- pose a psychodynamic explanation for what he called “neu-
ble to ignore a picture of a spider, even though a photograph rosis.” According to Freud, disturbances like those we have
can’t bite anyone (Lipka, Miltner, & Straube, 2011). About described represent a raging conflict among subparts of the
8.7 percent of all adults have a specific phobic disorder in personality—the id, ego, and superego.
any given year (National Institute of Mental Health, 2016a). Freud emphasized that intense anxiety can be caused
The most common specific phobias among Americans by forbidden id impulses for sex or aggression that threaten
are phobias of insects, birds, snakes, or other animals, in- to break through into behavior. The person constantly fears
cluding, of course, arachnophobia (fear of spiders) and doing something “crazy” or forbidden. She or he also may be
zoophobia (fear of all animals). Other “popular” phobias, tortured by guilt, which the superego uses to suppress for-
in descending order of prevalence, are acrophobia (fear of bidden impulses. Caught in the middle, the ego is eventually
heights), astraphobia (fear of storms, thunder, lightning), overwhelmed. This forces the person to use rigid defense
aquaphobia (fear of being on or in water), aviophobia (fear mechanisms and misguided, inflexible behavior to prevent a
of airplanes), claustrophobia (fear of closed spaces), and disastrous loss of control (see Module 57).
agoraphobia (fear of crowds).
By combining the appropriate root word with the word Humanistic-Existential Approaches Humanistic theo-
“phobia,” any number of fears can be named. Some include ries emphasize subjective experience, human problems, and
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 MODU LE 63 Psyc h o lo g i cal D i s o r D e r s: an x i ety, an x i ety-r e late D, an D P e r s o nality D i s o r D e r s 545

personal potentials. Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers re- of a painful or unpleasant stimulus. Here’s a quick review to
garded disorders of emotion, including anxiety disorders, refresh your memory:
as the result of a faulty self-image (Rogers, 1959). Rogers
An animal is placed in a special cage. After a few minutes a
believed that anxious individuals have built up unrealistic
light comes on, followed a moment later by a painful shock.
mental images of themselves. This leaves them vulnerable Quickly, the animal escapes into a second chamber. After
to contradictory information. Let’s say, for example, that an a few minutes, a light comes on in this chamber, and the
essential part of Cheyenne’s self-image is that she is high- shock is repeated. Soon the animal learns to avoid pain by
ly intelligent. If Cheyenne does poorly in school, she may moving before the shock occurs. Once an animal learns
begin to deny or distort her perceptions of herself and the to avoid the shock, it can be turned off altogether. A well-
trained animal may avoid the nonexistent shock indefinitely
situation. Should Cheyenne’s anxiety become severe, she
if the light keeps turning on.
may resort to using defense mechanisms. Anxiety attacks,
or similar symptoms, also may result from threats to her The same analysis can be applied to human behavior.
self-image. These symptoms, in turn, might become new A behaviorist would say that the powerful reward of im-
threats that provoke further distortions. Soon, she could mediate relief from anxiety keeps self-defeating avoidance
fall into a vicious cycle of maladjustment and anxiety that behaviors alive. This view, known as the anxiety reduction
feeds on itself. hypothesis, seems to explain why the behavior patterns
Existentialism focuses on elemental problems of exis- that we have discussed often look very “stupid” to outside
tence, such as death, meaning, choice, and responsibility. observers.
Existential anxiety is the unavoidable anguish that comes
from knowing that we are personally responsible for our lives Cognitive Approach The cognitive view is that dis-
even as we face life’s empty and impersonal void. According torted thinking causes people to magnify ordinary threats
to existential psychologists, we must courageously face ex- and failures, leading to distress (Steinman et al., 2013). For
istential anxiety by taking responsibility for our choices if example, Bonnie, who is socially phobic, constantly has
life is to have meaning. Adolescents may experience con- upsetting thoughts about being evaluated at school. Like
siderable existential anxiety as they develop their identity other social phobics, Bonnie is a perfectionist excessively
(Berman, Weems, & Stickle, 2006). concerned about making mistakes. She also perceives criti-
If we collapse in the face of existential anxiety by failing cism when none exists. If Bonnie expects that a social situ-
to make life-enhancing choices, we risk living in “bad faith” ation will focus too much attention on her, she avoids it
and losing our way in life. Existential psychologists believe (Brown & Barlow, 2011). Even when socially phobic per-
that unhealthy anxiety reflects a loss of meaning in life. That sons are successful, distorted thoughts lead them to believe
is, making choices that don’t truly reflect what you value, they have failed. In short, changing the thinking patterns
feel, and believe can make you sick. of anxious individuals like Bonnie can greatly lessen their
Behavioral Approach Behaviorist approaches empha- fears (Arch et al., 2013).
size overt, observable behavior, and the effects of learning
and conditioning. Behaviorists assume that the “symp- Implications All four psychological explanations prob-
toms” of anxiety disorders are learned, just as other be- ably contain an element of truth. For this reason, under-
haviors are learned. You might recall from Module 28, for standing anxiety disorders may be aided by combining parts
instance, that phobias can be acquired through classical of each perspective. Each viewpoint also suggests a differ-
conditioning. Similarly, panic attacks may reflect condi- ent approach to treatment. Because many possibilities exist,
tioned emotional responses that generalize to new situa- therapy is discussed in later modules.
tions. One point on which all theorists agree is that disor-
dered behavior is ultimately self-defeating because it makes
the person more miserable in the long run, even though it
Social phobia An intense, irrational fear of being observed, evaluated,
temporarily lowers anxiety. embarrassed, or humiliated by others in social situations.
But if the person becomes more miserable in the long run, Specific phobia Persistent fear and avoidance of a specific object
how does the pattern get started? The behavioral explana- or situation.
tion is that self-defeating behavior begins with avoidance Anxiety reduction hypothesis Explains the self-defeating nature of
learning (described in Module 30). Avoidance learning oc- avoidance responses as a result of the reinforcing effects of relief
from anxiety.
curs when making a response delays or prevents the onset
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546 P SychOLO Gy M o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

Anxiety-Related Disorders—Also Anxious?

Survey Question 63.2 What are anxiety-related disorders? People who suffer from obsessive-compulsive disorder
We began this module by examining the anxiety disorders. Let’s (OCD) are preoccupied daily with distressing, repetitive
now turn our attention to several types of disorders that are in thoughts and urges to perform certain rituals. You have
some way related to anxiety: obsessive-compulsive and related probably experienced a mild obsessional thought, such as a
disorders, trauma- and stressor-related disorders, dissociative dis- song or stupid commercial jingle that repeats over and over
orders, and somatic symptom and related disorders (■ Table 63.2). in your mind. This may be irritating, but it’s usually not ter-
ribly disturbing. True obsessions are images or thoughts that
force their way into awareness against a person’s will. They
Obsessive-compulsive and Related are so disturbing that they cause intense anxiety. The main
Disorders types of obsessions are (1) about being “dirty” or “unclean,”
While the DSM-5 now categorizes obsessive-compulsive (2) about whether one has performed some action (such as
and related disorders separately from the anxiety disorders, locking the door), (3) about putting things “in order,” and
at first glance they appear to involve coping with anxiety. (4) about taboo thoughts or actions (such as one’s spouse
The obsessive-compulsive and related disorders involve being poisoned or committing immoral acts). A related dis-
extreme preoccupations with certain thoughts and compul- order, hoarding disorder, is about excessively collecting
sive performance of certain behaviors. various things (Rasmussen, Eisen, & Greenberg, 2013).

Table 63.2 DsM-5 classification of anxiety-related Disorders

Type of Disorder Typical Signs of Trouble

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
Obsessive-compulsive disorder Your thoughts make you extremely nervous, and you rigidly repeat certain actions
or routines.
Hoarding disorder You collect things and have difficulty throwing or giving them away.
Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders
Adjustment disorder A normal life event has triggered troublesome anxiety, apathy, or depression.
Acute stress disorder You are tormented for less than a month by the emotional aftereffects of horrible
events that you have experienced.
Posttraumatic stress disorder You are tormented for more than a month by the emotional aftereffects of horrible
events that you have experienced.
Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative amnesia You can’t remember your name, address, or past. In extreme (fugue) cases,
you took a sudden, unplanned trip and are confused about who you are.
Dissociative identity disorder You have two or more separate identities or personality states.
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
Somatic symptom disorder You are preoccupied with bodily functions and disease.
Factitious disorder (Munchausen syndrome) You are deliberately faking medical problems to gain attention.
Conversion disorder You are “converting” severe emotional conflicts into symptoms that closely
resemble a physical disability.
Source: American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Sue et al., 2017.

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 MODU LE 63 Psyc h o lo g i cal D i s o r D e r s: an x i ety, an x i ety-r e late D, an D P e r s o nality D i s o r D e r s 547

According to COD theory, the problem actually begins

with the compulsion. In our example, the patient begins to
wash his hands more and more often. In order to explain
to himself why he is washing his hands so often, he specu-
lates that it must be because he is afraid of germs. Hence
COD: The compulsion leads to the obsession (Gillan &
Robbins, 2014).
How does that work? Repeated often, behaviors that start

Roger Bamber/Alamy Stock Photo

out as conscious, reflective decisions eventually become au-
tomatic, unconscious habits (Wood & Rünger, 2016). Many
of our daily activities have long ago become habitual: button-
ing our shirts, brushing our teeth, washing our hands, and
so forth. What if the parts of your brain involved in forming
Hoarders are obsessive about collecting things, which they also habits malfunctioned, occasionally forming exceptionally
have great difficulty discarding (Hayward & Coles, 2009). strong habits, or compulsions? In effect, our cleaner starts
habitually washing his hands a lot and adopts the germ ex-
The traditional view of OCD (let’s call it OCD theory)
planation in a desperate attempt to explain, to himself, why
is that obsessions give rise to compulsions, irrational acts
he is washing his hands so much. (If you enjoy a challenge,
that a person feels driven to repeat. The idea is that com-
go back to Module 2 and reread the section on the failings of
pulsive acts help control or block out anxiety caused by an
introspection. Notice the similarity?)
obsession. For example, a minister who finds profanities
COD theory has a lot going for it. Similar reasoning has
popping into her mind might start compulsively counting
already been applied to other types of compulsive behavior,
her heartbeat. Doing this would prevent her from think-
such as drug addiction (Everitt & Robbins, 2016). Also, the
ing “dirty” words. Some compulsive people are checkers
brain structures involved in exercising conscious control
or cleaners. For instance, a young mother who repeatedly
over habits (i.e., resisting habits) are the same structures
pictures a knife plunging into her baby might check once
that appear to be abnormal in OCD patients. Furthermore,
an hour to make sure that all the knives in her house are
medical and behavioral methods designed to weaken habit
locked away.
formation have shown promise in reducing OCD symptoms
Of course, not all obsessive-compulsive disorders are
(Gillan & Robbins, 2014).
so dramatic. Many simply involve extreme orderliness
and rigid routine. Compulsive attention to detail and
rigid following of rules help keep activities totally under
Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders
control and make the highly anxious person feel more If a situation causes distress, anxiety, or fear, we tend to “put
secure (Challacombe, Oldfield, & Salkovskis, 2011). (If it behind us” and avoid it in the future. This is a normal sur-
such patterns are longstanding but less intense, they are vival instinct. But what happens if we experience traumas or
classified as personality disorders, which we discuss later stresses outside our ability to cope? Trauma- and stressor-
in more detail.) related disorders are behavior patterns also associated with
high levels of fear or anxiety brought on by experiencing
Causes of OCD Achieving a fuller understanding of the traumatic stresses.
obsessive-compulsive and related disorders will undoubtedly
require considerable effort and creativity. Let’s focus on
one remarkably creative theory, COD theory, which sets the Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders Extreme preoccu-
pations with certain thoughts and compulsive performance of
traditional view of OCD on its head (Gillan & Sahakian, certain behaviors.
2015). Imagine a cleaner, a patient who feels “contami- Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) An extreme preoccupation
nated” from touching ordinary objects because “germs are with certain thoughts and compulsive performance of certain
everywhere,” driven to wash his hands hundreds of times a behaviors.
day. As we just saw, traditional OCD theory holds that the Hoarding disorder Excessively collecting various things.
obsession (fear of germs) leads to a compulsive attempt to Trauma- and stressor-related disorders Behavior patterns brought
on by traumatic stresses.
cope (handwashing).

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548 P SychOLO Gy M o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

How is this different from an anxiety disorder? The Burker, 2011). The constant threat of death and the grue-
outward symptoms are similar. However, people suffering some sights and sounds of war take a terrible toll.
from anxiety disorders seem to generate their own mis-
ery, regardless of what’s happening around them. They feel Dissociative Disorders
that they must be on guard against future threats that could A person with one of the dissociative disorders experiences
happen at any time (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2010). In a disintegration of consciousness, memory, or self-identity.
contrast, trauma- and stressor-related disorders are caused He or she may have temporary amnesia or multiple per-
by a person’s specific life circumstances and may improve sonalities. Also included in this category are frightening
as life circumstances improve (Kramer et al., 2010). episodes of depersonalization, in which people feel like they
Do stress and trauma problems cause a “nervous break- are outside their bodies, are behaving like robots, or are lost
down”? People suffering from trauma- and stressor-related in a dream world. In dissociative disorders, we see striking
disorders may be miserable, but they rarely experience a episodes of amnesia, fugue, or multiple identity.
“breakdown.” Actually, the term nervous breakdown has no Dissociative amnesia is an inability to recall one’s name,
formal meaning. Nevertheless, a problem known as an ad- address, or past. In extreme cases, a person with dissociative
justment disorder does come close to being something of a amnesia may experience a dissociative fugue (fewg), which
breakdown. involves sudden, unplanned travel away from home and con-
An adjustment disorder occurs when ordinary stresses fusion about personal identity. In such cases, forgetting per-
push people beyond their ability to cope with life. Examples sonal identity and fleeing unpleasant situations appear to be
of such stresses are a job loss, intense marital strife, and defenses against intolerable anxiety. A person suffering from
chronic physical illness. People suffering from an adjust- a dissociative identity disorder has two or more separate
ment disorder may be extremely irritable, anxious, apathet- identities or personality states. (Don’t forget that identity dis-
ic, or depressed. They also have trouble sleeping, lose their orders are not the same as schizophrenia. See Module 61.)
appetite, and suffer from various physical complaints. Often One famous and dramatic example of multiple identi-
their problems can be relieved by rest, sedation, supportive ties is described in the book Sybil (Schreiber, 1973). Sybil
counseling, and a chance to “talk through” their fears and reportedly had 16 different personality states. Each identity
anxieties (Ben-Itzhak et al., 2012). had a distinct voice, vocabulary, and posture. One person-
More extreme reactions can occur when traumas or ality could play the piano, but the others (including Sybil
stresses fall outside the range of normal human experience, herself) could not.
such as floods, tornadoes, earthquakes, or horrible accidents. When an identity other than Sybil was in control, Sybil ex-
They affect many political hostages; combat veterans; pris- perienced a “time lapse,” or memory blackout. Sybil’s amnesia
oners of war; victims of terrorism, torture, violent crime, and alternate identities first appeared during childhood. As a
child molestation, rape, or domestic violence; and people girl, she was beaten, locked in closets, perversely tortured, sexu-
who have witnessed a death or serious injury (Hughes et al., ally abused, and almost killed. Sybil’s first dissociations allowed
2011; Polusny et al., 2011). her to escape by creating another person who would suffer tor-
Symptoms of more extreme stress disorders include ture in her place. Identity disorders often begin with unbear-
repeated reliving of the traumatic event, avoidance of re- able childhood experiences, like those that Sybil endured. A
minders of the event, and blunted emotions. Also com- history of childhood trauma, especially sexual abuse, is found
mon are insomnia, nightmares, wariness, poor concen- in a high percentage of persons whose personalities split into
tration, irritability, and explosive anger or aggression. multiple identities (McLewin & Muller, 2006).
If such reactions last less than a month after a traumatic Flamboyant cases such as Sybil’s have led some experts
event, the problem is called an acute stress disorder. If to question the existence of multiple personalities (Boysen
they last more than a month, the person is suffering from & VanBergen, 2013; Piper, 2008). However, a majority of
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Gupta, 2013; Sue psychologists continue to believe that multiple identity is a
et al., 2017). real, if rare, problem (Boysen, 2011; Dell, 2009).
About 3.5 percent of American adults suffer from PTSD
in any given year (National Institute of Mental Health, Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
2016a). Sadly, up to 20 percent of military veterans return- Have you ever known someone who appeared healthy but
ing from wars develop PTSD, including soldiers involved in seemed to constantly worry about disease? These people are
combat in the Middle East (Rosen et al., 2012; Salisbury & preoccupied with bodily functions, such as their heartbeat,
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 MODU LE 63 Psyc h o lo g i cal D i s o r D e r s: an x i ety, an x i ety-r e late D, an D P e r s o nality D i s o r D e r s 549

breathing, or digestion. Minor physical problems—even a are mothers who fabricate their children’s illnesses (Day &
small sore or an occasional cough—may convince them that Moseley, 2010; Ferrara et al., 2013). Sometimes they even
they have cancer or some other dreaded disease. Typically, deliberately harm their children. For example, one mother
they can’t give up their fears of illness, even if doctors find no injected her son with 7-Up (Reisner, 2006).
medical basis for their complaints (Dimsdale, 2011). (Don’t But why? People who suffer from factitious disorder ap-
confuse somatoform disorders with psychosomatic illnesses, pear to have a pathological need to seek attention and sympathy
which occur when stress causes real physical damage to the from medical professionals. They also may win praise for being
body. See Module 58.) Somatic symptom and related disor- health conscious or a good parent (Day & Moseley, 2010).
ders occur when a person has physical symptoms that mimic
Conversion Disorder In another rare disorder, conver-
disease or injury (e.g., paralysis, blindness, illness, chronic
sion disorder, severe emotional conflicts are “converted”
pain) for which there is no identifiable physical cause. In such
into symptoms that actually disturb physical functioning or
cases, psychological factors appear to explain the symptoms.
closely resemble a physical disability. For instance, a soldier
Are you describing hypochondria? Partly. Somatic
might become deaf or lame or develop “glove anesthesia”
symptom disorder (“body-form” disorder) is a new DSM-5
just before a battle.
disorder combining the features of three older disorders,
Glove anesthesia? Glove anesthesia is a loss of sensitivity
hypochondriasis (HI-po-kon-DRY-uh-sis), somatization
in the areas of the skin that would normally be covered by
disorder, and pain disorder (American Psychiatric Asso-
a glove. Glove anesthesia shows that conversion symptoms
ciation, 2013). People with this disorder typically display
often contradict known medical facts. The system of nerves
some combination of the following: (1) interpreting nor-
in the hands does not form a glovelike pattern and could not
mal bodily sensations as proof that they have a terrible
cause such symptoms (➤ Figure 63.1).
disease (hypochondria), (2) expressing their anxieties
If symptoms disappear when a victim is asleep, hyp-
through various bodily complaints, and (3) experiencing
notized, or anesthetized, a conversion reaction must be
disabling pain that has no identifiable physical basis. Such
suspected (Russo et al., 1998). Another sign to note is that
individuals may suffer from problems such as vomiting
victims of conversion reactions are strangely unconcerned
or nausea, shortness of breath, difficulty swallowing, or
about suddenly being disabled.
painful menstrual periods. Typically, the person feels ill
much of the time and visits doctors repeatedly. Most suf-
Adjustment disorder Emotional disturbance caused by ongoing
ferers take medicines or other treatments, but no physical stressors within the range of common experience.
cause can be found for their distress. (Read on for a re- Acute stress disorder A psychological disturbance lasting up to one
lated disorder with a curious twist.) month following stresses that would produce anxiety in anyone
who experienced them.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Pattern of unwanted
Factitious Disorder: Sick of Being Sick At 14, Ben
memories, nightmares, and flashbacks following a traumatic
was in the hospital again for his sinus problem. Since the event for more than a month.
age of 8, he had undergone 40 surgeries. In addition, he had Dissociative disorders Class of psychological disorders involving
been diagnosed at various times with bipolar disorder, op- disintegration of consciousness, memory, or self-identity.
positional defiant disorder, and ADHD. Ben was taking 19 Dissociative amnesia Loss of memory (partial or complete) for
important information related to personal identity.
different medications, and his mother said that she desper-
Dissociative fugue Sudden travel away from home, plus confusion
ately wanted him to be “healed.” She sought numerous tests about one’s personal identity.
and never missed an appointment. But at long last, it became Dissociative identity disorder Presence of two or more distinct
clear that there was nothing wrong with Ben. Left alone with personalities (multiple personality).
doctors, Ben revealed that he was “sick of being sick.” Somatic symptom and related disorders Physical symptoms that
In reality, it was Ben’s mother who was sick. She was mimic disease or injury (e.g., paralysis, blindness, illness, or
chronic pain) for which there is no identifiable physical cause.
eventually diagnosed as suffering from factitious disorder
Somatic symptom disorder Exhibiting the characteristics of a
(Awadallah et al., 2005). The factitious disorder is imposed disease or injury without an identifiable physical cause.
on self (in Munchausen syndrome) if the person fakes his Factitious disorder (Munchausen syndrome) To gain attention,
or her own medical problems, and imposed on another (in an affected person fakes his or her medical problems or those of
Munchausen by proxy syndrome) if the person fakes the someone in his or her care.
medical problems of someone in his or her care. As in Ben’s Conversion disorder A bodily symptom that mimics a physical
disability but is actually caused by anxiety or emotional distress.
case, most people with Munchausen by proxy syndrome
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550 P SychOLO Gy M o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

➤ Figure 63.1
Glove anesthesia. (left) “Glove anesthesia” is a conversion reaction
involving loss of feeling in areas of the hand that would be covered by Response in
a glove (a). If the “anesthesia” were physically caused, it would follow Conversion
the pattern shown in (b). (right) To test for organic paralysis of the arm, Reaction
an examiner can suddenly extend the arm, stretching the muscles. Arm extension is
A conversion reaction is indicated if the arm pulls back involuntarily. followed by
(Adapted from Weintraub, 1983.) involuntary flexion
of the stretched
muscle, indicating
reserve strength

Response in
Organic
Paralysis

Arm is easily
extended by
examiner’s
force

(a)

(b)

Personality Disorders—Blueprints for Maladjustment

Survey Question 63.3 What is a personality disorder? personality disorder constantly seek attention by drama-
“I want to end it all,” Michelle declared, “No one loves me” tizing their emotions and actions.
(Kearney & Trull, 2015, p. 290). At 23, Michelle had already Typically, patterns such as the ones just described be-
tried to kill herself six times, this time by downing a lot of gin during adolescence or even childhood. Thus, personal-
aspirin. She is always very dramatic and impulsive, frequent- ity disorders are deeply rooted and usually span many years.
ly binging on drugs, sex, or food. Her violent mood swings The list of personality disorders is long (■ Table 63.3), so
make for turbulent relationships with other people. She once let’s focus on the antisocial personality now.
clung to a friend’s leg until she agreed to stay for dinner; an-
other time, she destroyed a wall with a hammer in a fit of Antisocial Personality
anger because her professor gave her a low grade. Michelle What are the characteristics of an antisocial personality? A
has a condition called borderline personality disorder. person with an antisocial personality disorder displays
unusual remorselessness, a lack of empathy, or disregard
Maladaptive Personality Patterns for social conventions. Simply put, he or she lacks a con-
Personality disorders are long-standing, inflexible ways science. Such people are impulsive, selfish, dishonest, emo-
of behaving that create a variety of problems. For exam- tionally shallow, and manipulative (Visser et al., 2010). They
ple, people with a paranoid personality disorder are sus- are poorly socialized and seem to be incapable of feeling
picious, hypersensitive, and wary of others. Narcissistic guilt, shame, fear, loyalty, or love (American Psychiatric As-
persons need constant admiration and are lost in fantasies sociation, 2013). Antisocial persons are sometimes called
of power, wealth, brilliance, beauty, or love. Celebrities psychopaths, although it may be more accurate to think of
appear more likely to be narcissistic than noncelebrities, psychopathy as an extreme form of antisocial personality
perhaps because they receive so much attention (Young disorder (Riser & Kosson, 2013).
& Pinsky, 2006). The dependent personality suffers from Are psychopaths dangerous? Psychopaths tend to have a
extremely low self-confidence. Dependent persons al- long history of conflict with society. Many are delinquents or
low others to run their lives, and they place everyone criminals who may be a threat to the general public (Bateman
else’s needs ahead of their own. People with a histrionic & Fonagy, 2012; Lobbestael, Cima, & Arntz, 2013). However,

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 MODU LE 63 Psyc h o lo g i cal D i s o r D e r s: an x i ety, an x i ety-r e late D, an D P e r s o nality D i s o r D e r s 551

Table 63.3 DsM - 5 classification of Personality Disorders

Type of Personality Disorder Typical Signs of Trouble

Paranoid You deeply distrust others and are suspiciousness of their motives, which you perceive as insulting
or threatening.
Schizoid You feel very little emotion and can’t form close personal relationships with others.
Schizotypal You are a loner, you engage in extremely odd behavior, and your thought patterns are bizarre, but
you are not actively psychotic.
Antisocial You are irresponsible, lack guilt or remorse, and engage in antisocial behavior, such as aggression,
deceit, or recklessness.
Borderline Your self-image, moods, and impulses are erratic, and you are extremely sensitive to any hint
of criticism, rejection, or abandonment by others.
Histrionic You are dramatic and flamboyant; you exaggerate your emotions to get attention from others.
Narcissistic You think that you are wonderful, brilliant, important, and worthy of constant admiration.
Avoidant You are timid and uncomfortable in social situations and fear evaluation.
Dependent You lack confidence, and you are extremely submissive and rely on others excessively (clinging).
Obsessive-compulsive You demand order, perfection, control, and rigid routine at all times.
Source: American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Sue et al., 2017.

psychopaths are rarely the crazed murderers that you may

have seen portrayed in the media. In fact, many psychopaths
are charming at first. Their friends only gradually become
aware of the psychopath’s lying and self-serving manipulation.
One study found that psychopaths are blind to signs of
disgust in others. This may add to their capacity for cruelty
and their ability to use others (Kosson et al., 2002). Many
successful businesspersons, entertainers, politicians, and
other seemingly normal people have psychopathic leanings.
Basically, antisocial persons, who are usually men, coldly use
others and cheat their way through life (Alegria et al., 2013).

Causes What causes psychopathy? Typically, people with

antisocial personalities showed similar problems in child-
hood (then usually referred to as conduct disorder; Burt Halfdark/fStop/Getty Images

et al., 2007). Adult psychopaths also display subtle neuro-

logical problems (➤ Figure 63.2). For example, they have
unusual brain-wave patterns that suggest underarousal of
the brain. This may explain why psychopaths tend to be
thrill seekers. Quite likely, they are searching for stimula- Many prison inmates have been diagnosed with antisocial personality
disorder (Bateman & Fonagy, 2012).
tion strong enough to overcome their chronic underarous-
al and feelings of “boredom” (Hare, 2006; Pemment, 2013).
In a revealing study, psychopaths were shown ex- Personality disorders Long-standing, inflexible ways of behaving
tremely grisly and unpleasant photographs of mutilations. that create a variety of problems.
The photos were so upsetting that they visibly startled Antisocial personality disorder Unusual remorselessness, lack of
empathy, or disregard for social conventions.
normal people. The psychopaths, however, showed no

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552 P SychOLO Gy M o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

2012). All too often, psychopaths manipulate therapy, just like

any other situation. If it is to their advantage to act “cured,”
they will do so. However, they return to their former behavior
patterns as soon as possible. On a more positive note, anti-
social behavior does tend to decline somewhat after age 40,
even without treatment, because people tend to become more
“mellow” as they age (Laub & Sampson, 2003).

Courtesy of Robert Hare

A Look Ahead Treatments for psychological problems
range from counseling and psychotherapy to mental hos-
pitalization and drug therapy. Because they vary greatly,
➤ Figure 63.2 a complete discussion of therapies is found in Modules
The psychopathic brain. Using PET scans, Canadian 65–68. For now, it’s worth noting that many milder mental
psychologist Robert Hare found that the normally functioning brain disorders can be treated successfully. Even major disor-
(left) lights up with activity when a person sees emotion-laden ders may respond well to drugs and other techniques. It
words such as “maggot” or “cancer.” But the brain of a psychopath
(right) remains inactive, especially in areas associated with feelings
is wrong to fear “former mental patients” or to exclude
and self-control. When Dr. Hare showed the right image to several them from work, friendships, and other social situations.
neurologists, one asked, “Is this person from Mars?” A struggle with major depression or a psychotic episode
does not inevitably lead to lifelong dysfunction. Too of-
startle response to the photos (Levenston et al., 2000). ten, however, it does lead to unnecessary rejection based
(They didn’t “bat an eyelash.”) Those with antisocial per- on groundless fears (Elkington et al., 2012; Sarason &
sonalities might therefore be described as emotionally cold. Sarason, 2005).
They simply do not feel normal pangs of conscience, guilt, Let’s conclude by noting that difficulties controlling the
or anxiety, perhaps explaining their ability to calmly lie, emotions is a feature of many of the mental illnesses we have
cheat, steal, or take advantage of others (Blair et al., 2006). just finished discussing. What can be done about gaining
Can psychopathy be treated? Antisocial personality dis- emotional control? Consider reading Module 64 for some
orders are rarely treated with success (Bateman & Fonagy, answers.

MODULE

63 Summary
63.1 What problems result when a person suffers 63.1.7 Cognitive theories of anxiety focus on distorted
high levels of anxiety? thinking and being fearful of others’ attention and
63.1.1 Anxiety disorders are characterized by high levels of judgments.
anxiety, rigid defense mechanisms, and self-defeating
behavior patterns. 63.2 What are anxiety-related disorders?
63.1.2 Anxiety disorders include generalized anxiety dis- 63.2.1 The obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
order, panic disorder, agoraphobia, specific phobias, include obsessive-compulsive disorder and hoarding
and social phobia. disorder. COD theory proposes that compulsions
63.1.3 Susceptibility to anxiety disorders appears to be give rise to obsessions.
partly inherited. 63.2.2 Trauma- and stressor-related disorders include
63.1.4 The psychodynamic approach emphasizes uncon- adjustment disorder, acute stress disorder, and
scious conflicts as the cause of disabling anxiety. posttraumatic stress disorder.
63.1.5 The humanistic approach emphasizes the effects of a 63.2.3 Dissociative disorders may take the form of amnesia,
faulty self-image. fugue, or multiple identities.
63.1.6 The behaviorists emphasize the effects of previous 63.2.4 Somatic symptom and related disorders center on
learning, particularly avoidance learning. physical complaints that mimic disease or disability.

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 MODU LE 63 Psyc h o lo g i cal D i s o r D e r s: an x i ety, an x i ety-r e late D, an D P e r s o nality D i s o r D e r s 553

Three examples are somatic symptom disorder, 63.3.2 Antisocial personalities seem to lack a conscience.
factitious disorder (Munchausen syndrome), and They are emotionally unresponsive, manipulative,
conversion disorder. shallow, and dishonest. Psychopathy may be an
extreme form of antisocial personality disorder.
63.3 What is a personality disorder?
63.3.1 Personality disorders are persistent, maladaptive
personality patterns.

Knowledge Builder Psychological Disorders: Anxiety, Anxiety-Related,

and Personality Disorders

Recite 7. Antisocial personality disorders are difficult to treat, but

1. Disabling anxiety over ordinary life stresses is character- typically, antisocial behavior declines a year or two after
istic of which of the following disorders? adolescence. T or F?
a. PTSD
b. agoraphobia
Reflect
c. hypochondriasis Think critically
d. adjustment disorder 8. In this module, we met Ben’s mother, who was deliber-
2. Panic disorder can occur with or without agoraphobia, ately faking her son’s “illnesses.” How did she get away
but agoraphobia cannot occur alone, without the pres- with it? Wouldn’t doctors figure out that something was
ence of a panic disorder. T or F? fishy with Ben long before he had 40 surgeries for a faked
3. According to the __________ view, anxiety disorders are sinus disorder?
the end result of a loss of meaning.
Self-Reflect
a. psychodynamic
b. humanistic Which of the anxiety disorders would you least want to suffer
c. behaviorist from? Why?
d. cognitive Which of the psychological explanations of anxiety disor-
4. The symptoms of acute stress disorders last less than one ders do you find most convincing?
month; posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) lasts more What minor obsessions or compulsions have you
than one month. T or F? experienced?
5. Amnesia, multiple identities, and depersonalization are Many of the qualities that define personality disorders exist
____________________________. to a minor degree in normal personalities. Try to think of a
a. mood disorders person you know who has some of the characteristics de-
b. somatic symptom disorders scribed for each type of personality disorder.
c. psychoses
d. dissociative disorders AN SW E R S
6. Which of the following is not a dissociative disorder? often being seen.
a. fugue disorder sufferer moves on to another. Also, more than one doctor is
b. amnesia toms for long. Once a doctor refuses further treatment, the factitious
c. conversion disorder 1. d 2. F 3. b 4. T 5. d 6. c 7. F 8. No one doctor tolerates false symp-
d. multiple identities

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MODULE
Psychological Disorders
64 Skills in Action
Emotional Intelligence
The Right Way?
In the months leading up to the 2016 presidential election,
Time magazine ran an article titled “Why Americans Are
So Angry About Everything.” That anger was clearly visible
during the campaign, as people expressed their frustration
about everything from racism and immigration to the grow-
ing income gap between rich and poor. At political rallies,
strong emotions about the state of the country sometimes
erupted into violent clashes between protesters and candi-
dates’ supporters.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle had a recipe for han-
dling relationships smoothly: “Be angry with the right per-
AP Images/Mike Christy

son, to the right degree, at the right time, for the right pur-
pose, and in the right way.” People who excel in life tend to
be emotionally “intelligent.” They seem to know the right
way. They are people who know how to offer a toast at a
wedding, tell a joke at a roast, comfort the bereaved at a fu- These skills are worth cultivating. Wouldn’t it be emotion-
neral, add to the fun at a party, or calm a frightened child. ally intelligent to look into this further?

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
64.1 How is emotional intelligence related to the study of 64.2 How can emotional intelligence help me in my personal
psychology? and professional life?

Emotional Intelligence—The Fine Art of Self-Control

Survey Question 64.1 How is emotional intelligence
perceive, use, and understand emotions in ourselves and
related to the study of psychology?
others, as well as the ability to manage those feelings effec-
Do you find it easy to recognize your own emotions or the tively (Caruso, Salovey, & Mayer, 2015). Being emotionally
emotions of others? When is it good to express your emo- skilled can make us more flexible, adaptable, agreeable, and
tions? What are the best ways to do so? Are there conse- emotionally mature (English et al., 2012; Johnson, Batey, &
quences for being unable to understand and manage your Holdsworth, 2009).
emotions? These questions provide a good starting point But how do psychologists think about emotional intel-
for thinking about emotional intelligence, the ability to ligence? While some researchers view it as a stable trait that

554
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 MODU LE 6 4 Psyc h o lo g i cal D i s o r D e r s s k i lls i n acti o n: e m oti o nal i nte lli g e n c e 555

people possess to a greater or lesser extent (Gugliandolo manage their own emotions so that they can deliver therapy
et al., 2015), others see emotional intelligence as a col- effectively (Linsley, Digan, & Nugent, 2016).
lection of skills that can be learned (Campo, Laborde, & Psychologists have also found that emotional intelli-
Weckemann, 2015). In Modules 61–63, we focused on vari- gence is associated with other psychological concepts that
ous types of psychopathology, including common forms of we discuss in this book, including prosocial and antisocial
psychoses, as well as mood and anxiety disorders. Difficulties behavior in Modules 72 and 73 (Kahn, Ermer, Salovey,
with emotional intelligence have been connected with a & Kiehl, 2016; Martin-Raugh, Kell, & Motowidlo, 2016),
number of these, including schizophrenia (Frajo-Apor et resilience in Module 59 (Schneider, Lyons, & Khazon,
al., 2016; Tabak et al., 2015) and depression (Abdollahi & 2013), and leadership in Module 54 (Cavazotte, Moreno,
Talib, 2015). Moreover, in Modules 65–68, we will devote & Hickmann, 2012). Emotional intelligence is also close-
time to a discussion of psychological therapies. Clinical and ly connected to nonverbal communication skills, which
counselling psychologists draw heavily on emotional intelli- depend on the ability to understand people’s emotional
gence. They rely on such skills when listening to their clients states—and communicate your own—even when words
discuss their emotional issues, as well as to understand and aren’t being used.

Reading Emotions
Survey Question 64.2 How can emotional intelligence Zeidner, Matthews, & Roberts, 2012). Perhaps the greatest
help me in my personal and professional life? toll falls on children and teenagers (Alegre, 2011; Frederick-
It is natural to welcome positive emotions, such as joy, while son, Petrides, & Simmonds, 2012). For them, having poor
avoiding negative emotions, such as anger. But make no emotional management skills can contribute to depression,
mistake—being able to recognize and effectively manage eating disorders, unwanted pregnancy, aggression, violent
negative emotions can be valuable and constructive. For ex- crime, and poor academic performance.
ample, recognizing feelings of persistent distress in yourself You mentioned that specific skills make up emotional
may help you to see that it’s time to seek help or find a new intelligence. What are they? Many elements contribute to
direction in life (Izard, 2011). Recognizing those emotions emotional intelligence (Deutschendorf, 2009). A descrip-
in others can let you know that you need to mend a relation- tion of some of the most important skills follows:
ship or provide support. Perceiving Emotions The foundation of emotional in-
At the same time, positive emotions are not just a pleas- telligence is the ability to perceive emotions in yourself and
ant side effect of happy circumstances. Emotions such as others. Emotionally intelligent people are tuned in to their
joy, interest, and contentment create an urge to play, to be own feelings (Taylor & Taylor-Allan, 2007). They are able to
creative, to explore, to savor life, to seek new experiences, to recognize quickly if they are angry, envious, feeling guilty, or
integrate, and to grow. This opens up new possibilities and depressed. This is valuable because many people have dis-
encourages personal growth and social connection (Izard, ruptive emotions without being able to pinpoint why they
2011). Often, the experience of positive emotions can also are uncomfortable. At the same time, emotionally intelligent
provide a natural buffer against misfortune and help people people have empathy (Engelen & Röttger-Rössler, 2012).
live more positive, genuinely happy lives (Compton & Hoff- They accurately perceive emotions in others and sense what
man, 2013; Ong, Zautra, & Reid, 2010). others are feeling. They are good at “reading” facial expres-
In addition to recognizing emotions in yourself and sions, tone of voice, and other signs of emotion.
others, being emotionally intelligent is associated with un-
derstanding how to manage your emotions appropriately, Using Emotions People who are emotionally intelligent
a necessary skill in an increasingly social world. The chal- use their feelings to enhance thinking and decision mak-
lenges associated with poor emotion regulation skills can ing. For example, if you can remember how you reacted
be high (Sheppes, Suri, & Gross, 2015). They range from
problems with health and achievement problems to poor
Emotional intelligence. The ability to perceive, use, understand,
relationships at home and difficulties at work (Joseph, Jin,
and manage emotions.
Newman & O’Boyle, 2015; Zampetakis & Moustakis, 2011;

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556 P SychOLO Gy m o D u les fo r active lear n i n g

emotionally in the past, it can help you react better to new Managing Emotions Emotional intelligence involves an
situations. You also can use emotions to promote personal ability to manage your own emotions and those of others.
growth and improve relationships with others. For instance, For example, you know how to calm down when you are
you may have noticed that helping someone else makes you angry, and you also know how to calm others. As Aristotle
feel better, too. Likewise, when good fortune comes their noted so long ago, people who are emotionally intelligent
way, people who are emotionally smart share the news with have an ability to amplify or restrain emotions, depending
others. Almost always, doing so strengthens relationships on the situation (English et al., 2012).
and increases emotional well-being (Gable et al., 2004). While most discussions about intelligence focus on IQ,
this module is intended to make clear that emotional intel-
Understanding Emotions Emotions contain useful infor- ligence can be just as important in our everyday lives. The
mation. For instance, anger is a cue that something is wrong; ability to “read” our own emotions and those of others—and
anxiety indicates uncertainty; embarrassment communicates manage them effectively—can enhance your self-awareness
shame; depression means we feel helpless; and enthusiasm tells and improve your ability to foster positive relationships with
us we’re excited. People who are emotionally intelligent know people in your personal life and at work. Taking the time to
what causes various emotions, what they mean, and how they develop your skills in this area, then, is just the (emotion-
might affect behavior (Hoerger et al., 2012). ally) intelligent thing to do!

MODULE

64 Summary
64.1 how is emotional intelligence related to the that will promote your own growth and positive
study of psychology? relationships with others. Similarly, being able to
64.1.1 Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize and control your emotions appropriately has important
understand emotions in ourselves and others, as well consequences for health, achievement, and
as the ability to manage those feelings effectively. relationships.
64.1.2 Emotional intelligence is related to other areas in 64.2.2 People who are “smart” emotionally are able to
psychology, including clinical psychology (psychopa- perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions.
thology and therapy), prosocial and antisocial behavior, They are self-aware and empathetic; know how to use
resilience, leadership, and nonverbal communication. emotions to enhance thinking, decision-making, and
relationships; and have an ability to understand and
64.2 how can emotional intelligence help me in manage emotions.
my personal and professional life?
64.2.1 Recognizing emotions in yourself and others can be
helpful in terms of directing your behavior in ways

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 MODU LE 6 4 Psyc h o lo g i cal D i s o r D e r s s k i lls i n acti o n: e m oti o nal i nte lli g e n c e 557

Knowledge Builder Psychological Disorders: Emotional Intelligence

Recite Self-Reflect
1. People who rate high in emotional intelligence tend to be Think of a person you know who is smart cognitively (that is,
highly aware of their own feelings and unaware of emo- has a high IQ) but low in emotional intelligence. Think of
tions experienced by others. T or F? another person who is smart cognitively and emotionally.
2. Using the information imparted by emotional reactions How does the second person differ from the first? Which per-
can enhance thinking and decision-making. T or F? son do you think would make a better parent, friend, supervi-
3. Positive emotions may be pleasant, but they tend to limit sor, roommate, or teacher?
personal growth and the range of possible actions that we
are likely to consider. T or F? AN SW E R S
4. Which of the following is not a skill associated with emo- friendship.
with emotional appeals for support, it may be worth reappraising your
tional intelligence? become aware that your friend persistently manipulates other people
a. managing emotions relationship and reduce your anger at the same time. Alternatively, if you
b. using emotions one is perfect, and reappraise the loan as a gift, you could save a valued
c. perceiving emotions important in life. If you appreciate your friend’s virtues, accept that no
d. accepting emotions gry, it might be better to reflect on whether friendship or money is more
1. F 2. T 3. F 4. d 5. There’s no single right answer. Rather than being an-
Reflect
Think critically
5. You are angry because a friend borrowed money from
you and hasn’t repaid it. What would be an emotionally
intelligent response to this situation?

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MODULE
Therapies
65 Treating Psychological Distress

Like a Duck
Stanley stared through the blinds in his professor’s office at the ducks,
quacking away on the campus pond. His teacher was surprised.
Stanley’s excellent work in class and his healthy, casual appearance
left her unprepared when he murmured, “I feel like I’m losing my
mind.” He told her about working hard to hide a world of crippling
fear, anxiety, and depression. At work, he was deathly afraid to talk
to coworkers and customers. Several disastrous romances had left
him terrified of women. As Stanley described his own personal hell,
it became clear he felt like the ducks outside, appearing peaceful on

© Tracy Whiteside/Shutterstock.com
the surface, but madly paddling underneath.
This module offers an overview of methods used to alleviate
problems like Stanley’s. We begin with a look at the origins of modern
therapy and identify both the ways contemporary psychotherapies
differ and the core features all successful therapies share.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
65.1 How did psychotherapy originate? 65.3 What do the various psychotherapies have in com-
65.2 How do contemporary psychotherapies differ? mon, and are they effective?

Origins of Therapy—Bored Out of Your Skull

Survey Question 65.1 How did psychotherapy originate?
trephining (Terry, 2006). In modern usage, trepanning
Early treatments for mental problems give good reasons is any surgical procedure in which a hole is bored in the
to appreciate modern therapies (Sharf, 2016). Archaeo- skull. In the hands of primitive therapists, it meant boring,
logical findings dating to the Stone Age suggest that most chipping, or bashing holes in the skull. Presumably, this
premodern approaches were marked by fear and supersti- was done to relieve pressure or release the spirits “possess-
tious belief in spirits, demons, witchcraft, and magic (Mc- ing” the patient.
Namara, 2011). If Stanley had been unlucky enough to be Stanley would not have been much better off during
born several thousand years ago, his “treatment” might the Middle Ages. Then, treatments for mental illness in
have left him feeling “bored.” One of the more dramatic Europe focused on demonology, the study of demons and
“cures” practiced by primitive “therapists” was a process persons plagued by them. Medieval “therapists” commonly
called trepanning (treh-PAN-ing), also sometimes spelled blamed abnormal behavior on supernatural forces, such as

558
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 MODU LE 6 5 Th e r ap i es: Tr eaTi n g psyc h o lo g i cal D i sTr es s 559

Daniele Pellegrini/Science Source

SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

Bettmann/Corbis
Primitive “treatment” for mental disorders sometimes took the form of
boring a hole in the skull. This example shows signs of healing, which (left) Many early asylums were no more than prisons, with inmates
means the patient actually survived the treatment. Many didn’t. held in chains. (right) One late-nineteenth-century “treatment” was
based on swinging the patient in a harness—presumably to calm
the patient’s nerves.

possession by the devil, or on curses from witches and wiz- causes can be found. (Such problems are now called somatic
ards. As a cure, they used exorcism to “cast out evil spirits.” symptom disorders, as discussed in Module 63.)
For the fortunate, exorcism was a religious ritual. More of- Freud slowly became convinced that hysteria was re-
ten, physical torture was used to make the body an inhospi- lated to deeply hidden unconscious conflicts and developed
table place for the devil to reside. psychoanalysis, his “talking cure,” to help patients gain in-
Modern analyses of “demonic possession” suggest sight into those conflicts (Strenger, 2016). In this way, Freud
that many victims may have been suffering from epilepsy, became the first psychotherapist.
schizophrenia, dissociative disorders, Tourette’s syndrome,
and depression (McNamara, 2011; Mirsky & Duncan, 2005; Psychotherapy Since Freud
Thase, 2006; van der Hart, Lierens, & Goodwin, 1996). Over the years, psychoanalysis has evolved into a rich variety
Thus, many people “treated” by demonologists may have of psychotherapies. Some have retained Freudian elements
been doubly victimized. while others were inspired by other psychological perspec-
Then, in 1793, a French doctor named Philippe Pi- tives. Along the way, psychotherapists have discovered that
nel changed the Bicêtre Asylum in Paris from a squalid therapy is not equally effective for all problems. Chances of
“madhouse” into a mental hospital by unchaining the in- improvement are fairly good for phobias, low self-esteem,
mates (Schuster, Hoertel, & Limosin, 2011). Finally, the some sexual problems, and marital conflicts. Further, some
emotionally disturbed were regarded as “mentally ill” forms of therapy are more effective for some types of prob-
and given more compassionate treatment. Although it lems. More complex problems can be difficult to solve and,
has been more than 200 years since Pinel began more hu- as in Stanley’s case, may require medical treatment as well.
mane treatment, the process of improving care continues The most extreme cases may not respond to psychotherapy
today. at all, leaving a medical therapy as the only viable treatment
When was psychotherapy developed? In contrast to med- option.
ical therapies, which are physical in nature, the first true In short, it is often unrealistic to expect psychotherapy
psychotherapy—psychological technique used to facilitate to undo a person’s entire past. For many people, the major
positive changes in a person’s personality, behavior, or ad-
justment—was created by Sigmund Freud little more than Psychotherapy Any psychological technique used to facilitate posi-
100 years ago (Borch-Jacobsen & Shamdasani, 2011). As a tive changes in a person’s personality, behavior, or adjustment.
physician in Vienna, Freud was intrigued by cases of hys- Psychotherapist Licensed professional who uses psychological
teria. People suffering from hysteria have physical symp- techniques to facilitate positive changes in a person’s personality,
behavior, or adjustment.
toms (such as paralysis or numbness) for which no physical

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560 P SychOLO Gy M o D u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

benefit of psychotherapy is that it provides comfort, sup-

Table 65.1 elements of positive Mental health
port, and a way to make constructive changes (Compton &
Hoffman, 2013). Yet even when problems are severe, therapy ◗ Personal autonomy and independence
may help a person gain a new perspective or learn behaviors
to better cope with life. Psychotherapy can be hard work for ◗ A sense of identity
both clients and therapists, but when it succeeds, few activi- ◗ Feelings of personal worth
ties are more worthwhile. ◗ Skilled interpersonal communication
It’s also a mistake to think that psychotherapy is helpful
only to solve problems or end a crisis. Even if a person is ◗ Sensitivity, nurturance, and trust
already doing well, therapy can be a way to promote per- ◗ Genuineness and honesty with self and other
sonal growth (Trull & Prinstein, 2013). Therapists are also
◗ Self-control and personal responsibility
developing ways to help people use their personal strengths.
Rather than trying to fix what is “wrong” with a person, they ◗ Committed and loving personal relationships
seek to nurture positive traits and actively solve problems ◗ Capacity to forgive others and oneself
(Compton & Hoffman, 2013). ■ Table 65.1 lists some of the
◗ Personal values and a purpose in life
elements of positive mental health that therapists seek to re-
store or promote. ◗ Self-awareness and motivation for personal growth
In Modules 66, 67, and 68, we look in depth at five main ◗ Adaptive coping strategies for managing stresses and crises
types of modern therapy: psychodynamic, humanistic, cog-
nitive, behavior, and medical therapies. Before then, let’s ◗ Fulfillment and satisfaction in work
get an overview of the various forms that the contemporary ◗ Good habits of physical health
psychotherapies can take.
Source: Adapted from Compton & Hoffman, 2013.

Dimensions of Therapy—The Many Paths to Health

Survey Question 65.2 How do contemporary psycho- ◗ Open-ended versus time-limited therapy: Is the ther-
therapies differ? apy allotted a time limit or not?
Psychotherapy began as a form of one-on-one dialogue be- ◗ Individual versus group therapy: Does the therapy
tween therapists and their clients meant to yield insight. involve one therapist with one client? Or can several cli-
Today, therapists have many approaches from which to ents participate at the same time?
choose and, as we will see, each therapy emphasizes dif- ◗ Face-to-face versus distance therapy: Will the thera-
ferent concepts and methods. For this reason, the best ap- pist and client meet face-to-face, or will they communi-
proach for a particular person or problem may vary. The cate over the telephone or the Internet?
terms in the list that follows describe some basic dimensions Notice that more than one dimension can apply to a
of various psychotherapies (Corsini & Wedding, 2014; Pro- particular therapy. For example, it is possible to have an ac-
chaska & Norcross, 2014; Sharf, 2016): tion, directive, open-ended group therapy meeting via the
◗ Insight versus action therapy: Does the therapy aim Internet or an insight, nondirective, individual, time-limit-
to bring clients to a deeper understanding of their ed therapy meeting face to face. In what follows, we explore
thoughts, emotions, and behavior? Or is it designed to these dimensions of therapies in a bit more detail.
bring about direct changes in troublesome thoughts,
habits, feelings, or behavior without seeking insight into Insight versus Action Therapy
their origins or meanings? Freud’s initial intent in developing psychoanalysis was to pro-
◗ Nondirective versus directive therapy: Does the thera- vide patients with an insight therapy that could resolve psy-
pist provide strong guidance and advice? Or does the chological problems by gaining a conscious understanding
therapist assist clients, who are responsible for solving of previously unconscious psychodynamic conflicts. A psy-
their own problems? choanalyst might use free association and dream analysis to

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 MODU LE 6 5 Th e r ap i es: Tr eaTi n g psyc h o lo g i cal D i sTr es s 561

enable Stanley to realize that his anxieties originate, say, in that they need to get to the heart of their problems quickly
an unconscious fear of dying. Stanley was approaching the (Lemma, Target, & Fonagy, 2011).
age at which his namesake uncle Stanley died prematurely
Interpersonal Psychotherapy One example of a brief
of a heart attack 22 years ago. Psychoanalysts expect this
dynamic therapy is interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT),
insight will “discharge” Stanley’s unconscious pressures and
which was first developed to help depressed people im-
alleviate his general sense of anxiety.
prove their relationships with others (Teyber & McClure,
In contrast, action therapies generally focus on di-
2011). Research has confirmed that IPT is effective for de-
rectly changing troubling thoughts and behaviors. We
pressive disorders, as well as eating disorders, substance
will shortly explore some extreme action therapies, the
abuse, social phobias, and personality disorders (Cuijpers
behavioral therapies. A behavioral therapist would spend
et al., 2011; Fiore et al., 2008; Hoffart, 2005; Talbot &
little time on why Stanley felt anxious; rather she might
Gamble, 2008).
help Stanley learn some relaxation techniques and new
Liona’s therapy is a good example of IPT (Brown &
ways of thinking about his feelings to directly relieve his
Barlow, 2011). Liona was suffering from depression that
anxieties whenever they get too strong. We encounter
a therapist helped her trace to a conflict with her parents.
psychoanalysis and the humanistic insight therapies in
When her father was absent, Liona adopted the role of
Module 66, and the cognitive and behavioral action ther-
her mother’s protector and friend. However, when her fa-
apies in Module 67.
ther was home, she was expected to resume her role as
a daughter. She was angry with her father for frequently
Directive versus Nondirective Therapy
abandoning her mother and upset about having to switch
Psychoanalysis is a relatively directive therapy, in which roles so often. Liona’s IPT sessions (which sometimes in-
the therapist leads the patient through the therapeutic pro- cluded her mother) focused on clarifying Liona’s family
cess. Based on his analysis of Stanley’s free associations and roles. Her mood improved a lot after her mother urged
dreams, his psychoanalyst might direct Stanley’s awareness her to “stick to being herself.”
toward his unconscious fear of dying. Without this direc-
tion, Stanley might resist gaining the insight needed to over- Individual versus Group Therapy
come his anxiety. Many psychotherapies can be adapted for use in groups
In a nondirective therapy the role of the therapist is to (Corey, 2016). Surprisingly, group therapy—psychotherapy
create the conditions under which the client can resolve his done with several unrelated clients—has turned out to be
or her psychological issues. For example, in client-centered just as cost-effective as individual therapy and even has
therapy, it would be assumed that Stanley must articulate his some special advantages (Burlingame, Fuhriman, & Mosier,
own problems and actively seek to resolve them himself. His 2003; Wroe & Wise, 2012).
nondirective therapist’s role is to support him in his grow-
ing understanding, not to tell Stanley what is “wrong” with
Insight therapy Any therapy that stresses the importance of under-
him or how to “fix it.” We further explore nondirective and standing the origins of a psychological disorder, usually unre-
directive therapies in Module 66. solved unconscious conflicts.
Action therapy Any therapy that stresses directly changing trouble-
some thoughts and/or behaviors without regard for their origins,
Open-Ended versus Time-Limited Therapy unconscious or otherwise.
Traditional psychoanalysis was open-ended, calling for Directive therapy Any therapy that stresses the need for the thera-
three to five therapy sessions a week, often for many years. pist to lead the patient toward a resolution of his or her psycho-
logical distress.
Today, most patients in psychoanalysis are seen only once or Nondirective therapy Any therapy in which the therapist supports
twice per week, but treatment may still go on for years. the client while the client gains insight into his or her own prob-
In contrast, most psychodynamic therapists have lems and their resolution.
Brief psychodynamic therapy A modern therapy based on psycho-
switched to doing time-limited, brief psychodynamic
analytic theory but designed to produce insights more quickly.
therapy, which tends to use direct questioning to reveal Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) A brief dynamic psychotherapy
unconscious conflicts (Binder, 2004). Modern therapists designed to help people by improving their relationships with
also actively provoke emotional reactions that will lower de- other people.
Group therapy Psychological treatment involving several unrelated
fenses and provide insights. It is interesting that brief ther- clients.
apy appears to accelerate recovery. Patients seem to realize

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562 P SychOLO Gy M o D u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

Family and Couples Therapy Family relationships are

the source of great pleasure and, all too often, great pain. In
family therapy, a group of related individuals focuses on
improving interpersonal dynamics and communication to
resolve the problems of each family member. This is called
couples therapy when children are not involved (Scheink-
man, 2008). Family and couples therapy tends to be time-

© Wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock.com
limited and focused on specific problems, such as frequent
fights or a depressed teenager. For some types of problems,
family therapy may be superior to other approaches (Eisler
et al., 2007; Trull & Prinstein, 2013).
Family therapists believe that a problem experienced by
one family member is the whole family’s problem (Teyber &
A group therapy session. Group members offer mutual support McClure, 2011). If the entire pattern of behavior in a family
while sharing problems and insights. doesn’t change, improvements in any single family member
may not last. Family members, therefore, work together to
improve communication, change destructive patterns, and
What are the advantages of group therapy? In group see themselves and each other in new ways (Goldenberg &
therapy, a person can act out or directly experience prob- Goldenberg, 2013; Griffin, 2002).
lems. Doing so often produces insights that might not oc- Does the therapist work with the whole family at once?
cur from merely talking about an issue. In addition, other Family therapists treat the family as a unit, but they may
group members with similar problems can offer support not meet with the entire family at each session (Eisler et al.,
and useful input. Group therapy is especially good for help- 2007). If a family crisis is at hand, the therapist may first try
ing people understand their personal relationships (Corey, to identify the most resourceful family members who can
2016; McCluskey, 2002). For reasons such as these, several help solve the immediate problem.
specialized groups have emerged. Because they range from
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) to Marriage Encounter, we Face-to-Face versus Distance Therapy
share only a few examples. While it is generally preferable to meet with a therapist face-
to-face, it is not always possible. Today, psychological ser-
Psychodrama One of the first group therapies was devel-
vices are available in the home through mass media, tele-
oped by Jacob Moreno (1953), who called his technique psy-
phone, and the Internet (Silverman, 2013). Not only is this
chodrama. In psychodrama, clients act out personal conflicts
generally less expensive, but it also makes therapy available
with others who play supporting roles (Blatner, 2006; McVea,
to people who, for a variety of reasons, cannot easily attend
Gow, & Lowe, 2011). Through role-playing, the client reenacts
a traditional face-to-face session.
incidents that cause problems in real life. For example, Don, a
disturbed teenager, might act out a typical family fight, with Mass Media Therapists By now, you have probably
the therapist playing his father and with other clients playing heard a phone-in radio psychologist or watched one on
his mother, brothers, and sisters. Moreno believed that insights television. Participants typically describe problems ranging
gained in this way transfer to real-life situations. from child abuse to phobias and sexual adjustment to de-
Therapists using psychodrama often find that role re- pression. The media psychologist then offers reassurance,
versals are helpful. A role reversal involves taking the part advice, or suggestions for getting help. Such programs may
of another person to learn how he or she feels. For instance, seem harmless, but they raise some important questions.
Don might role-play his father or mother to better under- For instance, is it reasonable to give advice without knowing
stand their feelings. A related method is the mirror tech- anything about a person’s background? Could the advice do
nique, in which a client observes another person reenact his harm? What good can a psychologist do in three minutes,
or her behavior. Thus, Don might briefly join the group and or even an hour?
watch as another group member plays his role. This would In their own defense, mass media psychologists point
allow him to see himself as others see him. Later, the group out that listeners and viewers may learn solutions to their
may summarize what happened and reflect on its meaning. problems by hearing others talk. Many also stress that their

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 MODU LE 6 5 Th e r ap i es: Tr eaTi n g psyc h o lo g i cal D i sTr es s 563

work is educational, not therapeutic. Nevertheless, the ques-

tion arises: When does advice become therapy? The Ameri-
can Psychological Association urges media psychologists to
discuss problems only of a general nature and not to actually
counsel anyone.
Telephone and Internet Therapists Of course, mass
media psychologists must entertain as well as educate. Most
distance therapy is conducted one-on-one via telephone or

AF archive/Alamy Stock Photo

the Internet. Regardless of how a therapist and client com-
municate, perhaps the key feature of successful therapy is
the establishment of an effective relationship between thera-
pist and client. This could be a problem if, for example, only
texting is used. Smiley faces and text message shorthand are
Popular TV psychologist Phillip McGraw was awarded a President’s
poor substitutes for real human interaction, which includes Citation from the APA for his work in publicizing mental health
interpersonal cues such as facial expressions and body lan- issues (Meyers, 2006). Media psychologists have been urged to
guage. ☺ LOL. Similarly, brief e-mail messages are no way educate without actually doing therapy on the air. Some overstep
to make a diagnosis. However, the Internet also makes it this boundary, however. Do you think Dr. Phil ever goes too far?

possible to create two-way audio–video links. Conducting

Other studies have shown that depressed people as well as
therapy this way lacks the close personal contact of face-to-
people with social phobia and panic disorder benefit from
face interaction, but it also removes many of the objections
Internet therapy (Carlbring et al., 2007; Klein, Richards, &
to doing therapy at a distance (Gros et al., 2013).
Austin, 2006; Titov, 2011).
It is worth noting that distance therapy does have some
distinct advantages and disadvantages. For one thing, clients Summary For a summary of major differences among
can more easily remain anonymous. (But beware that e-mail the psychotherapies discussed in this module, as well as in
counseling may not be completely confidential and could be Modules 66 and 67, see ■ Table 65.2. To add to your un-
intercepted and misused.) Thus, a person who might hesi- derstanding, let’s briefly summarize what all successful
tate to see a psychologist can seek help privately by phone psychotherapies have in common.
or online. Of special concern is the fact that distance thera-
pists may or may not be trained professionals. Even if they Psychodrama A therapy in which clients act out personal conflicts
are, questions exist about whether a psychologist licensed and feelings in the presence of others who play supporting roles.
Role reversal Taking the role of another person to learn how one’s
in one state can legally do therapy in another state via the
own behavior appears from the other person’s perspective.
telephone or the Internet. Mirror technique Observing another person reenact one’s own
In closing, under the right circumstances, distance ther- behavior, like a character in a play; designed to help persons see
apy can be successful (Bauer et al., 2011; Brenes, Ingram, & themselves more clearly.
Family therapy Treatment of a group of related individuals that
Danhauer, 2011). For example, telephone counseling helps focuses on interpersonal dynamics and communication.
people quit smoking (Rabius, Wiatrek, & McAlister, 2012).

Table 65.2 comparison of psychotherapies

Nondirective
Insight or Action? or Directive? Individual or Group? Therapy’s Strength

Psychoanalysis Insight Directive Individual Searching honesty

Brief psychodynamic Insight Directive Individual Productive use of
therapy conflict
Client-centered therapy Insight Nondirective Both Acceptance, empathy

(Continued)

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564 P SychOLO Gy M o D u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

Table 65.2 (continued)

Nondirective
Insight or Action? or Directive? Individual or Group? Therapy’s Strength

Existential therapy Insight Both Individual Personal empowerment

Gestalt therapy Insight Directive Both Focus on immediate
awareness
Behavior therapy Action Directive Both Observable changes in
behavior
Cognitive therapy Action Directive Individual Constructive guidance
Rational-emotive behav- Action Directive Individual Clarity of thinking and
ior therapy goals
Psychodrama Insight Directive Group Constructive reenact-
ments
Family therapy Both Directive Group Shared responsibility
for problems
Source: Adapted from Corsini & Wedding, 2014; Prochaska & Norcross, 2014.

Therapies—An Overview
Survey Question 65.3 What do the various psychothera- the client is free to express fears, anxieties, and personal
pies have in common, and are they effective? secrets without fearing rejection or loss of confidentiality.
What, if anything, do all psychotherapies have in common, 3. All therapies to some extent offer an explanation or
regardless of what form they take? rationale for the client’s suffering. In addition, they pro-
pose a line of action that will end this suffering.
core Features of Psychotherapy 4. Therapy provides clients with a new perspective about
Psychotherapies of various types share all or most of the fol- themselves and their situations and a chance to practice
lowing goals: understanding a client’s perspective; to help new behaviors (Prochaska & Norcross, 2014). Insights
the client restore hope, courage, and optimism; gain insight; gained during therapy can bring about lasting changes
resolve conflicts; improve one’s sense of self; change unac- in clients’ lives (Grande et al., 2003).
ceptable patterns of behavior; find purpose; mend interper-
Therapy and Culture Understanding another person’s
sonal relations; and learn to approach problems rationally
perspective is especially important when cultural differenc-
(Frank & Frank, 2004; Trull & Prinstein, 2013). To accom-
es may create a barrier between a client and therapist (Jun,
plish these goals, psychotherapies offer the following:
2010; La Roche & Lustig, 2013).
1. Perhaps more than any other single factor, effective ther- For example, at the age of 23, the patient was clearly suf-
apy provides a therapeutic alliance, a caring relationship fering from ifufunyane, a form of bewitchment common in
that unites the client and therapist as they work together the Xhosa culture of South Africa. However, he was treated
to solve the client’s problems. The strength of this alliance at a local hospital by psychiatrists, who said he had schizo-
has a major impact on whether therapy succeeds (Arnow phrenia and gave him antipsychotic drugs. The drugs helped,
et al., 2013; Bartle-Haring et al., 2016). The basis for this but his family shunned his fancy medical treatment and took
relationship is emotional rapport, warmth, friendship, him to a traditional healer, who gave him herbs for his ifufu-
understanding, acceptance, and empathy. nyane. Unfortunately, he got worse and was readmitted to the
2. Therapy offers a protected setting in which emotional hospital. This time, the psychiatrists included the patient’s
catharsis (release) can take place. It is a sanctuary in which family in his treatment. Together, they agreed to treat him
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 MODU LE 6 5 Th e r ap i es: Tr eaTi n g psyc h o lo g i cal D i sTr es s 565

with a combination of antipsychotic drugs and traditional & Rinck, 2011). Thus, we can conclude that the therapy is
herbs. This time, the patient got much better and his ifufun- effective only if people in the experimental group improve
yane was alleviated, too (Niehaus et al., 2005). more than those in the control group.
As this example illustrates, a culturally skilled thera- But isn’t it unethical to withhold treatment from some-
pist is trained to work with clients from various cultural one who really needs therapy? That’s right. One way to deal
backgrounds. To be culturally skilled, a counselor must with this is to use a waiting-list control group. In this case,
be able to do all of the following (American Psychological people who are waiting to see a therapist are compared with
Association, 2008a; Brammer, 2012; Comas-Diaz, 2012): those who receive therapy. Later, those on the waiting list
also eventually receive therapy.
◗ Adapt traditional theories and techniques to meet the
needs of clients from non-European ethnic or racial groups. Empirically Supported Therapies As well as relying on
◗ Be aware of his or her own cultural values and biases. guidelines developed through clinical practice, clinicians are
◗ Establish rapport with a person from a different cultural seeking guidance from research experiments (David & Mont-
background. gomery, 2011; Elkins, 2012). Using appropriately designed
◗ Be open to cultural differences without resorting to studies, psychologists are making steady progress in identi-
stereotypes. fying “empirically supported” (or “evidence-based”) thera-
◗ Treat members of racial or ethnic communities as pies (Duncan & Reese, 2013; Rousseau & Gunia, 2016; see
individuals. also Module 69). Hundreds of studies show a strong pattern
of positive effects for psychotherapy, counseling, and other
◗ Be aware of a client’s ethnic identity and degree of accul-
psychological treatments (Barlow, Boswell, & Thompson-
turation to the majority society.
Hollands, 2013; Shedler, 2010). In addition, studies have re-
◗ Use existing helping resources within a cultural group
vealed that some therapies work best for specific problems
to support efforts to resolve problems.
(Bradley et al., 2005; Eddy et al., 2004). For example, behav-
Cultural awareness has helped broaden our ideas about ioral, cognitive, and drug therapies are most helpful in treat-
mental health and optimal development (Brammer, 2012). ing obsessive-compulsive disorder. This approach also helps
It also is worth remembering that cultural barriers apply to weed out fringe “therapies” that have little or no value.
communication in all areas of life, not just therapy. Although Of course, results vary in individual cases. For some
such differences can be challenging, they also are frequently people, therapy is immensely helpful; for others, it is un-
enriching (Fowers & Davidov, 2006). successful. Overall, it is effective for more people than not.
Speaking more subjectively, a real success, in which a per-
son’s life is changed for the better, can be worth the frustra-
Effectiveness of Psychotherapy
tion of several cases in which little progress is made.
OK. So how effective is psychotherapy? Judging the outcome Although it is common to think of therapy as a long, slow
of therapy is tricky. In one national survey, 9 out of 10 people process, this is not normally the case (Shapiro et al., 2003). Re-
who have sought mental health care say their lives improved search shows that most clients feel better after between 8 and
as a result of the treatment (Kotkin, Daviet, & Gurin, 1996). 21 weekly therapy sessions (Harnett, O’Donovan, & Lambert,
Unfortunately, you can’t just take people’s word for it. Some- 2010). This means that the majority of clients improve after
one who feels better after six months of therapy may have six months of therapy. Such rapid improvement is impressive
experienced a spontaneous remission—he or she just feels in view of the fact that people often suffer for several years
better because so much time has passed. Or perhaps the before seeking help. Unfortunately, because of high costs and
crisis that triggered the therapy is now nearly forgotten. Or limited insurance coverage, the average client receives only
maybe some sort of therapy placebo effect has occurred, in five therapy sessions, after which only 20 percent of all pa-
which improvement is based on a client’s belief that therapy tients feel better (Hansen, Lambert, & Forman, 2002).
will help. Also, it’s possible that the person has received help
from other people, such as family, friends, or clergy. Therapeutic alliance A caring relationship that unites a therapist
and a client in working to solve the client’s problems.
To find out if therapy actually works, we could randomly
Culturally skilled therapist A therapist who has the awareness,
place clients in an experimental group that receives therapy knowledge, and skills necessary to treat clients from diverse
and a control group that does not. When this is done, the cultural backgrounds.
control group may show some improvement, even without Therapy placebo effect Improvement caused not by the actual pro-
cess of therapy but by a client’s expectation that therapy will help.
receiving therapy (Lambert & Ogles, 2002; Schuck, Keijsers,
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566 P SychOLO Gy M o D u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

MODULE

65 Summary
65.1 how did psychotherapy originate? roles and incidents resembling their real-life prob-
65.1.1 Early approaches to mental illness were dominated by lems. In family therapy, the family group is treated as
superstition and moral condemnation. a unit.
65.1.2 Demonology attributed mental disturbance to demonic 65.2.5 Many therapies may be effectively conducted either
possession and prescribed exorcism as the cure. face-to-face or at a distance, via telephone and the
65.1.3 More humane treatment began in 1793 with the work Internet.
of Philippe Pinel in Paris. 65.3 What do the various psychotherapies have in
65.1.4 Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, the first common, and are they effective?
psychotherapy, little more than a hundred years ago. 65.3.1 Most psychotherapies are based on the therapeutic
65.2 how do contemporary psychotherapies differ? alliance, a protected setting, catharsis, insights, new
perspectives, and a chance to practice new behaviors.
65.2.1 All psychotherapy aims to facilitate positive changes
65.3.2 The culturally skilled counselor must be able to
in personality, behavior, or adjustment.
establish rapport with a person from a different cul-
65.2.2 Psychotherapies may be classified as insight, action,
tural background and adapt traditional theories and
nondirective, directive, and combinations of these.
techniques to meet the needs of clients from non-
65.2.3 Psychotherapies may be open-ended or time-limited.
European ethnic groups.
Brief psychodynamic therapy (which relies on
65.3.3 Research into the effectiveness of therapies must take
psychoanalytic theory but is brief and focused) is as
many factors into account, including spontaneous
effective as other major therapies. One example is
remission and therapy placebo effects.
interpersonal psychotherapy.
65.3.4 Psychotherapy is generally effective, although differ-
65.2.4 Psychotherapies may be conducted with individuals
ent therapies work better with different problems.
or groups. In group psychodrama, individuals enact

Knowledge Builder Treating Psychological Distress

Recite 7. To date, the most acceptable type of “distance therapy” is

a. media psychology
Match:
b. commercial telephone counseling
______1. Directive therapies A. Change behavior
c. emoticon-based therapy
______2. Action therapies B. Place responsibility on
d. based on two-way audio and video links
the client
8. Emotional rapport, warmth, understanding, acceptance,
______3. Insight therapies c. The client is guided
and empathy are the core of
strongly
a. the therapeutic alliance
______4. Nondirective therapies D. Seek understanding
b. large-group awareness training
5. In psychodrama, people attempt to form meaningful
c. role reversals
wholes out of disjointed thoughts, feelings, and actions.
d. action therapy
T or F?
9. Culturally skilled therapists do all but one of the follow-
6. The mirror technique is frequently used in
ing. Which one does not apply?
a. exposure therapy
a. Are aware of the client’s degree of acculturation
b. psychodrama
b. Use helping resources within the client’s cultural
c. family therapy
group
d. ECT

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 MODU LE 6 5 Th e r ap i es: Tr eaTi n g psyc h o lo g i cal D i sTr es s 567

c. Adapt standard techniques to match cultural stereo- Can you think of any personal experiences of spontane-
types ous remission (times when a psychological issue resolved itself
d. Are aware of their own cultural values without any intervention on your part)?
Make a list describing what you think it means to be
Reflect mentally healthy. How well does your list match the items in
Think critically Table 65.1?
10. In your opinion, do psychologists have a duty to protect What lies at the “heart” of psychotherapy? How would you
others who may be harmed by their clients? For example, describe it to a friend?
if a patient has homicidal fantasies about his ex-wife,
should she be informed? AN SW E R S
make difficult choices in such situations.
Self-Reflect confidentiality and with client–therapist trust. Therapists often must
serious harm. However, this duty can conflict with a client’s rights to
The use of trepanning, demonology, and exorcism all implied a duty to protect others when a therapist could, with little effort, prevent
that the mentally ill were “cursed.” To what extent are the 1. C 2. A 3. D 4. B 5. F 6. b 7. d 8. a 9. c 10. According to the law, there is
mentally ill rejected and stigmatized today?

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MODULE

66 Therapies
Psychodynamic, Humanistic,
and Cognitive Therapies

The Talking Cures

Imagine lying back on a couch, talking about whatever comes to mind.
That’s just how psychotherapy got started, on this famous couch with
Sigmund Freud sitting out of sight, taking notes, and offering inter-
pretations. This procedure was supposed to encourage a free flow of
thoughts and images from the unconscious.
When most people picture psychotherapists at work, they imagine
them talking with their clients. Let’s sample a variety of talk-oriented
approaches. Psychodynamic therapies, of which Freudian psychoanal-
ysis was the first, tend to stress the need to gain insight into the uncon-
scious forces assumed to control us all. While humanistic therapies also
Heeb Christian/Glow Images

are insight therapies, they focus on helping clients gain deeper insight
into their conscious thoughts, emotions, and behavior. In contrast to
both psychodynamic and humanistic therapies, cognitive therapies
tend to be less concerned with insight than with helping people change
harmful thinking patterns. Let’s start with some insight.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
66.1 Is Freudian psychoanalysis still used? 66.3 How does cognitive therapy change thoughts
66.2 What are the major humanistic therapies? and emotions?

Psychodynamic Therapies—The Talking Cure

Survey Question 66.1 Is Freudian psychoanalysis still used? the main goal of psychoanalysis is to reduce internal con-
How did Freud treat psychological problems? Freud’s theory flicts that lead to emotional suffering (Aron & Starr, 2013).
stressed that “neurosis” and “hysteria” are caused by re-
pressed memories, motives, and conflicts—particularly Psychoanalysis
those stemming from instinctual drives for sex and aggres- Freud developed four basic techniques to uncover the
sion. Although they are hidden, these forces remain active unconscious roots of neurosis (Freud, 1949): free associa-
in the personality and cause some people to develop rigid tion, dream analysis, analysis of resistance, and analysis of
ego defenses and compulsive, self-defeating behavior. Thus, transference.

568
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 MODU LE 6 6 Th e r ap i es: psyc h o dynam i c, h u man i sTi c, an d c o g n iTive Th e r ap i es 569

Free Association The basis for free association is saying patient had for important persons in his or her past. At times,
whatever comes to mind without worrying whether ideas for example, the patient may act as if the analyst is a reject-
are painful, embarrassing, or illogical. Thoughts are simply ing father, an unloving or overprotective mother, or a former
allowed to move freely from one idea to the next, without lover. As the patient reexperiences repressed emotions, the
self-censorship. The purpose of free association is to low- therapist can help the patient recognize and understand them.
er defenses so that unconscious thoughts and feelings can Troubled persons often provoke anger, rejection, boredom,
emerge (Lavin, 2012; Spence et al., 2009). criticism, and other negative reactions from others. Effective
therapists learn to avoid reacting like others and playing the
Dream Analysis Freud believed that dreams disguise con-
patient’s habitual resistance and transference games. This, too,
sciously unacceptable feelings and forbidden desires in dream
contributes to therapeutic change (Aron & Starr, 2013).
form (Fischer & Kächele, 2009; Rock, 2004). The psychoanalyst
can use this “royal road to the unconscious” to help the patient
work past the obvious, visible meaning of the dream (its mani- Psychoanalysis Today
fest content) to uncover the hidden, symbolic meaning (its latent What is the status of psychoanalysis today? Psychoanalysis
content). This is achieved by analyzing dream symbols (images made a major contribution to modern therapies by highlight-
that have personal or emotional meanings; see Module 24). ing the importance of unconscious conflicts (Borch-Jacobsen
Suppose that a young man dreams of pulling a pistol & Shamdasani, 2011; Strenger, 2016). However, traditional
from his waistband and aiming at a target as his wife watch- psychoanalysis took a long time and considerable effort. This
es. The pistol repeatedly fails to discharge, and the man’s resulted in the development of newer, more streamlined dy-
wife laughs at him. Freud might have seen this as an indica- namic therapies, in part due to questions about whether tra-
tion of repressed feelings of sexual impotence, with the gun ditional psychoanalysis “works.” In a classic criticism, Hans
serving as a disguised image of the penis. Eysenck (1994) suggested that psychoanalysis simply takes
so long that patients experience a spontaneous remission of
Analysis of Resistance A central concern of psychoanaly-
symptoms—improvement due to the mere passage of time.
sis is the fact that patients who come to analysis for help nev-
How seriously should the possibility of spontaneous remission
ertheless often resist changing when it is necessary to become
be taken? It’s true that problems ranging from hyperactivity
healthier (Levenson, 2012). For example, when free associat-
to anxiety do improve with the passage of time. Regardless,
ing or describing dreams, patients may resist talking about or
researchers have confirmed that psychoanalysis and related
thinking about certain topics. Such resistances—blockages in
psychotherapies do, in fact, produce improvement in a majority
the flow of insights and ideas—reveal particularly important
of patients (Doidge, 1997; Shedler, 2010).
unconscious conflicts. As analysts become aware of resistances,
The real value of Eysenck’s critique is that it encouraged
they bring them to the patient’s awareness so the patient can
psychologists to try new ideas and techniques. Research-
deal with them realistically. Rather than being roadblocks in
ers began to ask, “When psychoanalysis works, why does it
therapy, resistances can be clues and challenges (Plakun, 2012).
work? Which parts of it are essential and which are unnec-
Analysis of Transference Transference is the tendency essary?” Modern therapists have given surprisingly varied
to “transfer” feelings to a therapist similar to those that the answers to these questions.

Humanistic Therapies—Liberating Human Potential

Survey Question 66.2 What are the major humanistic Psychoanalysis A Freudian therapy that emphasizes the use of free
therapies? association, dream interpretation, resistances, and transference to
uncover unconscious conflicts.
Better self-knowledge was the goal of traditional psy- Free association The psychoanalytic technique of encouraging a
choanalysis. However, Freud claimed that his patients patient to say whatever comes to mind without censoring.
could expect only to change their “hysterical misery into Resistance Blockage in the flow of free association around topics the
client avoids thinking or talking about
common unhappiness”! Humanistic therapists are more
Transference The tendency of patients to transfer to a therapist
optimistic and believe that humans have a natural urge to feelings that correspond to those the patient had for important
seek health and self-growth. Most assume that it is pos- persons in his or her past.
sible for people to use their potentials fully and live rich, Spontaneous remission Improvement of symptoms due to the mere
rewarding lives. Here, we discuss three of the most popular passage of time.

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570 P syCHOLO Gy m o d u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

humanistic therapies: client-centered therapy, existential eyes and feeling some part of what the client is feeling
therapy, and Gestalt therapy. (Grant, 2010).
As a third essential condition, the therapist strives for
authenticity (to be genuine and honest). The therapist
Client-Centered Therapy
must not hide behind a professional role. Rogers believed
What is client-centered therapy? How is it different from that phony fronts destroy the growth atmosphere sought in
psychoanalysis? Whereas psychoanalysis is directive and client-centered therapy.
based on insights from the unconscious, client-centered Fourth, the therapist does not make interpretations, pro-
therapy (person-centered therapy) is nondirective and pose solutions, or offer advice. Instead, the therapist relies
based on insights from conscious thoughts and feelings on reflection—rephrasing, summarizing, or repeating—the
(Brodley, 2006; Cain, 2014). The client being treated talks client’s thoughts and feelings. This enables the therapist to
without direction, judgment, or interpretation from the act as a psychological “mirror” so clients can see themselves
therapist. The psychoanalyst tends to take a position of more clearly. Rogers theorized that a person armed with a
authority, stating what dreams, thoughts, or memories realistic self-image and greater self-acceptance will gradu-
“mean.” In contrast, Carl Rogers (1902–1987), who origi- ally discover solutions to life’s problems.
nated client-centered therapy, believed that what is right
or valuable for the therapist may be wrong for the client.
(Rogers, 1959). (Rogers preferred the term client since
patient implies that a person is sick and needs to be cured.) Existential Therapy
Consequently, in client-centered therapy, therapists do According to the existentialists, “being in the world” (exis-
not try to “fix” clients. Instead, clients must actively seek to tence) creates deep anxiety. Each of us must deal with the
solve their problems because they determine what will be realities of death. We must face the fact that we create our
discussed during each session (Cooper & McLeod, 2011). private world by making choices. We must overcome isola-
The therapist’s job is to create a safe “atmosphere of growth” tion on a vast and indifferent planet. Most of all, we must
by providing opportunities for change. confront feelings of meaninglessness (Craig, 2012; Schnei-
How do therapists create such an atmosphere? Rogers der, Galvin, & Serlin, 2009).
believed that effective therapists maintain four basic con- What do these concerns have to do with psychotherapy?
ditions. First, the therapist offers the client unconditional Existential therapy focuses on the “ultimate concerns”
positive regard, or complete, unqualified acceptance of an- of existence, such as meaning, choice, and responsibility
other person as he or she is. The therapist refuses to react (Vontress, 2013). Like client-centered therapy, it promotes
with shock, dismay, or disapproval to anything the client self-knowledge. However, there are important differences.
says or feels. Total acceptance by the therapist is the first step Client-centered therapy seeks to uncover a “true self ” hid-
to self-acceptance by the client. den behind a screen of defenses. In contrast, existential
Second, the therapist attempts to achieve genuine therapy emphasizes free will, the human ability to make
empathy by trying to see the world through the client’s choices. Accordingly, existential therapists believe you can
choose to become the person you want to be. Existential
therapists try to give clients the courage to make reward-
ing and socially constructive choices.
Psychotherapist Carl Rogers One example of existential therapy is Victor Frankl’s
(1902–1987), who originated client- logotherapy, which emphasizes the need to find and main-
centered therapy.
tain meaning in life. Frankl (1904–1997) based his ap-
proach on experiences that he had as a prisoner in a Nazi
concentration camp. In the camp, Frankl saw countless
prisoners break down as they were stripped of all hope
and human dignity (Frankl, 1955). Those who survived
with their sanity did so because they managed to hang on
to a sense of meaning (logos). Even in less dire circum-

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 MODU LE 6 6 Th e r ap i es: psyc h o dynam i c, h u man i sTi c, an d c o g n iTive Th e r ap i es 571

stances, a sense of purpose in life adds greatly to psycho- ing attention to a client’s posture, voice, eye movements,
logical well-being (Prochaska & Norcross, 2014). and hand gestures. Clients also may be asked to exaggerate
What does the existential therapist do? The therapist vague feelings until they become clear. Gestalt therapists
helps clients discover self-imposed limitations in personal believe that expressing such feelings allows people to “take
identity. To be successful, the client must fully accept the care of unfinished business” and break through emotional
challenge of changing his or her life (Bretherton & Orner, impasses (Truscott, 2014).
2004). It is interesting that Buddhists seek a similar state that Gestalt therapy is often associated with the work of Fritz
they call “radical acceptance” (Brach, 2003). Perls (1969). According to Perls, emotional health comes
A key aspect of existential therapy is confrontation, from knowing what you want to do, not dwelling on what
in which clients are challenged to be mindful of their val- you should do, ought to do, or should want to do (Wheeler
ues and choices and to take responsibility for the quality & Axelsson, 2015). In other words, emotional health comes
of their existence (Claessens, 2009). An important part of from taking full responsibility for one’s feelings and actions.
confrontation is the unique, intense, here-and-now encoun- For example, it means changing “I can’t” to “I won’t,” or “I
ter between two human beings. When existential therapy is must” to “I choose to.”
successful, it brings about a renewed sense of purpose and How does Gestalt therapy help people discover their real
a reappraisal of what’s important in life. Some clients even wants? Above all else, Gestalt therapy emphasizes present
experience an emotional rebirth, as if they had survived a experience (Levin, 2010; Yontef, 2007). Clients are urged
close brush with death. to stop intellectualizing and talking about feelings. Instead,
they learn to live now; live here; stop imagining; experience
the real; stop unnecessary thinking; taste and see; express
Gestalt Therapy rather than explain, justify, or judge; give in to unpleasant-
ness and pain just as to pleasure; and surrender to being as
Gestalt therapy is based on the idea that perception, or
you are. Gestalt therapists believe that, paradoxically, the best
awareness, is disjointed and incomplete in maladjusted
way to change is to become who you really are (Wheeler &
persons. The German word Gestalt means “whole” or
Axelsson, 2015).
“complete.” Gestalt therapy helps people rebuild thinking,
feeling, and acting into connected wholes. This is achieved by
expanding personal awareness; by accepting responsibility
for one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions; and by filling in
gaps in experience (Frew, 2013).
Client-centered (person-centered) therapy Individual being
What are “gaps in experience”? Gestalt therapists believe
treated talks without direction, judgment, or interpretation from
that we often shy away from expressing or “owning” upset- the therapist
ting feelings. This creates a gap in self-awareness that may Unconditional positive regard Complete, unqualified acceptance of
become a barrier to personal growth. For example, a person another person as he or she is.
who feels anger after the death of a parent might go for years Empathy A capacity for taking another’s point of view; the ability to
without fully expressing it. This and similar threatening feel what another is feeling.

gaps may impair emotional health. Authenticity In Carl Rogers’s terms, the ability of a therapist to be
genuine and honest about his or her own feelings.
The Gestalt approach is more directive than client-
Reflection In client-centered therapy, the process of rephrasing or
centered or existential therapy, and it is less insight repeating thoughts and feelings expressed by clients so they can
oriented, instead emphasizing immediate experience. become aware of what they are saying.
Working either one-to-one or in a group setting, the Gestalt Existential therapy An insight therapy that focuses on the
therapist encourages clients to become more aware of their elemental problems of existence, such as death, meaning,
choice, and responsibility; emphasizes making courageous life
moment-to-moment thoughts, perceptions, and emotions
choices.
(Levin, 2010). Rather than discussing why clients feel guilt,
Gestalt therapy An approach that focuses on immediate experience
anger, fear, or boredom, the therapist encourages them to and awareness to help clients rebuild thinking, feeling, and acting
have these feelings in the “here and now” and become fully into connected wholes; emphasizes the integration of fragmented
aware of them. The therapist promotes awareness by draw- experiences.

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572 P syCHOLO Gy m o d u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

Cognitive Therapies—Think Positive!

Survey Question 66.3 How does cognitive therapy change good or bad, right or wrong, and themselves as either suc-
thoughts and emotions? cessful or failing miserably (Lam & Mok, 2008).
Whereas psychodynamic and humanistic therapies usually How do cognitive therapists alter such patterns? Cogni-
seek to foster insight, cognitive therapies usually try to directly tive therapists make a step-by-step effort to correct negative
change what people think, believe, and feel, and, as a conse- thoughts that lead to depression or similar problems. At first,
quence, how they act (Rosner, 2012). In general, cognitive clients are taught to recognize and keep track of their own
therapy helps clients change maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, thoughts. The client and therapist then look for ideas and
and feeling patterns (Davey, 2008; Power, 2010). beliefs that cause depression, anger, and avoidance (Segal,
For example, Janice is a hoarder whose home is Williams, & Teasdale, 2013). Next, clients are asked to gather
crammed full with things she has acquired over two de- information to test their beliefs. For instance, a depressed
cades. If she seeks help from a therapist concerned with person might list his or her activities for a week. The list is
insight, she will try to better understand why she began then used to challenge all-or-nothing thoughts, such as “I
collecting stuff. In contrast, if she seeks help from a cogni- had a terrible week” or “I’m a complete failure.” With more
tive therapist, she may spend little time examining her past. coaching, clients learn to alter their thoughts in ways that
Instead, she will work to actively change her thoughts and improve their moods, actions, and relationships.
beliefs about hoarding. With either approach, the goal is to Cognitive therapy is at least as effective as drugs for
give up hoarding. Further, in practice, humanistic therapies treating many cases of depression (Lopez & Basco, 2014).
often also result in active change, and cognitive therapies Also, people who have adopted new thinking patterns are
often also yield deeper insight. less likely to become depressed again—a benefit that drugs
Cognitive therapy has been successfully used as a rem- can’t impart (Eisendrath et al., 2014; Eisendrath, Chartier, &
edy for many problems, ranging from generalized anxiety McLane, 2011).
disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to mar- In an alternative approach, cognitive therapists look for
ital distress and anger (Butler et al., 2006). For example, an absence of effective coping skills and thinking patterns,
hypochondria can be greatly reduced by changing a client’s not for the presence of self-defeating thoughts (Dobson,
thoughts and beliefs about intrusive imagery (McManus Backs-Dermott, & Dozois, 2000). The aim is to teach clients
et al., 2015). Cognitive therapy has been especially success- how to cope with anger, depression, shyness, stress, and
ful in treating depression (Eisendrath et al., 2014). similar problems. Stress inoculation, which was described
in Module 59, is a good example of this approach.
Cognitive Therapy for Depression Cognitive therapy is a rapidly expanding specialty. Be-
fore we leave the topic, let’s explore another widely used
As you may recall from Module 62, cognitive psychologists
cognitive therapy.
believe that negative, self-defeating thoughts underlie de-
pression. According to Aaron Beck (1991), depressed per-
sons see themselves, the world, and the future in negative Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy
terms because of major distortions in thinking. The first is Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) attempts to
selective perception, which refers to perceiving only cer- change self-defeating thoughts that cause emotional prob-
tain stimuli in a larger array. If five good things and two bad lems. According to Albert Ellis (1913–2007), the basic
things happen during the day, depressed people focus only idea of REBT is as easy as A-B-C (Ellis, 1995, Ellis & Ellis,
on the bad. A second thinking error in depression is over- 2011). Ellis assumed that people become unhappy and de-
generalization, the tendency to think that an upsetting velop self-defeating habits because they have unrealistic or
event applies to other, unrelated situations. An example faulty beliefs.
would be Billy’s considering himself a total failure or com- How are beliefs important? Ellis analyzed problems in
pletely worthless if he were to lose a part-time job or fail this way: The letter A stands for an activating experience,
a test. To complete the picture, depressed persons tend to which the person assumes to be the cause of C, an emo-
magnify the importance of undesirable events by engaging tional consequence. For instance, a person who is rejected
in all-or-nothing thinking. They see events as completely (the activating experience) feels depressed, threatened, or

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 MODU LE 6 6 Th e r ap i es: psyc h o dynam i c, h u man i sTi c, an d c o g n iTive Th e r ap i es 573

hurt (the consequence). REBT shows the client that the real Example: “My girlfriend dumped me during my junior
problem is what comes between A and C: B, which is the year in college. I can never trust a woman again.”
client’s irrational and unrealistic beliefs. In this example, an 10. There is always a perfectly obvious solution to human
unrealistic belief leading to unnecessary suffering is: “I must problems, and it is immoral if this solution is not put
be loved and approved by everyone at all times.” REBT holds into practice.
that events do not cause us to have feelings. We feel as we Example: “I’m so depressed about politics in this country.
do because of our beliefs (Dryden, 2011; Kottler & Shepard, It all seems hopeless.”*
2015). (Notice that this REBT explanation of emotional
If any of the listed beliefs sound familiar, you may be
distress is related to the effects of emotional appraisals. See
creating unnecessary emotional distress for yourself by
Module 44.)
holding on to unrealistic expectations. Ellis (1979; Ellis &
Irrational Beliefs—Which Ones Do You Hold? REBT Ellis, 2011) says that most irrational beliefs come from three
therapists have identified numerous beliefs that commonly core ideas, each of which is unrealistic:
lead to emotional upsets and conflicts. See if you recognize 1. I must perform well and be approved of by significant
any of the following irrational beliefs (Dryden, 2011; Ellis & others. If I don’t, then it is awful, I cannot stand it, and I
Ellis, 2011; Teyber & McClure, 2011): am a rotten person.
1. I must be loved and approved by almost every signifi- 2. You must treat me fairly. When you don’t, it is horrible,
cant person in my life or it’s awful and I’m worthless. and I cannot bear it.
Example: “One of my classmates doesn’t seem to like 3. Conditions must be the way I want them to be. It is
me. I must be a big loser.” terrible when they are not, and I cannot stand living in
such an awful world.
2. I should be completely competent and achieving in all
ways to be a worthwhile person. It’s easy to see that such beliefs can lead to much grief
Example: “I don’t understand my physics class. I guess I and needless suffering in a less-than-perfect world. Rational-
really am just stupid.” emotive behavior therapists are very directive in their attempts
3. It’s terribly upsetting when things don’t go my way. to change a client’s irrational beliefs and “self-talk.” The thera-
Example: “I should have gotten a B in that class. The pist may directly attack clients’ logic, challenge their thinking,
teacher is a total creep.” confront them with evidence contrary to their beliefs, and
4. It’s not my fault I’m unhappy; I can’t control my emo- even assign “homework.” Here, for instance, are some exam-
tional reactions. ples of statements that dispute irrational beliefs (adapted from
Dryden, 2011; Ellis & Ellis, 2011; Kottler & Shepard, 2015):
Example: “You make me feel awful. I would be happy if
it weren’t for you.” ◗ “Where is the evidence that you are a loser just because
5. I should never forget it if something unpleasant happens. you didn’t do well this one time?”
Example: “I’ll never forget the time my boss insulted me. ◗ “Who said the world should be fair? That’s your rule.”
I think about it every day at work.” ◗ “What are you telling yourself to make yourself feel so
6. It is easier to avoid difficulties and responsibilities than upset?”
to face them. ◗ “Is it really terrible that things aren’t working out as you
Example: “I don’t know why my girlfriend is angry. would like? Or is it just inconvenient?”
Maybe it will just pass if I ignore it.”
Cognitive therapy Treatment of emotional and behavioral problems
7. A lot of people I have to deal with are bad. I should by changing maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, and feeling.
severely punish them for it. Selective perception Perceiving only certain stimuli among a larger
Example: “The students renting next door are such a array of possibilities.
pain. I’m going to play my stereo even louder the next Overgeneralization Blowing a single event out of proportion by
extending it to a large number of unrelated situations.
time they complain.”
All-or-nothing thinking Classifying objects or events as absolutely
8. I should depend on others who are stronger than me. right or wrong, good or bad, acceptable or unacceptable, and
Example: “I couldn’t survive if she left me.” so forth.
9. Because something once strongly affected me, it will do Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) Type of treatment
designed to identify and change self-defeating thoughts.
so forever.

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574 P syCHOLO Gy m o d u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

Many of us would probably do well to give up our irrational Gambler’s fallacy: You believe that a string of losses soon
beliefs. Improved self-acceptance and a better tolerance of must be followed by wins.
daily annoyances are the benefits of doing so. Selective memory: You remember your wins but forget
Gambling Disorder As an example, let’s consider gam- your losses.
bling disorder. Seventeen-year-old Jonathan just lost his Overinterpretation of cues: You put too much faith in
shirt again. This time, he did it playing online blackjack. irrelevant cues such as bodily sensations or a feeling
Jonathan started out making $5 bets and then doubled that your next bet will be a winner.
his bet over and over. Surely, he thought, his luck would Luck as a trait: You believe that you are a lucky person
eventually change. However, he ran out of money after in general.
just eight straight losing hands, having lost more than Probability biases: You have incorrect beliefs about ran-
$1,000. Last week, he lost a lot of money playing Texas domness and chance events.
Hold ’Em. Now Jonathan is in tears—he has lost most of Do you have any of these mistaken beliefs? Taken to-
his summer earnings, and he is worried about having to gether, Jonathan’s cognitive distortions created an illusion
drop out of school and tell his parents about his losses. of control—that is, he believed if he worked hard enough,
Jonathan has had to admit that he is part of the growing he could figure out how to win. Fortunately, a cognitive
ranks of underage gambling addicts (Dixon et al., 2016; therapist helped Jonathan cognitively restructure his be-
Volberg, 2012). liefs. He now no longer believes that he can control chance
Like many problem gamblers, Jonathan suffers from events. Jonathan still gambles a bit, but he does so only
several cognitive distortions related to gambling. Here recreationally, keeping his losses within his budget and
are some mistaken beliefs about gambling (adapted from enjoying himself in the process.
Toneatto, 2002; Wickwire, Whelan, & Meyers, 2010):
Magnified gambling skill: Your self-confidence is exag- Cognitive Behavior Therapy
gerated, despite the fact that you lose persistently. One last point. Before we go on to explore behavior thera-
Attribution errors: You ascribe your wins to skill but pies in Module 67: Did you notice that the B in REBT stands
blame your losses on bad luck. for “behavior”? Today, most therapists realize that changing
maladaptive thoughts and doing the same for maladaptive
behaviors can be done simultaneously. Cognitive behavior
therapy (CBT) combines cognitive and behavioral therapies
to optimize treatment outcomes (Farmer & Chapman, 2016).
For example, compulsive hoarders respond well to therapy
when it both corrects distorted thinking about hoarding and
actively modifies hoarding behavior (Steketee et al., 2010).
In fact, CBT is currently the most popular approach to non-
medical therapy (Pilgrim, 2011).
Thought Stopping One interesting CBT technique is
thought stopping, which involves interrupting or prevent-
ing upsetting thoughts (Bakker, 2009). Behavior therapists
and cognitive behavior therapists accept that thoughts are
covert behaviors. And just like overt behaviors, thoughts
can be reinforced or punished.
Comstock Images/Getty Images

Think of times when you have repeatedly “put your-

self down” mentally or when you have been preoccupied
by needless worries, fears, or other negative and upsetting
thoughts. If you want to gain control over such thoughts,
thought stopping may help you do it. You can interrupt
Gambling addiction is a growing problem among young people the thoughts by telling yourself “Stop” when the thought
(LaBrie & Shaffer, 2007). occurs.

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 MODU LE 6 6 Th e r ap i es: psyc h o dynam i c, h u man i sTi c, an d c o g n iTive Th e r ap i es 575

Another simple thought-stopping technique uses often you form negative thoughts and in interrupting the
mild physical punishment to suppress upsetting mental flow of thoughts.
images and internal “talk.” Simply place a large, flat rub- Anyway, onward to the behavior therapies.
ber band around your wrist. As you go through the day,
apply this rule: Each time you catch yourself thinking the Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) Any therapy that combines
upsetting image or thought, pull the rubber band away elements of cognitive therapy and behavior therapy.
from your wrist and snap it. You need not make this terri- Thought stopping Use of aversive stimuli to interrupt or prevent
upsetting thoughts.
bly painful. Its value lies in drawing your attention to how

MODULE

66 summary
66.1 Is Freudian psychoanalysis still used? 66.2.4 Gestalt therapy emphasizes immediate awareness of
66.1.1 The psychoanalyst uses free association, dream analy- thoughts and feelings. Its goal is to rebuild thinking,
sis, and analysis of resistance and transference to feeling, and acting into connected wholes and to help
reveal health-producing insights. clients break through emotional blockages.
66.1.2 As the first true psychotherapy, Freud’s psychoanaly- 66.3 How does cognitive therapy change
sis gave rise to modern psychodynamic therapies, thoughts and emotions?
although traditional psychoanalysts are now hard to 66.3.1 Cognitive therapy emphasizes changing thought pat-
find. terns that underlie emotional or behavioral problems.
66.1.3 Some critics argue that traditional psychoanalysis Its goals are to correct distorted thinking, teach
receives credit for spontaneous remissions of symp- improved coping skills, or both.
toms. However, psychoanalysis is successful for many 66.3.2 Aaron Beck’s cognitive therapy focuses on chang-
patients. ing several major distortions in thinking: selective
66.2 What are the major humanistic therapies? perception, overgeneralization, and all-or-nothing
66.2.1 Client-centered (or person-centered) therapy is non- thinking.
directive, based on insights gained from conscious 66.3.3 In Albert Ellis’s variation of cognitive therapy, called
thoughts and feelings, and dedicated to creating an rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), clients
atmosphere of growth. learn to recognize and challenge the irrational beliefs
66.2.2 Unconditional positive regard, empathy, authentic- that are at the core of their maladaptive thinking pat-
ity, and reflection are combined to give the client a terns.
chance to solve his or her own problems. 66.3.4 Cognitive and behavior therapies can be combined,
66.2.3 Existential therapies focus on the end result of the resulting in cognitive behavior therapy (CBT).
choices one makes in life. Clients are encouraged Thought-stopping is a useful CBT technique.
through confrontation and encounter to exercise free
will and to take responsibility for their choices.

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576 P syCHOLO Gy m o d u les fo r acTive lear n i n g

Knowledge Builder Therapies: Psychodynamic, Humanistic, and Cognitive

Therapies

Recite 10. How might using the term patient affect the relationship
between an individual and a therapist?
1. In psychoanalysis, an emotional attachment to the thera-
pist is called ___________. self-Reflect
Match: Try to free associate (aloud) for 10 minutes. Did anything
2. _____ Client-centered therapy A. Changing thought interesting surface?
patterns You are going to play the role of a therapist for a class-
3. _____ Gestalt therapy B. Unconditional room demonstration. How would you act if you were a psy-
positive regard choanalyst? A client-centered therapist? A Gestalt therapist?
4. _____Existential therapy C. Gaps in awareness A rational-emotive behavior therapist? A cognitive behavior
5. _____ REBT D. Choice and therapist?
becoming We all occasionally engage in negative thinking. Can
6. The Gestalt therapist tries to reflect a client’s thoughts you remember a time recently when you engaged in selective
and feelings. T or F? perception? Overgeneralization? All-or-nothing thinking?
7. Confrontation and encounter are concepts of existential
therapy. T or F? AN sW E R s
8. The B in the A-B-C of REBT stands for as an inappropriate way to think about human problems.
a. behavior implies that a person is “sick” and needs to be “cured.” Many regard this
b. belief ity concerning solutions to his or her problems. Also, the word patient
c. being attempts to narrow this gap by making the person the final author-
d. Beck and his or her therapist. Client-centered or person-centered therapy
patient imply a large gap in status and authority between the individual
Reflect cates the therapeutic process (Bunnell, 2016). 10. The terms doctor and
solved, unconscious feelings onto their patients. This sometimes compli-
Think Critically therapists in general) also are human. They may transfer their own unre-

9. According to Freud’s concept of transference, patients

1. transference 2. B 3. C 4. D 5. A 6. T 7. T 8. a 9. Psychoanalysts (and

“transfer” their feelings onto the psychoanalyst. In light

of this idea, to what might the term countertransference
refer?

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 MODULE
Therapies
Behavior Therapies 67
Testing Her Wings
Shanika had a big problem. It wasn’t the free Caribbean va-
cation she unexpectedly won in a contest so much as her fear
of flying there in the first place. Realizing that she should
have done it years ago, she enrolled in a program designed
to help her overcome her fear. Little did she know that pho-
bias like hers responded well to a behavior therapy called
systematic desensitization.
In just a few weeks, her program treated her fear of flying
by combining systematic desensitization, relaxation, group sup-
port, and lots of direct exposure to airliners. She was amazed at
how calm she was when her program concluded with an actual
brief flight so that participants could “test their wings.”
Behavior therapists seek to directly change behavior
patterns so that people can function more comfortably and successful behavioral therapies, including systematic
and effectively. This module describes some innovative desensitization.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
67.1 What is behavior therapy? 67.2 What role do operant principles play in behavior therapy?

Therapies Based on Classical Conditioning—Healing by Learning

Survey Question 67.1 What is behavior therapy? Behavior therapists assume that people have learned to
In general, how does behavior therapy work? A breakthrough be the way they are. If they have learned responses that cause
occurred when psychologists realized they could use learn- problems, then they can change them by relearning more appro-
ing principles to solve human problems. Behavior therapy priate behaviors. Broadly speaking, behavior modification
is an action therapy that uses learning principles to make refers to any use of classical or operant conditioning to
constructive changes in behavior. Behavior therapists believe directly alter human behavior (Miltenberger, 2016; Spiegler &
that deep insight into one’s problems is often unnecessary Guevremont, 2016). (Some therapists prefer to call this
for improvement. Instead, they try to directly alter trouble-
some actions and thoughts. Shanika didn’t need to probe into Behavior therapy Any therapy designed to actively change behavior.
her past or her emotions and conflicts; she simply wanted to Behavior modification The application of learning principles to
change human behavior, especially maladaptive behavior.
overcome her fear of flying.

577
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578 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

drinking, or gambling (Trull & Prinstein, 2013). Aversion

therapy has been used to treat hiccups, sneezing, stuttering,
vomiting, nail-biting, bed-wetting, compulsive hair-pulling,
alcoholism, and the smoking of tobacco, marijuana, or crack
cocaine. Actually, aversive conditioning happens every day.
For example, not many physicians who treat lung cancer pa-
tients are smokers, nor do many emergency room doctors
drive without using their seat belts (Eifert & Lejuez, 2000).

Puffing up an Aversion The fact that nicotine is toxic

makes it easy to create an aversion that helps people give up
smoking. Behavior therapists have found that electric shock,
nauseating drugs, and similar aversive stimuli are not required
to make smokers uncomfortable. All that is needed is for the
smoker to smoke—rapidly, for a long time, at a forced pace.
During rapid smoking, clients are told to smoke continuously,
approach applied behavior analysis.) Behavioral approaches taking a puff every 6 to 8 seconds. Rapid smoking continues
include aversion therapy, systematic desensitization, token until the smoker is miserable and can stand it no more. By
economies, and other techniques (Spiegler, 2013a, b). then, most people are thinking, “I never want to see another
How does classical conditioning work? Perhaps a brief re- cigarette for the rest of my life.”
view would be helpful. Classical conditioning is a form of Rapid smoking has long been known as an effective
learning in which simple responses (especially reflexes) are behavior therapy for smoking (McRobbie & Hajek, 2007).
associated with new stimuli. In classical conditioning, a neu- Nevertheless, anyone tempted to try rapid smoking should
tral stimulus is followed by an unconditioned stimulus (US) realize that it is very unpleasant. Without the help of a
that consistently produces an unlearned reaction, called the therapist, most people quit too soon for the procedure to
unconditioned response (UR). Eventually, the previously neu- succeed. In addition, rapid smoking can be dangerous. It
tral stimulus begins to produce this response directly. The should be done only with professional supervision. (Covert
response is then called a conditioned response (CR), and the sensitization, an alternative method that is more practical is
stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS). Thus, for a described in Module 31.)
child, the sight of a hypodermic needle (CS) is followed by
an injection (US), which causes anxiety or fear (UR). Eventu- Aversive Therapy for Drinking Another excellent ex-
ally, the sight of a hypodermic (the CS) may produce anxiety ample of aversion therapy was pioneered by Roger Vogler
or fear (a CR) before the child gets an injection. (For a and his associates (1977). Vogler worked with alcoholics who
more thorough review of classical conditioning, return to were unable to stop drinking and for whom aversion therapy
Modules 27 and 28.) was a last chance. While drinking an alcoholic beverage, cli-
What does classical conditioning have to do with behavior ents receive a painful (although not injurious) electric shock
modification? Classical conditioning can be used, for exam- to the hand. Most of the time, these shocks occur as the client
ple, to associate discomfort with a bad habit. More powerful is beginning to take a drink of alcohol.
versions of this approach are called aversion therapy. These response-contingent shocks (shocks that are linked
to a response) obviously take the pleasure out of drinking.
Aversion Therapy Shocks also cause the alcohol abuser to develop a condi-
Imagine that you are eating an apple. Suddenly, you discov- tioned aversion to drinking. Normally, the misery caused
er that you just bit a large green worm in half. You vomit. by alcohol abuse comes long after the act of drinking—too
Months later, you cannot eat an apple without feeling ill. It’s late to have much effect. But if alcohol can be linked with
apparent that you have developed a conditioned aversion to immediate discomfort, then drinking will begin to make the
apples. (A conditioned aversion is a learned dislike or nega- individual very uncomfortable.
tive emotional response to some stimulus.) Is it really acceptable to treat clients this way? People are
In aversion therapy, an individual learns to associate a often disturbed (shocked?) by such methods. However, cli-
strong aversion to an unwanted behavior such as smoking, ents usually volunteer for aversion therapy because it helps

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 MoDU lE 67 th e r Ap i es: B e hAvi o r th e r Ap i es 579

them overcome a destructive habit. Indeed, commercial and scalp. Tighten and release your mouth and face muscles.
aversion programs for overeating, smoking, and alcohol As a last step, curl your toes and tense your feet and then
abuse have attracted many willing customers. More impor- release.
tant, aversion therapy can be justified by its benefits. Many If you followed these instructions, you should be notice-
people prefer the short-term discomfort of aversion therapy ably more relaxed than you were before you began. Practice
to the long-term pain caused by a lifetime of struggling with the tension-release method until you can achieve complete
a maladaptive habit. relaxation quickly (5 to 10 minutes). After you have prac-
ticed relaxation once a day for a week or two, you will begin
Exposure Therapy to be able to tell when your body (or a group of muscles) is
Can behavior therapy be used to treat phobias, fears, and tense. Also, you will begin to be able to relax on command.
anxieties? Another behavioral technique, exposure therapy, This is a valuable skill that you can apply in any situation
can be used to help people unlearn phobias (intense, un- that makes you feel tense or anxious.
realistic fears), strong anxieties, obsessions, and compul- While Curtis learns to voluntarily relax, he and the ther-
sions (Abramowitz, Deacon, Whiteside, 2012; Abramowitz apist can also construct his fear hierarchy—a list of at least
& Jacoby, 2015). For example, each of these people might be 10 fear-provoking situations related to his fear of heights,
a candidate: a teacher with stage fright; a student with test arranged from least disturbing to most frightening.
anxiety; a newlywed with an aversion to sexual intimacy; Curtis would then begin by trying to perform the least
a person with hoarding disorder, or a person like Shanika, disturbing item on his fear of heights hierarchy, which might
who is afraid of flying. Exposure therapy relies on the fact be (1) Stand on a chair. The first item is repeated until Cur-
that classically conditioned responses can be extinguished. tis feels no anxiety. Any change from complete relaxation
Systematic Desensitization Suppose that a behavior is a signal that Curtis must relax again before continuing.
therapist wanted to help Curtis overcome his fear of heights Slowly, Curtis moves up the hierarchy: (2) Climb to the top
(acrophobia). How might she proceed? Assuming that Curtis’s of a small stepladder, (3) look down one flight of stairs, and
fear of heights is a conditioned emotional response, it should be so on, until the last item, (20) Stand on the balcony on the
possible to extinguish that fear response by repeatedly exposing top floor, is performed without fear.
him to heights. Simply forcing Curtis to go out onto a balcony As stated previously, working through his fear hierarchy in
on the top (35th) floor of his apartment building could be a a safe, relaxed setting allows Curtis to gradually undergo extinc-
psychological disaster (after all, Curtis is a ground floor kind tion of his conditioned fear response. Systematic desensitization
of guy). The behavior therapist (and Curtis) might be better off also involves reciprocal inhibition—using one emotional state
avoiding flooding Curtis with anxiety and instead using sys- to block another (Heriot & Pritchard, 2004; Trull & Prinstein,
tematic desensitization—a guided reduction in fear, anxiety, 2013). For instance, it is impossible to be anxious and relaxed at
or aversion attained by gradually approaching a feared stimulus the same time. If we can get Curtis onto the building staircase
while maintaining relaxation (Head & Gross, 2009). in a relaxed state, his anxiety and fear will be further inhibited.
How is systematic desensitization done? The key to de- Repeated visits to the staircase should cause fear to disappear in
sensitization is relaxation. To inhibit fear, you must learn to this situation. When Curtis has conquered his fear, we can say
relax. One way to voluntarily relax is by using the tension- that desensitization has occurred.
release method. To achieve deep-muscle relaxation, try the Aversion therapy Treatment to reduce unwanted behavior by pairing
following exercise: it with an unpleasant stimulus.
Exposure therapy Alleviating fears and phobias (conditioned
Tense the muscles in your right arm until they tremble.
emotional responses) by using classical conditioning extinction.
Hold them tight as you slowly count to 10 and then let go.
Systematic desensitization A reduction in fear, anxiety, or aversion
Allow your hand and arm to go limp and to relax completely.
brought about by planned exposure to aversive stimuli.
Repeat the procedure. Releasing tension two or three times
Tension-release method A procedure for systematically achieving
will allow you to feel whether your arm muscles have re-
deep relaxation of the body.
laxed. Repeat the tension-release procedure with your left
Fear hierarchy A list of fears, arranged from least fearful to most
arm. Compare it with your right arm. Repeat until the left
fearful, for use in systematic desensitization.
arm is equally relaxed. Apply the tension-release technique
Reciprocal inhibition The presence of one emotional state can
to your right leg, to your left leg, to your abdomen, and
inhibit the occurrence of another, such as joy preventing fear or
then to your chest and shoulders. Clench and release your
anxiety inhibiting pleasure.
chin, neck, and throat. Wrinkle and release your forehead

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580 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

For many phobias, desensitization works best when

people are directly exposed to the stimuli and situations
they fear (Bourne, 2010; Miltenberger, 2016). For something
like a simple spider phobia, this exposure can even be done
in groups and may be completed in a single session (Müller
et al., 2011).
Vicarious Desensitization What if it’s not practical to
directly act out the steps of a fear hierarchy? For a fear of
heights, the steps of the fear hierarchy might be acted out,
just as Curtis did. However, if this is impractical, as it might
be in the case of a fear of flying, the problem can be han-
dled by having clients observe models who are performing
the feared behavior (Eifert & Lejuez, 2000; Bourne, 2010;
➤ Figure 67.1). A model is a person (either live or filmed)
who serves as an example for observational learning. If such ➤ Figure 67.1
vicarious desensitization—secondhand learning—can’t be Treatment of a snake phobia by vicarious desensitization.
These classic photographs show models interacting with snakes.
used, there is yet another option. Fortunately, desensitiza- To overcome their own fears, phobic subjects observed the models
tion works almost as well when a person vividly imagines (Bandura, Blanchard, & Ritter, 1969).
each step in the hierarchy (Yahnke, Sheikh, & Beckman,
2003). If the steps can be visualized without anxiety, fear in computerized fear stimuli to clients in a realistic yet care-
the actual situation is reduced. Because imagining feared fully controlled fashion (Motraghi et al., 2014; Riva, 2009).
stimuli can be done at a therapist’s office, it is the most com- It has already been used to treat fears of flying, driving, and
mon way of doing desensitization. public speaking as well as acrophobia, claustrophobia, and
Virtual Reality Exposure In an important recent devel- spider phobias (Meyerbröker & Emmelkamp, 2010; Müller
opment, psychologists are now using virtual reality to treat et al., 2011; ➤ Figure 67.2). Virtual reality exposure also
phobias. Virtual reality is a computer-generated, three- has been used to create immersive distracting environ-
dimensional “world” that viewers enter by wearing a head- ments for helping patients reduce the experience of pain
mounted video display. Virtual reality exposure presents (Keefe et al., 2012).

➤ Figure 67.2
Treatment of PTSD with virtual reality. (left ) A person in the head-mounted display explores a virtual reality system used to expose
people to feared stimuli. (right ) A computer image from a virtual Iraq or Afghanistan. Veterans suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) can reexperience their traumas. For example, someone whose checkpoint was suddenly attacked by a carload of terrorists
can relive that moment, complete with sights, sounds, vibrations, and even smells. Successive exposures result in a reduction of PTSD
symptoms (McLay, 2012; Rizzo et al., 2015).

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 MoDU lE 67 th e r Ap i es: B e hAvi o r th e r Ap i es 581

Exposure therapy has been one of the most successful and thoughts that emerged and discuss them with the thera-
behavior therapies. A relatively new technique may pro- pist. These steps are repeated until troubling thoughts and
vide yet another way to lower fears, anxieties, and psycho- emotions no longer surface (Shapiro, 2012).
logical pain. Several studies suggest that EMDR lowers anxieties and
takes the pain out of traumatic memories (Fleming, 2012;
Eye Movement Desensitization Traumatic events pro- Oren & Solomon, 2012). However, EMDR is controversial.
duce painful memories. Disturbing flashbacks often haunt Some question, for example, whether eye movements add
victims of accidents, disasters, molestations, muggings, anything to the treatment (Jeffries & Davis, 2013). The ap-
rapes, or emotional abuse. To help ease traumatic memories parent success of EMDR may simply be based on gradual
and post-traumatic stress, Dr. Francine Shapiro developed exposure to upsetting stimuli, as in other forms of expo-
eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). sure therapy (Albright & Thyer, 2010). On the other hand,
In a typical EMDR session, the client is asked to visual- some researchers continue to find that EMDR is superior
ize the images that most upset her or him. At the same time, to traditional therapies (Solomon, Solomon, & Heide, 2009;
a pencil (or other object) is moved rapidly from side to side Tarquinio et al., 2012).
in front of the person’s eyes. Watching the moving object Is EMDR a breakthrough? Given the frequency of
causes the person’s eyes to dart swiftly back and forth. After traumas in modern society, it shouldn’t be long before we
about 30 seconds, clients describe any memories, feelings, find out.

Operant Therapies—All the World Is a Skinner Box?

Survey Question 67.2 What role do operant principles For example, to reward an intellectually challenged
play in behavior therapy? child for saying “ball,” you might begin by reinforcing
Aversion therapy and desensitization are based on classical the child for saying anything that starts with a b sound.
conditioning. Where does operant conditioning fit in? As you 5. Stimulus control. Responses tend to come under the
may recall, operant conditioning refers to learning based on control of the situation in which they occur. If you set
the consequences of making a response. Behavior therapists your clock 10 minutes ahead, it may be easier to leave
most often use the following operant principles to deal with the house on time in the morning. Your departure is
human behavior: under the stimulus control of the clock, even though
you know that it is fast.
1. Positive reinforcement. Responses that are followed 6. Time out. A time-out procedure usually involves
by reinforcement tend to occur more frequently. If chil- removing the individual from a situation in which rein-
dren whine and get attention, they will whine more fre- forcement occurs. Time-out is a variation of response
quently. If you get straight As in your psychology class, cost: It prevents reward from following an undesirable
you may become a psychology major. response. For example, children who fight with each
2. Nonreinforcement and extinction. A response that is other can be sent to separate rooms and allowed out
not followed by reinforcement will occur less frequently. only when they are able to behave more calmly. (For
If a response is not followed by reward after it has been a more thorough review of operant learning, return to
repeated many times, it will extinguish entirely. After Modules 27, 29 and 30.)
winning 3 times, you pull the handle on a slot machine
30 times more without a payoff. What do you do? You Vicarious desensitization A reduction in fear or anxiety that takes
go away. So does the response of handle pulling (for that place vicariously (“secondhand”) when a client watches models
perform the feared behavior.
particular machine, at any rate).
Virtual reality exposure Use of computer-generated images to pres-
3. Punishment. If a response is followed by discomfort or ent fear stimuli. The virtual environment responds to a viewer’s
an undesirable effect, the response will be suppressed head movements and other inputs.
(but not necessarily extinguished). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) A tech-
4. Shaping. Shaping means reinforcing actions that are nique for reducing fear or anxiety; based on holding upsetting
thoughts in mind while rapidly moving the eyes from side to side.
closer and closer approximations to a desired response.

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582 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

As simple as these principles may seem, they have been Nonreward and extinction can eliminate many problem
used very effectively to overcome difficulties in work, home, behaviors, especially in schools, hospitals, and institutions.
school, and industrial settings. Let’s see how. Often, difficulties center on a limited number of particularly
disturbing responses. A time-out is a good way to remove
Nonreinforcement and operant Extinction such responses, which usually involves refusing to pay atten-
An extremely overweight mental patient had a persistent tion to a person who is misbehaving. For example, 14-year-
and disturbing habit: She stole food from other patients. No old Terrel periodically appeared in the nude in the activity
one could persuade her to stop stealing or to diet. For the room of a training center for disturbed adolescents. This be-
sake of her health, a behavior therapist assigned her a special havior always generated a great deal of attention from staff
table in the ward dining room. If she approached any other and other patients. As an experiment, the next time he ap-
table, she was immediately removed from the dining room. peared nude, counselors and other staff members greeted
Any attempt to steal from others caused the patient to miss him normally and then ignored him. Attention from other
her own meal (Ayllon, 1963). Because her attempts to steal patients rapidly subsided. Sheepishly, he returned to his
food went unrewarded, they rapidly disappeared. room and dressed.
What operant principles did the therapist use in this
example? The therapist used nonreinforcement to produce Reinforcement and Token Economies
operant extinction. The most frequently occurring human
A distressing problem that therapists sometimes face is
behaviors lead to some form of reward. An undesirable re-
how to break through to severely disturbed patients who
sponse can be eliminated by identifying and removing the
won’t talk. Conventional psychotherapy offers little hope of
rewards that maintain it. But people don’t always do things
improvement for such patients.
for food, money, or other obvious rewards. Most of the re-
What can be done for them? One widely used approach
wards maintaining human behavior are subtler. Attention,
is based on tokens (symbolic rewards that can be exchanged
approval, and concern are common yet powerful reinforcers
for real rewards). Tokens may be printed slips of paper,
for humans (➤ Figure 67.3).
check marks, points, or gold stars. Whatever form they take,
tokens serve as rewards because they may be exchanged for
candy, food, cigarettes, recreation, or privileges, such as pri-
vate time with a therapist, outings, or watching TV. Tokens
are used in mental hospitals, halfway houses, schools for
the intellectually disabled, programs for delinquents, and
ordinary classrooms. They usually produce improvements
Number of occurances/day

(a) Faster extinction

in behavior (Maggin et al., 2011; Matson & Boisjoli, 2009).
(Tokens provide an effective way to change behavior be-
cause they are secondary reinforcers. See Module 30.)
By using tokens, positive responses can be immediately
rewarded. For maximum impact, therapists select specific
target behaviors (actions or other behaviors that the thera-
(b) Slower extinction pist seeks to modify). Target behaviors are then reinforced
with tokens. For example, a mute mental patient first might
be given a token each time he or she says a word. Next, the
tokens may be given for speaking a complete sentence. Later,
Days the patient could gradually be required to speak more of-
➤ Figure 67.3 ten, then to answer questions, and eventually to carry on
Extinction therapy. Children with developmental difficulties a short conversation in order to receive the tokens. In this
sometimes engage in self-harm, like head banging. Since such way, deeply withdrawn patients have been returned to the
behavior can be maintained by parental attention, it can be worth world of normal communication.
trying to extinguish such behavior by ignoring it (and instead
The full-scale use of tokens in an institutional setting
paying attention when the child is not engaged in self-harm). The
graph gives two hypothetical but realistic examples showing how produces a token economy. In a token economy, patients are
such behaviors can sometimes be extinguished in this way. rewarded with tokens for a wide range of socially desirable

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 MoDU lE 67 th e r Ap i es: B e hAvi o r th e r Ap i es 583

OXNARD DAY TREATMENT CENTER ➤ Figure 67.4

CREDIT INCENTIVE SYSTEM Token Economy. Shown here is a token
Credit Card
EARN CREDITS BY SPEND CREDITS FOR used in one token economy system. In
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 MONITOR DAILY 15 COFFEE 5 this instance, the token is a card that

2
MENU PLANNING CHAIRMAN 50 LUNCH 10 records the number of credits earned by
10 10 10 10 10 PARTICIPATE 5 EXCEPT THURSDAY 15
a patient. Also pictured is a list of credit

2
BUY FOOD AT STORE 10 BUS TRIP 5 values for various activities. Tokens may
5

5
Other Tasks COOK FOR/PREPARE LUNCH 5 BOWLING 8
be exchanged for items or for privileges

2
WIPE OFF KITCHEN TABLE 3 GROUP THERAPY 5
Spent:

Earned:

Date:

Name:
5

5
WASH DISHES 5–10 PRIVATE STAFF TIME 5
listed on the board. (After photographs by
DRY AND PUT AWAY DISHES 5 DAY OFF 5–20

2
MAKE COFFEE AND CLEAN URN 15 WINDOW SHOPPING 5 Robert P. Liberman.)
5

5
CLEAN REFRIGERATOR 20 REVIEW WITH DR. 10
ATTEND PLANNING CONFERENCE 1 DOING OWN THING 1
OT PREPARATION 1–5 LATE 1 PER EVERY 10 MIN
5

COMPLETE OT PROJECT 5 PRESCRIPTION FROM DR. 10

RETURN OT PROJECT 2
5

DUST AND POLISH TABLES 5

PUT AWAY GROCERIES 3
2
5

CLEAN TABLE 5
2

CLEAN 6 ASH TRAYS 2

CLEAN SINK 5
5

CARRY OUT CUPS & BOTTLES 5

2

Workshops CLEAN CHAIRS 5

5

CLEAN KITCHEN CUPBOARDS 5

ASSIST STAFF 5
2

10 10 10
ARRANGE MAGAZINES NEATLY 3
BEING ON TIME 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2

MONITOR-ANN

or productive activities (Spiegler & Guevremont, 2016), The use of tokens may seem manipulative, but it empowers
and they must pay tokens to receive privileges and when patients. Many “hopelessly” intellectually disabled, mentally
they engage in problem behaviors (➤ Figure 67.4). For ex- ill, and delinquent people have been returned to productive
ample, tokens are given to patients who dress themselves, lives by means of token economies (Boerke & Reitman, 2011).
take required medication, arrive for meals on time, and so By the time they are ready to leave, patients may be
on. Constructive activities, such as gardening, cooking, or earning tokens on a weekly basis for maintaining sane, re-
cleaning, also may earn tokens. Patients must exchange to- sponsible, and productive behavior (Miltenberger, 2016).
kens for meals and private rooms, movies, passes, off-ward Typically, the most effective token economies are those
activities, and other privileges. They are charged tokens for that gradually switch from tokens to social rewards such as
disrobing in public, talking to themselves, fighting, crying, praise, recognition, and approval. Such rewards are what pa-
and similar target behaviors (Morisse et al., 1996; Spiegler & tients will receive when they return to their family, friends,
Guevremont, 2016). and community.
Token economies can radically change a patient’s over-
all adjustment and morale. Patients are given an incentive Token economy Behavior modification in which desired behaviors
earn objects that can be exchanged for positive reinforcers.
to change, and they are held responsible for their actions.

MODULE

67 summary
67.1 What is behavior therapy? 67.1.3 In desensitization, a form of exposure therapy, grad-
67.1.1 Behavior therapists use the learning principles of ual adaptation and reciprocal inhibition break the
classical and operant conditioning to directly change link between fear and particular situations. Typical
human behavior. steps in desensitization are the following: Construct a
67.1.2 In aversion therapy, classical conditioning is used to fear hierarchy; learn to produce total relaxation; and
associate maladaptive behavior (such as smoking or perform items on the hierarchy (from least to most
drinking) with pain or other aversive events to inhibit disturbing).
undesirable responses.

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584 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

67.1.4 Desensitization may be carried out with real set- stimulus control, and time out, are used to extinguish
tings or it may be done by vividly imagining the fear undesirable responses and to promote constructive
hierarchy or by watching models perform the feared behavior.
responses. 67.2.2 Nonreward can extinguish troublesome behaviors.
67.1.5 In some cases, virtual reality exposure can be used to Often this is done by simply identifying and elimi-
present fear stimuli in a controlled manner. nating reinforcers, particularly attention and social
67.1.6 A new technique called eye movement desensitization approval.
and reprocessing (EMDR) shows promise as a treatment 67.2.3 To apply positive reinforcement and operant shaping,
for traumatic memories and stress disorders. At present, tokens are often used to reinforce selected target
however, EMDR is controversial. behaviors.
67.2.4 Full-scale use of tokens in an institutional setting
67.2 What role do operant principles play in
produces a token economy. Toward the end of a
behavior therapy?
token economy program, patients are shifted to social
67.2.1 Operant principles, such as positive reinforcement, rewards such as recognition and approval.
nonreinforcement, extinction, punishment, shaping,

Knowledge Builder Therapies: Behavior Therapies

Recite 6. Attention can be a powerful __________________ for

humans.
1. Shock or a nauseating drug play what role in conditioning
an aversion?
Reflect
a. conditioned stimulus
b. unconditioned response Think critically
c. unconditioned stimulus 7. A natural form of desensitization often takes place in
d. conditioned response hospitals. Can you guess what it is?
2. When desensitization is carried out through the use of self-Reflect
live or filmed models, it is called
Can you describe three problems for which you think behavior
a. cognitive therapy
therapy would be an appropriate treatment?
b. systematic desensitization
Have you ever become naturally desensitized to a stimulus
c. covert desensitization
or situation that at first made you anxious (for instance, heights,
d. vicarious desensitization
public speaking, or driving on freeways)? How would you
3. Systematic desensitization has three basic steps: construct-
explain your reduced fear?
ing a hierarchy, flooding the person with anxiety, and
See if you can give a personal example of how the following
imagining relaxation. T or F?
principles have affected your behavior: positive reinforcement,
4. In EMDR therapy, computer-generated virtual reality
extinction, punishment, shaping, stimulus control, and
images are used to expose clients to fear-provoking
time out.
stimuli. T or F?
5. Behavior modification programs aimed at extinction
of an undesirable behavior typically use what operant AN sW E R s
principles? their frequent exposure to them.
a. punishment and stimulus control and remain calm at the sight of blood and other bodily fluids because of

b. punishment and shaping

1. c 2. d 3. F 4. F 5. c 6. reinforcer 7. Doctors and nurses learn to relax

c. nonreinforcement and time-out

d. stimulus control and time-out

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Therapies MODULE

Medical Therapies 68
When Talk Won’t Do
Psychotherapy can be used to treat many mental disorders, but it
may not always be successful. How can you talk someone through
their illness if they are suffering a complete psychotic break from
reality? Besides, if the primary problem is due to, say, a biochemi-
cal imbalance in the brain, wouldn’t it be better to treat the imbal-
ance itself, perhaps with medication? For reasons like these, severe
mental disorders, such as schizophrenia or major depressive disor-
ders, are more often treated medically—although combinations of
medication and psychotherapy also are often helpful. With appro-
priate treatment, many seriously mentally ill individuals have gone
on to lead happy and productive lives.
The work of artist Rodger Casier illustrates the value of psychi-
atric care. Despite having a form of schizophrenia, Casier produced
Courtesy of Roger Casier

artwork, like his Self-Portrait shown here, that has received public
acclaim and has been featured in professional journals.

~SURVEY QUESTION~
68.1 How do psychiatrists treat psychological disorders?

Medical Therapies—Psychiatric Care

Survey Question 68.1 How do psychiatrists treat Drug Therapies
psychological disorders?
The atmosphere in psychiatric wards and mental hospitals
Three main types of somatic therapy, or physical body changed radically in the mid-1950s with the widespread adop-
therapy, are pharmacotherapy (drug therapies), brain stim- tion of pharmacotherapy (FAR-meh-koe-THER-eh-pea), the
ulation therapy, and psychosurgery. Somatic therapy is of-
ten done in the context of psychiatric hospitalization. All Somatic therapy Any bodily therapy, such as drug therapy, electro-
somatic approaches have a strong medical slant and are convulsive therapy, or psychosurgery.
Pharmacotherapy (FAR-meh-koe-THER-eh-pea) The use of drugs
typically administered by psychiatrists, who are trained as
to treat psychopathology.
medical doctors.

585
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586 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 68.1 some commonly Prescribed Psychiatric drugs

Examples
class (trade names) Effects Main Mode(s) of Action

Antipsychotics (major tran- Clozaril, Haldol, Mellaril, Reduce agitation, delusions, Reduce effects of dopamine;
quilizers) Fanapt, Risperdal, Thorazine hallucinations, thought lesser effects on norepineph-
disorders rine, serotonin, and
acetylcholine
Anti-anxiety medications Ativan, Klonopin, Librium, Reduce anxiety, tension, fear Enhance effects of gamma-
(anxiolytics or minor tran- Valium, Xanax aminobutyric acid (GABA)
quilizers)
Antidepressants Brintellix, Effexor, Elavil, Counteract depression, Enhance effects of serotonin,
Emsam, Nardil, Prozac, Some antidepressants also dopamine, norepinephrine, or
Zoloft, Tofranil, Wellbutrin counteract anxiety any combination
Mood stabilizers Lithobid (Lithium), Counteract bipolar disorder, Currently unclear
reduces suicidal tendencies
Stimulants Adderall, Concerta, Dex- Counteract attention deficit Enhance effects of norepi-
edrine, Ritalin, hyperactivity disorder, nephrine; lesser effects on
narcolepsy dopamine
Source: Adapted from Advokat, 2014; Prus, 2014.

use of drugs to treat psychopathology (Prus, 2014). Today, a improved the chances that people will recover from major
bewildering variety of drugs are used to combat a wide range psychological disorders. Drug therapy also has made it pos-
of problems from the discomforts of milder psychological dis- sible for many people to return to the community, where
orders to the disabling effects of the anxiety disorders, major they can be treated on an outpatient basis.
mood disorders, and even schizophrenia (Advokat, 2014).
What sort of drugs are used in pharmacotherapy? Five ma- Limitations of Drug Therapy Regardless of their ben-
jor types of drugs are used. (See ■ Table 68.1 for examples of efits, all drugs involve risks. For example, some major tran-
each class of drugs.) All achieve their effects by influencing the quilizers, when taken for long periods, can cause sexual side
activity of different brain neurotransmitters (Kalat, 2016): effects such as erectile dysfunction and loss of sexual desire
◗ Antipsychotic drugs (major tranquilizers), such as (Prus, 2014). Similarly, although the drug clozapine (Clo-
Risperdal, have tranquilizing effects and reduce halluci- zaril) can relieve the symptoms of schizophrenia, 2 out of
nations and delusions. 100 patients taking the drug suffer from a potentially fatal
◗ Anti-anxiety drugs (anxiolytics [ANG-zee-eh LIT-iks] blood disease (Mustafa, 2013).
or minor tranquillizers), such as Valium, produce relax- Is the risk worth it? Many experts think it is because
ation or reduce anxiety. chronic schizophrenia robs people of almost everything that
makes life worth living. It’s possible, of course, that newer
◗ Antidepressant drugs, such as Prozac, are mood-ele-
drugs will improve the risk/benefit ratio in the treatment of
vating drugs that combat depression.
severe problems like schizophrenia. For example, the drugs
◗ Mood stabilizers, such as Lithobid (lithium), are mood-
risperidone (Risperdal) and olanzapine (Zyprexa) appear
leveling drugs that level out the extreme mood swings of
to be as effective as clozapine, without the same degree of
bipolar disorder.
lethal risk.
◗ Stimulants, such as Ritalin, are arousing drugs that par-
An additional problem is that each of the specific drugs
adoxically calm attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
that make up each major category of pharmacotherapy has
Are drugs a valid approach to treatment? Definitely. different effects. For example, Prozac is an SSRI (selective
Drugs have shortened hospital stays, and they have greatly serotonin reuptake inhibitor) that improves the availability

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 MoDU lE 6 8 th e r AP i es: M e d i cAl th e r AP i es 587

of the neurotransmitter serotonin while Effexor is an SNRI

(serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor) that has
comparable effects on both serotonin and norepinephrine.
Unfortunately, there is no easy way to determine beforehand
which is the best specific drug, dosage, or combination of
drugs for any given patient. Prescription, therefore, often

Will McIntyre/Science Source

becomes a frustrating trial-and-error process.
Even the best new drugs are not cure-alls. They help
some people and relieve some problems, but not all. As noted
earlier, for many, if not most, mental disorders, a combina-
tion of medication and psychotherapy almost always works In ECT, electrodes are attached to the head and a brief electrical
better than drugs alone (Manber et al., 2008; Oestergaard current is passed through the brain. ECT is used in the treatment of
& Møldrup, 2011). Nevertheless, where schizophrenia and severe depression.
major mood disorders are concerned, drugs will undoubt-
edly remain the primary mode of treatment (Leucht et al.,
(Sienaert et al., 2010); (3) ECT should be used only after
2011; Vasa, Carlino, & Pine, 2006).
other treatments have failed; and (4) to lower the chance of
Brain stimulation Therapy a relapse, ECT should be followed by antidepressant drugs
(McCall et al., 2011). All told, ECT is considered by many
In contrast to drug therapies, brain stimulation therapies
to be a valid treatment for selected cases of depression
achieve their effects by altering the electrical activity of the
—especially when it rapidly ends wildly self-destructive
brain.
or suicidal behavior (Medda et al., 2009). It’s interesting to
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) Electroconvulsive note that most ECT patients feel that the treatment helped
therapy (ECT) is the first, and most dramatic, of the brain them. Most, in fact, would have it done again (Bernstein
stimulation therapies. Widely used since the 1940s, it remains et al., 1998; Smith et al., 2009).
controversial to this day (Case et al., 2013; Hirshbein & Sarva-
Deep Brain Stimulation Unlike ECT, deep brain stim-
nanda, 2008). Although ECT is mainly used to treat depres-
ulation (DBS) requires surgery to implant electrodes but
sion, it is still used to treat other disorders (Cusin et al., 2013;
allows for electrical stimulation of precisely targeted brain
Weiss, Allan, & Greenaway, 2012). In ECT, a 150-volt electrical
regions. In some studies, depressed patients who hadn’t ben-
current is applied to the brain for slightly less than a second.
efited from drug therapy and ECT improved when a specific
This rather drastic medical treatment for depression triggers a
brain region was stimulated (Johansson et al., 2013; Ken-
seizure and causes the patient to lose consciousness for a short
nedy et al., 2011; Schlaepfer et al., 2008). Also, unlike ECT,
time. Muscle relaxants and sedative drugs are given before
DBS can be used to treat disorders other than depression,
ECT to soften its impact. Treatments are given in a series of
sessions spread over several weeks or months.
How does shock help? It is the seizure activity—not the Antipsychotic drugs Medications that may alleviate hallucinations
and delusional thinking associated with mental disorders.
shock—that is believed to be helpful. Proponents of ECT
Anti-anxiety drugs (anxiolytics) (ANG-zee-eh LIT-ik) Medications
claim that shock-induced seizures alter or “reset” the bio- that produce relaxation or reduce anxiety.
chemical and hormonal balance in the brain and body, Antidepressant drugs Medications that combat depression by af-
bringing an end to severe depression and suicidal behavior fecting the levels or activity of neurotransmitters.
as well as improving long-term quality of life (McCall et al., Mood stabilizers Medications that combat bipolar disorder by level-
ing mood swings.
2006; Medda et al., 2009). Critics have charged that ECT
Stimulants (as psychiatric drugs) Medications used to calm atten-
works only by confusing patients so that they can’t remem- tion deficit hyperactivity disorder even though they arouse the
ber why they were depressed. nervous system.
Not all professionals support the use of ECT. However, Electroconvulsive therapy Treatment for severe depression in
most experts seem to agree on the following: (1) At best, which electrical current is applied to the brain, causing a seizure.
ECT produces only temporary improvement—it gets the Deep brain stimulation (DBS) Electrical stimulation of precisely
targeted brain regions; a surgical procedure is necessary to im-
patient out of a bad spot, but it must be combined with other plant electrodes in the brain that allow for the stimulation.
treatments; (2) ECT can cause memory loss in some patients

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588 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Coil
psychosurgery
Magnetic field Psychosurgery—any surgical alteration of the brain intend-
ed to treat a psychological disorder—is the most extreme
medical treatment. The oldest and most radical psycho-
surgery is the lobotomy. In prefrontal lobotomy, the frontal
lobes are surgically disconnected from other brain areas.
This procedure was supposed to calm persons who didn’t
Brain
Scalp respond to any other type of treatment.
Electric current When the lobotomy was first introduced in the 1940s,
there were enthusiastic claims for its success. But later stud-
ies suggested that some patients were calmed, some showed
no change, and some became mental “vegetables.” Loboto-
mies also produced a high rate of other undesirable side
effects, such as seizures, blunted emotions, major person-
ality changes, and stupor. About the same time that such
problems became apparent, the first antipsychotic drugs
became available. Soon after, the lobotomy was abandoned
➤ Figure 68.1 (Mashour, Walker, & Martuza, 2005).
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS). TMS uses a small coil To what extent is psychosurgery used now? Psycho-
held near the surface of the scalp to create magnetic pulses that surgery is still considered valid by many neurosurgeons.
induce electrical activity in the underlying brain tissue. The result
is a temporary blockage of normal brain activity. TMS can be used
However, most now use deep lesioning, in which small tar-
to study brain function and has already been applied as a medical get areas are destroyed in the brain’s interior. The appeal
therapy. of deep lesioning is that it can have value as a remedy for
some very specific disorders. For instance, patients suffer-
ing from a severe type of obsessive-compulsive disorder
may be helped by psychosurgery (Anderson & Booker,
such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (Haq et al., 2010).
2006; Greenspan et al., 2008). (Deep lesioning is another
(Electrical stimulation of the brain is one of several meth-
method used to study the brain. See Module 7.)
ods used to investigate the brain’s inner workings. For more
It is worth remembering that psychosurgery cannot be re-
information, see Module 7.)
versed. Whereas a drug can be given or taken away and electri-
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Neuroscience cal stimulation can be turned off, you can’t take back psycho-
research continues to probe the functioning of the brain surgery. Critics argue that psychosurgery should be banned
and its various parts in ever-greater detail. As a result, altogether; others continue to report success with brain sur-
more precisely targeted medical therapies with fewer side gery. Nevertheless, it may have value as a remedy for some
effects continue to be discovered (Aleman, 2013; Barr et very specific and severe disorders (Sachdev & Chen, 2009).
al., 2013). For example, a promising new technique called
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) uses magnetic hospitalization
pulses to temporarily block activity in specific parts of the In 2008, about 7.5 percent of all Americans received inpa-
brain (➤ Figure 68.1). tient treatment for a mental health problem (National In-
By applying TMS to parts of the frontal lobe, Paulo Bog- stitute of Mental Health, 2016a). Mental hospitalization
gio and his colleagues (2010) were able to change the way involves placing a person in a protected setting where medical
that people made decisions while gambling. It is not a long therapy is provided. Hospitalization by itself can be a form of
stretch to imagine that this technique might become a power- treatment. Staying in a hospital takes patients out of situations
ful adjunct therapy to cognitive therapy to treat compulsive that may be sustaining their problems. For example, people
gambling (Ladouceur, Lachance, & Fournier, 2009). Similarly, with drug addictions may find it nearly impossible to resist the
patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder have shown temptations for drug abuse in their daily lives. Hospitalization
marked improvement when TMS disrupted brain areas can help them make a clean break from their self-destructive
involved in compulsive behavior (Mantovani et al., 2010). behavior patterns (André et al., 2003).

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 MoDU lE 6 8 th e r AP i es: M e d i cAl th e r AP i es 589

At their best, hospitals are sanctuaries that provide diag- Many former patients have joined the ranks of the homeless.
nosis, support, refuge, and therapy. This is frequently true of Others are repeatedly jailed for minor crimes. Sadly, patients
psychiatric units in general hospitals and private psychiatric who trade hospitalization for unemployment, homelessness,
hospitals. At its worst, confinement to an institution can be a and social isolation all too often end up rehospitalized, in jail,
brutal experience that leaves people less prepared to face the or even as suicides (Markowitz, 2011; Yoon & Bruckner, 2009).
world than when they arrived. This is more often the case Large mental hospitals may no longer be warehouses for
in large state mental hospitals. In most instances, hospitals society’s unwanted, but many former patients are no better off
are best used as a last resort, after other forms of treatment in bleak nursing homes, single-room hotels, board-and-care
within the community have been exhausted (Trull & Prin- homes, shelters, or jails. For every mentally ill American in a
stein, 2013). hospital, three are trapped in the criminal justice system (Na-
Another trend in treatment is partial hospitalization tional Institute of Mental Health, 2010). These figures sug-
(Bales & Bateman, 2012). In this approach, some patients gest that jails are replacing mental hospitals as our society’s
spend their days in the hospital but go home at night. Others “solution” for mental illness (Markowitz, 2011). Yet, ironical-
attend therapy sessions during the evening. A major advan- ly, high-quality care is available in almost every community.
tage of partial hospitalization is that patients can go home and As much as anything, a simple lack of money prevents large
practice what they’ve been learning. Overall, partial hospital- numbers of people from getting the help they need.
ization can be just as effective as full hospitalization (Drymal- Halfway houses may be a better way to ease a patient’s
ski & Washburn, 2011; Kiser, Heston, & Paavola, 2006). return to the community (Soyez & Broekaert, 2003). A
Halfway house is a short-term group living facility for peo-
Deinstitutionalization In the last 60 years, the popula-
ple making the transition from an institution (mental hos-
tion in large mental hospitals has dropped by two-thirds. This
pital, prison, and so forth) to independent living. Typically,
is largely a result of deinstitutionalization, or reduced use
halfway houses offer supervision and support, without be-
of full-time commitment to mental institutions. Long-term
ing as restricted and medically oriented as hospitals. They
“institutionalization” can lead to dependency, isolation, and
also keep people near their families. Most important, half-
continued emotional disturbance (Novella, 2010). Deinsti-
way houses can ease a person’s return to “normal” life and
tutionalization was meant to remedy this problem.
reduce chances of being readmitted to a hospital (Davidson
How successful has deinstitutionalization been? In truth,
et al., 2010).
its success has been limited (Paulson, 2012). Many states re-
duced mental hospital populations primarily to save money. community Mental health programs
The upsetting result is that many chronic patients have been
Community mental health centers, which offer a wide
discharged to hostile communities without adequate care.
range of mental health services and psychiatric care, are a

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) A device that uses

magnetic pulses to temporarily block activity in specific parts of
the brain.
Psychosurgery Any surgical alteration of the brain designed to
bring about desirable behavioral or emotional changes.
Mental hospitalization Placing a person in a protected, therapeutic
Eric Audras/ONOKY/Getty Images

environment staffed by mental health professionals.

Deinstitutionalization The reduced use of full-time commitment to
mental institutions to treat mental disorders.
Halfway house A community-based facility for individuals making
the transition from an institution (mental hospital, prison, and so
forth) to independent living.
Community mental health center A facility offering a wide range
Depending on the quality of the institution, hospitalization may be a of mental health services, such as prevention, counseling, consul-
refuge or a brutalizing experience. Many state “asylums” or mental tation, and crisis intervention.
hospitals are antiquated and in need of drastic improvement.

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590 p sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

centers attempt to raise the general level of mental health

in a community by combating unemployment, delinquency,
and drug abuse (Mancini & Wyrick-Waugh, 2013).
Have community mental health centers succeeded in meet-
ing their goals? In practice, they have concentrated much more
on providing clinical services than they have on preventing

Tony Kurdzuk/Star Ledger/Corbis News/Corbis

problems. This appears to be primarily the result of waver-
ing government support (translation: money). Overall, com-
munity mental health centers have succeeded in making psy-
chological services more accessible than ever. Many of their
programs rely on paraprofessionals, individuals who work
in a near-professional capacity under the supervision of more
highly trained staff. Some paraprofessionals are ex-addicts, ex-
A well-run halfway house can be a humane and cost-effective way alcoholics, or ex-patients who have “been there.” Many more
to ease former mental patients back into the community. are persons (paid or volunteer) who have skills in tutoring,
crafts, or counseling or who are simply warm, understand-
bright spot in the area of mental health care (Kloos et al., ing, and skilled at communication. Often, paraprofessionals
2012). Such centers try to help people avoid hospitalization, are more approachable than doctors. This encourages people
find answers to mental health problems, and improve mental to seek mental health services that they might otherwise be
health literacy (Jorm, 2012; Mark et al., 2013). Typically, reluctant to use (Farrand et al., 2009).
they do this by providing short-term treatment, counseling,
outpatient care, emergency services, and suicide prevention.
Mental health centers also are concerned with pre- Crisis intervention The skilled management of a psychological
emergency.
vention. Consultation, education, and crisis intervention
Paraprofessional An individual who works in a near-professional
(skilled management of a psychological emergency) are used capacity under the supervision of a more highly trained person.
to prevent problems before they become serious. Also, some

MODULE

68 summary
68.1 how do psychiatrists treat psychological 68.1.2 Hospitalization, including partial hospitalization,
disorders? involves placing a person in a protected setting where
68.1.1 Three medical, or somatic, approaches to treatment medical therapy is provided.
are pharmacotherapy, brain stimulation therapy 68.1.3 Community mental health centers seek to avoid or
(including electroconvulsive therapy [ECT]), and minimize mental hospitalization. They also seek to
psychosurgery. prevent mental health problems through education,
consultation, and crisis intervention.

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 MoDU lE 6 8 th e r AP i es: M e d i cAl th e r AP i es 591

Knowledge Builder Therapies: Medical Therapies

Recite you think that the use of certain psychiatric treatments

should be controlled by law?
1. Major tranquilizers also are known as
a. anxiolytics self-Reflect
b. antipsychotics Keeping in mind that all therapies, and especially medical
c. antidepressants therapies, have side effects (see, e.g., Casselle, 2009), when is it
d. prefrontal sedatives appropriate to use a medical therapy to treat someone with a
2. ECT is a modern form of pharmacotherapy. T or F? mental illness? Why not use psychotherapy instead?
3. Currently, the frontal lobotomy is the most widely used Why might you choose to combine medical therapy and
form of psychosurgery. T or F? psychotherapy methods? Can you frame your reasons in terms
4. Deinstitutionalization is an advanced form of partial of the stress–vulnerability model introduced in Module 60?
hospitalization. T or F?

Reflect AN sW E R s
ing medical decisions.
Think critically strongly object to residents, city councils, or government agencies mak-
5. Residents of Berkeley, California, once voted on a ref- surgery, and administer ECT is controlled by law. However, psychiatrists
erendum to ban the use of ECT within city limits. Do 1. b 2. F 3. F 4. F 5. The question of who can prescribe drugs, perform

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MODULE
Therapy Skills in Action
69 Managing Mental Health Problems

Shhhh, Captain America

Consider this list: Angelina Jolie Pitt, Owen Wilson, Adele, Daniel Rad-
cliffe, Eminem, Robert Downey Jr., and Ellen DeGeneres. What do all of
these people have in common? If you said that it’s a list of famous people
who have been praised for their acting and music, you’d only be partly
correct. It’s also a list of A-list celebrities who have talked openly about
their struggles with mental health issues, including depression, anxiety,
eating disorders, and addictions. Many of them have also been upfront
about the treatments that have helped them to deal with those difficult is-
sues. Some, like singer Ellie Goulding, have opted for medication. Others,
like Ke$ha, have sought counseling. And even Captain America—actor
Chris Evans—has reported that he uses a form of “thought stopping,”
silently saying “Shhhh” to himself when things get overwhelming.
Experiencing mental health problems creates significant
challenges for people, but what’s often overlooked is that getting help
Photos 12/Alamy Stock Photo

for these problems can be equally difficult. What are some of the
options that you can try on your own? And if professional help is
needed, where can you go? If you need some help to help yourself –
or others that you know – read on!

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
69.1 How are mental health treatments related to the study 69.2 How can I help myself and others face mental health
of psychology? issues?

Studying Therapies—Treatments that Work

Survey Question 69.1 How are mental health treatments
problems (Giletta et al., 2015), as well as factors that promote
related to the study of psychology?
resilience, and help to buffer people against such problems
As you can likely imagine, psychologists study the therapies (Ehret, Joormann, & Berking, 2015).
used to treat diagnosable psychological disorders, as well as Research has also been carried out to examine
milder mental health issues. Some research has addressed whether particular treatments are effective. In some
the risk factors that predispose individuals to mental health cases, treatments have been designated by the American

592
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 MODU LE 6 9 Th e r apy S k i llS i n acTi o n: Manag i n g M e nTal h ealTh p r o b le M S 593

Psychological Association as empirically supported, mean- Of course, whether treatments are successful or not de-
ing that there is a body of research that consistently pends on factors such as therapist characteristics (Holdsworth,
supports their effectiveness in dealing with a specific form Brown, Bowen, & Howat, 2014), client characteristics (Wilt-
of psychopathology (American Psychological Association, ink et al., 2016), and the therapist-client relationship (some-
2006; Tolin et al., 2015). More recently, though, psycholo- times called the therapeutic alliance; Bartle-Haring et al.,
gists have turned their attention in the opposite direc- 2016). Based on their findings, researchers have increasingly
tion, examining potentially harmful treatments, or those noted the importance of tailoring treatments to individuals,
that are likely to cause deterioration in a large number of leading to new research on the effectiveness of personalized
people (Lilienfeld, 2007). treatments (Schneider, Arch, & Walitzky-Taylor, 2015).

Admitting Weakness—Can’t Complain

Survey Question 69.2 How can I help myself and others experiencing any mental health problems, perhaps you have
face mental health issues? a friend who is. If someone close to you asks to talk about
We all want to be healthy, strong, and self-reliant. And his or her troubles, it helps to be prepared. Several general
we often have other people in our lives—children, family, helping skills can be distilled from the various approaches
friends, or colleagues—who depend on us. Not wanting to to therapy. Keep these points in mind if you are ever called
let anyone down, if we are asked, “How are you?” we are on to comfort a person in distress, such as a troubled friend
prone to respond, “Can’t complain.” or relative (Kottler & Shepard, 2015; Neukrug, 2014; Sharf,
Admitting you have a problem can be incredibly dif- 2016) (■ Table 69.1).
ficult, but some of the most important skills that we can Be an Active Listener People frequently talk “at” each
possess are a self-awareness of our own mental health and, other without really listening. A person with problems
additionally, a willingness to ask for help when we need it. needs to be heard. Make a sincere effort to listen to and
Sometimes all we need is a caring individual to help us work understand the person. Try to accept the person’s message
through a problem. Other times we may need more profes- without judging it or leaping to conclusions. Let the person
sional help. Mental health issues are common in the United
States. Chances are good that at some point you, a friend, or
a family member will benefit from mental health services Table 69.1 helping behaviors
of one kind or another. About 13 percent of all Americans
received treatment for a mental health problem every year To help another person gain insight into a personal problem, it
(National Institute of Mental Health, 2016a). is valuable to keep the following comparisons in mind:
By the way, we are not counseling you to run for help at Behaviors That Help Behaviors That Hinder
the least sign of trouble. By all means, be strong and deal with
Active listening Probing painful topics
the issue yourself if you feel that you can (Martin & Pear, 2011;
Watson & Tharp, 2014). For example, in Module 31, we shared Acceptance Judging/moralizing
some behavioral self-management skills that can be helpful Reflecting feelings Criticism
with a variety of mental health issues. Further, many of the
therapeutic techniques described in Modules 66 and 67 can be Open-ended questioning Threats
adapted for self-management. Thought stopping (yo, Captain Supportive statements Rejection
America!) and desensitization are two good examples.
Respect Ridicule/sarcasm
Talking About Problems: Basic Patience Impatience
Counseling Skills Genuineness Placing blame
If you decide to ask someone else for advice, be on the look-
Paraphrasing Opinionated statements
out for their ability to use basic counseling skills when talk-
ing with you. Alternately, while you may not currently be Source: Adapted from Kottler & Shepard, 2015.

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594 P SyCHOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r acTive lear n i n g

know you are listening, through eye contact, posture, your that he studies very little. If you say, “Just study more and you
tone of voice, and your replies (Kottler & Shepard, 2015). will do better,” he will probably become defensive or hostile.
Much more can be accomplished by saying, “You must feel
Reflect Thoughts and Feelings One of the best things
very frustrated” or simply, “How do you feel about it?”
that you can do when offering support to another person is
to give feedback by simply restating what is said. This also Avoid Giving Advice Many people mistakenly think that
is a good way to encourage a person to talk. If your friend they must solve problems for others. Remember that your
seems to be at a loss for words, restate or paraphrase his or goal is to provide understanding and support, not solutions.
her last sentence. Here’s an example: Of course, it is reasonable to give advice when you are asked
Friend: I’m really down about school. I can’t get interested in for it, but beware of the trap of the “Why don’t you . . . ?
any of my classes. I flunked my Spanish test, and somebody Yes, but . . .” game. According to psychotherapist Eric Berne
stole my notebook for psychology. (1964), this “game” follows a pattern: Someone says, “I have
You: So you’re really upset about school? this problem.” You say, “Why don’t you do this?” The person
Friend: Yeah, and my parents are hassling me about my replies, “Yes, but . . .” and then tells you why your suggestion
grades again. won’t work. If you make a new suggestion, the reply once
You: You’re feeling pressured by your parents? again will be, “Yes, but. . . . ” Obviously, the person either
Friend: Yeah. knows more about his or her personal situation than you
do, or he or she has reasons for avoiding your advice. The
As simple as this sounds, it is very helpful to someone trying student described earlier knows that he needs to study. His
to sort out feelings. Try it. If nothing else, you’ll develop a problem is to understand why he doesn’t want to study.
reputation as a fantastic conversationalist!
Accept the Person’s Frame of Reference Because
Don’t Be Afraid of Silence Counselors tend to wait lon- we all live in different psychological worlds, there is no “cor-
ger before responding than do people in everyday conver- rect” view of a life situation. Try to resist imposing your
sations. Pauses of 5 seconds or more are not unusual, and views on the problems of others. A person who feels that his
interrupting is rare. Listening patiently lets the person feel or her viewpoint has been understood feels freer to examine
unhurried and encourages her or him to speak freely. it objectively and to question it.
Ask Open-Ended Questions Because your goal is to Maintain Confidentiality Your efforts to help will be wast-
encourage free expression, open-ended questions tend to be ed if you fail to respect the privacy of someone who has con-
the most helpful. A closed question is one that can be an- fided in you. Put yourself in the person’s place. Don’t gossip.
swered yes or no. Open-ended questions call for an open- The points just made help define the qualities of a help-
ended reply. Say, for example, that a friend tells you, “I feel ing relationship. They also emphasize that each of us can sup-
like my boss has it in for me at work.” A closed question ply two of the greatest mental health resources available at any
would be, “Oh, yeah? So, are you going to quit?” Open- cost: friendship and honest communication. However, in clos-
ended questions such as, “Do you want to talk about it?” ing, it is important to remember that only a licensed profes-
or “How do you feel about it?” are more likely to be helpful. sional possesses the full set of skills necessary to counsel more
serious mental health issues. The instant you realize that your
Clarify Problems People who have a clear idea of what is
problem is beyond your friend’s ability to properly address, or
wrong in their lives are more likely to discover solutions. Try
that your friend’s problem is beyond your ability to address,
to understand the problem from the person’s point of view.
look for, or help your friend, find a more qualified counselor.
As you do, check your understanding often. For example,
Seeking more professional counseling is not a sign of failure
you might ask, “Are you saying that you feel depressed just at
for either you or your friend; it is a testimony to your own wis-
school? Or in general?” Remember, a problem well defined
dom. Although your textbook authors are psychologists, we
is often half solved.
are not licensed counselors and quite frequently refer students
Focus on Feelings Feelings are neither right nor wrong. to our college counseling centers.
By focusing on feelings, you can encourage the outpouring
of emotion that is the basis for catharsis. Passing judgment Getting Counseling
on what is said just makes people defensive. For example, a In some cases, mental health challenges are best managed
friend confides that he has failed a test. Perhaps you know with the support of a professional. In this section, we review

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 MODU LE 6 9 Th e r apy S k i llS i n acTi o n: Manag i n g M e nTal h ealTh p r o b le M S 595

some basic information about things to consider should you 6. The Yellow Pages. Psychologists are listed in the tele-
decide to seek counseling for yourself. phone book or on the Internet under “Psychologists,” or
in some cases under “Counseling Services.” Psychiatrists
Seeking Professional Help—When, Where, and
are generally listed as a subheading under “Physicians.”
How? How would I know if I should seek professional help at
Counselors are usually found under the heading “Marriage
some point in my life? Although this question has no simple
and Family Counselors.” These listings will usually put
answer, the following guidelines may be helpful:
you in touch with individuals in private practice.
1. If your level of psychological discomfort (unhappiness, 7. Crisis hotlines. A typical crisis hotline is a phone ser-
anxiety, or depression, for example) is comparable to a vice staffed by volunteers. These people are trained to
level of physical discomfort that would cause you to see provide information concerning a wide range of mental
a doctor or dentist, you should consider seeing a psy- health problems. They also have lists of organizations,
chologist or a psychiatrist. services, and other resources in the community where
2. Another signal to watch for is significant changes in you can go for help.
behavior, such as the quality of your work (or school-
Table 69.2 summarizes the sources for psychotherapy,
■
work), your rate of absenteeism, your use of drugs
counseling, and referrals we have discussed as well as some
(including alcohol), or your relationships with others.
additional possibilities.
3. Perhaps you have urged a friend or relative to seek pro-
fessional help and were dismayed because he or she Options How would I know what kind of a therapist to see?
refused to do so. If you find friends or relatives making How would I pick one? The choice between a psychiatrist and
a similar suggestion, recognize that they may be seeing a psychologist is somewhat arbitrary. Both are trained to do
things more clearly than you are. psychotherapy and can be equally effective as therapists.
4. If you have persistent or disturbing suicidal thoughts Although a psychiatrist can administer somatic therapy
or impulses, seek help immediately. and prescribe drugs, so can psychologists in New Mexico,
Louisiana, and Illinois along with psychologists in the U.S.
Locating a Therapist If I wanted to talk to a therapist, military (Munsey, 2006). A psychologist also can work in
how would I find one? Here are some suggestions that can conjunction with a physician if such services are needed.
help you get started:
1. Your family physician. Your family physician, if you
have one, often will be able to help you find the help you Table 69.2 Mental health resources
are seeking.
2. Colleges and universities. If you are a student, don’t ◗ Family doctors (for referrals to mental health professionals)
overlook counseling services offered by a student health ◗ Mental health specialists, such as psychiatrists, psycholo-
center or special student counseling facilities. gists, social workers, and mental health counselors
3. Workplaces. If you have a job, check with your
◗ Religious leaders/counselors
employer. Some employers have employee assistance
programs that offer confidential free or low-cost ther- ◗ Health maintenance organizations (HMOs)
apy for employees. ◗ Community mental health centers
4. Community or county mental health centers. Most
◗ Hospital psychiatry departments and outpatient clinics
counties and many cities offer public mental health
services. (These are listed in the phone book or can be ◗ University- or medical school-affiliated programs
found by searching the Internet.) Public mental health ◗ State hospital outpatient clinics
centers usually provide counseling and therapy services
◗ Family service/social agencies
directly, and they can refer you to private therapists.
5. Mental health associations. Many cities have mental ◗ Private clinics and facilities
health associations organized by concerned citizens. ◗ Employee assistance programs
Groups such as these usually keep listings of quali-
◗ Local medical, psychiatric, or psychological societies
fied therapists and other services and programs in the
community. Source: National Institute of Mental Health, 2016b.

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596 P SyCHOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r acTive lear n i n g

Fees for psychiatrists are usually higher, averaging about The question of how to pick a particular therapist
$160 to $200 an hour. Psychologists average about $100 an remains. The best way is to start with a short consultation
hour. Counselors and social workers typically charge about with a respected psychiatrist, psychologist, or counselor.
$80 per hour. Group therapy averages only about $40 an This allows the person that you consult to evaluate your dif-
hour because the therapist’s fee is divided among several ficulty and recommend a type of therapy, or a therapist who
people. is likely to be helpful. As an alternative, you might ask the
Be aware that most health insurance plans will pay for person teaching this course for a referral.
psychological services. If fees are a problem, keep in mind
Evaluating a Therapist How would I know a therapist
that many therapists charge on a sliding scale, or ability-
is being effective? A balanced look at psychotherapies sug-
to-pay basis, and that community mental health centers almost
gests that all techniques can be equally successful. However,
always charge on that basis as well. In one way or another, help
all therapists are not equally successful (Elliott & Williams,
is almost always available for anyone who needs it.
2003). Former clients consistently rate the person doing the
Some communities and college campuses have coun-
therapy as more important than the type of therapy used
seling services staffed by sympathetic paraprofessionals or
(Elliott & Williams, 2003).
peer counselors. These services are free or very low-cost.
Ask yourself if you feel you are establishing a therapeu-
As mentioned previously, paraprofessionals are people who
tic alliance with your therapist. A therapist who is working
work in a near-professional capacity under professional
with you is usually willing to use whatever method seems
supervision. Peer counselors are nonprofessional persons
most helpful for a client. He or she also can be evaluated
who have learned basic counseling skills. There is a natural
on personal characteristics of warmth, integrity, sincerity,
tendency, perhaps, to doubt the abilities of paraprofession-
and empathy (Okiishi et al., 2003; Prochaska & Norcross,
als. However, paraprofessional counselors are often as effec-
2014). The relationship between a client and therapist is the
tive as professionals (Farrand et al., 2009).
therapist’s most basic tool (Hubble, Duncan, & Miller, 1999;
Also, don’t overlook self-help groups, which can add
Prochaska & Norcross, 2014). This is why you must trust
valuable support to professional treatment. Members of a
and easily relate to a therapist for therapy to be effective.
self-help group typically share a particular type of problem,
Here are some danger signals to watch for in psychotherapy:
such as eating disorders, alcoholism, or coping with an al-
coholic parent. Self-help groups offer members mutual sup- ◗ Sexual advances by a therapist
port and a chance to discuss problems. In many instances, ◗ A therapist who makes repeated verbal threats or is
helping others also serves as therapy for those who give help. physically aggressive
For some problems, self-help groups may be the best choice ◗ A therapist who is excessively blaming, belittling, hos-
of all (Dadich, 2010; Galanter et al., 2005). tile, or controlling
Qualifications You can usually find out about a therapist’s ◗ A therapist who makes excessive small talk; talks repeat-
qualifications simply by asking. A reputable therapist will be edly about his or her own problems
glad to reveal his or her background. If you have any doubts, ◗ A therapist who encourages prolonged dependence on
credentials may be checked and other helpful information him or her
can be obtained from local branches of any of the following ◗ A therapist who demands absolute trust or tells the cli-
organizations. You also can browse the websites listed here: ent not to discuss therapy with anyone else
American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy An especially important part of the therapeutic alliance
(www.aamft.org) is agreement about the goals of therapy (Bartle-Haring
American Family Therapy Academy (www.afta.org) et al., 2016). It is therefore a good idea to think about what
American Psychiatric Association (www.psych.org) you want to accomplish by entering therapy. Write down
American Psychological Association (www.apa.org) your goals and discuss them with your therapist during the
Association of Humanistic Psychology (www.ahpweb first session. Your first meeting with a therapist should also
.org) answer all of the following questions:
Canadian Psychiatric Association (www.cpa-apc.org) ◗ Will the information I reveal in therapy remain com-
Canadian Psychological Association (www.cpa.ca) pletely confidential?
National Mental Health Association (www.nmha.org) ◗ What risks do I face if I begin therapy?

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 MODU LE 6 9 Th e r apy S k i llS i n acTi o n: Manag i n g M e nTal h ealTh p r o b le M S 597

◗ How long do you expect treatment to last? in the therapist or if you don’t relate well to the therapist
◗ What form of treatment do you expect to use? as a person.
◗ Are there alternatives to therapy that might help me
as much or more?
It’s always tempting to avoid facing personal problems. Peer counselor A nonprofessional person who has learned basic
counseling skills.
With this in mind, you should give a therapist a fair chance
Self-help group A group of people who share a particular type of
and not give up too easily. But don’t hesitate to change problem and provide mutual support to one another.
therapists or to terminate therapy if you lose confidence

MODULE

69 Summary
69.1 How are mental health treatments related to 69.2 How can I help myself and others face
the study of psychology? mental health issues?
69.1.1 Psychologists study a number of topics related to 69.2.1 All of the following are helping skills that can be
the treatment of psychological disorders and mental learned: active listening, acceptance, reflection,
health issues. open-ended questioning, support, respect, patience,
69.1.2 Some of the key variables that influence the severity of genuineness, and paraphrasing.
symptoms and the likelihood of successful treatment are: 69.2.2 Practical considerations such as cost and qualifi-
risk and resilience factors, therapist and client character- cations enter into choosing a therapist. However,
istics, and the extent to which there is a positive relation- the therapist’s personal characteristics are of equal
ship between therapist and client (therapeutic alliance). importance.
69.1.3 Treatments that have significant research that sup-
ports their effectiveness are referred to as empirically
supported treatments.

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598 P SyCHOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r acTive lear n i n g

Knowledge Builder Therapy Skills in Action: Managing Mental Health Problems

Recite Self-Reflect
1. Listening to people talk about their problems is more Review Modules 31 and 67. How could you use covert sensitiza-
helpful than offering them your advice. T or F? tion, thought stopping, and covert reinforcement to change your
2. Instead of judging people who ask you for help, it is behavior? Just for practice, make a fear hierarchy for a situation
better to that you find frightening. Does vividly picturing items in the
a. accept their frame of reference hierarchy make you tense or anxious? If so, can you intentionally
b. tell them what to do relax using the tension-release method?
c. tell them about your problems Which of the basic counseling skills would improve your
d. avoid focusing on feelings ability to help a person in distress (or even just have an engag-
3. Persistent emotional discomfort is a clear sign that pro- ing conversation)?
fessional psychological counseling should be sought. Take some time to find out what mental health services
T or F? are available to you.
4. Community mental health centers rarely offer counsel-
ing or therapy themselves; they only do referrals. AN SW E R S
T or F? a client to sever a relationship borders on unethical behavior.
5. In many instances, a therapist’s personal qualities have
feelings about significant persons in their lives. However, actively urging
selves. Therapists can help clients evaluate important decisions and
more of an effect on the outcome of therapy than the type 1. T 2. a 3. T 4. F 5. T 6. Such decisions must be made by clients them-
of therapy used. T or F?

Reflect
Think Critically
6. Would it be acceptable for a therapist to urge a client to
break all ties with a troublesome family member?

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Social Psychology MODULE

Social Behavior and Cognition 70

Imagine
On November 13, 2015, a series of coordinated mass shootings
and suicide bombings killed 130 people and wounded 368 in
Paris, France. Why did a terrorist cell decide to carry out such
a despicably antisocial act? Why, just two days later, did pianist
Davide Martello drive through the night to play John Lennon’s
“Imagine” for mourners paying their respects in front of the
Bataclan theater, the site of the greatest carnage? Questions
like these, about human behavior, can often be better answered
by taking the perspective of social psychology.
As the poet John Donne wrote nearly 400 years ago, “No
man is an island, entire of itself.” Families, teams, crowds,
tribes, companies, parties, troops, bands, sects, gangs, crews,
LOIC VENANCE/AFP/Getty Images

clans, communities, and nations: We are all entwined in many

social networks. In the next few modules, we begin to look at
some ways social situations affect all of us. We hope you will
find the topics interesting and thought provoking.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
70.1 How do social situations affect our behavior? 70.3 How are attitudes acquired and changed?
70.2 How do social situations affect how we think about 70.4 Under what conditions is persuasion most effective,
ourselves and others? and what is cognitive dissonance?

Humans in a Social Context—Mind Your Manners

Survey Question 70.1 How do social situations affect our that is passed from one generation to the next. To appreci-
behavior? ate the impact of society and culture, think about how you
Social psychology is the study of how individuals think and have been affected by language, marriage customs, concepts
behave in social situations—that is, in the presence, actual of ownership, and sex roles (Matsumoto & Juang, 2017).
or implied, of others. Every day, there is a fascinating in-
terplay between our own behavior and that of the people Social psychology Study of how individuals think and behave in
around us. We are born into organized societies. Established social situations.
values, expectations, and behavior patterns are present Culture An ongoing pattern of life, characterizing a society at a
given point in history.
when we arrive. So, too, is culture, an ongoing pattern of life

599
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600 P SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Social Roles cohesiveness (Forsyth, 2014). Group structure consists of

the network of roles, communication pathways, and power
We all belong to many overlapping social groups, and in
in a group. Organized groups such as an army or an athletic
each, we occupy a position in the structure of the group. A
team have a high degree of structure. Informal friendship
social role is a pattern of behavior expected of a person in
groups may or may not be very structured.
a social position (Baumeister & Bushman, 2017). For in-
Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of attraction
stance, playing the role of mother, boss, or student involves
among group members or the strength of their desire to
different sets of behaviors and expectations. Some roles are
remain in the group. Members of cohesive groups literally
ascribed (they are assigned to a person or are not under
stick together: They tend to stand or sit close together, they
personal control): male or female, son, adolescent, inmate.
pay more attention to one another, and they show more
Achieved roles are voluntarily attained by special effort:
signs of mutual affection. Also, their behavior tends to be
spouse, teacher, scientist, bandleader, criminal.
closely coordinated (Lin & Peng, 2010). Cohesiveness is
What effect does roleplaying have on behavior? Roles
the basis for much of the power that groups exert over us.
streamline daily interactions by allowing us to anticipate
Therapy groups, businesses, sports teams, and the like seek
what others will do. When a person is acting as a doctor,
to increase cohesion because it helps people work together
mother, clerk, or police officer, we expect certain behaviors.
better (Boyd et al., 2014; Casey-Campbell & Martens, 2009).
Many people also experience role conflicts, in which two
or more roles make conflicting demands on them (Gordon In-Groups Cohesiveness is particularly strong for in-
et al., 2012; Memili et al., 2015). Consider, for example, a teach- groups—groups with which a person mainly identifies.
er who must flunk a close friend’s son, a mother who has a de- Very likely, your own in-groups are defined by a combina-
manding full-time job, or a soccer coach whose daughter is on tion of prominent social dimensions, such as nationality,
the team but isn’t a very good athlete. Likewise, the clashing ethnicity, age, education, religion, income, political values,
demands of work, family, and school create role conflicts for
many students (Senécal, Julien, & Guay, 2003). Role conflicts at
work (such as being a good team player versus being a strong
manager) can lead to job burnout and negative health outcomes
(Pomaki, Supeli, & Verhoeven, 2007; Schmidt et al., 2014).

Group Structure, Cohesion, and Norms

Are there other dimensions of group membership? Two im-
portant dimensions of any group are its structure and its
Kablonk! RM/Golden Pixels LLC/Alamy Stock Photo

© djgis/Shutterstock.com

Wrapped in ever-expanding social networks, we are never far from

other people. They are always right beside us, just around the next
corner, or only a phone call or text message away. Nevertheless,
a little solitude can be healthy. In fact, many of history’s most
Ascribed roles have a powerful impact on social behavior. What creative and spiritual individuals have found insight in their solitude
kinds of behavior do you expect from your teachers or your (Flowers, 2011; Storr, 1988). Quiet time for reflection does seem to
coaches? What behaviors do they expect from you? What happens be associated with creativity, spiritual growth, problem solving, and
if either of you fails to match the other’s expectations? self-discovery (Knafo, 2012; Long et al., 2003).

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 MoDU lE 70 s o c iAl Psyc h o lo gy: s o c iAl B e hAvi o r An d c o g n iti o n 601

gender, sexual orientation, and so forth. In-group member- 50

ship helps define who we are socially. Predictably, we tend to

Percentage of persons who littered

attribute positive characteristics to our in-group and nega- 40
tive qualities to out-groups—groups with which we do not
identify. We also tend to exaggerate differences between
30
members of out-groups and our own groups. This sort of
“us-and-them” thinking seems to be a basic fact of social
life. It also sets the stage for conflict between groups and 20

for racial and ethnic prejudice, which can find expression in

violence such as the Paris attacks—topics we will explore in 10
Module 73.

Social Status and Social Power In addition to defin- 1 2 4 8

ing roles, a person’s social position within groups affects his Number of pieces of litter in environment
or her prestige and dominance in those groups. Social status ➤ Figure 70.1
refers to the degree to which other group members respect Results of an experiment on norms concerning littering. The
and admire a person while social power refers to the de- prior existence of litter in a public setting implies that littering is
gree to which a person possesses the capacity to control the acceptable. This encourages others to “trash” the area. (From
Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990.)
behavior of other group members (Hays, 2013). A person
can be high in both social status and social power (such as a
popular chief of police), high in one but not the other (such
A norm is a widely accepted (but often unspoken) standard
as a famous actor, who may be accorded high social status
for appropriate behavior. If you have the slightest doubt
while having little social power), or be low in both (like most
about the power of norms, try this test: walk into a crowd-
homeless people). Incidentally, men generally prefer social
ed supermarket, get in a checkout line, and begin singing
power over status while women generally prefer status over
loudly in your fullest voice. Are you the 1 person in 100 who
power (Hays, 2013).
could actually do this?
While higher social power obviously bestows special
The impact of norms is shown by a classic study of lit-
privileges, so too can higher social status (Albrecht &
tering. The question was, “Does the amount of trash in an
Albrecht, 2011). For example, in one experiment, a man
area affect littering?” To find out, people were given flyers
walked into several bakeries and asked for a pastry while
as they walked into a public parking garage. As you can see
claiming that he did not have enough money to pay for
in ➤ Figure 70.1, the more litter there was on the floor,
it. Half the time he was well dressed, and the rest of the
time he was poorly dressed. If the man was polite when
he asked, he was equally likely to be given a free pastry no
matter how he was dressed (95 percent versus 90 percent). Social role Expected behavior patterns associated with particular
However, if he was impolite when he asked, he was much social positions (such as daughter, worker, or student).
less likely to get a pastry if he was poorly dressed than if he Role conflict Trying to occupy two or more roles that make con-
was well dressed (75 percent versus 20 percent) (Guéguen flicting demands on behavior.
& Pascual, 2003). Group structure The network of roles, communication pathways,
and power in a group.
You don’t have to be in a bakery for this to work. In
Group cohesiveness The degree of attraction among group mem-
most situations, we are more likely to comply with a request bers or their commitment to remaining in the group.
made by a high-status (well-dressed) person (Guéguen & In-group A group with which a person identifies.
Lamy, 2012). Perhaps the better treatment given people with Out-group A group with which a person does not identify.
higher social power or status, even when they are impolite, Social status The degree of prestige, admiration, and respect ac-
explains some of our society’s preoccupation with expensive corded to a member of a group.
clothes, cars, and other social power and status symbols. Social power The degree to which a group member can control,
alter, or influence the behavior of another group member.
Norms We also are greatly affected by group norms Norm A widely accepted (but often unspoken) standard of conduct
for appropriate behavior.
(Matsumoto & Juang, 2017; Miller & Prentice, 2016).

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602 P SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

the more likely people were to add to it by dropping their In the next section, we’ll see that the people around us
flyer. Apparently, seeing that others had already littered affect not only how we behave, but also influence how we
implied a lax norm about whether littering is acceptable. think about ourselves and others. For example, one common
The moral? The cleaner a public area is kept, the less likely way that we understand ourselves is by comparing ourselves
people are to “trash” it (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990; to others, a process called . . . wait for it . . . social comparison
Göckeritz et al., 2010). (Brakel et al., 2011).

Social Comparisons and Attributions—Behind Our Masks

Survey Question 70.2 How do social situations affect how tennis player. If Wendy compares herself with a professional,
we think about ourselves and others? the answer will be “no.” But this tells us little about her rela-
Social cognition is the process of thinking about ourselves tive ability. Within her tennis group, Wendy is regarded as
and others in a social context (Shook, 2013; Strack & Förster, an excellent player. On a fair scale of comparison, Wendy
2009). Despite the fact that we are immersed in social rela- knows she is good, and she takes pride in her tennis skills.
tionships with other people all the time and can freely ob- In the same way, thinking of yourself as successful, talented,
serve their behavior, as well as our own, understanding that responsible, or fairly paid depends entirely on whom you
behavior is another matter entirely. For example, we know choose for comparison. Thus, a desire for social comparison
terrorists attacked Paris, but why? provides a motive for associating with others and influences
In the next few sections, we’ll consider some examples which groups we join (Johnson & Stapel, 2010; Strickhouser
of social cognition. We begin with social comparison. We & Zell, 2015).
then move on to consider the process of attribution, one way Let’s shift gears now to examine another form of so-
that we understand the behavior of other people. Finally, we cial cognition. Vonda just insulted Sutchai. But why? Why
look at attitudes and how we form them. did Nick change his college major? Why does Kirti talk so
fast when she’s around men? In answering such questions,
Social Comparison we attribute people’s behavior to various causes. Whether
If you want to know how heavy you are, you simply get on a we are right or wrong about the causes of their behavior,
scale. But how do you know if you are a good athlete, worker, our conclusions affect how we act. To learn how we fill in
parent, or friend? How do you know if your views on poli- the “person behind the mask,” let’s explore the making of
tics, religion, or music are unusual or widely shared? When attributions.
there are no objective standards, the only available yardstick
is provided by comparing yourself with others (Baumeister
& Bushman, 2017; Dvash et al., 2010).
Social psychologist Leon Festinger (1919–1989) claimed
Joseph Sohm/Visions of America, LLC/Alamy Stock Photo
that group membership fills needs for social comparison—
comparing your own actions, feelings, opinions, or abilities
to those of others. Have you ever “compared notes” with
other students after taking an exam? (“How did you do?”
“Wasn’t that last question hard?”) If you have, you were
satisfying a need for social comparison (Festinger, 1957;
Johnson & Lammers, 2012)
Typically, we don’t make social comparisons randomly
or on some absolute scale. Meaningful evaluations are based
High school class reunions are notorious for the rampant social
on comparing yourself with people of similar backgrounds,
comparisons they often encourage. Apparently, it’s hard to resist
abilities, and circumstances (Stapel & Marx, 2007). To comparing yourself with former classmates to see how you are
illustrate, let’s ask a student named Wendy if she is a good doing in life.

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 MoDU lE 70 s o c iAl Psyc h o lo gy: s o c iAl B e hAvi o r An d c o g n iti o n 603

Attribution Theory
Every day, we must guess how people will act, often from
small shreds of evidence. We do this through a form of so-
cial cognition called attribution. As we observe others, we
make attributions about them. For example, two people
enter a restaurant and order different meals. Nell tastes her
food and then salts it. Bert salts his food before he tastes it.
How would you explain their behavior? In Nell’s case, you
might assume that the food needed salt. If so, you have at-

© Helga Esteb/Shutterstock.com
tributed her actions to an external cause (one that lies out-
side a person). With Bert, you might be more inclined to
conclude that he must really like salt. If so, the cause of his
behavior is internal. Internal causes, such as needs, personal-
ity traits, and Bert’s taste for salt, lie within the person. (At-
tributing bodily arousal to various sources can also have a In 2013, Tom Hanks was the most trusted person in the United
large impact on emotions. See Module 44.) States, according to a Reader’s Digest poll, ranking above many
What effects do such interpretations have? It is difficult politicians, judges, religious leaders, and sports figures. Is Tom
Hanks actually that trustworthy? Or is it that he has played many
to fully understand social behavior without considering
trustworthy characters in popular films? We are more prone than
the attributions that we make. For instance, let’s say that at you might think to attribute to actors the personality traits of the
the last five parties you’ve attended, you’ve seen a woman characters they play (Tal-Or & Papirman, 2007).
named Macy. Based on this, you assume that Macy likes to
socialize. You see Macy at yet another gathering and men-
tion that she seems to like parties. She says, “Actually, I am behavior (Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2013; Gordon &
very shy and really hate these parties, but I keep coming to Kaplar, 2002).
overcome my shyness. My counselor says I need to prac- No doubt you chose your major in school because of
tice being social, so I keep attending these dumb events. what it has to offer. Other students choose their majors be-
How am I doing?” cause of the kind of people they are. Other people who don’t
We seldom know the real reasons for others’ actions. leave tips in restaurants are cheapskates. If you don’t leave
That’s why we tend to infer causes from circumstances. How- a tip, it’s because the service was bad. And, of course, other
ever, in doing so, we often make mistakes like the one with people are always late because they are irresponsible. You
Macy. The most common error is to attribute the actions are late because you were held up by events beyond your
of others to internal causes (Moran, Jolly, & Mitchell, 2014; control.
Riggio & Garcia, 2009). This mistake is called the funda- As you can see, attribution theory summarizes how we
mental attribution error. We tend to think that the actions think about ourselves and others, including the errors that
of others have internal causes even if, in reality, they are we tend to make.
caused by external forces or circumstances. One amusing
example of this error is the tendency of people to attribute
the actions of actors playing a role to their personalities Social cognition The process of thinking about ourselves and others
rather than the obvious external cause (that they are playing in a social context.
a character) (Tal-Or & Papirman, 2007). Social comparison Making judgments about ourselves through
comparison with others.
Where our own behavior is concerned, we are more
Attribution The process of making inferences about the causes of
likely to think that external causes explain our actions. In one’s own behavior, and that of others.
other words, an actor–observer bias is present in how we Fundamental attribution error Tendency to attribute behavior to
explain behavior. As observers, we attribute the behavior internal causes without regard to situational influences.
of others to their wants, motives, and personality traits Actor-observer bias The tendency to attribute the behavior of
(this is the fundamental attribution error). As actors, how- others to internal causes while attributing one’s own behavior to
external causes (situations and circumstances).
ever, we tend to find external explanations for our own

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604 P SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Attitudes—Got Attitude?
Survey Question 70.3 How are attitudes acquired and opposing pollution when a nearby factory ruins your favorite
changed? river (Ajzen, 2005). Some attitudes are simply formed through
Our tastes, friendships, votes, preferences, goals, and be- chance conditioning (learning that takes place by luck or coin-
havior in many other situations are all touched by attitudes cidence) (Albarracín, Johnson, & Zanna, 2005). Let’s say, for
(Baumeister & Bushman, 2017). instance, that you have had three encounters in your lifetime
What, specifically, is an attitude? An attitude is a positive with psychologists. If all three were negative, you might take
or negative perception of people, objects, or issues. Attitudes an unduly dim view of psychology. In the same way, people
summarize your evaluation of objects (Bohner & Dickel, often develop strong attitudes toward cities, foods, or parts of
2010). As a result, they predict or direct future actions. the country on the basis of one or two unusually good or bad
“Your attitude is showing,” it is sometimes said. Actually, experiences (Ledgerwood & Trope, 2010).
attitudes are expressed through beliefs, emotions, and ac- Attitudes also are learned through interaction with
tions. The belief component of an attitude is what you believe others—such as discussion with people holding a particular
about a particular object or issue. The emotional component attitude. For instance, if three of your good friends are vol-
consists of your feelings toward the attitudinal object. The unteers at a local recycling center and you talk with them
action component refers to your actions toward various peo- about their beliefs, you may well come to favor recycling,
ple, objects, or institutions. too. More generally, there is little doubt that many of our
Consider, for example, your attitude toward gun con-
trol. You will have beliefs about whether gun control would
affect rates of crime or violence. You will respond emotion-
ally to guns, finding them either attractive and desirable or
threatening and destructive. And you will have a tendency
to seek out or avoid gun ownership. The action component

Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images News/Getty Images

of your attitude may well include support of organizations
that urge or oppose gun control. As you can see, attitudes
orient us to the social world. In doing so, they prepare us to
act in certain ways (Forgas, Cooper, & Crano, 2010; Jackson,
2011). (For another example, see ➤ Figure 70.2.)

Forming Attitudes
How do people acquire attitudes? Attitudes are acquired in sev-
Attitudes are an important dimension of social behavior. Attitudes
eral basic ways. Sometimes attitudes come from direct contact are often greatly influenced by the attitudes of parents and the
(personal experience) with the object of the attitude—such as groups to which they belong.

Issue: Affirmative Action

Belief component Belief component

Restores justice Unfair to majority

+ –
Provides equal opportunity Reverse discrimination

Emotional component Emotional component

Optimism Anger

Action component Action component

➤ Figure 70.2
Vote for affirmative action Vote against affirmative action
Elements of positive and Donate to groups that support Donate to groups that oppose
negative attitudes toward affirmative action affirmative action
affirmative action.

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 MoDU lE 70 s o c iAl Psyc h o lo gy: s o c iAl B e hAvi o r An d c o g n iti o n 605

attitudes are influenced by group membership. In most hates smog. Why would Lorraine continue to drive to work
groups, pressures to conform shape our attitudes, just as every day? It is probably because the immediate consequenc-
they do our behavior. Child rearing (the effects of parental es of our actions weigh heavily on the choices we make. No
values, beliefs, and practices) also affects attitudes (Bartram, matter what Lorraine’s attitude may be, it is difficult for her
2006; Guidetti et al., 2012). For example, if both parents to resist the immediate convenience of driving.
belong to the same political party, chances are that their Our expectations of how others will evaluate our ac-
children will belong to that party as adults. tions also are important. Lorraine may resist taking public
Finally, there is no doubt that attitudes are influenced by transit to work for fear that her coworkers will be critical
the media, such as newspapers, television, and the Internet of her environmental stand. By taking this factor into ac-
(Mahler, Beckerley, & Vogel, 2010). Every day we are coaxed, count, researchers have been able to predict family planning
persuaded, and skillfully manipulated by messages in mass choices, alcohol use by teenagers, reenlistment in the Na-
media. Young people today spend at least 50 hours a week tional Guard, voting on a solar power initiative, and so forth
immersed in media, such as television, video games, mov- (Cialdini, 2009). Finally, we must not overlook the effects of
ies, the Internet, music, and print (Rideout, Foehr, & Rob- longstanding habits (Oskamp & Schultz, 2005). Let’s say that
erts, 2010). The information thus channeled into homes has after years of driving to work Lorraine finally vows to shift
a powerful impact. For instance, frequent television view- to public transit. Two months later, it would not be unusual
ers mistrust others and overestimate their own chances of if she found herself driving again because of habit, despite
being harmed. This suggests that a steady diet of television her good intentions.
violence leads some people to develop a mean worldview, in In short, there are often large differences between at-
which they regard the world as a dangerous and threaten- titudes and behavior—particularly between privately held
ing place (Nellis & Savage, 2012). (For more on media and attitudes and public behavior (Johnson & Boynton, 2010).
observational learning, see Module 27.) However, barriers to action typically fall when a person
holds an attitude with conviction. If you have conviction
Attitudes and Behavior about an issue, it evokes strong feelings, you think about
Why are some attitudes acted on, whereas others are not? it and discuss it often, and you are knowledgeable about it
To answer this question, let’s consider an example. Assume (Rucker et al., 2014). Attitudes held with passionate con-
that a woman named Lorraine knows that automobiles are viction often lead to major changes in personal behavior
expensive to operate and add to air pollution. Besides, she (Oskamp & Schultz, 2005).

Attitude Change—When the Seekers Went Public

Survey Question 70.4 Under what conditions is persua- homes, but Bennington was a very liberal school. Newcomb
sion most effective, and what is cognitive dissonance? found that most students shifted significantly toward more
Although attitudes are fairly stable, they do change (For- liberal attitudes during their four years at Bennington. Those
gas, Cooper, & Crano, 2010; Izuma, 2013). Some atti- who didn’t change kept their parents and hometown friends
tude change can be understood in terms of a reference as primary reference groups. Those who did change identi-
group—any group that an individual uses as a standard fied primarily with the campus community. Notice that all stu-
for social comparison. It is not necessary to have face-to- dents could count the college and their families as membership
face contact with other people for them to be a reference groups. However, one group or the other tended to become
group. It depends instead on with whom you identify or their point of reference.
whose attitudes and values you care about (Ajzen, 2005;
Larimer et al., 2011).
In the 1930s, Theodore Newcomb studied real-life attitude Attitude Positive or negative perception of people, objects, or issues.
change among students at Bennington College (Alwin, Cohen, Reference group Any group that an individual uses as a standard for
social comparison.
& Newcomb, 1991). Most students came from conservative

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606 P SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

© wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock.com
Do you exercise regularly? Like students in the Bennington study,
your intentions to exercise are probably influenced by the exercise
habits of your reference groups (Ajzen, 2005; Terry & Hogg, 1996).

Persuasion
What about advertising and other direct attempts to change
attitudes? Are they effective? Persuasion is any deliberate at-

amer ghazzal/Alamy Stock Photo

tempt to change attitudes or beliefs through information and
arguments (Gass & Seiter, 2014; Perloff, 2010). Businesses,
politicians, and others who seek to persuade us obviously
believe that attitudes can be changed. Billions of dollars are
spent yearly on advertising in the United States and Canada
alone. Persuasion can range from the daily blitz of media Are you likely to be swayed by this group’s message? Successful
commercials to personal discussion among friends. In most persuasion is related to characteristics of the communicator, the
message, and the audience.
cases, the success or failure of persuasion can be understood if
we consider the communicator, the message, and the audience.
At a community meeting, let’s say that you have a chance 5. The message states clear-cut conclusions.
to promote an issue important to you (for or against build- 6. The message is backed up by facts and statistics.
ing a new mall nearby, for instance). Whom should you 7. The message is repeated as frequently as possible.
choose to make the presentation, and how should that per- 8. Both sides of the argument are presented, in the case of
son present it? Research suggests that attitude change is en- a well-informed audience.
couraged when certain conditions are met. You should have 9. Only one side of the argument is presented, in the case
little trouble seeing how the following principles are applied of a poorly informed audience.
to sell everything from underarm deodorants to presidents
(Aronson, 2012; Oskamp & Schultz, 2005; Perloff, 2010): As we have just seen, we sometimes change our attitudes
in response to external persuasion (Gass & Seiter, 2014).
1. The communicator is likable, expressive, trustworthy, Sometimes, however, the internal process of cognitive dis-
an expert on the topic, and similar to the audience in sonance also can lead to attitude change.
some respect.
2. The communicator appears to have nothing to gain if Cognitive Dissonance Theory
the audience accepts the message. What happens if people act in ways that are inconsistent with
3. The message appeals to emotions, particularly to fear or their attitudes or self-images? Cognitions are thoughts. Dis-
anxiety. sonance means clashing. The influential theory of cogni-
4. The message also provides a clear course of action that tive dissonance states that contradicting or inconsistent
will, if followed, reduce fear or produce personally thoughts cause a psychological state of discomfort—that is,
desirable results. we have a need for consistency in our thoughts, perceptions,

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 MoDU lE 70 s o c iAl Psyc h o lo gy: s o c iAl B e hAvi o r An d c o g n iti o n 607

Table 70.1 strategies for reducing cognitive dissonance

LeShawn, who is a college student, has always thought of himself as an environmental activist. Recently, LeShawn “inherited” a car
from his parents, who were replacing the family “barge.” In the past, LeShawn biked or used public transportation to get around. His
parents’ old car is an antiquated gas-guzzler, but he has begun to drive it every day. How might LeShawn reduce the cognitive dis-
sonance created by the clash between his environmentalism and his use of an inefficient automobile?
Strategy Example

Change your attitude. “Cars are not really a major environmental problem.”
Add consonant thoughts. “This is an old car, so keeping it on the road makes good use of
the resources that were consumed when it was manufactured.”
Change the importance of the dissonant thoughts. “It’s more important for me to support the environmental move-
ment politically than it is to worry about how I get to school and
work.”
Reduce the amount of perceived choice. “My schedule has become too hectic. I really can’t afford to bike
or take the bus anymore.”
Change your behavior. “I’m only going to use the car when it’s impossible to bike or take
the bus.”

Source: Franzoi, 2002.

and images of ourselves (Cooper, 2007; Festinger, 1957). Did the group break up then? Amazingly, instead of
Inconsistency, then, can motivate people to make their breaking up, the Seekers became more convinced than ever
thoughts or attitudes agree with their actions (Gawronski, before that they were right. Mrs. Keech announced that she
2012). had received a new message explaining that the Seekers had
For example, smokers are told on every pack that cigarettes saved the world. Before, the Seekers were uninterested in
endanger their lives. They light up and smoke anyway. How do persuading other people that the world was coming to an
they resolve the tension between this information and their ac- end. Now they called newspapers and radio stations to con-
tions? They could quit smoking, but it may be easier to con- vince others of their accomplishment.
vince themselves that smoking is not really so dangerous. To Why did their belief in Mrs. Keech’s messages increase
do this, a smoker might seek examples of heavy smokers who after the world failed to end? Why did the group suddenly
have lived long lives, spend time with other smokers, and avoid become interested in convincing others that they were right?
information about the link between smoking and cancer; or he Cognitive dissonance theory explains that after publicly
or she might just suppress thoughts of the health consequences committing themselves to their beliefs, they had a strong
altogether (Kneer, Glock, & Rieger, 2012). According to cogni- need to maintain consistency (Tavris & Aronson, 2007). In
tive dissonance theory, we also tend to reject new information effect, convincing others was a way of adding proof that they
that contradicts ideas that we already hold. We’re all guilty of were correct (■ Table 70.1).
this “don’t bother me with the facts, my mind is made up” strat- Cognitive dissonance also underlies attempts to con-
egy at times. vince ourselves that we’ve done the right thing. Have you
A famous example of cognitive dissonance in action in- ever noticed how, once you’ve made a choice, it can be
volves a woman named Mrs. Keech, who claimed she was irksome to notice something positive about a rejected
in communication with beings on a planet called Clarion alternative (I should have bought the blue shirt; it had nicer
(Festinger, 1957). The messages foretold the destruction of
North America. Mrs. Keech and her followers, the Seekers,
were to be rescued by a flying saucer. The news media became Persuasion A deliberate attempt to change attitudes or beliefs with
involved and reported on the proceedings. When nothing information and arguments.
happened, the Seekers suffered a bitter and embarrassing Cognitive dissonance Psychological state of having related ideas or
perceptions that are inconsistent.
disappointment.

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608 P SyCholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

buttons)? Welcome to buyer’s regret (Godoy et al., 2010). To True State

minimize such dissonance, we tend to emphasize positive of Affairs
Task was dull.

aspects of what we choose, while downgrading other alter-

natives. Thus, you are more likely to think that your college
Conflicting “I told others that the task
courses will be good after you have registered than before Behavior was interesting.”
making a commitment.
Acting contrary to one’s attitudes doesn’t always bring
about change. How does cognitive dissonance explain that? Dissonance “I wouldn’t lie for $1.”
Aroused (Action not justified by payment.)
The amount of justification for acting contrary to your at-
titudes and beliefs affects how much dissonance you feel.
(Justification is the degree to which a person’s actions are Change attitude: “I didn’t lie; the
Result
explained by rewards or other circumstances.) In a classic task really was interesting.”

study, college students did an extremely boring task (turn-

ing wooden pegs on a board) for a long time. Afterward,
Dissonance reduced.
they were asked to help lure others into the experiment by
pretending that the task was interesting and enjoyable. Stu-
dents paid $20 for lying to others did not change their own ➤ Figure 70.3
negative opinion of the task: “That was really boring!” Those Cognitive dissonance. Summary of the Festinger and Carlsmith
who were paid only $1 later rated the task as “pleasant” and (1959) study from the viewpoint of a person experiencing cognitive
dissonance. (Adapted from Franzoi, 2002.)
“interesting.” How can we explain these results? Apparently,
students paid $20 experienced no dissonance. These stu-
dents could reassure themselves that anybody would tell a do it.” Rather than admit to themselves that they had lied,
little white lie for $20. Those paid $1 were faced with the these students changed their attitude toward what they had
conflicting thoughts: “I lied” and “I had no good reason to done (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959; see ➤ Figure 70.3).

MODULE

70 Summary
70.1 how do social situations affect our behavior? 70.1.5 Norms are standards of conduct enforced (formally
70.1.1 Social psychology studies humans from the perspec- or informally) by groups.
tive of being enmeshed in complex networks of social 70.2 how do social situations affect how we think
and cultural contexts. about ourselves and others?
70.1.2 Social roles, which may be achieved or ascribed, de- 70.2.1 Social comparison theory holds that we affiliate to
fine one’s position in groups and particular behavior evaluate our actions, feelings, and abilities.
patterns associated with those social roles. When two 70.2.2 Attribution theory is concerned with how we make
or more contradictory roles are held, role conflict inferences about behavior.
may occur. 70.2.3 The fundamental attribution error is to ascribe the
70.1.3 Group structure refers to the organization of roles, actions of others to internal causes. Because of actor–
communication pathways, and power within a group. observer differences, we tend to attribute our own
Group cohesiveness is basically the degree of attraction behavior to external causes.
among group members.
70.1.4 Positions within groups typically carry higher or 70.3 how are attitudes acquired and changed?
lower levels of social status, power, or both. High 70.3.1 Attitudes are learned dispositions made up of a belief
social status is associated with special privileges and component, an emotional component, and an action
respect. component.

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 MoDU lE 70 s o c iAl Psyc h o lo gy: s o c iAl B e hAvi o r An d c o g n iti o n 609

70.3.2 Attitudes may be formed by direct contact, interac- are well matched. In general, a likable and believable
tion with others, child-rearing practices, and group communicator who repeats a credible message that
pressures. Peer group influences, reference group arouses emotion in the audience and states clear-cut
membership, the media, and chance conditioning conclusions will be persuasive.
also appear to be important in attitude formation. 70.4.2 Maintaining and changing attitudes is closely related
to cognitive dissonance and our need to be consistent
70.4 Under what conditions is persuasion most
in our thoughts and actions.
effective, and what is cognitive dissonance?
70.4.1 Effective persuasion occurs when characteristics of
the communicator, the message, and the audience

Knowledge Builder Social Psychology: Social Behavior and Social Cognition

Recite Reflect
1. Social psychology is the study of how people behave in Think Critically
_____________________________________________.
8. Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that false confes-
2. Social status refers to a set of expected behaviors associ-
sions obtained during brainwashing are not likely to
ated with a social position. T or F?
bring about lasting changes in attitudes. Why?
3. Social comparisons are made pretty much at random.
T or F? Self-Reflect
4. The fundamental attribution error is to attribute the ac- What are the most prominent roles you play? What conflicts
tions of others to internal causes. T or F? do they create?
5. Which of the following is associated with attitude formation? How has social comparison affected your behavior?
a. group membership How often do you commit the fundamental attribution
b. mass media error? Try to think of a specific personal example that illus-
c. chance conditioning trates the concept.
d childrearing Which of the various sources of attitudes best explain
e. all of the preceding your own attitudes?
f. a and d only How would you explain cognitive dissonance theory to a
6. In presenting a persuasive message, it is best to give both person who knows nothing about it?
sides of the argument if the audience is already well in-
formed on the topic. T or F?
7. The amount of cognitive dissonance a person feels is
related to how much ____________ exists for his or her
actions. AN SW E R S
a. reciprocity contradict his or her beliefs.
b. justification cognitive dissonance is created when a prisoner makes statements that
c. chance conditioning Because there is strong justification for such actions. As a result, little

d. reference
1. social situations or the presence of others 2. F 3. F 4. T 5. e 6. T 7. b 8.

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MODULE
Social Psychology
71 Social Influence

Question Authority?
Explaining people’s behavior often comes down to under-
standing various forms of social influence. It is one thing
to notice, for example, the similarities in the clothes worn
by this group of friends. It is another thing entirely to un-
derstand why they are all dressed the same way. Is this an
example of conformity; did these friends spontaneously

eddie linssen/Alamy Stock Photo

and freely change their behavior to bring it into agreement
with each other? Or is it an example of obedience to the
commands of some authority?
What are the limits of your willingness to comply with
the requests of strangers or with the commands of authori-
ties? How much should you resist attempts at coercion? Critically.” When, though, is it appropriate to comply with
You’ve probably seen a bumper sticker that says “Question or to resist authority? These are essential questions about
Authority.” Actually, that’s not bad advice if it means “Think how we are affected by social influence.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
71.1 What is social influence? 71.2 How does self-assertion differ from aggression?

Social Influence—Follow the Leader

Survey Question 71.1 What is social influence?
the more people were swayed to join in staring at the win-
No topic lies nearer the heart of social psychology than dow (Milgram, Bickman, & Berkowitz, 1969).
social influence—changes in behavior induced by the ac- Are there different kinds of social influence? Social influ-
tions of others. When people interact, they almost always ence ranges from milder to stronger. The gentlest form of
affect one another’s behavior (Baer, Cialdini, & Lueth, 2012; social influence is mere presence (changing behavior just be-
Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2017). For example, in a classic ex- cause other people are nearby). We conform when we spon-
periment, various numbers of people stood on a busy New taneously change our behavior to bring it into agreement
York City street. On cue, they all looked at a sixth-floor win- with others. Compliance is a more directed form of social
dow across the street. A camera recorded how many pass- influence. We comply when we change our behavior in re-
ersby also stopped to stare. The larger the influencing group, sponse to another person who has little or no social power

610
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 MODU LE 71 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: S o c ial i n f lu e n c e 611

or authority. Obedience is an even stronger form of social

influence. We obey when we change our behavior in direct
response to the demands of an authority. The strongest form
of social influence is coercion, or changing behavior because
you are forced to.
(a) (1) (2) (3)

Mere Presence—Just Because Standard Line Comparison Lines

You Are There ➤ Figure 71.1

Stimuli used in Asch’s conformity experiments. Stimuli used in
Suppose that you just happened to be alone in a room, pick-
Solomon Asch’s conformity experiments.
ing your nose. (We know, none of us would do that, right?)
Would you continue if a stranger entered the room? Mere
presence refers to the tendency for people to change their Sally, they fell in love and were not shy about expressing
behavior just because of the presence of other people. (You themselves around campus. Increasingly, Sally noticed
would quit picking your nose, wouldn’t you?) Let’s explore other students staring at her and Harry when they were,
some of the ways that mere presence can induce us to mod- well, expressing their love. Although they never made a
ify our behavior. conscious decision to conform, in another week their pub-
Imagine that you are pedaling your bike when another licly intimate moments were a thing of the past. Perhaps the
rider pulls up beside you. Will you pick up your pace? Slow most basic of all group norms is, as Harry and Sally discov-
down? Completely ignore the other rider? In 1898, psychol- ered, “Thou shalt conform.” Like it or not, life is filled with
ogist Norman Triplett’s investigation of just such a social instances of conformity (Baron, Byrne, & Branscombe,
situation was the first published social psychology experi- 2012; Suhay, 2014).
ment (Strubbe, 2005). According to Triplett, you are more As mentioned earlier, all groups have unspoken norms.
likely to speed up. This is social facilitation, the tendency The broadest norms, defined by society as a whole, establish
to perform better when in the presence of others (Cole, “normal” or acceptable behavior in most situations. Com-
Barrett, & Griffiths, 2011). paring hairstyles, habits of speech, dress, eating habits, and
Does mere presence always improve performance? No. If social customs in two or more cultures makes it clear that we
you are confident in your abilities, your behavior will most all conform to social norms. In fact, a degree of uniformity
likely be facilitated in the presence of others. If you are not, is necessary if we are to interact comfortably. Imagine being
your performance is more likely to be impaired (Uziel, 2007). totally unable to anticipate the actions of others. In stores,
Another classic study focused on college students shooting schools, and homes, this would be frustrating and disturb-
pool at a student union. Good players who were confident ing. On the highways, it would be lethal.
(sharks?) normally made 71 percent of their shots. Their accu- The Asch Experiment How strong are group pressures for
racy improved to 80 percent when others were watching them. conformity? One of the first experiments on conformity was
Less confident, average players (marks?) who normally made staged by Solomon Asch (1907–1996). To fully appreciate it,
36 percent of their shots dropped to 25 percent accuracy when imagine yourself as a participant. Assume that you are seated
someone was watching them (Michaels et al., 1982). at a table with six other students. Your task is actually quite
Social loafing is another consequence of having other simple: You are shown three lines on a card, and you must
people nearby. People tend to exert less effort (loaf) when select the line that matches a “standard” line (➤ Figure 71.1).
they are part of a group than they do when they are solely re-
sponsible for their work (Ferrari & Pychyl, 2012; Najdowski,
2010). In one study, people playing tug-of-war while blind- Social influence Changes in a person’s behavior induced by the
folded pulled harder if they thought they were competing presence or actions of others.
alone. When they thought others were on their team, they Mere presence The tendency for people to change their behavior
just because of the presence of other people.
made less of an effort (Ingham et al., 1974).
Social facilitation Tendency to perform better in the presence of others.
Social loafing Exerting less effort when performing a specific task
Conformity—Don’t Stand Out with a group than when alone.
We show conformity when we bring our behavior into Conformity Matching behavior and appearance to perceived social
norms.
agreement with perceived social norms. When Harry met

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612 P SYChOLO GY M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

As the testing begins, each person announces an answer corner can greatly reduce pressures to conform. If you can
for the first card. When your turn comes, you agree with the find at least one other person who sees things as you do (no
others. “This isn’t hard at all,” you say to yourself. For several matter how weird), you can be relatively secure in your op-
more trials, your answers agree with those of the group. Then position to other viewpoints. Incidentally, the Internet now
comes a shock. All six people announce that line 1 matches the makes it much easier to find that other like-minded person.
standard, and you were about to say line 2 matches. Suddenly Groupthink Yale psychologist Irving Janis (1918–1990) first
you feel alone and upset. You nervously look at the lines again. proposed the concept of groupthink in an attempt to under-
The room falls silent. Everyone seems to be staring at you. The stand a series of disastrous decisions made by government of-
experimenter awaits your answer. Do you yield to the group? ficials (Janis, 1989, 2007). The core of groupthink is misguided
In this study, the other “students” were all actors who loyalty—an urge by decision makers to maintain each other’s
gave the wrong answer on about a third of the trials to cre- approval, even at the cost of critical thinking (Singer, 2005).
ate group pressure (Asch, 1956). Real students conformed to Group members are hesitant to “rock the boat,” question sloppy
the group on about one-third of the critical trials. Of those thinking, or tolerate alternative views. This self-censorship
tested, 75 percent yielded at least once. People who were leads people to believe that they agree more than they actually
tested alone erred in less than 1 percent of their judgments. do (Matusitz & Breen, 2012; Mintz et al., 2010).
Clearly, those who yielded to group pressures were denying Groupthink has been blamed for contributing to many
what their eyes told them. crises, such as the invasion and occupation of Iraq and the
Are some people more susceptible to group pressures than Columbia space shuttle disaster in 2003 (Houghton, 2008;
others? People with high needs for structure or certainty are Post, 2011; Schafer & Crichlow, 2010). More recently,
more likely to conform. So are people who are anxious, low groupthink has been implicated in the failure of Penn State
in self-confidence, or concerned with the approval of others. University administrators to deal appropriately with a long-
People who live in cultures that emphasize group coopera- standing pattern of child sexual abuse by then–Penn State
tion (such as many Asian cultures) also are more likely to football coach Gerry Sandusky (Wagner, 2013).
conform (Bond & Smith, 1996; Fu et al., 2007). To prevent groupthink, group leaders should take the
Group Factors in Conformity How do groups enforce following steps (Janis, 2007; Schafer & Crichlow, 2010):
norms? In most groups, we have been rewarded with accep-
◗ Define each group member’s role as a “critical evaluator.”
tance and approval for conformity and threatened with rejec-
◗ Avoid revealing any personal preferences in the begin-
tion or ridicule for nonconformity. These reactions are called
ning. State the problem factually, without bias.
group sanctions. Negative sanctions range from laughter,
◗ Invite a group member or outside person to play devil’s
staring, or social disapproval to complete rejection or formal
advocate. Make it clear that group members will be held
exclusion. If you’ve ever felt the sudden chill of disapproval
accountable for decisions.
by others, you understand the power of group sanctions—
just as Harry and Sally did. ◗ Encourage open inquiry and a search for alternate
The more important group membership is to a person, solutions.
the more he or she will be influenced by other group mem- In addition, Janis suggested that a “second-chance”
bers. The risk of being rejected can be a threat to our sense of meeting should be held to reevaluate important decisions—
personal identity (Baer, Cialdini, & Lueth, 2012). That’s why that is, each decision should be reached twice.
the Asch experiments are impressive. Because these were In fairness to our decision makers, it is worth not-
only temporary groups, sanctions were informal and rejec- ing that the presence of too many alternatives can lead to
tion had no lasting importance. Just the same, the power deadlock, which can delay taking necessary action (Kowert,
of the group was evident. 2002). Regardless, in an age clouded by the threat of war,
What other factors, besides importance of the group, af- global warming, and terrorism, even stronger solutions to
fect the degree of conformity? In the sidewalk experiment the problem of groupthink would be welcome. Perhaps we
described previously, we noted that large groups had more should form a group to think about it!
influence. In Asch’s face-to-face groups, the size of the ma-
jority also made a difference, but a surprisingly small one. Compliance—A Foot in the Door
Even more important than the size of the majority is its una- Pressures to “fit in” and conform are usually indirect. In
nimity (total agreement). Having at least one person in your contrast, the term compliance refers to situations in which

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 MODU LE 71 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: S o c ial i n f lu e n c e 613

one person bends to the requests of another person who has The Door-in-the-Face Effect Let’s say that a neighbor
little or no authority (Cialdini, 2009). These more direct comes to your door and asks you to feed his dogs, water
pressures to comply are quite common. You passively com- his plants, and mow his yard while he is out of town for a
ply when, for example, you suffer, without protest, someone month. This is quite a major request—one that most people
smoking near you in a nonsmoking zone or talking loudly would probably turn down. Feeling only slightly guilty, you
while you are trying to study in the library. You actively com- tell your neighbor that you’re sorry but you can’t help him.
ply when, for example, you hand over your cell phone to a Now, what if the same neighbor returns the next day and
stranger who asks to borrow it to make a call or lend money asks if you would at least pick up his mail while he is gone.
to a coworker who requests it to buy a cappuccino. Chances are very good that you would honor this request,
What determines whether a person will comply with a even if you might have originally turned it down, too.
request? Many factors could be listed, but three stand out Psychologist Robert Cialdini coined the term door-in-
as especially interesting (Cialdini & Griskevicius, 2010). the-face effect to describe the tendency for a person who
We are more likely to comply with a request if it does three has refused a major request to agree to a smaller request. In
things: comes from someone we know rather than a stranger; other words, after a person has turned down a major request
is consistent with our previous actions; and allows us to re- (“slammed the door in your face”), he or she may be more
ciprocate a prior gift, favor, or service. These factors allow willing to comply with a lesser demand. This strategy works
us to better understand several strategies that can be used because a person who abandons a large request appears to
to gain compliance. Because strangers must work harder to have given up something. In response, many people feel that
gain compliance, salespeople depend heavily on appealing they must reciprocate by giving in to the smaller request
to your tendency to be consistent and to reciprocate. (Cialdini, 2009; Guéguen, Jacob, & Meineri, 2011). In fact, a
good way to get another person to comply with a request is
The Foot-in-the-Door Effect People who sell door-to- to first do a small favor for the person.
door have long recognized that once they get a foot in the
door, a sale is almost a sure thing. To state the foot-in-the- The Lowball Technique Anyone who has purchased an
door effect more formally, a person who first agrees to a automobile will recognize a third way of inducing compli-
small request is later more likely, to be consistent, to comply ance. Automobile dealers are notorious for convincing cus-
with a larger demand (Pascual et al., 2013). For instance, if tomers to buy cars by offering “lowball” prices that undercut
someone asked you to put a large, ugly sign in your front the competition. The dealer first gets the customer to agree
yard to promote safe driving, you would probably refuse. If, to buy at an attractively low price. Then, once the customer
however, you had first agreed to put a small sign in your is committed, various techniques are used to bump the price
window, you would later be much more likely to allow the up before the sale is concluded.
big sign in your yard. The lowball technique consists of getting a person
committed to act and then making the terms of acting less
desirable (Guéguen, Pascual, & Dagot, 2002). In this case,
because you have already complied with a large request,
it would be inconsistent to deny the follow-on smaller

Groupthink Flawed decision-making in which a collection of indi-

viduals favors conformity over critical analysis.
Compliance Bending to the requests of a person who has little or no
© kagemusha/Shutterstock.com

authority or other form of social power.

Foot-in-the-door effect The tendency for a person who has first
complied with a small request to be more likely later to fulfill a
larger request.
Door-in-the-face effect The tendency for a person who has refused
a major request to subsequently be more likely to comply with a
Would you be willing to help this young woman carry her books to minor request.
a nearby desk? What if she subsequently asked you to carry them Lowball technique A strategy in which commitment is gained
across campus to her car? If you did, you might have fallen victim first to reasonable or desirable terms, which are then made less
to the foot-in-the-door effect. (That is, unless you were attracted to reasonable or desirable.
her and were trying to get your own foot in the door!)

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614 P SYChOLO GY M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

additional request. Here’s another example: A fellow student Your task is to read aloud a list of word pairs. The
asks to borrow $25 for a day. This seems reasonable, and learner’s task is to memorize them. You are to punish him
you agree. However, once you have given your classmate the by using electric shocks. The learner is taken to an adjacent
money, he explains that it would be easier to repay you after room, and you watch as he is seated in an “electric chair” ap-
payday, in two weeks. If you agree, you’ve succumbed to the paratus. Electrodes are attached to his wrists. You are then
lowball technique. Here’s another example: let’s say that you escorted to your position in front of a “shock generator.”
ask someone to give you a ride to school in the morning. On this device is a row of 30 switches marked from 15 to
Only after the person has agreed do you tell her that you 450 volts. Corresponding labels range from “Slight Shock”
have to be there at 6 a.m. to “Extreme Intensity Shock” and, finally, “Danger: Severe
Shock.” Your instructions are to shock the learner each time
Obedience—Would You Electrocute he makes a mistake. You must begin with 15 volts and then
a Stranger? move one switch (15 volts) higher for each additional mis-
take (➤ Figure 71.2).
If ordered to do so, would you shock a man with a heart
The experiment begins, and the learner soon makes his
condition who is screaming and asking to be released? Cer-
first error. You flip a switch. More mistakes. Rapidly, you
tainly, few people would obey. Or would they? In Nazi Ger-
reach the 75-volt level. The learner moans after each shock.
many, obedient soldiers (who were once average citizens)
At 100 volts, he complains that he has a heart condition. At
helped slaughter more than 6 million people in concentra-
150 volts, he says he no longer wants to continue and de-
tion camps. Do such inhumane acts reflect deep character
mands to be released. At 300 volts, he screams and says he
flaws? Are they the acts of heartless psychopaths or crazed
no longer can give answers.
killers? Or are they simply the result of obedience to author-
At some point, you begin to protest to the experimenter.
ity? These are questions that puzzled social psychologist
“That man has a heart condition,” you say. “I’m not going
Stanley Milgram (1965) when he began a provocative series
to kill that man.” The experimenter says, “Please continue.”
of studies on obedience, a special type of compliance to the
Another shock and another scream from the learner and you
demands of an authority.
say, “You mean I’ve got to keep going up the scale? No, sir.
How did Milgram study obedience? As was true of the
I’m not going to give him 450 volts!” The experimenter says,
Asch experiments, Milgram’s research is best appreciated by
“The experiment requires that you continue.” For a time, the
imagining yourself as a participant. Place yourself in the fol-
learner refuses to answer any more questions and screams
lowing situation.
with each shock. Then he falls chillingly silent for the rest of
Milgram’s Obedience Studies Imagine answering a the experiment (Milgram, 1965; Perry, 2013).
newspaper ad to take part in a “learning” experiment at Yale It’s hard to believe many people would do this. What hap-
University. When you arrive, a coin is flipped, and a second pened? Milgram also doubted that many people would obey
participant, a pleasant-looking man in his fifties, is designated his orders. When he polled a group of psychiatrists before
the “learner.” By chance, you have become the “teacher.” the experiment, they predicted that less than 1 percent of
distributed by The Pennsylvania State University Media
From from the film “Obedience,”© 1968 by Stanley

Milgram; © renewed 1993 by Alexandra Milgram,

Milgram; © renewed 1993 by Alexandra Milgram,

Milgram, © renewed by Alexandra Milgram, and

From the film “Obedience,” © 1968 by Stanley

From the film “Obedience,” © 1968 by Stanley

Sales. Permission granted Alexandra Milgram.

and distributed by Alexander Street Press.

and distributed by Alexander Street Press.

➤ Figure 71.2
Milgram’s obedience study. Scenes from Stanley Milgram’s study of obedience: the “shock generator,” strapping a “learner” into his chair,
and a “teacher” being told to administer a severe shock to the learner.

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 MODU LE 71 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: S o c ial i n f lu e n c e 615

Shock level 100

Slight 15 Volts
Moderate 65
60
Strong 55

Percentage complying
Very strong 50
Intense Victim screams 45
40
Extreme intensity Victim pounds on wall 35
Danger: severe shock Victim silent 30
25
XXX 450 Volts Victim silent
20
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 15
Percentage of subjects obeying 10
command at each shock level 5

➤ Figure 71.3 “Learner” “Learner” “Learner”

heard seen touched
Results of Milgram’s obedience experiment. Results of
Milgram’s obedience experiment. Only a minority of participants ➤ Figure 71.4
refused to provide shocks, even at the most extreme intensities. Obedience as a function of physical distance. Physical distance
The first substantial drop in obedience occurred at the 300-volt level from the “learner” had a significant effect on the percentage of
(Milgram, 1963). participants obeying orders.

those tested would obey. The astounding fact is that 65 per- (➤ Figure 71.4). Distance from the authority also had an ef-
cent obeyed completely by going all the way to the 450-volt fect. When the experimenter gave his orders over the phone,
level. Virtually no one stopped short of 300 volts (“Severe only 22 percent obeyed.
Shock”) (➤ Figure 71.3).
Implications Surely people wouldn’t act the same way
Was the learner injured? The “learner” was actually an
if Milgram conducted his research today, right? Don’t be so
actor who turned a tape recorder on and off in the shock
sure. Psychologist Jerry Burger of Santa Clara University
room. No shocks were ever administered, but the dilem-
recently partially replicated Milgram’s study and obtained
ma for the “teacher” was quite real. Participants protested,
very similar results (Burger, 2009). Milgram’s research
sweated, trembled, stuttered, bit their lips, and laughed ner-
raises nagging questions about our willingness to commit
vously. Clearly, they were disturbed by what they were do-
antisocial or inhumane acts commanded by a “legitimate
ing. Nevertheless, most obeyed the experimenter’s orders
authority.” The excuse so often given by war criminals—“I
(for a dissenting view, see Perry, 2013).
was only following orders”—takes on new meaning in this
Milgram’s Follow-up Why did so many people obey? light. Milgram suggested that when directions come from
Some have suggested that the prestige of Yale University an authority, people rationalize that they are not personally
added to participants’ willingness to obey. Could it be that responsible for their actions. In locales as diverse as Cambo-
they assumed the professor running the experiment would dia, Rwanda, Bosnia, Vietnam, Darfur, Sri Lanka, and Iraq,
not really allow anyone to be hurt? To test this possibility, the tragic result has been “sanctioned massacres” of chilling
the study was rerun in a shabby office building in nearby proportions.
Bridgeport, Connecticut. Under these conditions, fewer Even in everyday life, crimes of obedience are common
people obeyed (48 percent), but the reduction was relatively (Zimbardo, 2007). In order to keep their jobs, many people
minor. obey orders to do things that they know are dishonest, un-
Milgram was disturbed by the willingness of people to ethical, or harmful (Hinrichs, 2007).
knuckle under to authority and senselessly shock someone. Isn’t that an overly negative view of obedience? Obedience
In later experiments, he tried to reduce obedience. He found to authority is obviously necessary and desirable in many
that the distance between the teacher and the learner was circumstances. Just the same, as C. P. Snow (1961) observed,
important. When participants were in the same room as the
learner, only 40 percent obeyed fully. When they were face-
to-face with the learner and were required to force his hand
Obedience Compliance with a request from an authority figure.
down on a simulated “shock plate,” only 30 percent obeyed

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616 P SYChOLO GY M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

“When you think of the long and gloomy history of man, brainwashing is temporary. Most “converted” prisoners who
you will find more hideous crimes have been committed in returned to the United States after the Korean War even-
the name of obedience than in the name of rebellion.” With tually reverted to their original beliefs. Nevertheless, brain-
this in mind, let’s end on a more positive note. In one of his washing can be powerful, as shown by the success of cults in
experiments, Milgram found that group support can greatly recruiting new members.
reduce destructive obedience. When real participants saw
Cults Exhorted by their leader, some 900 members of the
two other “teachers” (both actors) resist orders and walk out
Reverend Jim Jones’s People’s Temple picked up paper cups
of the experiment, only 10 percent continued to obey. Thus,
and drank purple Flavor Aid laced with the deadly poison
a personal act of courage or moral fortitude by one or two
cyanide. Some even forced their own children to join in. The
members of a group may free others to disobey misguided
People’s Temple is a classic example of a cult, an authoritar-
or unjust authority.
ian group in which the leader’s personality is more impor-
Coercion—Brainwashing and Cults tant than the beliefs he or she preaches.
Psychologically, the mass suicide at Jonestown in 1978 is
We close this section on social influence by examining some
not so incredible as it might seem (Dein & Littlewood, 2005;
forms of coercion, the most extreme type of social influence.
Moore, 2009). The inhabitants of Jonestown were isolated
You are being subjected to coercion if you are forced to
in the jungles of Guyana, intimidated by guards, and lulled
change your beliefs or your behavior against your will (Bau-
with sedatives. They were also cut off from friends and rela-
meister & Bushman, 2017; Moghaddam, 2013).
tives and totally accustomed to obeying rigid rules of con-
If you’re a history enthusiast, you may associate brain-
duct, which primed them for Jones’s final “loyalty test.”
washing with techniques used by the Communist Chinese
Most psychologists regard “prophet” Warren Jeffs’s FLDS
on prisoners during the Korean War (Jowett, 2006). Through
Church to be a current example of a cult. Cult members give
various types of “thought reform,” the Chinese were able to
their allegiance to this person, who is regarded as infallible,
coerce some prisoners to sign false confessions.
and they follow his or her dictates without question. Almost
Brainwashing How does brainwashing differ from other
persuasive techniques? As we have noted, advertisers, poli-
ticians, educators, religious organizations, and others ac-
tively seek to alter attitudes and opinions. To an extent,
their persuasive efforts resemble brainwashing, but there is
an important difference: Brainwashing, or forced attitude
change, requires a captive audience. If you are offended by
a television commercial, you can tune it out. Prisoners are
completely at the mercy of their captors. Complete control
over the environment allows a degree of psychological ma-
nipulation that would be impossible in a normal setting.
How does captivity facilitate coercion? Brainwashing
typically begins by making the target person feel complete-
ly helpless. Physical and psychological abuse, lack of sleep,
humiliation, and isolation serve to unfreeze, or loosen, for-
mer values and beliefs. When exhaustion, pressure, and fear
become unbearable, change occurs as the person begins to
abandon former beliefs. Prisoners who reach the breaking
point may sign a false confession or cooperate to gain re-
lief. When they do, they are suddenly rewarded with praise,
privileges, food, or rest. From that point on, a mixture of
Bettmann/Corbis

hope and fear plus pressures to conform serve to refreeze

(solidify) new attitudes (Taylor, 2004).
How permanent are changes coerced by brainwashing? In Aftermath of the mass suicide at Jonestown. How do cultlike groups
most cases, the dramatic shift in attitudes brought about by recruit new devotees?

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 MODU LE 71 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: S o c ial i n f lu e n c e 617

always, cult members are victimized by their leaders in one compassion. They also encourage followers to question
way or another. Jeffs, for example, is currently serving a twen- their beliefs and to reach their own conclusions about how
ty-year prison sentence for multiple child rapes. to live. In contrast, destructive cults show how dangerous it
If a lesson is to be learned from such destructive cults, is to trade personal independence and critical thinking for
it is this: all true spiritual leaders have taught love and security (Cowan & Bromley, 2008; Goldberg, 2001).

Assertiveness—Stand Up for Your Rights

Survey Question 71.2 How does self-assertion differ from to refuse, to request, and to right a wrong. Self-assertion
aggression? involves standing up for these rights by speaking out in your
Most of us have been rewarded for compliant, obedient, or own behalf.
“good” behavior, first as children and later as adults. Perhaps Is self-assertion just getting things your own way? Not at
this is why so many people find it difficult to assert themselves all. A basic distinction can be made between self-assertion
(Hauck, 2011). Or perhaps not asserting yourself is related to and aggressive behavior. Self-assertion is a direct, honest
anxiety about “making a scene” or feeling disliked by others. expression of feelings and desires. It is not exclusively self-
Whatever the causes, some people suffer anguish in any situ- serving. People who are nonassertive are usually patient to
ation requiring poise, self-confidence, or self-assertion. Have a fault. Sometimes their pent-up anger explodes with un-
you ever done any of the following: hesitated to question an expected fury, which can damage relationships. In contrast
error on a restaurant bill because you were afraid of making a to assertive behavior, aggression involves hurting another
scene? Backed out of asking for a raise or a change in working person or achieving one’s goals at the expense of another.
conditions? Said yes when you wanted to say no? Been afraid Aggression does not take into account the feelings or rights
to question a grade that seemed unfair? of others. It is an attempt to get one’s own way no matter
If you have ever had difficulty asserting yourself in simi- what. Assertion techniques emphasize firmness, not attack
lar situations, it might be worth practicing how to be self- (■ Table 71.1).
assertive (Tavakoli et al., 2009; Wolpe, 1974). The first step is The basic idea is that each assertive action is practiced
to convince yourself of three basic rights: you have the right until it can be repeated even under stress. For example, let’s
say it really angers you when a store clerk waits on several
people who arrived after you did. To improve your asser-
tiveness in this situation, you would begin by rehearsing the
dialogue, posture, and gestures you would use to confront
the clerk or the other customer. Working in front of a mir-
ror can be very helpful. If possible, you should roleplay the
scene with a friend. Be sure to have your friend take the part
of a really aggressive or irresponsible clerk as well as a coop-
erative one. Rehearsal and roleplaying also should be used
AP Images/Jeff Widener

Coercion Being forced to change your beliefs or your behavior

against your will.
Brainwashing Engineered or forced attitude change involving a
captive audience.
Cult A group that professes great devotion to some person and
Associated Press photographer Jeff Widener snapped this timeless follows that person almost without question; cult members are
photo of a lone protester literally standing up on his own behalf typically victimized by their leaders in various ways.
while he halted a column of tanks during the 1989 pro-democracy Self-assertion A direct, honest expression of feelings and desires.
rallies in Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China. How many of us Aggression Hurting another person or achieving one’s goals at the
would find the courage to assert ourselves against such direct expense of another person.
expressions of authority?

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618 P SYChOLO GY M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

Table 71.1 comparison of assertive, aggressive, and nonassertive Behavior

Actor Receiver of Behavior

Nonassertive behavior Self-denying, inhibited, hurt, and anxious; lets Feels sympathy, guilt, or contempt for actor;
others make choices; goals not achieved achieves goals at actor’s expense
Aggressive behavior Achieves goals at others’ expense; expresses Feels hurt, defensive, humiliated, or taken
feelings, but hurts others; chooses for others or advantage of; does not meet own needs
puts them down
Assertive behavior Self-enhancing; acts in own best interests; Needs respected and feelings expressed; may
expresses feelings; respects rights of others; goals achieve goal; self-worth maintained
usually achieved; self-respect maintained

when you expect a possible confrontation with someone— combating anxieties associated with life in an impersonal
for example, if you are going to ask for a raise, challenge a and sometimes intimidating society (Sarkova et al., 2013).
grade, or confront a landlord. If you are interested in more information, you can consult
To summarize, self-assertion does not supply instant a book titled Your Perfect Right by Alberti and Emmons
poise, confidence, or self-assurance. However, it is a way of (2008).

MODULE

71 Summary
71.1 What is social influence? 71.1.6 Research suggests that people are excessively obedi-
71.1.1 Social influence refers to alterations in behavior brought ent to authority.
about by the behavior of others. Social influence ranges 71.1.7 Obedience in Milgram’s studies decreased when the
from milder (mere presence, influence, conformity, and victim was in the same room, when the victim and
compliance) to stronger (obedience and coercion). participant were face to face, when the authority
71.1.2 The mere presence of others may facilitate (or inhibit) figure was absent, and when others refused to obey.
performance. People may also engage in social loafing, 71.1.8 Coercion involves forcing people to change their
working less hard when they are part of a group. beliefs or behavior against their will.
71.1.3 The Asch experiments demonstrated that group 71.1.9 Three steps in brainwashing (forced attitude change)
sanctions encourage conformity. are unfreezing, changing, and refreezing attitudes and
71.1.4 Groupthink refers to compulsive conformity in group beliefs. Cults are groups that rely on coercion.
decision making. Group members who succumb to 71.2 how does self-assertion differ from
groupthink seek to maintain each other’s approval, aggression?
even at the cost of critical thinking. 71.2.1 Self-assertion involves standing up for yourself;
71.1.5 Three strategies for gaining compliance are the aggression involves achieving your goals at the
foot-in-the-door technique, the door-in-the-face expense of another.
approach, and the lowball technique.

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 MODU LE 71 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: S o c ial i n f lu e n c e 619

Knowledge Builder Social Psychology: Social Influence

Recite Self-Reflect
1. The mere presence of others always improves Have you ever encountered a social loafer? (You were never
performance. T or F? one, right?) How did you react?
2. Participants in Solomon Asch’s conformity study yielded Identify a recent time when you conformed in some way.
on about 75 percent of the critical trials. T or F? How did norms, group pressure, sanctions, and unanimity
3. Nonconformity is punished by negative group contribute to your tendency to conform?
____________________________. You would like to persuade people to donate to a
4. The term compliance refers to situations in which a deserving charity. How, specifically, could you use compliance
person complies with commands made by a person who techniques to get people to donate?
has authority. T or F? Are you surprised that so many people obeyed orders
5. Obedience in Milgram’s experiments was related to in Milgram’s experiments? Do you think you would have
a. distance between learner and teacher obeyed? How actively do you question authority?
b. distance between experimenter and teacher To what extent are governments entitled to use coercion
c. obedience of other teachers to modify the attitudes or behavior of their citizens?
d. all of these Pick a specific instance when you could have been more
6. Brainwashing differs from other persuasive attempts in assertive. How would you handle the situation if it occurs again?
that brainwashing requires a _____________________
_____________________.
7. In assertiveness training, people learn techniques for
getting their way in social situations and angry inter-
changes. T or F?
AN SW E R S
Reflect from personal contact.
Think Critically
to kill another human when the victim is at a distance and removed
Milgram’s research suggests that it is easier for a person to follow orders
8. Is it possible to be completely nonconforming—that is, to hand combat and killing someone by lining up images on a video screen.
not conform to some group norm? chotic. 9. There is a big difference between killing someone in hand-to-
9. Modern warfare allows killing to take place impersonally very likely would be perceived as extremely bizarre, disturbed, or psy-
and at a distance. How does this relate to Milgram’s did not follow at least some norms concerning normal social behavior

experiments?
1. F 2. F 3. sanctions 4. F 5. d 6. captive audience 7. F 8. A person who

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MODULE
Social Psychology
72 Prosocial Behavior

The “Snuggle” for Survival

One common misunderstanding of human nature is that we are
engaged in a perennial struggle for survival against one another.
In fact, we cooperate with the people around us at least as much as
we are in conflict with them. Although at times you want to be left
alone, the fact is that we humans are social animals. Imagine if you
were deprived of all contact with your family and friends. You would
probably find it painfully lonely and disorienting. If deprived of all
human contact, you might have difficulty even surviving.

Martin Barraud/Caiaimage/Getty Images

The various forms of prosocial behavior all involve having a posi-
tive effect on people around us. From the desire for intimacy with
family to the impulse to help strangers, we are drawn to other peo-
ple. What brings people together to help each other, to seek friend-
ship, and to find love? Let’s further explore the “snuggle” for survival.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
72.1 Why do we affiliate, and what factors influence inter- 72.3 What factors influence our willingness to help other
personal attraction? people?
72.2 How do interpersonal attraction and love differ?

Affiliation and Attraction—Come Together

Survey Question 72.1 Why do we affiliate, and what fac- Don’t people also affiliate out of attraction for one another?
tors influence interpersonal attraction? Of course they do. Let’s see why.
Prosocial behavior is any behavior that has a positive impact
on other people. (In contrast, antisocial behavior is any behav- Interpersonal Attraction
ior that has a negative impact on other people.) We are social Interpersonal attraction—affinity to another person—is
beings with a need to affiliate—a need to associate with other the basis for most voluntary social relationships (Berscheid,
people—rooted in basic human desires to get and to give ap- 2010; Berscheid & Regan, 2005). To form friendships, we
proval, support, friendship, and love (Baumeister & Bush- must first identify potential friends and then get to know
man, 2017). We also affiliate to help us think about ourselves them. Deciding whether you would like to get to know an-
by comparing ourselves with others (see Module 70). We even other person can happen very quickly, sometimes within
seek the company of others to alleviate fear or anxiety. just minutes of meeting (Sunnafrank, Ramirez, & Metts,

620
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 MODU LE 72 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: P r oS o c ial B e havi o r 621

2004). That may be because you usually don’t randomly almost every way, a pattern called homogamy (huh-MOG-
choose people to encounter. ah-me) (Kalmijn, 2010; Schramm et al., 2012). Studies show
What initially attracts people to each other? “Birds of a that married couples are highly similar in age, education,
feather flock together.” “Familiarity breeds contempt.” “Op- ethnicity, and religion. To a lesser degree, they also are simi-
posites attract.” Are these statements true? At best, the folk- lar in attitudes and opinions, mental abilities, status, height,
lore is a mixture of fact and fiction. As you might expect, weight, and eye color. In case you’re wondering, homogamy
we look for friends and lovers who will be kind and under- also applies to unmarried couples who are living together
standing and who appear to have attractive personalities (Blackwell & Lichter, 2004).
(Bradbury & Karney, 2010; Park & Lennon, 2008). Let’s ex-
Physical Attractiveness People who are physically at-
plore some other factors that influence our initial attraction
tractive are regarded as good-looking by others. Beautiful
to people.
people are generally rated as more appealing than average.
Familiarity In general, we are attracted to people with This is due, in part, to the halo effect, a tendency to general-
whom we are familiar (Reis et al., 2011). (That’s one rea- ize a favorable impression to unrelated personal character-
son actors costarring in movies often become romantically istics. Because of it, we assume that attractive people also
involved.) In fact, our choice of friends (and even lovers) is are likable, intelligent, warm, witty, mentally healthy, and
based more on physical proximity (nearness) than we might socially skilled. Basically, we act as if “what is beautiful is
care to believe. Proximity promotes attraction by increasing good” (Lorenzo, Biesanz, & Human, 2010).
the frequency of contact between people. In reality, physical attractiveness has little or no con-
The closer people live to each other, the more likely they nection to intelligence, talents, or abilities. Perhaps that’s
are to become friends. Likewise, lovers like to think they why beauty affects mainly our initial interest in getting to
have found the “one and only” person in the universe for know others (Keller & Young, 1996; Reis et al., 2011). Later,
them. In reality, they have probably found the best match in more meaningful qualities gain in importance. As you dis-
a 5-mile radius (Reis et al., 2011). Marriages are not made in cover that someone has a good personality, he or she will
heaven—they are made in local schools, businesses, church- start looking even more attractive to you. It takes more than
es, bars, clubs, and neighborhoods. appearance to make a lasting relationship (Berscheid, 2010;
In short, there does seem to be a “boy-next-door” or Lewandowski, Aron, & Gee, 2007; Miller, 2012).
“girl-next-door” effect in romantic attraction, and a “folks-
next-door” effect in friendship. Notice, however, that the Reciprocity Okay, so he or she is someone with whom
Internet is making it increasingly easier to stay in constant you are familiar, appears to share a lot in common with you,
“virtual contact,” which is leading to more and more long- and is even hot. What else do you need to know before tak-
distance friendships and romances (Aron, 2012; Sautter, ing it to the next level? Well, it would be nice to know if he
Tippett, & Morgan, 2010). or she also is the least bit interested in you (Greitemeyer,
2010; Montoya & Horton, 2012). In fact, reciprocity, which
Similarity In everything from casual acquaintance to occurs when people respond to each other in similar ways,
marriage, similar people are attracted to each other (Miller, may be the most important factor influencing the develop-
2012; Montoya & Horton, 2013). Similarity refers to how ment of relationships. Most people find it easier to recipro-
alike you are to another person in background, age, sex, in- cate someone else’s overtures than to be the initiator (Mon-
terests, attitudes, ethnicity, beliefs, and so forth. toya & Insko, 2008). That way, at least the embarrassment of
Take a moment to make a list of your closest friends. an outright rejection can be avoided.
What do they have in common (other than the joy of know-
ing you)? It is likely that their ages are similar to yours and
you are of the same sex and ethnicity. There will be excep-
tions, of course. They also likely share common interests, at- Prosocial behavior Any behavior that has a positive impact on
titudes, and beliefs. And why not? It’s reinforcing to see our other people.
beliefs and attitudes shared by others. It shows we are “right” Need to affiliate The desire to associate with other people.
and reveals that they are clever people as well! Interpersonal attraction Social attraction to another person.
So similarity also influences mate selection? Yes. In Reciprocity A mutual exchange of feelings, thoughts, or things
between people.
choosing a mate, we tend to marry someone who is like us in

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622 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

Self-Disclosure
Once initial contact has been made, it’s time to get to know
each other. This is done mainly through the process of self-
disclosure as you begin to share private thoughts and feel-
ings and reveal yourself to others. To get acquainted, you
must be willing to talk about more than just the weather,
sports, or nuclear physics. In general, as friends talk, they
gradually deepen their level of liking, trust, and self-disclo-
sure (Sprecher, Treger, & Wondra, 2013). We more often

Ralf-Finn Hestoft/CORBIS
reveal ourselves to persons we like than to those we find un-
attractive. Disclosure also requires a degree of trust. Many
people play it safe, or “close to the vest,” with people they do
not know well. Indeed, self-disclosure is governed by un-
Excessive self-disclosure is a staple of many television talk shows.
spoken rules about what’s acceptable (Phillips, Rothbard, &
Guests frequently reveal intimate details about their personal lives,
Dumas, 2009). including private family matters, sex and dating, physical or sexual
Moderate self-disclosure leads to increased reciprocity abuse, major embarrassments, and criminal activities. Viewers
In contrast, overdisclosure exceeds what is appropriate for a probably find such intimate disclosures entertaining, rather than
threatening, because they don’t have to reciprocate.
relationship or social situation, giving rise to suspicion and
reducing attraction. For example, imagine standing in line
at a store and having the stranger in front of you say, “Lately off ” and wonder about the person’s motives. It’s interesting to
I’ve been thinking about how I really feel about myself. I note that on the Internet (and especially on social network-
think I’m pretty well adjusted, but I occasionally have some ing sites such as Facebook), people often feel freer to express
questions about my sexual adequacy.” their true feelings, which can lead to personal growth and
When self-disclosure proceeds at a moderate pace, it genuine, face-to-face friendships. However, it also can lead
builds trust, intimacy, reciprocity, and positive feelings. to some very dramatic overdisclosures (Jiang, Bazarova, &
When it is too rapid or inappropriate, we are likely to “back Hancock, 2013; Special & Li-Barber, 2012).

Interpersonal Attraction and Love—The Love Triangle

Survey Question 72.2 How do interpersonal attraction and Liking
love differ? Intimacy

Interpersonal attraction comes in degrees. Casual friend-

ships tend to be based on liking while deeper friendships
Romantic love Companionate love
and romantic relationships are usually based on various Passion 1 intimacy Intimacy 1 commitment
forms of love. According to psychologist Robert Sternberg’s
Consummate love
(1988) triangular theory of love, different forms of love arise Intimacy 1 passion 1
from different combinations of three basic components commitment
(➤ Figure 72.1):
Intimacy refers to feelings of connectedness and affection. Infatuation Empty love
Passion refers to deep emotional and/or sexual feelings. Passion Fatuous love Decision/
Passion 1 commitment commitment
Commitment involves the determination to stay in a
long-term relationship with another person. ➤ Figure 72.1
The triangle of love. Each of the three basic components of love
How does this triangle work? Try it for yourself. Think of (intimacy, passion, and commitment) appears at one corner of the
triangle and is associated with a form of love. Pairs of components
a person to whom you are interpersonally attracted. Refer
and their associated form of love appear on lines of the triangle.
to ■ Table 72.1 as you ask yourself three yes/no questions: Consummate love, which involves all three components, is pictured
Do I feel intimate with this person? Do I feel passion for this at the center of the triangle. (Adapted from Sternberg, 1988.)
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 MODU LE 72 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: P r oS o c ial B e havi o r 623

others (Millings et al., 2013; Nosko et al., 2011; Vrtička &

Table 72.1 Sternberg’s triangular theory of love
Vuilleumier, 2012). For example, studies of dating couples
Combinations of intimacy, passion, and commitment have identified secure, avoidant, and ambivalent attachment
patterns similar to those seen in early child development
Type of Love Intimacy Passion commitment
(Brumbaugh & Fraley, 2010; Lavy, Mikulincer, & Shaver,
Nonlove 2010). Nationally, about 60 percent of all adults have a secure
Liking Yes
attachment style, 25 percent are avoidant, and 10 percent
have ambivalent attachment styles (Mickelson, Kessler, &
Infatuated love Yes Shaver, 1997).
Empty love Yes How can I figure out my attachment style? Read the fol-
lowing statements and see which best describes your adult
Romantic love Yes Yes
relationships:
Companionate love Yes Yes
Secure Attachment Style
Fatuous love Yes Yes In general, I think most other people are well-intentioned
Consummate love Yes Yes Yes and trustworthy.
I find it relatively easy to get close to others.
Source: Sternberg, 1988. I am comfortable relying on others and having others de-
pend on me.
I don’t worry much about being abandoned by others.
person? Am I committed to this person? Find the kind of I am comfortable when other people want to get close to
me emotionally.
love that fits your answers. For example, if you answered yes
to intimacy but no to passion and commitment, you like Avoidant Attachment Style
that person; you are friends. I tend to pull back when things don’t go well in a relation-
Romantic love, in contrast, is based on intimacy, as ship.
well as high levels of passion: emotional arousal, sexual de- I am somewhat skeptical about the idea of true love.
sire, or both (Berscheid & Regan, 2005; Marazziti & Baroni, I have difficulty trusting my partner in a romantic
relationship.
2012). You are experiencing romantic love as you are “fall-
Other people tend to be too eager to seek commitment
ing in love” (Aron et al., 2008). Romantic love differs from
from me.
friendship in another interesting way. In contrast to simple I get a little nervous if anyone gets too close emotionally.
liking, romantic love usually involves deep mutual absorp-
tion. In other words, lovers (unlike friends) attend almost Ambivalent Attachment Style
exclusively to one another (Riela et al., 2010). I have often felt misunderstood and unappreciated in my
Alternatively, if you answered yes to intimacy and com- romantic relationships.
My friends and lovers have been somewhat unreliable.
mitment but no to passion, then you are feeling companionate
love. This form of love is more common among couples
who have been together for a long time. Such couples often Self-disclosure The process of revealing private thoughts, feelings,
and one’s personal history to others.
describe themselves as “being in love” rather than “falling in
Intimacy Feelings of connectedness and affection for another
love” (Riela et al., 2010). person.
Does that mean that the most complete form of love is Passion Deep emotional and/or sexual feelings for another person.
consummate love? You’ve got it! We experience consummate Commitment The determination to stay in a long-term relationship
love when we feel intimacy and passion for another person, with another person.
and we are strongly committed to him or her. Liking A relationship based on intimacy, but lacking passion and
commitment.
Interpersonal Attraction, Love, Romantic love Love that is associated with high levels of interper-
sonal attraction, heightened arousal, mutual absorption, and
and Attachment sexual desire.
Another factor influencing adult interpersonal attraction Companionate love A form of love characterized by intimacy and
and love has its roots deep in childhood (see Module 13). commitment, but not passion.
There is growing evidence that our early attachments to Consummate love A form of love characterized by intimacy, pas-
sion, and commitment.
caregivers can have a lasting impact on how we relate to
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624 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

I love my romantic partner but I worry that she or he misunderstood and unappreciated. Ambivalent persons
doesn’t really love me. worry that their romantic partners don’t really love them or
I would like to be closer to my romantic partner, but I’m may leave them. Although they want to be extremely close
not sure I trust her or him.
to their partners, they are also preoccupied with doubts
Do any of the preceding statements sound familiar? If about the partner’s dependability and trustworthiness.
so, they may describe your adult attachment style (Welch & How could emotional attachments early in life affect adult
Houser, 2010). Do you see any similarities between your pres- relationships? It appears that we use early attachment experi-
ent relationships and your attachment experiences as a child? ences to build mental models about affectionate relationships.
Most adults have a secure attachment style that is marked Later, we use these models as a sort of blueprint for forming,
by caring, intimacy, supportiveness, and understanding maintaining, and breaking bonds of love and affection (Sroufe
in love relationships. Secure persons regard themselves as et al., 2005). It is fascinating to think that our relationships may
friendly, good-natured, and likable. They think of others as be influenced by events early in childhood. Could the source
generally well-intentioned, reliable, and trustworthy. People of adult mating patterns reach even farther back?
with a secure attachment style find it relatively easy to get
close to others. They are comfortable depending on others Evolution and Mate Selection
and having others depend on them. In general, they don’t Evolutionary psychology is the study of the evolutionary
worry too much about being abandoned or about having origins of human behavior patterns (Confer et al., 2010;
someone become too emotionally close to them. Most peo- Geher, 2014). Many psychologists believe that evolution left
ple prefer to have a secure partner, whatever their own style an imprint on men and women that influences everything
might be (Keren & Mayseless, 2013). from sexual attraction and infidelity to jealousy and divorce.
However, it’s not unusual to have an avoidant attach- According to David Buss, the key to understanding human
ment style that reflects a fear of intimacy and a tendency to mating patterns is to understand how evolved behavior pat-
resist commitment to others (Collins et al., 2002). Avoid- terns guide our choices (Buss, D. M., 2007, 2012).
ant persons tend to pull back when things don’t go well in In a study of 37 cultures on six continents, Buss found
a relationship. The avoidant person is suspicious, aloof, and the following patterns: compared with women, men are
skeptical about love. She or he tends to see others as either more interested in casual sex; they prefer younger, more
unreliable or overly eager to commit to a relationship. As a physically attractive partners; and they get more jealous
result, avoidant persons find it hard to completely trust and over real or imagined sexual infidelities than they do over a
depend on others, and they get nervous when anyone gets loss of emotional commitment. Compared with men, wom-
too close emotionally. Basically, they avoid intimacy (Juhl, en prefer slightly older partners who appear to be industri-
Sand, & Routledge, 2012; Lavy, Mikulincer, & Shaver, 2010). ous, higher in status, or economically successful; women are
An ambivalent attachment style is marked by mixed more upset by a partner who becomes emotionally involved
feelings about love and friendship (DeWall et al., 2011). with someone else, rather than one who is sexually unfaith-
Conflicting feelings of affection, anger, emotional turmoil, ful (Buss, 2012; Regan et al., 2000; ➤ Figure 72.2).
physical attraction, and doubt result in an unsettled, ambiv- Why do such differences exist? Buss and others believe
alent state. Often, ambivalent persons regard themselves as that mating preferences evolved in response to the differing

Beautiful
waitress

Average-
looking female
lawyer

➤ Figure 72.2 Average-

looking male
Potential dating partners. What do lawyer
people look for when considering potential
dating partners? Here are the results of a Handsome
cab driver
study in which personal ads were placed
in newspapers. As you can see, men were
more influenced by looks and women by 100 200 300 400 500 600
success (Goode, 1996). Number of responses to personal ad

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 MODU LE 72 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: P r oS o c ial B e havi o r 625

In contrast, the reproductive success of men depends

on their mates’ fertility. Men, therefore, tend to look for
health, youth, and beauty in a prospective mate as signs
of suitability for reproduction. Evolutionary theory fur-
ther proposes that the male emphasis on mates’ sexual
fidelity is based on concerns about the paternity of off-
spring. From a biological perspective, men do not ben-
efit from investing resources in children they did not sire

© Rob Marmion/Shutterstock.com
(Buller, 2005).
Although some evidence supports the evolutionary
view of mating, it is important to remember that evolved
mating tendencies are subtle at best and easily overruled by
other factors. Some mating patterns may simply reflect the
According to evolutionary psychologists, women tend to be fact that men still tend to control the power and resources
concerned with whether mates will devote time and resources to a in most societies (Fine, 2010). Also, early research may be
relationship. Men place more emphasis on physical attractiveness misleading because women tend to give “polite” answers
and sexual fidelity.
to questions about jealousy. Privately, they may be just as
furious about a mate’s sexual infidelity as would any man
reproductive challenges faced by men and women (Buss, D. (Harris, 2004).
M., 2007, 2012; Confer et al., 2010). As a rule, women must Whatever the outcome of the debate about evolution
invest more time and energy in reproduction and nurturing and mate selection, it is important to remember this: Poten-
their young than men. Consequently, women evolved an in- tial mates are rated as most attractive if they are kind, secure,
terest in whether their partners will stay with them and wheth- intelligent, and supportive (Klohnen & Luo, 2003; Regan
er their mates have the resources to provide for their children. et al., 2000). These qualities are love’s greatest allies.

Helping Others—The Ultimate Kindness

Survey Question 72.3 What factors influence our willing- endeavors, we find as many women as men, and often more.
ness to help other people? It is important to remember, perhaps, that sensational and
It is entirely understandable to act kindly toward people to highly visible acts of heroism are only one of many ways in
whom you’re attracted or with whom you are friends or lov- which people engage in selfless, altruistic behavior (Becker &
ers. But what about total strangers? There is no doubt that Eagly, 2004). People who serve as community volunteers, tutors,
showing kindness to strangers, especially when they are in coaches, blood donors, and the like don’t just help others. Often,
need, is perhaps the most tender of prosocial acts (Miku- their efforts contribute to their own personal growth. Thus, it
lincer & Shaver, 2010). can be said that “We do well by doing good” (Piliavin, 2003).
Every year, awards are given to people who risk their But do we always help? Over the years, the popular
lives while saving the lives of others. These heroes are typi- media have circulated a number of dispiriting accounts of
cally honored for saving people from fires, drowning, ani- people failing to help, even in dire circumstances. Among
mal attacks, electrocution, and suffocation. In the aftermath psychologists, one famous example is the 1964 murder of
of the 2015 Paris attacks, many heroic first responders, in- Kitty Genovese in New York City. According to media re-
cluding private citizens, rushed to help the victims, demon- ports, although as many as 38 people watched as her assailant
strating once again the prosocial side of human nature. repeatedly attacked her, no one offered to her any assistance.
The majority of people who perform such heroic acts As the entire country recoiled at the horror, people immedi-
are men, perhaps because of the physical dangers involved. ately blamed the whole affair on the alienation of city life.
However, other heroic, prosocial acts also save lives and in-
Evolutionary psychology The study of the evolutionary origins of
volve personal risk. Examples are kidney donors, Peace Corps
human behavior patterns.
volunteers, and Doctors Without Borders volunteers. In such

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626 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

Popular media reports undoubtedly oversensationalize

such cases, making it difficult to sort fact from fiction (but that
is a topic for another module—Module 6 on information lit-
eracy, to be precise). The facts of the Kitty Genovese case, for
example, are much less dramatic than the sensationalized ver-
sion portrayed in popular media reports of the day and ever
since (Griggs, 2015; Manning, Levine, & Collins, 2007). So

AP Images/Mark Lennihan
too, the uncharitable view of large cities as breeding grounds
for urban apathy has been largely discredited (Gallo, 2015).
Nevertheless, psychological research inspired by the Kitty
Genovese murder has since shown that there is a kernel of
truth to these assertions. Although it is true that urban living Does this person lying on the ground need help? What factors
determine whether a person in trouble will receive help in an
can be dehumanizing, this does not fully explain such bystand-
emergency? Surprisingly, the presence of more potential helpers
er apathy (the unwillingness of bystanders to offer help during tends to lower the chances that help will be given.
emergencies; this also is referred to as the bystander effect).
According to landmark work by psychologists John Darley
few people to drive by will probably stop because the re-
and Bibb Latané (1968), failure to help is related to the number
sponsibility is clearly theirs. In general, Darley and Latané
of people present. Over the years, many studies have shown
assume that bystanders are not apathetic or uncaring: they are
that when more potential helpers are present, the less likely are
inhibited by the presence of others.
people to help (Fischer et al., 2011; Zoccola et al., 2011).
Why would people be less willing to help when others are Bystander Intervention
present? Basically, we are likely to assume that someone else
People must pass through four decision points before giving
will help. The dynamics of this effect are easily illustrated:
help. First, they must notice that something is happening. Next,
Suppose that two motorists have stalled at the roadside, one
they must define the event as an emergency. Then they must
on a sparsely traveled country road and the other on a busy
take responsibility. Finally, they must select a course of action
freeway. Who gets help first?
(➤ Figure 72.3). Laboratory experiments have shown that each
On the freeway, where hundreds of cars pass every min-
step can be influenced by the presence of other people.
ute, each driver can assume that someone else will help.
Personal responsibility for helping is spread so thin that Noticing What would happen if you fainted and collapsed
no one takes action. On the country road, one of the first on the sidewalk? Would someone stop to help? Would people

Do not Do not
notice help

Start Not an Do not

emergency help

Notice
I am not Do not
responsible help
Define as an
emergency
Take I will
responsibility help

➤ Figure 72.3
Steps involved in offering help. This decision tree summarizes the steps a person must take before making a commitment to offer help,
according to Latané and Darley’s model.

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 MODU LE 72 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: P r oS o c ial B e havi o r 627

think you were drunk? Would they even notice you? Dar- People who thought they were alone with the “victim”
ley and Latané suggest that if the sidewalk is crowded, few of this staged emergency reported it immediately or tried to
people will even see you. This has nothing to do with people help. Some participants in the three-person groups failed to
blocking each other’s vision. Instead, it is related to widely respond, and those who did were slower. In the six-person
accepted norms against staring at others in public. People in groups, over a third of the participants took no action at all.
crowds typically “keep their eyes to themselves.” People in this experiment were obviously faced with a conflict
Is there any way to show that this is a factor in bystander like that in many real emergencies: Should they be helpful and
apathy? To test this idea, students were asked to fill out a responsible, or should they mind their own business? Many
questionnaire either alone or in a room full of people. As the were influenced toward inaction by the presence of others.
students worked, a thick cloud of smoke was blown into the People do help in some emergencies. How are these differ-
room through a vent. ent? Helping behavior is complex and influenced by many
Most students left alone in the room noticed the smoke variables (Baumeister & Bushman, 2017). One naturalistic
immediately. Few of the people in groups noticed the smoke experiment staged in a New York City subway gives a hint
until it became difficult to see through it. Participants work- of the kinds of things that may be important. When a “vic-
ing in groups politely kept their eyes on their papers and tim” (actor) “passed out” in a subway car, he received more
avoided looking at others (or the smoke). In contrast, those help when carrying a cane than when carrying a liquor bot-
who were alone scanned the room from time to time. tle (Piliavin, Rodin, & Piliavin, 1969). To better answer the
question, we need to consider some factors not included in
Defining an Emergency The smoke-filled room also Latané and Darley’s account of helping.
shows the influence others have on defining a situation as
an emergency. When participants in groups finally noticed Who Will help Whom?
the smoke, they cast sidelong glances at others in the room. Higher costs (such as possible embarrassment, great effort,
(Remember social comparison?) Apparently, they were and especially personal risk) almost always decrease helping
searching for clues to help interpret what was happening. (Zoccola et al., 2011). In one study, the presence of an extra,
No one wanted to overreact or act like a fool if there was no passive bystander doing nothing to help actually increased
emergency. However, as participants coolly surveyed the the likelihood of people stopping to help in a potentially
reactions of others, they were themselves being watched. dangerous situation (Fischer & Greitemeyer, 2013).
In real emergencies, people sometimes “fake each other Regardless of risk, many studies suggest that when we
out” and underestimate the need for action because each see a person in trouble, it tends to cause heightened arousal
person attempts to appear calm. In short, until someone (Batson, 2010; Dovidio et al., 2006). This aroused, keyed-up
acts, no one does. feeling can motivate us to give aid, but only if the rewards
of helping outweigh the costs. In addition to general arous-
Taking Responsibility Perhaps the most crucial step in
al, potential helpers may also feel empathic arousal. This
helping is assuming responsibility. In this case, groups limit
means they empathize with the person in need or feel some
helping by causing a diffusion of responsibility—spreading
of the person’s pain, fear, or anguish. Helping is much more
responsibility among several people.
likely when we are able to take the perspective of others and
Is that like the unwillingness of drivers to offer help on
feel sympathy for their plight (Batson & Powell, 2003; Myers
a crowded freeway? Exactly. It is the feeling that no one is
& Hodges, 2013). Empathic arousal is especially likely to mo-
personally responsible for helping. This problem was dem-
tivate helping when the person in need seems to be similar
onstrated in an experiment in which students participated
in a group discussion over an intercom system. However,
each group had only one real participant; the others were
tape-recorded actors. Each participant was placed in a sepa- Bystander effect (bystander apathy) The unwillingness of bystand-
ers to offer help during emergencies or to become involved in
rate room (supposedly to maintain confidentiality), and dis- others’ problems.
cussions of college life were begun. During the discussion, Diffusion of responsibility Spreading the responsibility to act
one of the “students” simulated an epileptic-like seizure and among several people; reduces the likelihood that help will be
called out for help. In some cases, participants thought they given to a person in need.
were alone with the seizure victim. Others believed they Empathic arousal Emotion that occurs when you feel some of
another person’s pain, fear, or anguish.
were members of three- or six-person groups.

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628 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

to ourselves (Guéguen, Martin, & Meineri, 2011; Batson, “Devictimize” Yourself If you should find yourself in need
2010). In fact, a feeling of connection to the victim may be of help during an emergency, what can you do to avoid being
one of the most important factors in encouraging helping. a victim of bystander apathy? The work we have reviewed here
This, perhaps, is why being in a good mood also increas- suggests that you should make sure that you are noticed, that
es helping. When we are feeling successful, happy, or fortu- people realize there’s an emergency, and that they need to take
nate, we also may feel more connected to others (Dovidio & action. Being noticed can be promoted in some situations by
Penner, 2001; Lamy, Fischer-Lokou, & Guéguen, 2012). In shouting “Fire!” Bystanders who might run away from a rob-
summary, there is a strong empathy-helping relationship: bery or an assault may rush to see where the fire is. At the very
We are most likely to help someone in need when we “feel least, remember not to just scream. Instead, you should call out
for” that person and experience emotions such as empathy, “Help!” or “I need help right now.” Whenever possible, define
sympathy, and compassion (Batson, 2006, 2010). your situation for bystanders. Say, for instance, “I’m being at-
People who see others helping are more likely to offer tacked—call the police!” Or, “Stop that man, he has my purse.”
help themselves. Also, persons who give help in one situ- You also can directly assign responsibility to a bystander by
ation tend to perceive themselves as helpful people. This pointing to someone and saying, “You, call the police” or “I’m
change in self-image encourages them to help in other situ- injured, I need you to call an ambulance.”
ations. One more point is that norms of fairness encourage
us to help others who have helped us (Dovidio & Penner, Empathy-helping relationship The observation that we are most
2001). For all these reasons, helping others not only assists likely to help someone else when we feel emotions such as empa-
thy and compassion.
them directly, it encourages others to help, too.

MODULE

72 Summary
72.1 Why do we affiliate, and what factors influ- 72.2.3 Adult love relationships tend to mirror patterns of
ence interpersonal attraction? emotional attachment observed in infancy and early
72.1.1 Affiliation is tied to needs for approval, support, childhood. Secure, avoidant, and ambivalent patterns
friendship, love, and information. Also, affiliation can can be defined on the basis of how a person ap-
reduce anxiety. proaches romantic and affectionate relationships
72.1.2 Initial interpersonal attractiveness is increased by with others.
familiarity, similarity, physical attractiveness, and 72.2.4 Evolutionary psychology attributes human mating
reciprocity. patterns to the differing reproductive challenges
72.1.3 Self-disclosure follows a reciprocity norm: low levels of faced by men and women during the course of
self-disclosure are met with low levels in return; moder- evolution.
ate self-disclosure elicits more personal replies. However,
72.3 What factors influence our willingness to
over disclosure tends to inhibit self-disclosure by others. help other people?
72.2 how do interpersonal attraction and love differ? 72.3.1 Four decision points must be passed before a person
72.2.1 Love is an intense form of interpersonal attraction. gives help: noticing, defining an emergency, taking
According to Sternberg’s triangular theory of love, responsibility, and selecting a course of action. Help-
liking involves a desire for intimacy with another ing is less likely at each point when other potential
person, while love involves desiring intimacy as well helpers are present.
as passion and/or commitment. 72.3.2 Helping is encouraged by general arousal, empathic
72.2.2 In comparison with liking, romantic love involves arousal, being in a good mood, low effort or risk,
higher levels of emotional arousal and is accompa- and perceived similarity between the victim and the
nied by mutual absorption between lovers. Consum- helper.
mate love, involving intimacy, passion, and commit- 72.3.3 For several reasons, giving help tends to encourage
ment, is the most complete form of love. others to help, too.

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 MODU LE 72 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: P r oS o c ial B e havi o r 629

Knowledge Builder Social Psychology: Prosocial Behavior

Recite Reflect
1. Interpersonal attraction is increased by all but one of the Think critically
following. (Which does not fit?)
7. How has the Internet altered the effects of proximity on
a. familiarity
interpersonal attraction?
b. reciprocity
c. similarity Self-Reflect
d. social costs How has social comparison affected your behavior? Has it
2. High levels of self-disclosure are reciprocated in most influenced with whom you associate?
social encounters. T or F? Think of three close friends. Which of the attraction fac-
3. In Sternberg’s triangular theory, infatuated love involves tors described earlier apply to your friendships?
passion but not commitment or intimacy. T or F? To what extent does Sternberg’s triangular theory of love
4. The most striking finding about marriage patterns is that apply to your own relationships?
most people choose mates whose personalities are quite An elderly woman is at the side of the road, trying to
unlike their own. T or F? change a flat tire. She obviously needs help. You are approach-
5. _______________________ behavior refers to actions ing her in your car. What must happen before you are likely to
that are constructive, altruistic, or helpful to others. stop and help her?
6. People are more likely to help another who is in
trouble if AN SW E R S
a. many other helpers are present romances are a good example of this possibility.
b. a diffusion of responsibility occurs because frequent contact is possible even at great distances. Internet
c. they experience empathic arousal makes actual physical proximity less crucial in interpersonal attraction

d. desensitization takes place

1. d 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. prosocial 6. c 7. As mentioned earlier, the Internet

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MODULE
Social Psychology
73 Antisocial Behavior

The Struggle for Survival

It might seem that the horrors of war and the ravages of ter-
rorism would lead to a worldwide revulsion for killing. Yet,
violent and aggressive behavior remains so commonplace it is
often viewed as entertainment. Aggression is only one form of
antisocial behavior, all of which involve having a negative effect
on people around us. For example, while love and friendship
bring people together, prejudice and discrimination, which are
marked by suspicion, fear, or hatred, have the opposite effect.
How “natural” is aggressive behavior? What causes ag-
gression? Can violence be reduced? What are the origins of
prejudice and discrimination? How can such hurtful attitudes
be reduced? Around the world, we are becoming ever more in-
Ronald Martinez/Getty Images

terdependent. At the same time, it is becoming easier for even

a “lone wolf ” to cause widespread damage. Finding answers
to questions like those posed here becomes even more impor-
tant. If nothing else, we owe it to the victims, past and future.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
73.1 How do psychologists explain human aggression? 73.3 What can be done about prejudice and intergroup
73.2 What is prejudice, and what causes it? conflict?

Aggression—The World’s Most Dangerous Animal

Survey Question 73.1 How do psychologists explain
average of nearly one person every 18 seconds) during the
human aggression?
20th century (Pinker, 2011). War, homicide, riots, family
Our understanding of social behavior would be incomplete violence, assassination, rape, assault, forcible robbery, and
without examining antisocial behavior—any behavior that other violent acts offer sad testimony to the realities of hu-
has a negative impact on other people. Bluntly put, we hu- man aggression (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2011).
mans are capable of hatred and cruelty as well as love and
kindness. Let’s begin with aggression, which refers to any ac- Bullying It is worth noting that aggression can be ex-
tion carried out with the intention of harming another per- pressed in many ways, from the truly horrific, such as ethnic
son. The human capacity for aggression is staggering. More cleansing and gangland executions, to the more mundane,
than 180 million humans were killed by other humans (an such as harassment and the one-finger salute. As an example,
630
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 MODU LE 73 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: anti S o c ial B e havi o r 631

one pervasive form is bullying, defined as any behavior that

deliberately and repeatedly exposes a person to negative ex-
periences (Powell & Ladd, 2010). Bullies tend to deal with
everyday situations by resorting to aggression. Bullying can
be verbal (name-calling, insults, teasing) or physical (hit-
ting, pushing, confining), and it can also be direct (“in your
face”) or indirect (intentional exclusion, spreading rumors).
Whereas male bullies are more likely than females to engage

© Arena Creative/Shutterstock.com
in direct physical aggression, female bullies tend to special-
ize in indirect verbal aggression (Field et al., 2009).
Bullying is a worldwide phenomenon. It occurs among
all age groups and in all settings. It can even be found on-
line, in the form of cyberbullying (Bonanno & Hymel, 2013).
Childhood bullying can have long-term consequences for Road rage and some freeway shootings may be a reaction to
the mental health of both bullies and their victims (Sansone, the stress and frustration of traffic congestion. The fact that
Leung, & Wiederman, 2013; Twemlow & Sacco, 2012). Ado- automobiles provide anonymity, or a loss of personal identity, also
may encourage aggressive actions that would not otherwise occur.
lescent and adult bullying can lead to serious violence, in-
cluding murder and suicide.
What causes aggression such as bullying? Aggression has and aggression. A variety of studies show that alcohol is in-
many potential causes (DeWall & Anderson, 2011). Let’s volved in large percentages of murders and violent crimes.
look at some of the major possibilities. Intoxicating drugs also seem to lower inhibitions to act
aggressively—often with tragic results (Lundholm et al.,
Biology 2013; Quigley & Leonard, 2000).
Some theorists argue that humans are naturally aggressive, Regardless, none of these biological factors can be con-
having inherited a “killer instinct” from our animal ances- sidered a direct cause of aggression (Moore, 2001; Popma
tors (Buss, D. M., 2012). While this idea has intuitive appeal, et al., 2007). Instead, they probably lower the threshold for
many psychologists question it (Rhee & Waldman, 2011). aggression, making hostile behavior more likely to occur
Just labeling a behavior as due to an instinct—an innate im- (Tackett & Krueger, 2011). The fact that we are biologically
pulse that directs or motivates behavior—does little to ex- capable of aggression does not mean that aggression is inevi-
plain it. More important, we are left with the question of table or “part of human nature.” Humans are fully capable
why some individuals or human groups (the Arapesh, the of learning to inhibit aggression. For example, the Quakers
Senoi, the Navajo, the Eskimo, and others) show little hos- and the Amish, who live in this country’s increasingly vio-
tility or aggression. And, thankfully, the vast majority of lent culture, adopt nonviolence as a way of life.
humans do not kill or harm others.
Frustration
Nevertheless, aggression does have biological roots
(Rhee & Waldman, 2011). Physiological studies have shown Step on a dog’s tail and you may get nipped. Frustrate a hu-
that some brain areas are capable of triggering or ending ag- man and you may get insulted. As we also discuss in Mod-
gressive behavior. Also, researchers have found a relation- ule 56, frustration tends to lead to aggression, a relationship
ship between aggression and such physical factors as hypo- known as the frustration-aggression hypothesis.
glycemia (low blood sugar), allergies, alcohol and drug use,
and specific brain injuries and diseases. For both men and
Antisocial behavior Any behavior that has a negative impact on
women, higher levels of the hormone testosterone may be other people.
associated with more aggressive behavior (Mehta & Beer, Bullying The deliberate and repeated use of aggression (whether
2010; Montoya et al., 2012). Perhaps because of their higher verbal or physical, direct or indirect) as a tactic for dealing with
testosterone levels, men are more likely to engage in physical everyday situations.
aggression than women (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Instinct Innate impulse that directs or motivates behavior.
The effects of alcohol and other drugs provide another Frustration-aggression hypothesis States that frustration tends to
lead to aggression.
indication of the role of the brain and biology in violence

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632 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

Does frustration always produce aggression? Although responses. A raised middle finger, for instance, is an almost
the connection is strong, a moment’s thought will show that universal invitation to aggression in North America. Weap-
frustration does not always lead to aggression. Frustration, ons serve as particularly strong cues for aggressive behav-
for instance, may lead to stereotyped responses or perhaps ior (Morgan, 2005). The implication of this weapons effect
to a state of “learned helplessness” (see Module 57). Also, seems to be that the symbols and trappings of aggression
aggression can occur in the absence of frustration. This pos- encourage aggression. A prime example is the fact that mur-
sibility is illustrated by sports spectators who start fights, ders are more likely to occur in homes in which guns are
throw bottles, tear down goalposts, and so forth—after their kept (Miller, Hemenway, & Azraela, 2007).
team has won.
Social Learning
Aversive Stimuli Frustration probably encourages ag-
One of the most widely accepted explanations of aggression is
gression because it is uncomfortable. Various aversive stim-
also the simplest. Social learning theory holds that we learn
uli, which produce discomfort or displeasure, can heighten
to be aggressive by observing aggression in others (Bandu-
hostility and aggression (Morgan, 2005; Simister & Cooper,
ra, 2001; Lefrançois, 2012). Social learning theory combines
2005; ➤ Figure 73.1). Examples include insults, high air
learning principles with cognitive processes, socialization,
temperatures, pain, and even disgusting scenes or odors.
and modeling to explain behavior. According to this view,
Such stimuli probably raise overall arousal levels so that
there is no instinctive human programming for fistfighting,
we become more sensitive to aggression cues—signals that
pipe bombing, knife wielding, gun loading, 95-mile-an-hour
are associated with aggression (Schwenzer, 2008). Aversive
“beanballs,” or other violent or aggressive behaviors. Hence,
stimuli also tend to activate ideas, memories, and expres-
aggression must be learned (➤ Figure 73.2). Is it any won-
sions associated with anger and aggression (Morgan, 2005).
der that people who were victims of violence during child-
Some cues for aggression are internal (angry thoughts, for
hood are more likely to become violent themselves (Murrell,
instance). Many are external: Certain words, actions, and ges-
Christoff, & Henning, 2007)?
tures made by others are strongly associated with aggressive
Social learning theorists predict that people growing
up in nonaggressive cultures will themselves be nonaggres-
0.6 sive. Those raised in a culture with aggressive models and
heroes will learn aggressive responses. Considered in such
terms, it is no wonder that the United States has become one
of the more violent countries. More than 1,165,000 violent
Hit by pitch per game

0.5 crimes occurred in the United States during 2014 (Federal

Bureau of Investigation, 2015). (On the bright side, the vio-
lent crime rate has declined by over 15 percent in the last
decade.) Over 40 percent of U.S. households own at least
0.4

Minor Aggression Physical Fighting

0.3 Bullying, annoying others Fighting, gang fighting
below 70 70–79 80–89 90 and above
Temperature (8F)

➤ Figure 73.1
Hit batters as a function of temperature. Personal discomfort Violence
Rape, attack, mugging
caused by aversive (unpleasant) stimuli can make aggressive
behavior more likely. For example, studies of crime rates show that
the incidence of highly aggressive behavior, such as murder, rape,
and assault, rises as the air temperature goes from warm to hot ➤ Figure 73.2
to sweltering (Anderson, 1989). The results you see here further Progression of aggression. Violent behavior among delinquent
support the heat-aggression link. The graph shows that there is boys doesn’t appear overnight. Usually, their capacity for
a strong association between the temperatures at major league violence develops slowly as they move from minor aggression to
baseball games and the number of batters hit by a pitch during increasingly brutal acts. Overall aggression increases dramatically
those games. When the temperature goes over 90°, watch out for in early adolescence as boys gain physical strength and more
that fastball (Reifman, Larrick, & Fein, 1991)! access to weapons (after Loeber & Hay, 1997).

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 MODU LE 73 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: anti S o c ial B e havi o r 633

one firearm (Agresti & Smith, 2015). Children and adults Parents can make a big difference if they do the following
are treated to an almost nonstop parade of aggressive mod- (Frydman, 1999; McKenna & Ossoff, 1998; Thoman, 2011):
els, in the media as well as in actual behavior. We are, with-
1. Start by creating a safe, warm environment at home and
out a doubt, an aggressive culture. (See Module 27 to review
school and by modeling positive ways of getting along
evidence that media exposure to violence may play a role in
in the world.
the social learning of aggressive behavior.)
2. Limit total media time so that television and computer
games do not dominate your child’s view of the world.
Preventing Aggression
Don’t use media as a babysitter.
What can be done about aggression? Social learning theory
3. Closely monitor what your child does experience.
implies that “aggression begets aggression” and “kindness
Change channels or turn off the television if you object
begets kindness.” For example, children who are physi-
to a program. Be prepared to offer games and activities
cally abused at home, those who suffer severe physical
that stimulate your child’s imagination and creativity as
punishment, and those who merely witness violence in
well as model positive behavior and social attitudes.
the community or in the media are more likely to be in-
4. Explore media with your child so that you can coun-
volved in fighting, aggressive play, and antisocial behav-
ter what is shown. Help your young child distinguish
ior at school (Bartholow, Sestir, & Davis, 2005). Similarly,
between reality and fantasy.
experiences of prosocial behaviors (consisting of actions
toward others that are helpful, constructive, or altruistic) Let’s close with some good news. Harvard University psy-
reduce aggression by increasing helping, cooperation, chologist Steven Pinker has suggested that if you compare the
charity, and brotherhood (Greitemeyer, 2011; Greitemeyer amount of violence in the modern world with the more distant
et al., 2012). past, it appears that we humans are losing our taste for aggres-
Accordingly, one way to lower aggression may be to sion (Pinker, 2011). Improving human rights around the globe,
reduce exposure to violence, as well as increasing our ex- along with reductions in slavery, executions, and torture are all
posure to prosocial behaviors (Meier & Wilkowski, 2013). signs that “the better angels of our nature” are in ascendancy.

Prejudice—Attitudes That Injure

Survey Question 73.2 What is prejudice, and what causes it? perceived as a threat to one’s own interests. For example,
Love and friendship bring people together. Prejudice, which members of another group may be viewed as competitors for
is marked by suspicion, fear, or hatred, has the opposite ef- jobs. Group prejudice arises when a person conforms to group
fect. Prejudice, an all-too-common part of daily life, is a norms. Let’s say, for instance, that you have no personal reason
negative attitude toward an entire group of people (Biernat for disliking out-group members. Nevertheless, your friends,
& Danaher, 2013). Stereotyping, prejudice and discrimina- acquaintances, or relatives expect it of you.
tion directed against people based solely on their race is
racism. If the sole basis is gender, that is sexism, and if the
Social learning theory A theory that combines learning principles
sole basis is age, that is ageism. Heterosexism is based solely with cognitive processes, socialization, and modeling, to explain
on the belief that heterosexuality is better or more natural behavior.
than homosexuality. (It is worth noting that even when prej- Prejudice Positive or negative attitude toward an entire group of
udices are positive, they oversimplify individuals.) What are people.
the different forms and origins of prejudice? How can preju- Racism Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination directed against
someone based solely on their race.
dice and hurtful attitudes be reduced? Psychologists have
Sexism Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination directed against
provided valuable insights into these questions. someone based solely on their gender.
Ageism Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination directed against
Sources and Forms of Prejudice someone based solely on their age.
Distinguished psychologist Gordon Allport (1958) concluded Heterosexism Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination directed
that there are two important sources of prejudice. Personal against someone based solely on the belief that heterosexuality is
better or more natural than homosexuality.
prejudice arises when members of another ethnic group are

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634 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

Prejudice is easy to notice when it is explicit and out in the school (Whitley & Kite, 2010). For example, in many cities,
open (Payne et al., 2010). However, because many people real- African Americans have been the targets of “racial profil-
ize that crude and obvious racism is no longer socially unac- ing,” in which police stop them without reason. Sometimes,
ceptable, the public expression of explicit prejudice has become they are merely questioned, but many are cited for minor in-
much less common. As a consequence, prejudice is now often fractions, such as a cracked taillight or an illegal lane change.
disguised as symbolic prejudice—the expression of prejudice For many law-abiding citizens, being detained in this man-
in subtly veiled forms (Anderson, 2010; Neville et al., 2013). ner is a rude awakening (Plous, 2003). It’s also one reason
For example, modern racists must find ways to rationalize their many African Americans and other minority persons in the
prejudice so that it seems to be based on issues other than raw United States distrust police and the legal system (Dovidio
racism. One common way to disguise racism, then, is to offer et al., 2002). As distinguished African-American psycholo-
subtly racist opinions framed in terms of topics such as affirma- gist Kenneth Clark said, “Racial prejudice . . . debases all hu-
tive action, busing, immigration, crime, and so on. man beings—those who are its victims, those who victimize,
In a similar vein, suppose a European American candidate and in quite subtle ways, those who are merely accessories.”
and an equally qualified African American candidate apply for
Becoming Prejudiced
a job. Both are only moderately qualified for the position. If
the person making the hiring decision is European American, How do prejudices develop? One major theory suggests that
who gets the job? As you might guess, the European American prejudice is a form of scapegoating (blaming a person or a group
candidate is much more likely to be hired. In other words, for the actions of others or for conditions not of their mak-
the European American candidate will be given “the benefit ing). Scapegoating is a type of displaced aggression in which
of the doubt” about his or her abilities, whereas the African hostilities triggered by frustration are redirected at “safer”
American candidate won’t. People making such decisions of- targets (Glick, 2008; Reijntjes et al., 2013). One interesting clas-
ten believe that they aren’t being prejudiced, but they never- sic test of this hypothesis was conducted at a summer camp for
theless unconsciously discriminate against minorities (Berg, young men. The men were given a difficult test that they were
2013; Dovidio et al., 2002). While it is an admirable step, sure to fail. In addition, completing the test caused them to
making a conscious decision to forsake prejudice does not miss a trip to the movies, which was normally the high point
immediately eliminate implicit prejudice, unconscious preju- of their weekly entertainment. Attitudes toward Mexicans
diced thoughts and feelings about members of other groups and Japanese were measured before the test and after the men
(Anderson, 2010; Nosek, Greenwald, & Banaji, 2005; Waller, had failed the test and missed the movie. Participants in this
Lampman, & Lupfer-Johnson, 2012). study, all European Americans, consistently rated members of
Note, too, that when a prejudiced person meets a pleas- the two ethnic groups lower after being frustrated (Miller &
ant or likable member of a rejected group, the out-group Bugelski, 1948). This effect has been easy to observe since the
member tends to be perceived as “an exception to the rule,” September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the United States, as
not as evidence against the stereotype. This prevents prej- people who look “foreign” have become targets for displaced
udiced persons from changing their stereotyped beliefs anger and hostility (Ahluwalia & Pellettiere, 2010).
(Asgari, Dasgupta, & Stout, 2012). At times, the development of prejudice (like other atti-
Finally, prejudice can also be institutionalized in the pol- tudes) can be traced to direct experiences with members of the
icies of organizations such as police departments, schools, rejected group. A child who is repeatedly bullied by members
or governments. Then it is generally referred to as systemic of a particular ethnic group might develop a lifelong dislike
prejudice or, more specifically, systemic racism, sexism, for all members of the group. Yet even subtle influences, such
ageism, or heterosexism, depending on the group affected as parents’ attitudes, the depiction of people in books and on
(Harrell & Medford, 2012). television, and exposure to children of other races can have an
impact. By the time they are three years old, many children
Discrimination Because it is so prevalent and damaging, show signs of race bias (Katz, 2003). Sadly, once prejudices are
let’s focus on racism (Miller & Garran, 2008). Both racial established, they prevent us from accepting more positive ex-
prejudice and racism lead to discrimination, or unfair ac- periences that could reverse the damage (Jackson, 2011).
tions toward people based on stereotyping and prejudice
(Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2017). Discrimination prevents The Prejudiced Personality
people from doing things they should be able to do, such Other research suggests that prejudice can be a general per-
as buying a house, getting a job, or attending a high-quality sonality characteristic. Theodor Adorno and his associates

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 MODU LE 73 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: anti S o c ial B e havi o r 635

(1950) described what they called the authoritarian person- ◗ What this country needs most, more than laws and
ality. These researchers started out by studying anti-Semi- political programs, is a few courageous, tireless, devoted
tism. In the process, they found that people who are prej- leaders, in whom the people can put their faith.
udiced against one group tend to be prejudiced against all ◗ Nobody ever learns anything really important except
out-groups (Kteily, Sidanius, & Levin, 2011; McAvoy, 2012). through suffering.
What are the characteristics of the prejudice-prone ◗ Every person should have complete faith in some supernat-
personality? The authoritarian personality is marked ural power whose decisions are obeyed without question.
by rigidity, inhibition, prejudice, and oversimplification ◗ Certain religious sects that refuse to salute the flag
(black-and-white thinking, so to speak). In addition, au- should be forced to conform to such patriotic action or
thoritarians exhibit right wing authoritarianism, placing a else be abolished.
highly value on social conformity (Duckitt & Sibley, 2010;
Feldman, 2003). Authoritarians also tend to be very ethno- As you can see, authoritarians are rather close-minded
centric. Ethnocentrism refers to placing one’s own group (Butler, 2000; Roets & Van Hiel, 2011). As children, most were
“at the center,” usually by rejecting all other groups. In fact, severely punished. As a result, they learned to fear authority
authoritarians have a general social dominance orientation (and to covet it) at an early age. In general, people are more
and think they are superior to everyone who is different, likely to express authoritarian beliefs when they feel threatened.
not just other ethnic groups (Altemeyer, 2004; Duckitt & One example would be calling for more severe punishment in
Sibley, 2010). schools when the economy is bad and job insecurities are high.
To measure these qualities, the F scale was created (the Although it may appear that the F scale is slanted to-
F stands for fascism). This scale is made up of statements ward politically conservative authoritarians, rigid and au-
such as the ones that follow—to which authoritarians read- thoritarian personalities can be found at both ends of the
ily agree (Adorno et al., 1950): political scale (Pettigrew, 2016). It may be better, therefore,
to describe rigid and intolerant thinking as dogmatism, an
Authoritarian Beliefs unwarranted certainty in matters of belief or opinion. Dog-
◗ Obedience and respect for authority are the most impor- matic persons find it difficult to change their beliefs, even
tant virtues that children should learn. when the evidence contradicts them (Peterson et al., 2016;
◗ People can be divided into two distinct classes: the weak White-Ajmani & Bursik, 2011).
and the strong. Even if we discount the obvious bigotry of the authoritar-
◗ If people would talk less and work more, everybody ian personality, racial prejudice runs deep in many nations.
would be better off. Let’s probe deeper into the roots of such prejudiced behavior.

Intergroup Conflict—The Roots of Prejudice

Survey Question 73.3 What can be done about prejudice
Symbolic prejudice Prejudice that is expressed in a disguised
and intergroup conflict? fashion.
An unfortunate byproduct of group membership is that it Implicit prejudice Unconscious prejudiced thoughts and feelings
about members of other groups.
often limits contact with people in other groups (Hodson &
Systemic prejudice Prejudice that has become institutionalized (that
Hewstone, 2013). In addition, groups themselves may come is, it is reflected in government policy, schools, and so forth) and
into conflict. Both situations tend to foster hatred and preju- that is enforced by the existing social power structure.
dice toward the out-group (Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2017). Discrimination (in social behavior) Unfair actions based on stereo-
Shared beliefs concerning superiority, injustice, vulner- typing and prejudice.
Authoritarian personality A personality pattern characterized
ability, and distrust are common triggers for hostility between
by rigidity, inhibition, prejudice, and an excessive concern with
groups. Pick almost any group in conflict with others and you power, authority, and obedience.
will find people thinking along these lines: “We are special Ethnocentrism Placing one’s own group or race at the center—that
people who are superior to other groups, but we have been is, tending to reject all other groups but one’s own.
unjustly exploited, wronged, or humiliated [superiority and Dogmatism An unwarranted positiveness or certainty in matters of
belief or opinion.
injustice]. Other groups are a threat to us [vulnerability].

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636 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

They are dishonest and have repeatedly betrayed us [distrust]. into a small, distorted social “box” is limiting and insulting.
Naturally, we are hostile toward them. They don’t deserve our Stereotypes rob people of their individuality (Kteily, Hod-
respect or cooperation” (Eidelson & Eidelson, 2003; Whitley son, & Bruneau, 2016; Maddox, 2004).
& Kite, 2010). How much, we wonder, did factors such as Note, too, that when a prejudiced person meets a pleas-
these influence the 2015 Paris attacks? ant or likable member of a rejected group, the out-group
In addition to hostile beliefs about other groups, con- member tends to be perceived as “an exception to the rule,”
flicts are almost always amplified by stereotyped images of not as evidence against the stereotype. This prevents preju-
out-group members (Crandall et al., 2011; Pereira, Estrami- diced persons from changing their stereotyped beliefs (As-
ana, & Gallo, 2010). gari, Dasgupta, & Stout, 2012). In addition, some elements
What exactly is a stereotype? Stereotypes are oversim- of prejudice are unconscious, which makes them difficult to
plified images of people in various groups. There is a good change (Dovidio et al., 2002).
chance that you have stereotyped images of some of the fol-
Self-Stereotyping and Stereotype Threat It is espe-
lowing: African Americans, European Americans, Hispan-
cially troubling when people begin to self-stereotype, half-
ics, Jews, women, Christians, old people, men, Asian Ameri-
way believing the stereotypes applied to them, or at least
cans, blue-collar workers, Southerners, politicians, business
worrying about how they appear in the presence of stereo-
executives, teenagers, or billionaires (➤ Figure 73.3). In
typers (Schmader, Croft, & Whitehead, 2014; Tine & Got-
general, the top three categories on which most stereotypes
lieb, 2013).
are based are sex, age, and race (Fiske et al., 2002).
Consider Bill, a retired aircraft mechanic, who has
Stereotypes tend to simplify people into “us” and “them”
agreed to talk to a group of high school students about the
categories. Aside from the fact that they always oversimpli-
early days of commercial aviation. During his talk, Bill is
fy, stereotypes may include a mixture of positive or negative
concerned that any slip in his memory will confirm ste-
qualities. Even though stereotypes sometimes include posi-
reotypes about older people being forgetful. Because he is
tive traits, they are mainly used to demean and control peo-
anxious and preoccupied about possible memory lapses,
ple. That’s why no one likes to be stereotyped. Being forced
Bill actually “chokes,” suffering problems with his memory
(Mazerolle et al., 2012).
As Bill’s example suggests, negative stereotypes can have
a self-fulfilling quality. This is especially true in situations
in which a person’s abilities are evaluated. For example, Af-
rican American and other minority group students must
often cope with negative stereotypes about their academic
abilities (Steele & Aronson, 1995; Owens & Massey, 2011).
Sam Forencich/National Basketball Association/Getty Images

Could such stereotypes actually impair school performance?

Psychologist Claude Steele has amassed evidence that
victims of stereotyping tend to feel stereotype threat. They
can feel threatened when they think they are being judged
in terms of a stereotype. The anxiety that this causes can
then lower performance, seemingly confirming the stereo-
type (Spencer, Logel, & Davies, 2016). An experiment that
Steele did demonstrates this effect. In the study, African-
American and European-American college students took a
very difficult verbal test. Some students were told that the
➤ Figure 73.3
test measured academic ability. Others were told that the test
Racial stereotypes are common in sports. For example, a study
confirmed that many people actually believe that “white men can’t was a laboratory problem-solving task unrelated to ability. In
jump.” This stereotype implies that black basketball players are the ability condition, African-American students performed
naturally superior in athletic ability. White players, in contrast, are worse than European Americans. In the problem-solving
falsely perceived as smarter and harder working than black players.
condition, they performed the same as European Ameri-
Such stereotypes set up expectations that distort the perceptions of
fans, coaches, and sportswriters. The resulting misperceptions, in cans (Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson, 1995). A similar effect
turn, help perpetuate the stereotypes (Stone, Perry, & Darley, 1997). occurs with women, who score lower on math and finance

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 MODU LE 73 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: anti S o c ial B e havi o r 637

tests after being reminded of the stereotype that “women aren’t using eye color, especially given recent biological evidence
good at math” (Cadinu et al., 2005; Carr & Steele, 2010). that it does not even make genetic sense to talk about “races”
In light of such findings, Steele and others are currently (Richeson & Sommers, 2016).
working on ways to combat stereotype threat, so that all stu- At first, Elliott made an effort to constantly criticize and
dents can use their potentials more fully (Bowen, Wegmann, belittle the brown-eyed children. To her surprise, the blue-
& Webber, 2013; Alter et al., 2010; Cohen et al., 2009). With- eyed children rapidly joined in and were soon outdoing her
out stereotypes, there would be far less hate, prejudice, ex- in the viciousness of their attacks. The blue-eyed children
clusion, and conflict. began to feel superior, and the brown-eyed children felt just
plain awful. Fights broke out. Test scores of the brown-eyed
Experiments in Prejudice children fell.
How do stereotypes and intergroup tensions develop? Two ex- How lasting were the effects of this experiment? The ef-
periments, both in unlikely settings and both using children fects were short-lived because, two days later, the children’s
as participants, offer some insight into these problems. roles were reversed. Before long, the same destructive effects
What is it like to be discriminated against? In a unique occurred again, but this time in reverse. The implications
experiment, elementary school teacher Jane Elliott sought of this experiment are unmistakable. In less than one day
to give her pupils direct experience with prejudice. On the it was possible to get children to hate each other because
first day of the experiment, Elliott announced that brown- of eye color and status inequalities—differences in power,
eyed children were to sit in the back of the room, and that prestige, or privileges. Certainly the effects of a lifetime of
they could not use the drinking fountain. Blue-eyed chil- real-life racial or ethnic prejudice are infinitely more pow-
dren were given extra recess time and got to use the foun- erful and destructive. Racism is a major source of stress in
tain and leave first for lunch. At lunch, brown-eyed children the lives of many people of color. Over time, prejudice can
were prevented from taking second helpings because they have a negative impact on a person’s physical and emotional
would “just waste it.” Brown-eyed and blue-eyed children health (Brondolo et al., 2011).
were kept from mingling, and the blue-eyed children were
Political Prejudice in America—Is America Pur-
told they were “cleaner” and “smarter” (Peters, 1971).
ple? As research suggests, it is easy to create prejudice. Pick
Eye color might seem like a trivial basis for creating prej-
any simplistic way to divide a group of people into “us” and
udices. However, people use primarily skin color to make
“them” and popularize it. That’s what teacher Jane Elliott did
decisions about the race of another person (Glenn, 2009).
when she divided her class into the brown-eyed kids and the
Surely this is just as superficial a way of judging people as
blue-eyed kids. In no time at all, the groups were prejudiced
against each other.
But that was just an experiment. It couldn’t happen in the
real world, right? According to psychologists Conor Seyle
and Matthew Newman (2006), we are witnessing just such
a real-world example in the United States today. In order to
graphically convey the outcome of the presidential vote in
the 2000 election, USA TODAY created a state-by-state map,
color-coded red and blue, to denote states that had voted for
Worldwide Features/Barcroft Me/Getty Images

the Republican candidate or the Democratic candidate.

Just a few years later, “red” and “blue” has become a na-
tional shorthand for dividing Americans into opposing camps.
The “reds” are supposed to be Republican, conservative,

Stereotype Oversimplified images of the traits of individuals who

belong to a particular social group.
Are these children of different “races”? Yes, this is a trick question. Stereotype threat The anxiety caused by the fear of being judged in
Only skin color differentiates these nonidentical twins. The odds, terms of a stereotype.
by the way, of mixed race parents having a pair of twins like these Status inequalities Differences in the power, prestige, or privileges
two are one in a million. How fair will it be when these two children of two or more persons or groups.
experience differential treatment based solely on their skin color?

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638 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

middle-class, rural, religious, and live in the American heart-

land. The “blues” are supposed to be Democrat, liberal, upper-
class, urban, nonreligious, and live on the coasts. The result
is that the complex American social world is reduced to two
oversimplified stereotypes, leading to an increase in between-
group prejudice (Binning et al., 2010; Mundy, 2004).
This oversimplification ignores the fact that, in many

© wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock.com
states, the presidential votes are very close. Thus, a state
that is “red” by 51 percent is nevertheless 49 percent “blue.”
Besides, many different combinations exist. How do you
categorize someone from California (a “blue” state) who
is an economic conservative, attends church occasionally,
lives in San Francisco, supports gay marriage, and yet votes
Republican? Many school districts in the United States require students to
According to Seyle & Newman (2006), a better ap- wear uniforms. Appearance (including gang colors) is one of the
major reasons that kids treat each other differently. Uniforms help
proach is to recognize that the United States is made of a minimize status inequalities and in-group/out-group distinctions.
full spectrum of political, social, religious, and economic In one school district, a switch to uniforms was followed by a 91
views and that most Americans are “purple.” Thinking this percent drop in student assaults, thefts, vandalism, and weapons
and drug violations (Ritter, 1998).
way also highlights the fact that Americans of all political
persuasions share more similarities than they do differences
when compared with the citizens of other countries. This that more frequent equal-status contact between groups in
more tolerant, less polarizing view of America is reflected conflict should reduce prejudice and stereotyping (Koschate
in the “purple America” map (Gastner, Shalizi, & Newman, & van Dick, 2011; Pettigrew, 2016). Equal-status contact re-
2005; ➤ Figure 73.4). “Thinking purple” just might result in fers to interacting on an equal footing, without obvious dif-
a more productive national discussion about the important ferences in power or status. In various studies, mixed-race
issues facing the United States today. groups have been formed at work, in the laboratory, and at
schools. The conclusion from such research is that personal
combatting Prejudice contact with a disliked group tends to induce friendly be-
What can be done to combat prejudice? Several lines of havior, respect, and liking. However, these benefits occur
thought (including cognitive dissonance theory) suggest only when personal contact is cooperative and on an equal
footing (Grack & Richman, 1996).
Superordinate Goals Let’s now consider a revealing
study done with 11-year-old boys. When the boys arrived at
a summer camp, they were split into two groups and housed
in separate cabins. At first, the groups were kept apart to
build up separate identities and friendships. Soon each
group had a flag and a name (the “Rattlers” and the “Ea-
gles”), and each had staked out its territory. At this point, the
two groups were placed in competition with each other. Af-
ter several clashes, dislike between the groups bordered on
hatred: the boys baited each other, started fights, and raided
each other’s cabins (Sherif et al., 1961).
Were they allowed to go home hating each other? As an ex-
➤ Figure 73.4 periment in reducing intergroup conflict, and to prevent the
Purple America map. Counties within states voting more than boys from remaining enemies, various strategies to reduce
70 percent Republican appear in red; areas voting more than 70
tensions were tried. Holding meetings between group lead-
percent Democratic appear in blue. Shades of purple represent
intermediate percentages of voters. Source: http://www-personal. ers did nothing. When the groups were invited to eat togeth-
umich.edu/~mejn/election/2008/. 2008 M. E. J. Newman. er, the event turned into a free-for-all. Finally, emergencies

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 MODU LE 73 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: anti S o c ial B e havi o r 639

that required cooperation among members of both groups

were staged at the camp. For example, the water supply was
damaged so that all the boys had to work together to re-
pair it. These emergencies created superordinate goals that
exceeded or overrode the lesser competitive goals. Creating
this and other superordinate goals helped restore peace be-

© Pavel L Photo and Video/Shutterstock.com

tween the two groups.
Cooperation and shared goals seem to help reduce con-
flict by encouraging people in opposing groups to see them-
selves as members of a single, larger group (Gaertner et al.,
2000; Pettigrew, 2016). Superordinate goals, in other words,
have a “we’re all in the same boat” effect on perceptions of
group membership. The power of superordinate goals can
be seen in the unity that prevailed in the United States (and In a “jigsaw” classroom, children help each other prepare for tests.
throughout much of the rest of the world) for months after As they teach each other what they know, the children learn to
cooperate and to respect the unique strengths of each individual.
the September 11 terrorist attacks. Superordinate goals also
are an important factor in helping peacekeepers construc-
tively engage with people from other nationalities (Boniecki puzzle. In a jigsaw classroom, each child is given a “piece”
& Britt, 2003; Whitley & Kite, 2010). of the information needed to complete a project or prepare
Can such goals exist on a global scale? One example for a test.
might be a desire to deal with the current global energy cri- In a typical session, children are divided into groups of
sis. Another is the need to preserve the natural environment five or six and given a topic to study for a later exam. Each
on a global scale. Still another is the continuing threat posed child is given his or her “piece” of information and asked to
by terrorism and religious extremism. Politically, such goals learn it. For example, one child might have information on
may be far from universal. But their superordinate quality is Thomas Edison’s invention of the lightbulb; another, facts
clearly evident. about his invention of the long-playing phonograph record;
and a third, information about Edison’s childhood. After the
“Jigsaw” Classrooms Contrary to the hopes of many, children have learned their parts, they teach them to others
integrating public schools often has little positive effect on in the group. Even the most competitive children quickly
racial prejudice. In fact, prejudice may be made worse, and realize that they cannot do well without the aid of every-
the self-esteem of minority students frequently decreases one in the group. Each child makes a unique and essential
(Aronson, 2012; Binder et al., 2009). contribution, so the children learn to listen to and respect
If integrated schools provide equal-status contact, themselves and each other (Crone & Portillo, 2013).
shouldn’t prejudice be reduced? Theoretically, yes. But in Does the jigsaw method work? Compared with children
practice, minority-group children often enter schools un- in traditional classrooms, children in jigsaw groups are
prepared to compete on an equal footing. The competitive less prejudiced, they like their classmates more, they have
nature of schools almost guarantees that children will not more positive attitudes toward school, their grades improve,
learn to like and understand each other. and their self-esteem increases (Aronson, 2012; Walker &
With the preceding in mind, social psychologist Elliot Crogan, 1998). Such results are quite encouraging.
Aronson pioneered a way to apply superordinate goals to
ordinary classrooms. According to Aronson, such goals are
effective because they create mutual interdependence— Superordinate goal A goal that exceeds or overrides all others; a
that is, people must depend on one another to meet each goal that renders other goals relatively less important.
Mutual interdependence A condition in which two or more per-
person’s goals. When individual needs are linked, coopera-
sons must depend on one another to meet each person’s needs or
tion is encouraged (Güth, Levati, & von Wangenheim, 2010; goals.
Pettigrew, 2016). Jigsaw classroom A method of reducing prejudice; each student
How has that idea been applied? Aronson has created receives only part of the information needed to complete a project
“jigsaw” classrooms that emphasize cooperation rather than or prepare for a test, encouraging all students to work together to
achieve their goal.
competition. The term jigsaw refers to the pieces of a jigsaw

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640 P SychOLO Gy M o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

To summarize, prejudice will be reduced when the fol- ◗ Members of all groups seek a common goal.
lowing happens: ◗ Group members must cooperate to reach the goal.
◗ Members of different groups have equal status within ◗ Group members spend enough time together for cross-
the situation that brings them together. group friendships to develop.

MODULE

73 Summary
73.1 how do psychologists explain human 73.2.2 One theory attributes prejudice to scapegoating.
aggression? A second account says that prejudices may be
73.1.1 Aggression is a fact of life that occurs in many forms. held for personal reasons (personal prejudice) or
Nevertheless, humans are not inevitably aggressive. simply through adherence to group norms (group
73.1.2 Biological explanations of aggression emphasize prejudice).
brain mechanisms and physical factors that lower the 73.2.3 Prejudiced individuals tend to have an authoritarian
threshold for aggression. or dogmatic personality, characterized by rigidity,
73.1.3 According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, inhibition, intolerance, oversimplification, and eth-
frustration and aggression are closely linked. Frus- nocentrism.
tration is only one of many aversive stimuli that can
73.3 What can be done about prejudice and inter-
arouse a person and make aggression more likely. Ag- group conflict?
gression is especially likely to occur when aggression
73.3.1 Intergroup conflict gives rise to hostility and the
cues are present.
formation of stereotypes.
73.1.4 Social learning theory has focused attention on the
73.3.2 Stereotypes and self-stereotyping rob people of their
role of aggressive models in the development of ag-
individuality and can even dehumanize them.
gressive behavior.
73.3.3 Status inequalities tend to build prejudice. Equal-
73.1.5 Aggression can be reduced by reducing exposure to
status contact tends to reduce it.
violence, increasing exposure to prosocial acts, and
73.3.4 Superordinate goals are a key to reducing intergroup
teaching anger control.
conflict.
73.2 What is prejudice, and what causes it? 73.3.5 On a smaller scale, jigsaw classrooms (which encour-
73.2.1 Prejudice, a negative attitude held toward members age cooperation through mutual interdependence)
of various out-groups, can be expressed explicitly, have been shown to be an effective way of combating
symbolically, and implicitly. prejudice.

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 MODU LE 73 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy: anti S o c ial B e havi o r 641

Knowledge Builder Social Psychology: Antisocial Behavior

Recite Reflect
1. Social learning theorists view aggression as primarily Think critically
related to biological instincts. T or F?
7. In court trials, defense lawyers sometimes try to identify
2. Heavy exposure to media results in lowered emotional
and eliminate prospective jurors who have authoritarian
sensitivity to violence. T or F?
personality traits. Can you guess why?
3. Some expressions of prejudice can be thought of as
scapegoating or Self-Reflect
a. displaced aggression Which concepts or theories do you think best explain your own
b. empathic arousal aggressive actions? Does the most rigid person you know match
c. reference group reversal the profile of the authoritarian personality? Stereotypes exist for
d. external attribution many social categories, even ordinary ones such as “college stu-
4. The authoritarian personality tends to be preju- dent” or “unmarried young adult.” What stereotypes do you think
diced against all out-groups, a quality referred to as you face in daily life? Do they generate stereotype threat in you?
____________________________. The director of a youth recreation center is concerned
5. The term symbolic prejudice refers to racism or prejudice about the amount of conflict she is seeing between boys and
that is expressed in disguised or hidden form. T or F? girls from different racial and ethnic groups. What advice can
6. Jigsaw classrooms use _________________ to create you give the director?
mutual interdependence.
a. social competition AN SW E R S
b. just-world beliefs conviction.
c. self-fulfilling prophecies believe that punishment is effective so they are more likely to vote for

d. superordinate goals
1. F 2. T 3. a 4. ethnocentrism 5. T 6. d 7. Authoritarians tend to

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MODULE
Social Psychology
74 Skills in Action
Teamwork
Pull Together
After a massive earthquake left Haiti devastated in 2010, two
former U.S. Marines—Jake Wood and William McNulty—
decided that they wanted to help. Along with six other veter-
ans and first responders, they provided assistance to Haitians
in remote regions that were getting little aid. Realizing that
many former members of the U.S. Armed Forces possess im-
portant skills that are desperately needed after natural disas-
ters, they set about organizing a team that could provide help
under these difficult circumstances. This was the beginning of
i-Images/Polaris/Newscom

Team Rubicon, an organization that brings veterans together

to assist others.
It may surprise you to know that as much as they help
others, members of Team Rubicon also help each other: After
their years spent in uniform come to an end, the challenges for Humanity, as well as disaster relief efforts in remote corners
of returning to civilian life are difficult, and the support they of the world such as India and Ecuador. Together, these men
receive from other members of the military can be invaluable. and women accomplish a great deal of important work. But
The “team” has now grown to include thousands of past mem- they’re not just a group of individuals working on the same
bers of the U.S. Forces. They volunteer their time to work on project. Instead, they function as a team. What’s the difference,
community-based projects with organizations such as Habitat you ask? Let’s find out.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
74.1 How is teamwork related to the study of psychology? 74.2 How can teamwork skills help me in my personal and
professional life?

Teamwork—The Dream Team

Survey Question 74.1 How is teamwork related to the
closely aligned to our relationships with other people. In this
study of psychology?
module, we focus on the importance of those relationships
In Modules 70–73, we examined topics that broadly relate when people have to work together in teams to accomplish
to social psychology—the area of psychology that is most a goal.

642
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 MODU LE 74 S o c ial PSyc h o lo gy S k i llS i n acti o n: teamwo r k 643

Isn’t “team” just another word for “group”? According to over long periods of time (Caligiuri & Lundby, 2015;
psychologists, a team is a special kind of group. While group Hackman, 2002; Salas et al., 2015). More recently, rapid
work involves multiple people working toward a common improvements in technology have led to increased interest
goal, teams are characterized by their interdependence: Mem- among psychologists about virtual collaboration, and how
bers of groups can often work on their own, in parallel, and to ensure success among teams that may never meet face-
then bring their individual contributions together at the end to-face (Gilson et al., 2015).
to construct the final product. In contrast, members of teams In addition to these questions, there’s also a large body of
have to actively work together at all stages of the project. Prog- literature that addresses the characteristics of both effective
ress toward the goal depends on each member of the team and dysfunctional teams, and much of that research exam-
providing their expertise that, in turn, enables the others to ines the role of team members’ characteristics and abilities in
complete their own tasks more effectively (West, 2012). contributing to positive outcomes. Psychological research has
Considerable research has been carried out in the area suggested that effective teamwork draws on several skills, in-
of teamwork by psychologists in many areas, including cluding communication, leadership, problem solving, working
social and personality psychologists, industrial/organi- with diverse others, creativity, emotional intelligence, and in-
zational psychologists (psychologists who study people tegrity (all of which have been discussed in the Skills in Action
at work and in organizations; see Module 75), and cog- modules in this book!) (Levi, 2017). If a potential employer
nitive psychologists. Collectively, they have addressed a asks you to talk about your ability to work as part of a team
number of questions including, for example, the costs and during an interview, then it’s useful to have considered your
benefits of working in teams (rather than individually), answer in terms of all of these skills. Even better, try to have
cross-cultural differences in perceptions of teamwork, ready some concrete examples of experiences that you can use
and developmental changes in teams that work together to clearly demonstrate that you have these abilities!

Benefiting from Teamwork—Team Up!

Survey Question 74.2 How can teamwork skills help me mentioned that good teamwork draws on a number of other
in my personal and professional life? skills (e.g., communication, problem solving, and an open-
When most people think about teamwork, their minds im- ness to working with diverse others), so it’s important to
mediately jump to the workplace. They think about teams work on your abilities in these areas. But according to Amy
working together to plan an event, launch a product, or solve Edmundson at Harvard Business School, there are a number
a difficult problem. And the literature supports the idea that of other things that you can consider if you want to make
effective teams are a valuable resource for any organization: valuable contributions to a team (Edmondson, 2012):
A group of people who work well together often creates a Help to Create Ground Rules. Setting up norms that
synergistic effect, accomplishing more than could be done team members understand and agree with is important in
by each of the team members on their own. ensuring that all members of the team understand what’s ex-
But being a good “team player” isn’t just relevant to our pected of them (and others!).
working life; these skills are also important in personal re-
lationships as well. Consider, for example, how teamwork is Help to Ensure That Everyone Participates. It’s easy
relevant when romantic partners are raising a child, or when sometimes to assume that the right way to proceed is com-
siblings are providing care for an elderly parent (Tolkacheva, ing from the person who’s speaking the loudest. However,
van Groenou, & Tilburg, 2014). Consider, too, that team- making this type of assumption means that you may often
work may be necessary for volunteer work and community miss out on the valuable opinions of those who are more
service projects that you choose to undertake when you are introverted, or people who just need a bit more time to think
committed to a particular cause. things through before responding. There are a number of
ways to avoid this problem, but one of the simplest is to just
Becoming a Team Player make sure that you go around the table and ask for each
If teamwork skills are important across so many aspects of person’s opinion before making a decision. Of course, for
your life, how can you work to improve them? We’ve already this strategy to work, it’s also important to create a climate

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644 P SychOLO Gy m o d u leS fo r active lear n i n g

in which everyone feels that their contributions to the team Model the Behavior You Want to See. It’s an age-old
will be valued and considered. truism that you should treat other people the way that you
want to be treated. When you work closely with others, this
Don’t Assume That Everyone Knows What You is particularly important. If characteristics such as openness,
Do. Explicitly sharing what you know means that every- acceptance, conscientiousness, and reliability are important
one “begins on the same page,” and that the project is much to you, then make sure you demonstrate those same charac-
more likely to proceed smoothly. teristics when you interact with other members of the team.

MODULE

74 Summary
74.1 how is teamwork related to the study of 74.1.4 Numerous skills are important to being a good team
psychology? member, including communication, leadership, emo-
74.1.1 Teams differ from groups because in teams, members tional intelligence, and integrity.
are more dependent on one another to achieve a goal.
74.2 how can teamwork skills help me in my
74.1.2 Teamwork is of interest to researchers in a number personal and professional life?
of different areas, including social and personality
74.2.1 Teamwork is important at work, but can also be
psychology, cognitive psychology, and industrial/
important in relationships with family and friends.
organizational psychology.
74.2.2 There are a number of things that you can do to im-
74.1.3 Research on teamwork has addressed many ques-
prove your ability to function well in a team environ-
tions, including those focused on cross-cultural
ment, including creating ground rules, ensuring that
issues, virtual teams, and developmental changes in
everyone participates, providing important informa-
teams, as well as how team members’ skills and
tion to all members of the team, and modeling the
characteristics contribute to positive team outcomes.
behavior that you want to see from others.

Knowledge Builder Social Psychology Skills in Action: Teamwork

Recite Self-Reflect
1. Teamwork and group work are essentially the same thing. Do you consider yourself to be a good “team player,” or are
T or F? you someone who prefers to work alone? Given that so many
2. One of the most important things that characterizes workplaces require teamwork these days, what skills might
teams is that its members are interdependent. T or F? you need to work on to improve your ability to work well as
3. Which of the following skills are important to teamwork? part of a team?
a. communication
b. problem solving
c. emotional intelligence
d. a, b, and c are all important
4. Teamwork is important in the workplace, but is unlikely
to be relevant in your personal or family life. T or F? AN SW E R S
“thinking on their feet.”
Reflect This may be particularly helpful for people who aren’t always good at
meeting so that people can consider what they’d like to say in advance.
Think critically also want to consider circulating a list of questions or issues before the
5. What are some of the strategies that you could use to table and asking for each person’s opinion, for example), the team may
make sure that all members of a team have an opportunity giving all team members the opportunity to speak (by going around the
1. F 2. T 3. d 4. F 5. In addition to being supportive and systematically
to offer their opinion in a meeting?

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 MODULE
Applied Psychology
Industrial/Organizational Psychology 75
Punching the Clock
Have you ever had a job that made you feel like a cog in a ma-
chine? Charlie Chaplin captured this feeling in his 1936 film
Modern Times. Fortunately, the world of work has changed
since Chaplin’s day. Consider Armando, a software engineer
working long hours developing a novel way to predict hur-

Chaplin/United Artists/The Kobal Collection/Picture Desk

ricanes for a satellite weather system. His work efficiency
cannot easily be measured or improved. Instead, Armando’s
success depends on his own initiative, creativity, and com-
mitment to his work. Armando quit his last job because it
made him feel like he was “punching the clock,” which is
something he does not want to do.
Do you believe that you should live to work or work
to live? Whatever your attitude, the simple fact is that
most adults work for a living. Whether you are already to know something about the psychology of work and
employed or plan to begin a career after college, it helps organizations.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
75.1 How is psychology applied in business and industry?

Industrial/Organizational Psychology—Psychology at Work

Survey Question 75.1 How is psychology applied in important applied areas (Aamodt, 2016; Bryan & Vinchur,
business and industry? 2013). The efforts of I/O psychologists likely will affect how
Applied psychology refers to the use of psychological prin- you are selected for a job and tested, trained, or evaluated
ciples and research methods to solve practical problems. The for promotion. Most I/O psychologists are employed by the
largest applied areas are clinical and counseling psychology, government, industry, and businesses. Typically, they work
but there are many others, such as community psychology, in two major areas: (1) studying jobs to identify underlying
educational psychology, military psychology, consumer psy-
chology, sports psychology, health psychology, and space Applied psychology The use of psychological principles and
psychology. research methods to solve practical problems.
Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology A field that focuses on
Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology, the study the psychology of work and on behavior within organizations.
of people at work and in organizations, is one of the most

645
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646 P sychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 75.1 topics of special interest to theory X leadership (scientific management), for reasons
industrial/organizational Psychologists explained shortly. Scientific management uses time-and-
motion studies, task analysis, job specialization, assembly
Absenteeism Minority workers lines, pay schedules, and the like to increase productivity
Decision making Pay schedules (Crowley et al., 2010; Paton, 2013).
It sounds like scientific management treats people as if
Design of organizations Personnel selection they were machines. Is that true? To some extent it is. In Tay-
Employee stress Personnel training lor’s day, many large companies were manufacturers with
Employee turnover Productivity
giant assembly lines. People had to be efficient cogs in the
manufacturing machinery. Leaders who follow Theory X
Interviewing Promotion have a task orientation, focusing on the work to be done,
Job enrichment Task analysis rather than a person orientation, focusing on the people
doing the work. As such, they tend to assume that work-
Job satisfaction Task design
ers must be goaded or guided into being productive. Many
Labor relations Work behavior psychologists working in business, of course, are concerned
Leadership Work environment with improving work efficiency, defined as maximum out-
put at lowest cost. As a result, they alter conditions that they
Machine design Work motivation
believe will affect workers (such as time schedules, work
Management styles Worker evaluation quotas, bonuses, and so on). Some might even occasionally
wish that people would act like well-oiled machines.
However, most psychologists working in business rec-
skills, which can then guide efforts to select people and train
ognize that psychological efficiency is just as important as
them for those jobs (the industrial part), and (2) studying
work efficiency. Psychological efficiency refers to main-
organizations to understand how to create structures and
taining good morale, labor relations, employee satisfaction,
company cultures that will improve performance (the orga-
and similar aspects of work behavior. Leadership styles that
nizational part). To get a better idea of what I/O psycholo-
ignore or mishandle the human element can be devastatingly
gists do, look at ■ Table 75.1. As you can see, their interests
costly. Studies have consistently found that happy workers
are quite varied.
are productive workers (Dik, Byrne, & Steger, 2013; Lerner
A key person in any organization is its leader (Hum-
& Henke, 2008).
phrey, 2014; Lussier & Achua, 2015). Family therapist and
rabbi Edwin Friedman once remarked, “Leadership can be Theory y leadership
thought of as a capacity to define oneself to others in a way
The term Theory X was coined by psychologist Douglas Mc-
that clarifies and expands a vision of the future.” (Can lead-
Gregor (1960) as a way to distinguish the leadership style
ership be learned? See Module 54.) How do great business
associated with scientific management from Theory Y, a
leaders inspire their followers?
newer approach, which emphasizes human relations at work
Theory X leadership (Lawter, Kopelman, & Prottas, 2015).
How is this approach different? Theory Y leadership
During many lunch hours at a major computer game de-
takes a person orientation rather than a task orientation and
veloper, most of the employees, including the top execu-
tends to assume that workers enjoy autonomy and are willing
tives, eat together while playing computer games (and no,
to accept responsibility. It also assumes that a worker’s needs
the “bosses” don’t always win), talking, and joking. In many
and goals can be meshed with the company’s goals and that
companies, these are unusual working conditions. To un-
people are not naturally passive or lazy. In short, Theory Y
derstand the rationale behind them, let’s consider two basic
assumes that people are industrious, creative, and rewarded
theories of leadership.
by challenging work. It appears that given the proper condi-
One of the earliest attempts to improve worker effi-
tions of freedom and responsibility, many people will work
ciency was made in 1923 by Frederick Taylor, an engineer.
hard to gain competence and use their talents.
To speed up production, Taylor standardized work rou-
tines and stressed careful planning, control, and orderli- Leadership and Gender Aren’t women more person-
ness. Today, versions of Taylor’s approach are classified as oriented than men? And doesn’t that imply that women would

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 MODU lE 75 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: i n d ustr iAl/o r gAn i zAti o nAl Psyc h o lo gy 647

make better Theory Y leaders? Good thinking. As person-

oriented Theory Y leadership styles have become more pop-
ular, women have been slowly gaining acceptance as leaders
(Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Eagly, 2013). The proportion of
American organizations with female CEOs is also slowly
increasing (Martin, 2007). And some studies have shown
that companies with more women in leadership roles per-
form better financially and when managing their employees
(Carter, Simkins, & Simpson, 2003; Krishnan & Park, 2005;
Melero, 2011).
Yet, according to psychologist Alice Eagly, women
continue to face unique challenges. Increasingly, cracks
are appearing in the glass ceiling, the invisible barrier that
has prevented women from moving into leadership posi-
tions. But the glass ceiling is being replaced by a labyrinth
created by a clash between leadership stereotypes and
stereotypes of women (Brescoll, Dawson, & Uhlmann,
2010; Eagly & Carli, 2007). On the one hand, most people

© Martin Haas/Shutterstock.com
expect good leaders to be agentic: independent, confi-
dent, ambitious, objective, dominant, and forceful. On
the other hand, they expect women to be more commu-
nal: dependent, caring, nurturing, tender, sensitive, and
sympathetic. According to traditional gender role ste-
reotypes (see Module 46), it is men who are agentic (and As the CEO of Hewlett-Packard, presidential candidate Carly
therefore better) leaders, despite evidence to the contrary Fiorina constantly faced the incongruity between leadership
(Eagly, 2013). stereotypes and stereotypes of women (Fiorina, 2006).
What does this mean for a woman who moves into a
leadership role? If she practices communal, Theory Y lead- 1. Idealized influence: Employees are encouraged to work
ership, she is seen as weak. She is “not tough enough” or does ethically, emphasizing values such as trust.
not “have the right stuff ” to be a leader. Yet, if she acts more 2. Inspirational motivation: Employees are inspired to
assertively and confidently, she is scorned for “trying to be see their work as meaningful and challenging.
a man” (Kark & Eagly, 2010). This conflict has been per- 3. Intellectual stimulation: Employees are empowered
fectly expressed by Carly Fiorina, former CEO of Hewlett- to “think outside the box” to find new solutions to
Packard, who wrote, “In the chat rooms around Silicon problems.
Valley . . . I was routinely referred to as either a ‘bimbo’ or 4. Individualized consideration: Employees’ individual
a ‘bitch’—too soft or too hard, and presumptuous, besides” needs, goals, and abilities are valued; appropriate pro-
(Fiorina, 2006, p. 173). fessional development is available as required.
As traditional gender stereotypes fade, and as Theory Y
styles gain wider acceptance, perhaps women will add escap-
ing the leadership labyrinth to their many other successes Theory X leadership (scientific management) An approach to
(Kaiser & Wallace, 2016). leadership that emphasizes work efficiency.
Work efficiency Maximum output (productivity) at lowest cost.
Transformational Leadership Today’s harsh economic Psychological efficiency Maintenance of good morale, labor rela-
tions, employee satisfaction, and similar aspects of work behavior.
realities often require more of leaders than a person-orient-
Theory Y leadership A leadership style that emphasizes human re-
ed Theory Y style. Transformational leadership seeks to lations at work and that views people as industrious, responsible,
transform employees to exceed expectations and look be- and interested in challenging work.
yond self-interest to help the organization better compete Transformational leadership Leadership aimed at transforming
employees to exceed expectations and look beyond self-interest to
(Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009; Guay, 2013). The trans- help the organization better compete.
formational leader achieves these goals in four ways:

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648 P sychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

leadership strategies teams tend to make good use of the strengths and talents of
individual employees. They also promote new ideas and im-
Two techniques that make Theory Y and transformational
prove motivation. Most of all, they encourage cooperation
leadership methods effective are shared leadership and man-
and teamwork within organizations (Woods & West, 2010).
agement by objectives. In shared leadership (participative
Workers in self-managed teams are much more likely to feel
management), employees at all levels are directly involved
that they are being treated fairly at work and to develop a
in decision making and problem solving (Neubert et al.,
positive team atmosphere (Chansler, Swamidass, & Cam-
2015; Pearce, Manz, & Sims, 2009). By taking part in de-
mann, 2003; Gilboa & Tal-Shmotkin, 2012).
cisions that affect them, employees come to see work as a
How can workers below the management level be in-
cooperative effort—not as something imposed on them by
volved more in their work? One answer is the use of quality
an egotistical leader. The benefits include greater productiv-
circles, voluntary discussion groups that seek ways to solve
ity, more involvement in work, greater job satisfaction, and
business problems and improve efficiency (Aamodt, 2016).
less job-related stress (Pearce, Conger, & Locke, 2007; Raes
In contrast to self-managed teams, quality circles usually do
et al., 2013).
not have the power to put their suggestions into practice di-
What is management by objectives? In management by
rectly. But good ideas speak for themselves, and many are
objectives, workers are given specific goals to meet so they
adopted by company leaders. Quality circles do have limita-
can tell whether they are doing a good job (Antoni, 2005).
tions, but nevertheless, studies verify that greater personal
Typical objectives include reaching a certain sales total,
involvement can lead to better performance and job satis-
making a certain number of items, or reducing waste by a
faction (Beyer et al., 2003).
specific percentage. In any case, workers are free to choose
(within limits) how they will achieve their goals. As a result,
they feel more independent and take personal responsibility Job satisfaction
for their work. Workers are especially productive when they
It often makes perfect sense to apply Theory X methods to
receive feedback about their progress toward goals. Clearly,
work. However, doing so without taking worker needs into
people like to know what the target is and whether they are
account can be a case of winning the battle while losing
succeeding (Horn et al., 2005; Lefrançois, 2012).
the war—that is, immediate productivity may be enhanced
Many companies also give groups of workers even great-
while job satisfaction is lowered. And when job satisfaction
er freedom and responsibility. This is typically done by cre-
is low, absenteeism skyrockets, morale falls, and there is
ating self-managed teams. A self-managed team is a group
a high rate of employee turnover, leading to higher train-
of employees who work together toward shared goals. Self-
ing costs and inefficiency (Wright & Bonett, 2007; Silla &
managed teams can typically choose their own methods of
Gamero, 2014).
achieving results, so long as they are effective. Self-managed
Understandably, many of the methods used by enlight-
ened Theory Y leaders ultimately improve job satisfaction—
the degree to which a person is pleased with his or her work.
Job satisfaction is well worth cultivating because positive
attitudes are associated with more cooperation, better per-
formance, a greater willingness to help others, more creative
problem solving, and less absenteeism (Bowling, 2010; Silla
& Gamero, 2014).
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com

Under what conditions is job satisfaction highest? Basi-

cally, job satisfaction comes from a good fit between work
and a person’s interests, abilities, needs, and expectations.
The major factors determining job satisfaction are noted in
the following list. Think of a job that you have held. It’s like-
ly that the more these factors were present, the higher was
your job satisfaction (Aamodt, 2016; Landy & Conte, 2009):
Shared leadership techniques encourage employees at all levels to
become involved in decision making. Quite often, this arrangement 1. My job meets my expectations. Y or N?
leads to greater job satisfaction. 2. My needs, values, and wants are met by my job. Y or N?

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 MODU lE 75 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: i n d ustr iAl/o r gAn i zAti o nAl Psyc h o lo gy 649

3. The tasks I have to do are enjoyable. Y or N? With flexplace (also called telework or telecommut-
4. I enjoy my supervisors and coworkers. Y or N? ing), work is done outside the workplace, usually at home
5. My coworkers are outwardly happy. Y or N? (Lautsch, Kossek, & Eaton, 2009; Nätti & Häikiö, 2012).
6. I am rewarded fairly for doing a good job. Y or N? Is flexible work really an improvement? Generally speak-
7. I have a chance to grow and be challenged. Y or N? ing, yes (Yang & Zheng, 2011). For example, flextime typi-
cally has a positive effect on workers’ productivity, job satis-
We should note that job satisfaction is not entirely a faction, absenteeism, and comfort with their work schedules
matter of work conditions. Anyone who has ever been em- (Baltes et al., 1999). Similarly, flexplace is especially effec-
ployed has probably encountered at least one perpetually tive when it allows valued employees to maintain homes in
grumpy coworker. In other words, workers don’t leave their other cities rather than being forced to move to the com-
personalities at home. Happy people are more often happy pany’s location (Atkin & Lau, 2007). Psychologists theorize
at work, and they are more likely to focus on what’s good that flexible work lowers stress and increases feelings of in-
about their job rather than what’s bad. Understandably, the dependence, both of which increase productivity and job
most productive employees are those who are happy at work satisfaction.
(Aamodt, 2016; Brown, Charlwood, & Spencer, 2012). This Of course, not everyone wants a compressed workweek
connection can be seen clearly when employees are allowed or to work from home. Ideally, flexible working arrange-
to participate in various forms of flexible work. ments should fit the needs of employees (Rudolph & Baltes,
2016; Troup & Rose, 2012). Regardless, most large organiza-
Flexible Work If you’ve ever worked “9 to 5” in an office,
tions now use flexible work arrangements. Perhaps we can
you know that traditional time schedules can be confining.
conclude that it is better, when possible, to bend working
They also doom many workers to a daily battle with rush-
arrangements instead of people.
hour traffic. To improve worker morale, I/O psychologists
recommend the use of a variety of flexible work arrange- Job Enrichment For years, the trend in business and
ments, of which the best known is flextime, or flexible industry was to make work more streamlined and efficient
working hours (Kossek & Michel, 2011). The basic idea of and to tie better pay to better work. Ample evidence now
flextime is that starting and quitting times are flexible, so shows that incentives such as bonuses, earned time off, and
long as employees are present during a core work period. profit sharing can increase productivity. However, far too
For example, employees might be allowed to arrive between many jobs are routine, repetitive, boring, and unfulfilling.
7:30 a.m. and 10:30 a.m. and depart between 3:30 p.m. and To combat the discontent this can breed, many psycholo-
6:30 p.m. In a variation called a compressed workweek, em- gists recommend a strategy called job enrichment.
ployees might work fewer days, but put in more hours per Job enrichment involves making a job more personally
day so that the number of hours per week stay the same. rewarding, interesting, or intrinsically motivating. Large

Shared leadership (participative management) A leadership

approach that allows employees at all levels to participate in deci-
sion making.
Management by objectives A management technique in which
employees are given specific goals to meet in their work.
Self-managed team A work group that has a high degree of freedom
with respect to how it achieves its goals.
Quality circle An employee discussion group that makes sugges-
tions for improving quality and solving business problems.
Job satisfaction The degree to which a person is comfortable with
© Dragon Images/Shutterstock.com

or satisfied with his or her work.

Flextime A work schedule that allows flexible starting and quitting
times.
Flexplace (telecommuting) An approach to flexible work that
involves working at a location away from the office, but using a
computer to stay connected throughout the workday.
Job enrichment Making a job more personally rewarding, inter-
Connecting with work through the Internet makes it possible to esting, or intrinsically motivating; typically involves increasing
telecommute, or work from home while still interacting with office- worker knowledge.
mates (Golden, Veiga, & Simsek, 2006).

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650 P sychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

corporations such as IBM, Maytag, Western Electric, Chrys- Desk Rage and Healthy Organizations Like road
ler, and Polaroid have used job enrichment with great suc- rage on the highways, “desk rage,” or workplace anger, is a
cess. It usually leads to lower production costs, increased job frequent occurrence and, at times, erupts into workplace
satisfaction, reduced boredom, and less absenteeism (Duff- violence (Niven, Sprigg, & Armitage, 2013). It’s not difficult
ield et al., 2014; Gregory, Albritton, & Osmonbekov, 2010). to understand the common triggers for workplace anger: in-
How is job enrichment done? Merely assigning a person tense anger triggered by job-related stresses (such as feeling
more tasks is usually not enriching. Overloaded workers just that one has been treated unfairly), perceived threats to one’s
feel stressed, and they tend to make more errors. Instead, self-esteem, and work-related conflicts with others (Einarsen
job enrichment applies many of the principles that we have & Hoel, 2008; Spector, 2012).
discussed. Usually, it involves removing some of the controls What can be done about anger and aggression at
and restrictions on employees, thus giving them greater work? Most larger companies now offer mental health
freedom, choice, and authority. In some cases, employees services to troubled employees and trauma counseling
also switch to doing a complete cycle of work—that is, they if violence erupts in the workplace. More important,
complete an entire item or project instead of doing an iso- healthy organizations actively promote the well-being
lated part of a larger process. Whenever possible, workers of people. They do this by openly confronting problems,
are given direct feedback about their work or progress. empowering employees, and encouraging participation,
True job enrichment increases workers’ feeling of em- cooperation, and full use of human potential. Healthy
powerment and knowledge—that is, workers are encouraged organizations also support well-being in the following
to continuously learn and exercise a broad range of options, ways (Hodson & Sullivan, 2012; Martinko, Douglas, &
skills, and information related to their occupations (Grego- Harvey, 2006):
ry, Albritton, & Osmonbekov, 2010; Sessa & London, 2006).
◗ Rather than always complaining and blaming, group
In short, most people enjoy being good at what they do. (Job
members express sincere gratitude for the efforts of
enrichment can be thought of as a way of increasing intrin-
others.
sic motivation. See Module 42.)
◗ Everyone makes mistakes. The culture in caring organi-
zations includes a capacity to forgive.
Organizational culture ◗ Everyone needs encouragement at times. Encouragement
Businesses and other organizations, whether they are large can inspire workers and give them hope, confidence,
or small, develop distinct cultures. Organizational culture and courage.
refers to the blend of customs, beliefs, values, attitudes, ◗ Showing sensitivity to others can dramatically change
and rituals that give each organization its unique “flavor” the work environment. Sensitivity can take the form of
(Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2010). Organizational expressing interest in others and in how they are doing.
culture includes such things as how people are hired and It also includes respecting the privacy of others.
trained, disciplined, and dismissed. It encompasses how em-
◗ Compassion for others is a good antidote for destructive
ployees dress, communicate, resolve conflicts, share power,
competitiveness and petty game playing.
identify with organizational goals and values, negotiate con-
◗ People have very different needs, values, and experi-
tracts, and celebrate special occasions.
ences. Tolerance and respect for the dignity of oth-
People who fit well into a particular organization tend
ers goes a long way toward maintaining individual
to contribute to its success in ways that are not specifically
well-being.
part of their job description. For example, they are help-
ful, conscientious, and courteous. They also display good The economic pressures that organizations face can
sportsmanship by avoiding pettiness, gossiping, complain- lead to hostile and competitive work environments. How-
ing, and making small problems into big ones. Like good ever, even in economically difficult times, the productivity
citizens, the best workers keep themselves informed about and quality of life at work are closely intertwined. Effective
organizational issues by attending meetings and taking part organizations seek to optimize both (Fuqua & Newman,
in discussions. Workers with these characteristics display 2002). For example, companies who pay more attention to
what could be called organizational citizenship. Under- the quality of life at work generally suffer fewer productivity
standably, managers and employers highly value workers losses if they are forced to downsize (i.e., reduce the size of
who are good organizational citizens (Woods & West, 2010). their workforce; Iverson & Zatzick, 2011).

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 MODU lE 75 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: i n d ustr iAl/o r gAn i zAti o nAl Psyc h o lo gy 651

Personnel Psychology After desirable skills and traits are identified, the next
step is to learn who has them. Today, the methods most
Companies also can enhance their chances of success by hir-
often used for evaluating job candidates include collecting
ing the right employees in the first place. Personnel psychol-
biodata, conducting interviews, giving standardized psycho-
ogy is concerned with the testing, selection, placement, and
logical tests, and employing the assessment center approach.
promotion of employees (Campbell, 2013; Woods & West,
Let’s see what each entails.
2010). At present, nine out of ten people are or will be em-
ployed in business or industry. Thus, nearly everyone who Biodata As simple as it may seem, one good way to predict
holds a job is placed under the “psychological microscope” job success is to collect detailed biographical information
of personnel selection sooner or later. Clearly, it is valuable (biodata) from applicants (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). The
to know how selection for hiring and promotion is done. idea behind biodata is that looking at past behavior is a good
How do personnel psychologists select employees? Person- way to predict future behavior. By learning in detail about
nel selection begins with job analysis, a detailed description a person’s life, it is often possible to determine whether the
of the skills, knowledge, and activities required by a partic- person is suited for a particular type of work (Schmitt &
ular job (Sackett, Walmsley, & Laczo, 2013; Stetz, Button, Golubovich, 2013).
& Porr, 2009). A job analysis may be done by interviewing Some of the most useful items of biodata include past
expert workers or supervisors, giving them questionnaires, athletic interests, academic achievements, scientific inter-
directly observing work, or identifying critical incidents. ests, extracurricular activities, religious activities, social
Critical incidents are situations with which competent popularity, conflict with brothers and sisters, attitudes to-
employees must be able to cope. The ability to deal calmly ward school, and parents’ socioeconomic status (Woods &
with a mechanical emergency, for example, is a critical in- West, 2010). (It is worth pointing out that there are civil lib-
cident for airline pilots. Once job requirements are known, erty and privacy concerns relating to the collection of sen-
psychologists can state what skills, aptitudes, and interests sitive biodata.) Such facts tell quite a lot about personality,
are needed. In addition, some psychologists are now doing interests, and abilities. In addition to past experiences, a per-
a broader “work analysis.” In this case, they try to identify son’s recent life activities also help predict job success. For
general characteristics that a person must have to succeed instance, you might think that college grades are unimport-
in a variety of work roles, rather than in just a specific job ant, but college grade point average (GPA) predicts success
(Sackett & Lievens, 2008). in many types of work (Sackett & Lievens, 2008).
Interviews The traditional personal interview is still one of
the most popular ways to select people for jobs or promotions.
In a personal interview, job applicants are questioned about
their qualifications. At the same time, interviewers gain an im-
pression of the applicant’s personality (Chamorro-Premuzic &
Furnham, 2010). (Or personalities—but that’s another story!)

Organizational culture The blend of customs, beliefs, values, at-

Mill Collection/Alamy Stock Photo

titudes, and rituals within an organization.

Organizational citizenship Making positive contributions to the
success of an organization in ways that go beyond one’s job
description.
Personnel psychology A branch of industrial/organizational
psychology concerned with testing, selection, placement, and pro-
motion of employees.
Analyzing complex skills has also been valuable to the U.S. Navy. Job analysis A detailed description of the skills, knowledge, and
When million-dollar aircraft and the lives of pilots are at stake, it activities required by a particular job.
makes good sense to do as much training and research as possible Critical incidents Situations that arise in a job with which a compe-
on the ground. Navy psychologists use flight simulators such as tent worker must be able to cope.
the one pictured here to analyze the complex skills needed to fly Biodata Detailed biographical information about a job applicant.
jet fighters. Skills can then be taught without risk on the ground. Personal interview Formal or informal questioning of job appli-
The CAE P-8 Poseidon simulator shown here uses a computer to cants to learn their qualifications and to gain an impression of
generate full-color images that respond realistically to a pilot’s use their personalities.
of the controls.

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652 P sychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

As discussed in Module 50, interviews are subject to the test and your choices match those of people in a given oc-
halo effect and similar problems. (Recall that the halo effect cupation, it is assumed that you, too, would be comfortable
is the tendency of interviewers to extend favorable or unfa- doing the work they do (Holland, 1997).
vorable impressions to unrelated aspects of an individual’s Aptitude tests are another mainstay of personnel psy-
personality, such as his or her appearance.) In addition, in- chology. Such tests rate a person’s potential to learn tasks or
terviewees actively engage in impression management, seek- skills used in various occupations. Tests exist for clerical,
ing to portray a positive image to interviewers (Kleinmann verbal, mechanical, artistic, legal, and medical aptitudes,
& Klehe, 2011). plus many others (➤ Figure 75.1). For example, tests of
It is for reasons such as these that psychologists contin- clerical aptitude emphasize the capacity to do rapid, pre-
ue to look for ways to improve the accuracy of interviews. cise, and accurate office work. One section of a clerical ap-
For instance, some studies suggest that interviews can be titude test, therefore, might ask a person to mark all the
improved by giving them more structure (Sackett & Lievens, identical numbers and names in a long list of pairs like
2008; Levashina et al., 2014). For example, each job candi- those shown here:
date should be asked the same questions. However, even 49837266 49832766
with their limitations, interviews can be a valid and effective
Global Widgets, Inc. Global Wigets, Inc.
way of predicting how people will perform on the job (Hod-
874583725 874583725
son & Sullivan, 2012).
Sevanden Corp. Sevanden Corp.
Psychological Testing What kinds of tests do personnel Cengage Publishing Cengage Puhlishing
psychologists use? General mental ability tests (intelligence
tests) tell a great deal about a person’s chances of succeeding After college, chances are good that you will encounter
in various jobs (Aamodt, 2016; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998). So an assessment center. Many large organizations use assess-
do general personality tests (described in Module 50; Hough ment centers to do in-depth evaluations of job candidates.
& Connelly, 2013). In addition, personnel psychologists of- This approach has become so popular that the list of busi-
ten use vocational interest tests. These tests assess people’s nesses using it—Ford, IBM, Kodak, Exxon, Sears, and thou-
interests and match them to interests found among success- sands of others—reads like a corporate Who’s Who.
ful workers in various occupations (Van Iddekinge, Putka, How do assessment centers differ from the selection
& Campbell, 2011). Tests such as the Kuder Occupational methods already described? Assessment centers are pri-
Interest Survey and the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory marily used to fill management and executive positions.
probe interests with items like the following: First, applicants are tested and interviewed. Then, they are

I would prefer to: a. visit a museum b. read a good book c.

take a walk outdoors

Interest inventories typically measure six major themes iden-

tified by John Holland (■ Table 75.2). If you take an interest
A
Table 75.2 vocational interest themes
B
sample college sample
Themes Majors Occupations X Y

Realistic Agriculture Mechanic

Driver
Investigative Physics Chemist
1. If the driver turns in the direction shown, which
Artistic Music Writer direction will wheel Y turn? A B
Social Education Counselor 2. Which wheel will turn the slowest? Driver X Y
Enterprising Business Sales ➤ Figure 75.1
Conventional Economics Clerk Testing mechanical aptitude. Sample questions like those
found on tests of mechanical aptitude. (The answers are A and the
Source: Holland (1997). Driver.)

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 MODU lE 75 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: i n d ustr iAl/o r gAn i zAti o nAl Psyc h o lo gy 653

observed and evaluated in simulated work situations. How well does this approach work? Assessment centers
Specifically, situational judgment tests are used to pres- have had considerable success in predicting performance in
ent difficult but realistic work situations to applicants a variety of jobs, careers, and advanced positions (Chamor-
(Christian, Edwards, & Bradley, 2010; Pollard & Cooper- ro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2010).
Thomas, 2015). For example, in one exercise, applicants are Although we have only scratched the surface of indus-
given an in-basket test that simulates the decision-making trial/organizational psychology, it is time to move on to look
challenges executives face. The test consists of a basket full at another applied area of great personal relevance. Before
of memos, requests, and typical business problems. Each we begin, here’s a chance to enhance your learning.
applicant is asked to quickly read all the materials and to
take appropriate action. Vocational interest test A paper-and-pencil test that assesses a
In another, more stressful test, applicants take part in person’s interests and matches them to interests found among
successful workers in various occupations.
a leaderless group discussion. This is a test of leadership Aptitude test An evaluation that rates a person’s potential to learn
that simulates group decision making and problem solving. skills required by various occupations.
While the group grapples with a realistic business problem, Assessment center A program set up within an organization to
conduct in-depth evaluations of job candidates.
“clerks” bring in price changes, notices about delayed sup-
Situational judgment test Presenting realistic work situations to
plies, and so forth. By observing applicants, it is possible to applicants in order to observe their skills and reactions.
evaluate leadership skills and to see how job candidates cope In-basket test A testing procedure that simulates the individual
with stress (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2010). (Situ- decision-making challenges that executives face.
Leaderless group discussion A test of leadership that simulates
ational tests are also used to investigate personality differ- group decision making and problem solving.
ences. See Module 50.)

MODULE

75 summary
75.1 how is psychology applied in business and 75.1.4 Theory Y and transformational leadership methods
industry? include shared leadership (participative manage-
75.1.1 The term applied psychology refers to the use of psy- ment), management by objectives, self-managed
chological principles and research to solve practical teams, and quality circles.
problems. 75.1.5 Job satisfaction influences productivity, absenteeism,
75.1.2 Industrial/organizational psychologists enhance morale, employee turnover, and other factors that af-
the quality of work by studying jobs to better match fect business efficiency. Job satisfaction comes from a
people to them and by studying organizational struc- good fit between work and a person’s interests, abili-
tures and culture to improve worker performance. ties, needs, and expectations. Job enrichment tends to
75.1.3 Three basic leadership styles are Theory X (scientific increase job satisfaction.
management), Theory Y (human relations approach- 75.1.6 To match people with jobs, personnel psychologists
es), and transformational (thinking outside the box). combine job analysis with selection procedures, such
Theory X is mostly concerned with work efficiency, as gathering biodata, interviewing, giving stan-
Theory Y emphasizes psychological efficiency, and dardized psychological tests, and using assessment
transformational leadership emphasizes the corporate centers.
need to compete.

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654 P sychOlO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Knowledge Builder Applied Psychology: Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Recite self-Reflect
1. Theory X leadership, or scientific manage- If you were leading people in a business setting, which of the
ment, is concerned primarily with improving leadership concepts do you think you would be most likely to
____________________ ________________________. use?
2. Shared leadership management is often a feature of busi- Do you think women can make effective leaders? In busi-
nesses with leaders who adhere to Theory Y or transfor- ness? In politics?
mational management. T or F? Think of a job that you know a lot about. Could job enrich-
3. For the majority of workers, job satisfaction is almost ment be applied to this work? What would you do to increase
exclusively related to the amount of pay received. T or F? job satisfaction for people doing similar work?
4. Job enrichment is a direct expression of scientific man- Which of the various ways of evaluating job applicants do
agement principles. T or F? you regard as most valid? Which would you prefer to have
5. Identifying critical work incidents is sometimes included applied to yourself?
in a thorough _________________ _____________.
6. A leaderless group discussion is most closely associated AN sW E R s
with which approach to employee selection?
teaching also rely on task analysis.
To a large extent, attempts to identify the characteristics of effective
a. aptitude testing Such methods are an extension of techniques first used for job analyses.
b. personal interviews broken into subparts so that key elements can be identified and taught.
c. job analysis area is sports psychology. As described in Module 77, sports skills can be
d. assessment center 1. work (or task) efficiency 2. T 3. F 4. F 5. job analysis 6. d 7. One such

Reflect
Think critically
7. In what area of human behavior other than work would a
careful task analysis be helpful?

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 MODULE
Applied Psychology
Environmental Psychology 76
Boot Too Big?
Various environments have a significant impact on people.
The reverse is also true: People have a significant impact on
the environments in which they live. Nowhere is this more
obvious than in the dramatic impact humans have had on
the natural environment, our planet Earth. Each of us gen-
erates an ecological footprint as we consume the resources
that it takes to sustain life. Every time we eat a meal, discard

Franck Fotos/Alamy Stock Photo

some junk, travel somewhere, or even just sit and breathe,
we enlarge our footprints.
Multiply the average ecological footprint by a bit over
7.3 billion, the current world population, and you get a gi-
ant world footprint, covering the surface area of our entire
planet, with another half to boot. For every year of human
resource consumption, it will take Earth 1.5 years to recover Earth to cope? Because of this, environmental psychologists
(Global Footprint Network, 2016). By 2030, we will be using are concerned with some of the most serious problems fac-
two Earths worth of resources every year. How is our one ing humanity. Let’s look into environmental psychology.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
76.1 What effects do natural, physical, and social 76.2 What effect are humans having on the natural
environments have on humans? environment?

Environmental Influences on Behavior—No Talking!

Survey Question 76.1 What effects do natural, physical,
and social environments have on humans? Environmental psychology The formal study of how environments
affect behavior.
Environmental psychology is the specialty concerned with
Social environment An environment defined by a group of people
the relationship between environments and human be- and their activities or interrelationships (such as a parade, revival
havior (Winter & Koger, 2010). Environmental psycholo- meeting, or sports event).
gists are interested in both social environments, defined Physical environments Natural settings, such as forests and
beaches, as well as environments built by humans, such as build-
by groups of people, such as a dance, business meeting, or ings, ships, and cities.
party, and physical environments, whether constructed

655
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656 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 76.1 topics of special interest distance. Those who hold their ground may turn to the
to environmental Psychologists side, look away, or position an arm in front of themselves
as a barrier. If you persistently edge toward your subjects, it
Architectural design Noise should be easy to move them back several feet.
Behavioral settings Personal space In this case, your mere (and close) presence amounted
to an invasion of that person’s personal space, an area sur-
Cognitive maps Personality and environment rounding the body that is regarded as private and subject
Constructed environments Pollution to personal control (Novelli, Drury, & Reicher, 2010). Basi-
Crowding Privacy
cally, personal space extends “I” or “me” boundaries past the
skin to the immediate environment. Personal space also is
Energy conservation Proxemics illustrated by the fact that many train commuters prefer to
Environmental stressors Resource management stand up if it means that they can avoid sitting too close to
strangers (Evans & Wener, 2007).
Heat Territoriality
Human ecology Urban planning Spatial Norms The systematic study of the human use of
space is called proxemics (prok-SEE-miks) (Harrigan, 2005).
Littering Vandalism Proxemics has revealed that unspoken spatial norms govern
Natural environment personal space. Such norms may explain why people who
feel offended by another person sometimes say, “Get out of
my face.”
or natural. They also give special attention to behavioral
Would approaching “too close” work with a good friend?
settings, smaller areas within an environment whose use is
Possibly not. Norms governing comfortable or acceptable
well defined, such as an office, locker room, church, casino,
distances vary according to relationships as well as activities.
or classroom. As you have no doubt noticed, various envi-
Hall (1966) identified four basic zones: intimate, personal,
ronments and behavioral settings tend to “demand” certain
social, and public distance (➤ Figure 76.1).
actions. Consider, for example, the difference between a li-
Cultural differences also affect spatial norms (Beaulieu,
brary and a campus center lounge. Try having an animated
2004). In many Middle Eastern countries, people hold their
discussion at the library sometime (No talking!)
faces only inches apart while talking. In Western Europe,
Other major interests of environmental psycholo-
the English sit closer together when conversing than do the
gists are crowding, stressful environments, architectural
French. The Dutch, on the other hand, sit farther apart than
design, environmental protection, and many related topics
the French (Remland, Jones, & Brinkman, 1991). The fol-
(■ Table 76.1). One of the more “personal” topics in envi-
lowing distances apply to face-to-face interactions in North
ronmental psychology concerns the efforts we make to reg-
America:
ulate the space around our bodies.
1. Intimate distance. For most North Americans, intimate
Personal space space extends about 18 inches out from the skin. Entry
The next time you are talking with an acquaintance, move within this space (face to face) is reserved for special peo-
in closer and watch the reaction. Most people show signs ple or special circumstances. Lovemaking, comforting oth-
of discomfort and step back to reestablish their original ers, and cuddling children all take place within this space.

➤ Figure 76.1
Spatial zones. Typical spatial zones (in feet)
for face-to-face interactions in North America.
Often, we must stand within intimate distance
of others in crowds, buses, subways, elevators,
and other public places. At such times, privacy
is maintained by avoiding eye contact, by
standing shoulder to shoulder or back to back,
and by positioning a purse, bag, package, or Intimate Personal Social Public
coat as a barrier to spatial intrusions. (0–1.5) (1.5–4) (4–12) (12+)

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 MoDU lE 76 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: e nvi r o n M e ntAl Psyc h o lo gy 657

2. Personal distance. This is the distance maintained in

comfortable interaction with friends. It extends from
about 18 inches to 4 feet from the body. Personal dis-
tance basically keeps people within “arm’s length” of
each other.
3. Social distance. Impersonal business and casual social
gatherings take place in a range of about 4 to 12 feet.
This distance eliminates most touching, and it formal-
izes conversation by requiring greater voice projection.
“Important people” in many business offices use the
imposing width of their desks to maintain social dis-
tance. (A big smelly cigar helps, too.)
4. Public distance. This is the distance at which for-
mal interactions occur (about 12 feet or more from
the body). When people are separated by more than
12 feet, they look “flat,” and they must raise their voices
to speak to one another. Formal speeches, lectures,
business meetings, and the like are conducted at public
distance.

graffiti
Because spatial behavior is very consistent, you can learn
about your relationship to others by observing the distance Graffiti, one of the blights of urban life, is an obvious form of
that you comfortably hold between yourselves. But remem- territorial marking.
ber to be aware of cultural differences. When two people
of different nationalities have different norms for personal Researchers have found that the more attached you are
space, an amusing “dance” may occur. Both are likely to be to an area, the more likely you are to adorn it with obvious
uncomfortable when talking. One tries to move closer and territorial markers that signal your “ownership.” Typical
the other keeps moving back. This can lead to misunder- markers include decorations, plants, photographs, or post-
standings in which one person feels that the other is being ers. College dorms and business offices are prime places to
too familiar, yet at the same time, the person moving closer observe this type of territorial marking. It is interesting to
feels rejected (Beaulieu, 2004). note that obvious territorial markers, such as fences (even if
small), parked cars, lawn furniture, exterior lights, and se-
Territoriality Personal space also extends to areas that
curity signs can help create a more defensible space by deter-
we claim as our “territory.” Territorial behavior refers to
ring crime (Reynald & Elffers, 2009). The “gated communi-
actions that define a space as one’s own or that protect it
ties” that have sprung up in many cities are a good example.
from intruders (Costa, 2012). For example, in the library,
you might protect your space with a coat, handbag, book, or Environmental Influences on Behavior
other personal belonging. “Saving a place” at a theater or a
Much of our behavior is influenced, in part, by specific types
beach also demonstrates the tendency to identify a space as
of environments. For example, a variety of environmental
“ours.” Even sports teams are territorial, usually showing a
factors influence the amount of vandalism and other crime
home team advantage by playing better on their own home
territory (Jamieson, 2010; Sánchez et al., 2009).
Respect for the temporary ownership of space also is Behavioral setting A smaller area within an environment whose use
is well defined, such as a bus depot, waiting room, or lounge.
widespread. It is not unusual for a person to “take over” an
Personal space An area surrounding the body that is regarded as
entire table or study room by looking annoyed when oth- private and subject to personal control.
ers intrude. Your own personal territory may include your Territorial behavior Any behavior that tends to define a space as
room, specific seats in many of your classes, or a particular one’s own or that protects it from intruders.
Territorial markers Objects and other signals whose placement
table in the campus center or library that “belongs” to you indicates to others the “ownership” or control of a particular area.
and your friends.

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658 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

that occurs in public places (Brown & Devlin, 2003; Hipp urban stress. Psychological research has begun to clarify the
et al., 2013; Welsh, Mudge, & Farrington, 2010). For example, impact of each of these conditions on human functioning
in every city, more assaults and burglaries take place near (Malan et al., 2008; Thomas, 2013).
the few restaurants or bars where likely offenders tend to
Crowding Nowhere are the effects of urbanization more
hang out (Buchanan, 2008).
evident than in the teeming cities of many underdeveloped
Research on such environmental factors is often applied
nations (Malan et al., 2012). Closer to home, the jammed
to the design of local environments, such as public spaces.
buses, subways, and living quarters of our own large cities
For example, many shopping malls and department stores
are ample testimony to the stresses of crowding.
are designed like mazes. Their twisting pathways encourage
Is there any way to assess the effect that crowding has on
shoppers to linger and wander while looking at merchan-
people? One approach is to study the effects of overcrowding
dise. (Oddly enough, raised flowerbeds around signs help
among animals. Although the results of animal experiments
protect them because people resist trampling the flowers
cannot be considered conclusive for humans, they point to
to get to the signs.) Or consider the public restroom. Many
some disturbing effects.
architects now “harden” and “de-opportunize” public rest-
In an influential classic experiment, John Calhoun
rooms by adding elements such as doorless toilet stalls and
(1962) let a group of laboratory rats breed without limit in
tiled walls to discourage vandalism and graffiti.
a confined space. Calhoun provided plenty of food, water,
Given the personal impact of environments, it is impor-
and nesting material for the rats. All that the rats lacked was
tant to know how we are affected by stressful or unhealthy
space. At its peak, the colony numbered 80 rats; yet it was
settings, such as large cities. Traffic congestion, pollution,
housed in a cage designed to comfortably hold about 50.
crime, and impersonality are urban problems that immedi-
Overcrowding in the cage was heightened by the actions
ately come to mind. To this list, psychologists have added
of the two most dominant males. These rascals staked out
crowding, overstimulation, and noise as major sources of
private territory at opposite ends of the cage, gathered ha-
rems of eight to ten females, and prospered. Their actions
forced the remaining rats into a small, severely crowded
middle area.
What effect did crowding have on the animals? A high
rate of pathological behavior developed in both males and
females. Females gave up nest building and caring for their
young. Pregnancies decreased, and infant mortality ran ex-
tremely high. Many of the animals became indiscriminately
aggressive and went on rampaging attacks against others.
Abnormal sexual behavior was rampant, with some animals
displaying hypersexuality and others total sexual passivity.
Many of the animals died, apparently from stress-caused
diseases. The link between these problems and overcrowd-
ing is unmistakable.
But does that apply to humans? Many of the same patho-
logical behaviors can be observed in crowded inner-city
ghettos. It is, therefore, tempting to assume that violence,
social disorganization, and declining birthrates as seen in
these areas are directly related to crowding. However, the
connection has not been so clearly demonstrated with hu-
mans (Evans et al., 2010). People living in the inner city
John Mitterer

suffer disadvantages in nutrition, education, income, and

health care. These conditions, more than crowding, may de-
This fly is not real; it is painted onto this urinal at Amsterdam’s
serve the blame for pathological behaviors. In fact, most lab-
Schiphol Airport. Men tend to aim at the “fly” and hence are more
accurate when they urinate. The result is much cleaner men’s oratory studies using human subjects have failed to produce
washrooms. any serious ill effects by crowding people into small places.

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 MoDU lE 76 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: e nvi r o n M e ntAl Psyc h o lo gy 659

fending off others with cold and unfriendly expressions. In

short, many city dwellers find that a degree of callousness
is essential for survival (Wilson & Kennedy, 2006). Thus, a
blunting of sensitivity to the needs of others may be one of
the more serious costs of urban stresses and crowding.
As described next, noise also contributes to the sensory
assault that many people endure in urban environments.
The High Cost of Noise How serious are the effects of

© a katz/Shutterstock.com
daily exposure to noise? A classic study of children attending
schools near Los Angeles International Airport suggests that
constant noise can be quite damaging. Children from the
noisy schools were compared with similar students attend-
Times Square in New York, New Year’s Eve, 2015. High densities
ing schools farther from the airport (Cohen et al., 1981). The
do not automatically produce feelings of crowding. The nature of comparison students were from families of similar social
the situation and the relationships among crowd members are also and economic makeup. Testing showed that children attend-
important. ing the noisy schools had higher blood pressure than those
from the quieter schools. They were more likely to give up
Most likely, this is because crowding is a psychologi-
attempts to solve a difficult puzzle. And they were poorer at
cal condition that is separate from density—the number of
proofreading a printed paragraph—a task that requires close
people in a given space. Crowding refers to subjective feel-
attention and concentration. Other studies of children living
ings of being overstimulated by social inputs or a loss of pri-
near other airports or in noisy neighborhoods have found
vacy. Whether high density is experienced as crowding may
similar signs of stress, poor reading skills, and other damag-
depend on the relationships among those involved. In an el-
ing effects (Evans, 2006; Linting et al., 2013; Sörqvist, 2010).
evator, subway, or prison, high densities may be uncomfort-
The tendency of the noise-battered children to give up
able. In contrast, a musical concert, party, or reunion may be
or become distracted is a serious handicap. It may even reveal
most pleasant at high density levels. Thus, physical crowd-
a state of learned helplessness (described in Module 57) caused
ing may interact with situations to intensify existing stresses
by daily, uncontrollable blasts of sound. Even if such dam-
or pleasures (Evans, Lercher, & Kofler, 2002).
age proves to be temporary, it is clear that noise pollution—
However, when crowding causes a loss of control over
annoying and intrusive sound—is a major source of envi-
one’s immediate social environment, stress and health
ronmental stress.
problems are likely to result (Solari & Mare, 2012; Steiner
& Wooldredge, 2009). Stress probably explains why death Environmental Problem solving
rates increase among prison inmates and mental hospital
How do psychologists find solutions to problems such as over-
patients who live in crowded conditions. Even milder in-
crowding, pollution, and overuse of resources? Solutions can
stances of crowding can have a negative impact. People who
more easily be found by doing an environmental assessment
live in crowded conditions often become more aggressive or
guarded and withdrawn from others (Regoeczi, 2008).
Density The number of people in a given space or, inversely, the
Attentional Overload One unmistakable consequence amount of space available to each person.
of high densities and crowding is a state that psycholo- Crowding A subjective feeling of being overstimulated by a loss
of privacy or by the nearness of others (especially when social
gist Stanley Milgram called attentional overload. This is a contact with them is unavoidable).
stressful condition that occurs when sensory stimulation, Attentional overload A stressful condition caused when sensory
information, and social contacts make excessive demands stimulation, information, and social contacts make excessive
demands on attention.
on attention. Large cities, in particular, tend to bombard
Noise pollution Stressful and intrusive noise; usually artificially
residents with continuous input resulting in sensory and generated by machinery, but also includes sounds made by ani-
cognitive overload. mals and humans.
Milgram (1970) believed that city dwellers learn to pre- Environmental assessment The measurement and analysis of the
effects that an environment has on the behavior and perceptions
vent attentional overload by engaging only in brief, superfi- of people within that environment.
cial social contacts, by ignoring nonessential events, and by

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660 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

to see how an environment influences the behavior and per- contacts. In comparison, students in the long-corridor
ceptions of the people using it. For example, anyone who has dorm felt more crowded, stressed, and unfriendly, and they
ever lived in a college dorm knows that, at times, it can be quite kept their doors shut much more frequently—presumably
a “crazy house.” In one well-known environmental assess- because they “wanted to be alone.”
ment, Baum and Valins (1977) found that students housed in Similar improvements have been made by altering the
long, narrow, corridor-design dormitories often feel crowded interior design of businesses, schools, apartment buildings,
and stressed. The crowded students tended to withdraw from mental hospitals, and prisons. In general, the more spaces
others and even made more trips to the campus health center that one must pass through to get from one part of a build-
than students living in less-crowded buildings. ing to another, the less stressed and crowded people feel
Through architectural psychology, the study of the ef- (Evans, Lepore, & Schroeder, 1996; Zeisel, 2006). We have
fects that buildings have on behavior, psychologists are often had room here only to hint at the creative and highly useful
able to suggest design changes that solve or avoid problems work being done in environmental psychology. Although
(Zeisel, 2006). For example, Baum and Valins (1979) stud- many environmental problems remain, it is encouraging to
ied two basic dorm arrangements. One dorm had a long see that behavioral solutions exist for at least some of them.
corridor with one central bathroom. As a result, residents Surely, creating and maintaining healthy environments is
were constantly forced into contact with one another. The one of the major challenges facing coming generations (Des
other dorm had rooms clustered in threes. Each of these Jardins, 2013; Winter & Koger, 2010).
suites shared a small bathroom. Even though the amount of
space available to each student was the same in both dorms, Space Habitats Nowhere are the demands on applied
students in the long-corridor dorm reported feeling more psychology greater than in space flight. Every machine, tool,
crowded. They also made fewer friends in their dorm and and environment in a spacecraft must be carefully adapted
showed greater signs of withdrawing from social contact. for human use (Mulavara et al., 2010). Already, we have dis-
What sort of solution does this suggest? A later study covered that life on the International Space Station isn’t easy,
showed that small architectural changes can greatly reduce physically or mentally. Residents are restricted to tiny living
stress in high-density living conditions. Baum and Davis quarters with little privacy for months at a time. These condi-
(1980) compared students living in a long-corridor dorm tions, and other sources of stress, make it clear that the design
housing 40 students with those living in an altered dorm of space habitats must take many human needs into account.
where the hallway was divided in half, with unlocked doors, For instance, researchers have learned that astronauts pre-
and three center bedrooms were turned into a lounge area fer rooms that clearly define “up” and “down”—even in the
(➤ Figure 76.2). At the end of the term, students living in weightlessness of space. This can be done by color-coding
the divided dorm reported less stress from crowding. They walls, floors, and ceilings and by orienting furniture and
also formed more friendships and were more open to social controls so they all face the “ceiling” (Suedfeld & Steel, 2000).

(a) (b)

Bedroom Bathroom Lounge

➤ Figure 76.2
An architectural solution for crowding. Psychologists divided a dorm hall like that shown in the left diagram (a) into two shorter halls
separated by unlocked doors and a lounge area (b). This simple change minimized unwanted social contacts and greatly reduced feelings of
crowding among dorm residents. (Adapted from Baum & Davis, 1980.)

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 MoDU lE 76 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: e nvi r o n M e ntAl Psyc h o lo gy 661

experimenting with various earmuffs, eyeshades, and

sleeping arrangements to alleviate such difficulties.

Sensory Restriction Sensory monotony can also be a

problem in space—even the magnificent vistas of Earth be-
come repetitive (Kanas & Manzey, 2008). (How many times
would you have to see the North American continent before
you lost interest?)
Researchers are developing stimulus environments that
use music, movies, and other diversions to combat monotony

N.A.S.A/SIPA/Newscom
and boredom. Again, they are trying to provide choice and
control for space crews. Studies of confined living in the Arctic
and elsewhere make it clear that one person’s symphony is an-
The International Space Station provides a habitat in which men other’s grating noise. Where music is concerned, individual
and women can live and work in space for extended periods. earphones may be all that is required to avoid problems.
Solving the behavioral problems of living in space will be an Most people in restricted environments find that they pre-
important step toward human exploration of the solar system.
fer solitary pastimes such as reading, listening to music, look-
ing out windows, writing, and watching films or television. As
much as anything, this preference may again show the need
Ideally, there should be some flexibility in the use of liv- for privacy. Reading or listening to music is a good way to
ing and work areas inside a space station. Behavior patterns psychologically withdraw from the group. Experiences with
change over time, and being able to control one’s environ- confining environments on Earth (such as Biosphere 2) sug-
ment helps lower stress. At the same time, people need stability. gest that including live animals and plants in space habitats
Regular exercise, for instance, is both physically and psycho- could reduce stress and boredom (Suedfeld & Steel, 2000).
logically necessary. Similarly, psychologists have found that
eating becomes an important high point in monotonous Life on Spaceship Earth It is curiously fitting that the
environments. Eating at least one meal together each day can dazzling technology of space travel has highlighted the in-
help keep crew members working as a social units. evitable importance of human behavior. Here on Earth, as
Sleep cycles must be carefully controlled in space to avoid in space, we cannot count on cleverly designed machines or
disrupting body rhythms (Kanas & Manzey, 2008; Suedfeld technology alone to solve problems. The threat of nuclear
& Steel, 2000). In past space missions, some astronauts war, social conflict, crime, prejudice, infectious disease,
found that they couldn’t sleep while other crew members con- overpopulation, environmental damage, famine, homicide,
tinued to work and talk. Problems with sleep can be worsened economic disaster, and most other major problems facing us
by the constant noise on a space station. At first, such noise is are behavioral.
annoying. It can be difficult to get used to it and, after weeks Will spaceship Earth endure? It’s the psychological
or months, it can become a serious stressor. Researchers are question we turn to next.

Human Influences on the Natural

Environment—Sustaining Our Earth
Survey Question 76.2 What effect are humans having on All that human activity drastically changes the natu-
the natural environment? ral environment (Miller & Spoolman, 2016). We burn fos-
sil fuels, destroy forests, use chemical products, and strip,
Overpopulation and its environmental impact are surely
clear, and farm the land. In doing so, we alter natural cycles,
among the most serious problems facing the world today.
The world population has exploded in the last 150 years to
Architectural psychology The study of the effects buildings have on
more than 7.3 billion people today (➤ Figure 76.3). It may behavior and the design of buildings using behavioral principles.
exceed 9.7 billion by 2050 (United Nations, 2016).

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662 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

18 June 2083
10.0 How many more people can the forests, oceans, cropland,
Population Growth
10 billion
9.0
and atmosphere of this world support? Resource consumption
18 Feb 2043 can be measured as an ecological footprint, the amount of
9 billion
8.0 land and water area required to replenish the resources that
15 June 2025

World population (in billions)

8 billion
7.0 a human population consumes. As we saw at the beginning
31 Oct 2011
7 billion
of this module, humans are already consuming more than
6.0
5 Dec 1998 the Earth can regenerate (Global Footprint Network, 2016).
6 billion Industrialized nations, in particular, are consuming world
5.0
1975 resources at an alarming rate. North America, for instance,
4 billion 4.0
1930 has an ecological footprint about 10 times higher than that
2 billion 3.0 of Asia or Africa.
1850 A worldwide ecological crisis is brewing, and humans
Year 1 1 billion 2.0
200 million must change course to avoid vast human misery and per-
1650
1.0 manent damage (Moran, 2010). Of course, corporations and
500 million
governments do much environmental damage. Thus, many
Year 1 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 of the solutions require changes in politics and policies.
➤ Figure 76.3 Ultimately, the solutions also require changes in individual
World population growth. Population growth has exploded behavior. Most of the environmental problems that we face
since 1850 and already exceeds 7 billion. Overpopulation and can be traced back to the individual human tendency to
rapid population growth are closely connected with environmental
overuse natural resources (Global Footprint Network, 2015;
damage, international tensions, and rapid depletion of nonrenewable
resources. Some demographers predict that if population growth is Huang & Rust, 2011). In the face of projected shortages and
not limited voluntarily before it reaches 10 billion, it will be limited squandered resources, what can be done to encourage both
by widespread food shortages, disease, infant mortality, and early the reduction of consumption and greater reliance on recy-
death (Global Footprint Network, 2016; United Nations, 2016).
cling and reuse on a personal level?
animal populations, and the very face of the Earth. The long-
conservation
range impact of such activities is already becoming evident
through global warming, the extinction of plants and ani- Try as you might to reduce your use of resources (such as
mals, a hole in the ozone layer, and polluted land, air, water, electricity), you may find it difficult (Stall-Meadows & He-
and oceans (Winter & Koger, 2010). bert, 2011). Learning about environmental problems and
pro-environment values at home, school, and work has
been one of the most effective ways to encourage pro-en-
vironmental behavior (Carrico & Riemer, 2011; Matthies,
Selge, & Klöckner, 2012). Still, as environmental psycholo-
gists have found, a lack of feedback and control remain ma-
jor barriers (McCalley, de Vries, & Midden, 2011; Winter &
Koger, 2010).
Feedback About Conservation Efforts Imagine learn-
ing that you suffer from high blood pressure and decide to
lower it. Yet you have no way to measure your blood pres-
AP Images/Itsuo Inouye

sure as required and, hence, no immediate and direct way of

telling if your efforts are successful. Until recently, this was
the situation with conservation.
In March 2011, a Japanese nuclear reactor leaked radiation into the For example, feedback about electricity use (such as the
environment when it suffered a catastrophic failure in reaction to a monthly electricity bill) usually arrives long after the temp-
giant earthquake and tsunami. Major environmental catastrophes tation to turn up the heat or to leave lights on. Psychologists
like this one have become depressingly common. As the late Carl
aware of this problem have shown that lower energy bills re-
Sagan once said, “When you look closely, you find so many things
going wrong with the environment, you are forced to reassess the sult from simply giving families and work groups daily feed-
hypothesis of intelligent life on Earth.” back about their use of gas or electricity (Carrico & Riemer,

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 MoDU lE 76 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: e nvi r o n M e ntAl Psyc h o lo gy 663

What will it cost the world to provide

for a baby born since the year 2000?
Without a major conservation effort, a
person born in North America will over
Fish: 1123 lbs. a lifetime consume, on average, the
Eggs: 18,046 resources shown here (“Bringing up
Beef: 4905 lbs.
Baby,” 1999).

Wood: 5777 cubic feet

Vegetables: 13,653 lbs.

Coal: 290 tons

Coffee: 688 lbs.

Pesticides: 280 lbs. Potatoes: 3728 lbs.

Courtesy of John Mitterer

Water: 41,289,000 gallons Petroleum: 80,598 gallons

2011). But now smart meters can provide continuous feed- greater control over their conservation efforts. For exam-
back about energy usage to both consumers and their en- ple, programmable home thermostats and energy-saving
ergy suppliers (U.S. Department of Energy, 2016). settings on appliances and electronics make it possible for
As another example, recycling typically increases when conservation-conscious consumers to control their energy
families, work groups, dorms, and the like are given feedback consumption more precisely. It is now easier than ever to
on a periodic basis about how much they recycled (Kim, conserve energy (by installing energy-efficient lights, for
Oah, & Dickinson, 2005). In one study, signs were placed on example) and see an immediate reduction in your carbon
recycling containers on a college campus. The signs showed footprint.
how many aluminum cans had been deposited in the pre- At the same time, corporations and public utilities can
vious week. This simple procedure increased recycling by use up-to-date information to offer incentives, such as mon-
65 percent (Larson, Houlihan, & Goernert, 1995). etary rewards, for energy conservation. Electricity utilities
Effective feedback about overall resource use also is have begun, for example, to offer electricity at lower prices
finally becoming widely available as several organizations during periods of low demand. Savvy consumers not only
provide ecological footprint calculators, websites that allow can more easily conserve electricity, but they also can save
individuals to calculate (and therefore track) their individu- even more money by, say, running their dishwasher in the
al overall resource consumption (Global Footprint Network, evening rather than during the day.
2015a). Similarly, with growing public concern over global Similarly, anything that makes recycling more con-
warming, many people can now calculate their individual venient or worthwhile doing helps put people in control.
carbon footprint, the volume of greenhouse gases their in- A good example is cities that offer curbside pickup of
dividual consumption adds to the atmosphere (The Nature
Conservancy, 2016).
Ecological footprint The amount of land and water area required to
Control and Conservation Of course, feedback with- replenish the resources that a human population consumes.
Carbon footprint The volume of greenhouse gases individual con-
out control is still not optimal. Fortunately many of the same sumption adds to the atmosphere.
technologies that provide feedback also allow individuals

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664 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Social norms marketing seeks to change attitudes by

making social norms more explicit in order to encourage
compliance. What would you do if you received a Twitter
tweet or Facebook post that read, “Seventy-seven percent of
your neighbors report taking shorter showers to conserve
energy” (Miller & Prentice, 2016, p. 340)? A more precisely
targeted approach, personalized normative feedback, seeks

Philip James Corwin/Documentary/Corbis

to change attitudes by comparing feedback about individual
performance with the relevant social norms. A sample tweet
or post might be “Did you know that you use more water
every week than eighty percent of your neighbors?” Both of
these social norms based approaches are proving to be pow-
erful new tools in the battle for Earth (Ferraro, Miranda, &
People are much more likely to recycle if proper attention is Price, 2011; Ferraro & Price, 2013; Miller & Prentice, 2016).
given to psychological factors that promote recycling behavior.
For example, these recycling bins are designed to be visually social Dilemmas
appealing.
Why is it so difficult to get people to take better care of the
environment? A pattern of behavior called a social dilemma
household recyclables. Another is businesses that help cus- contributes to many environmental problems. A social
tomers recycle old computers, printers, and the like. Requir- dilemma is any social situation that rewards actions that
ing refundable deposits on glass bottles is a good example of have undesired effects in the long run (Van Lange et al.,
using incentives to increase recycling. 2013; Van Vugt, 2009). In a typical social dilemma, no one
On campus, simply putting marked containers in class- individual intentionally acts against the group interest, but if
rooms is also helpful (Duffy &Verges, 2009). many people act alike, collective harm is done. For example,
It is even becoming more possible and popular to offset the rapid transit systems in many large cities are underused.
some carbon debt—by planting trees, for example. Prompt At the same time, the roads are jammed. Why? Too many
and accurate information and feedback about energy use individuals decide that it is convenient to own and drive a
are making it possible to aspire to a carbon-neutral lifestyle, separate car (to run errands and so on). However, each per-
in which your energy consumption is reduced and the re- son’s behavior affects the welfare of others. Because every-
mainder offset so that your overall impact on global warm- one wants to drive for “convenience,” driving becomes in-
ing is zero. convenient: The mass of cars in most cities causes irritating
traffic snarls and a lack of parking spaces. It also contributes
Persuasion One last point. All the knowledge, feedback,
to pollution and global warming. Each car owner has been
and control in the world won’t much matter to a person
drawn into a dilemma.
with little or no motivation to conserve resources or re-
cycle. For this reason, we also need to consider how best The Tragedy of the Commons Social dilemmas are
to persuade people to participate. Even people who believe especially damaging when we are enticed into overuse of
that recycling is worthwhile are likely to regard it as a bor- scarce resources that must be shared by many people. Again,
ing task. Thus, people are most likely to begin and continue each person acts in his or her self-interest but, collectively,
recycling if they emphasize the sense of satisfaction that everyone ends up suffering. Ecologist Garrett Hardin (1968)
they get from contributing to the environment (Nigbur, calls such situations the tragedy of the commons. An exam-
Lyons, & Uzzell, 2010). ple that we have already discussed in this book is the lack of
To date, there have been many different types of me- individual incentives to conserve gasoline, water, or electric-
dia campaigns designed to get people engaged. Often, these ity. Whenever personal comfort or convenience is involved,
campaigns seek to highlight the costs and benefits of en- it is highly tempting to “let others worry about it.” Yet in the
vironmentalism. While such approaches produce results, long run, everyone stands to lose (Ansari, Wijen, & Gray,
more needs to be done. Fortunately, the widespread use of 2013; Van Vugt, 2009).
social media is beginning to allow more custom-tailored Why does such misguided behavior so often prevail?
approaches. Again, we see a social dilemma at work: If one person

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 MoDU lE 76 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: e nvi r o n M e ntAl Psyc h o lo gy 665

pollutes a river or trashes the roadside, it has little noticeable behavior. An example is the rebates offered for installing insu-
effect. But as many people do the same, problems that affect lation or buying energy-efficient appliances (Schmuck & Vlek,
everyone quickly mount. Throwing away one plastic bag 2003). Another is offering lower electricity rates for shifting
may seem inconsequential, but across the world, hundreds use to off-peak times (U.S. Department of Energy, 2016).
of billions of plastic bags are used every year, and it takes Some problems may be harder to solve: What, for in-
hundreds of years for the environment to recycle them. Plas- stance, can be done about truck drivers who cause danger-
tic bags are major polluters of the world’s oceans. ous traffic jams because they will not pull over on narrow
As another example, consider the farmer who applies pes- roads? How can littering be discouraged or prevented? How
ticides to a crop to save it from insect damage. The farmer ben- would you make carpooling or using public transportation
efits immediately. However, if other farmers follow suit, the the first choice for most people? How could people simply
local water system may be permanently damaged. In most cas- be encouraged to stagger their departure times to and from
es of environmental pollution, immediate individual benefits work? All these and more are social dilemmas that need
are gained for polluting, but the major, long-term collective solving. It is important that we not fall into the trap of ig-
costs are delayed. What can we do to avoid such dilemmas? noring them (van Dijk, Parks, & van Lange, 2013).
Escaping Dilemmas Persuasion and education have A look Ahead
been used with some success to get individuals and busi-
We have discussed work and the environment at some
nesses to voluntarily reduce destructive activities. Effective
length because both have major effects on our lives. To pro-
appeals may be based on self-interest (cost savings), the col-
vide a fuller account of the diversity of applied psychology,
lective good (protecting one’s own children and future gen-
let’s conclude by briefly sampling four additional topics of
erations), or simply a personal desire to take better care of
interest: legal psychology, educational psychology, sports
the planet (Pelletier, Baxter, & Huta, 2011; Winter & Koger,
psychology, and human factors psychology.
2010). It really helps if conservation is seen as a group ef-
fort. There is evidence that in most social dilemmas, people
are more likely to restrain themselves when they believe that
others will, too (Kugler & Bornstein, 2013; Nigbur, Lyons, Social norms marketing A persuasion technique that seeks to
change attitudes by making explicit relevant social norms in order
& Uzzell, 2010). Otherwise, they are likely to think, “Why to foster compliance.
should I be a sucker? I don’t think anyone else is going to Personalized normative feedback A persuasion technique that
conserve” (fuel, electricity, water, paper, or whatever). seeks to change attitudes by comparing feedback about individual
performance with relevant social norms in order to foster
In some cases, it is possible to dismantle social dilemmas
compliance.
by rearranging rewards and costs. For example, many compa- Social dilemma A social situation that tends to provide immediate
nies are tempted to pollute because it saves them money and rewards for actions that will have undesired effects in the long run.
increases profits. To reverse the situation, a pollution tax could Tragedy of the commons A social dilemma in which individuals,
each acting in his or her immediate self-interest, overuse a scarce
be levied so that it would cost more, not less, for a business to group resource.
pollute. Likewise, incentives could be offered for responsible

MODULE

76 summary
76.1 What effects do natural, physical, and social 76.1.2 The nature of many relationships is revealed by your
environments have on humans? personal space, the distance you are comfortable
76.1.1 Environmental psychologists are interested in be- maintaining between yourself and another person.
havioral settings, physical and social environments, 76.1.3 Territorial behaviors, including territorial markers,
sustainability, and human territoriality, among other are used to define a space as one’s own or to protect it
topics. from intruders.

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666 P sycholo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

76.1.4 Environmental problems such as crowding, overstim- 76.2 What effect are humans having on the natu-
ulation, and noise are major sources of urban stress. ral environment?
76.1.5 Animal experiments indicate that excessive crowding 76.2.1 The origins of many environmental disasters lie in
can be unhealthy. However, human research shows overpopulation and overconsumption.
that psychological feelings of crowding do not always 76.2.2 Providing control and feedback about resource use is
correspond to density. One major consequence of an effective way to promote conservation and recy-
crowding is attentional overload. cling.
76.1.6 Noise pollution is a major source of environmental 76.2.3 Persuasive messages about conservation are more ef-
stress. fective when they reference social norms.
76.1.7 Environmental psychologists offer solutions to many 76.2.4 Social dilemmas, such as the tragedy of the com-
practical problems—from noise pollution to architec- mons, arise when people are enticed into overuse of
tural design. Their work often begins with a careful scarce, shared resources.
environmental assessment.
76.1.8 Space habitats must be designed with special atten-
tion to the numerous human factors issues raised by
space flight.

Knowledge Builder Applied Psychology: Environmental Psychology

Recite Reflect
1. If two people position themselves 5 feet apart while Think critically
conversing, they are separated by a gap referred to as 8. Many of the most damaging changes to the environment
_____________________________ distance. being caused by humans will not be felt until sometime
2. Although male rats in Calhoun’s crowded animal colony in the future. How does this complicate the problem of
became quite pathological, female rats continued to be- preserving environmental quality?
have in a relatively normal fashion. T or F?
3. Milgram believed that many city dwellers prevent at- Self-Reflect
tentional overload by limiting themselves to superficial What forms of territorial behavior are you aware of in your
social contacts. T or F? own actions?
4. Performing an environmental _____________________ Have you ever experienced a stressful level of crowding?
might be a good prelude to redesigning college class- Was density or control the key factor?
rooms to make them more comfortable and conducive to Have you ever calculated your carbon footprint? Why not
learning. try it? You might be surprised by what you find.
5. Researchers have learned that astronauts don’t really care Would it get you more involved in conservation to be given
if living quarters have clearly defined “up” and “down” regular feedback about your conservation activities? About
orientations. T or F? those of your social reference groups?
6. Using smart meters and ecological footprint calculators
to provide feedback is one effective approach for bringing AN sW E R s
about energy conservation. T or F? on immediate behavior.
7. So far, the most successful approach for bringing about (rewards, benefits, costs, and punishments) tends to reduce their impact
energy conservation is to add monetary penalties to 1. social 2. F 3. T 4. assessment 5. F 6. T 7. F 8. Delay of consequences

monthly bills for excessive consumption. T or F?

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 MODULE
Applied Psychology
The Psychology of Law, Education, 77
and Sports

Enough for the Death Penalty?

In May 2015, a jury convicted Boston Marathon bomber Dzhokhar
Tsarnaev of brutally murdering three spectators and wounding at
least 260 others. After months of often heartbreaking testimony,
the jury reached their verdict—guilty, with a recommendation to
sentence Tsarnaev to death by lethal injection for his crime. When
most people think about psychology and the law, they think about
Criminal Minds. Yet, understanding the minds of jurors is at least as
important to the legal process.
Three of the best places to see psychology in action are in a

JANE FLAVELL COLLINS/EPA/Newscom

courthouse, in a classroom, and at sporting events. These settings
are all capable of bringing out some of the best and worst of hu-
man behavior. It is worth applying psychology to foster the best
rather than the worst. Let’s begin with a look at the psychology
of juries.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
77.1 What does psychology reveal about juries and 77.2 How has psychology improved education?
court verdicts? 77.3 Can psychology enhance athletic performance?

Psychology and Law—Judging Juries

Survey Question 77.1 What does psychology reveal about Jury Behavior
juries and court verdicts?
When a case goes to trial, jurors must listen to days or
Jury trials are often fascinating studies in human behavior. weeks of testimony and then decide guilt or innocence.
Does the defendant’s appearance affect the jury’s decision? How do they reach their decision? Psychologists use mock
Do the personality characteristics or attitudes of jurors in- juries, or simulated juries, to probe such questions. In some
fluence how they vote? These and many more questions mock juries, volunteers are simply given written evidence
have been investigated by psychologists interested in law.
Specifically, the psychology of law is the study of the behav- Psychology of law The study of the psychological and behavioral
dimensions of the legal system.
ioral dimensions of the legal system (Greene & Heilbrun, Mock jury A group that realistically simulates a courtroom jury.
2014; see ■ Table 77.1).

667
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668 P SychoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 77.1 topics of special interest in the Furthermore, jurors who have been exposed to pre-
Psychology of law trial publicity tend to inappropriately incorporate that in-
formation into their jury deliberations, often without be-
Arbitration Juror attitudes ing aware that it has happened (Ruva, McEvoy, & Bryant,
Attitudes toward law Jury decisions 2007). Similarly, the jurors’ final verdict is influenced by
inadmissible evidence, such as mention of a defendant’s
Bail setting Jury selection prior conviction. When jurors are told to ignore informa-
Capital punishment Mediation tion that slips out in court (even if it is “stricken from the
Conflict resolution Memory
record”), they find it very hard to do so. A related problem
occurs when jurors take into account the severity of the
Criminal personality Parole board decisions punishment that a defendant faces (Sales & Hafemeister,
Diversion programs Police selection 1985). Jurors are not supposed to let this affect their ver-
dict, but many do.
Effects of parole Police stress
A final area of difficulty arises because jurors usually
Expert testimony Police training cannot suspend judgment until all the evidence is present-
Eyewitness testimony Polygraph accuracy ed. Typically, they form an opinion early in the trial. It then
becomes hard for them to fairly judge evidence that contra-
Forensic hypnosis Sentencing decisions
dicts that opinion.
Insanity plea White-collar crime Problems like these are troubling in a legal system that
prides itself on fairness. However, all is not lost. The more
severe the crime and the more clear-cut the evidence, the
and arguments to read before making a decision. Others
less a jury’s quirks affect the verdict. Although it is far from
watch videotaped trials staged by actors. Either way, study-
perfect, the jury system works reasonably well in most cases
ing the behavior of mock juries helps us understand what
(Greene & Heilbrun, 2014).
determines how real jurors vote (Pezdek, Avila-Mora, &
Sperry, 2010).
Some of the findings of jury research are unsettling Jury Selection
(Peoples et al., 2012). Studies show that jurors are rarely able In many cases, the composition of a jury has a major effect
to put aside their biases, attitudes, and values while making a on the verdict of a trial (Kovera & Cutler, 2013). Before a
decision (Buck & Warren, 2010; Stawiski, Dykema-Engblade, trial begins, opposing attorneys are allowed to disqualify
& Tindale, 2012). For example, appearance can be unduly in- potential jurors who may be biased. For example, a person
fluential (just like interpersonal attraction; see Module 72). who knows anyone connected with the trial can be excluded.
Jurors are less likely to find attractive defendants guilty (on Beyond this, attorneys try to use jury selection to remove
the basis of the same evidence) than unattractive defendants. people who may cause trouble for them. For instance, juries
In one mock jury study, defendants were less likely to be con- composed of women are more likely to vote for conviction
victed if they were wearing eyeglasses than if they were not. in child sexual assault trials (Eigenberg et al., 2012; Golding
Presumably, eyeglasses imply intelligence and, hence, that et al., 2007).
the defendant wouldn’t do anything as foolish as what he or Only a limited number of potential jurors can be ex-
she was accused of (Brown, Henriquez, & Groscup, 2008). cused. As a result, many attorneys ask psychologists for help
Another problem is that jurors are not very good at in identifying people who will favor or harm their efforts.
separating evidence from other information, such as their In scientific jury selection, social science principles are ap-
perceptions of the defendant, attorneys, witnesses, and what plied to the process of choosing a jury (Lieberman & Sales,
they think the judge wants. For example, if complex scien- 2007; Lieberman, 2011). Several techniques are typically
tific evidence is presented, jurors tend to be swayed more by used. As a first step, demographic information may be col-
the expertise of the witness than by the evidence itself (Coo- lected for each juror. Much can be guessed by knowing a
per, Bennett, & Sukel, 1996; Hans et al., 2011). Similarly, juror’s age, sex, race, occupation, education, political affili-
today’s jurors place too much confidence in DNA evidence ation, religion, and socioeconomic status. Most of this in-
because crime-solving programs such as CSI and Forensic formation is available from public records, including social
Files make it seem simple (Meyers, 2007). media (Nance, 2015).

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 MoDU LE 77 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: th e Psyc h o lo gy o f lAw, e d u cAti o n, An d s Po rts 669

To supplement demographic information, a community leads to unjust verdicts. At its best, it helps to identify and
survey may be done to find out how local citizens feel about remove only people who would be highly biased (Kovera
the case. The assumption is that jurors probably have atti- & Cutler, 2013).
tudes similar to people with backgrounds like their own. Al-
though talking with potential jurors outside the courtroom Death-Qualified Juries In the United States, murder
is not permitted, other information networks are available. trials require a special jury—one made up of people who
For instance, a psychologist may interview relatives, ac- are not opposed to the death penalty. That way, jurors are
quaintances, neighbors, and coworkers of potential jurors. capable of voting for the death penalty if they think that it
Back in court, psychologists also often watch for au- is justified.
thoritarian personality traits in potential jurors. Authoritar- Death-qualified juries may be a necessity for the death
ians tend to believe that punishment is effective, and they penalty to have meaning. However, psychologists have dis-
are more likely to vote for conviction (Devine et al., 2001). covered that the makeup of such juries tends to be biased.
(Authoritarian personality traits are also related to ethno- Specifically, death-qualified juries are likely to contain a
centrism and racial prejudice. See Module 73.) At the same disproportionate number of people who are male, white,
time, the psychologist typically observes potential jurors’ high income, conservative, and authoritarian. Given the
nonverbal behavior. The idea is to try to learn from body same facts, jurors who favor the death penalty are more
language which side the person favors. likely to read criminal intent into a defendant’s actions
In the well-publicized case of O.J. Simpson, who was (Goodman-Delahunty, Greene, & Hsiao, 1998; Summers,
accused of brutally killing his wife and her friend, a majority Hayward, & Miller, 2010) and are much more likely than
of African Americans thought that Simpson was innocent average to convict a defendant (Allen, Mabry, & McKelton,
during the early stages of the trial. In contrast, the major- 1998; Butler, 2007).
ity of European Americans thought that he was guilty. The Could death-qualified juries be too willing to convict?
opinions of both groups changed little over the course of It is nearly impossible to say how often the bias inherent in
the yearlong trial. (Simpson was eventually acquitted, but death-qualified juries results in bad verdicts. However, the
he later lost a civil lawsuit brought by the victims’ families.) possibility that some innocent persons have been executed
The fact that emerging evidence and arguments had little may be one of the inevitable costs of using death as the ulti-
effect on what people believed shows why jury makeup can mate punishment.
sometimes decide the outcome of a trial (Cohn et al., 2009). Jury research is perhaps the most direct link between
Cases such as Simpson’s raise troubling ethical ques- psychology and law, but there are others. Psychologists eval-
tions. Wealthy clients have the advantage of scientific uate people for sanity hearings, do counseling in prisons,
jury selection—something that most people cannot af- profile criminals, advise lawmakers on public policy, help
ford. Attorneys, of course, can’t be blamed for trying to select and train police cadets, and more (Greene & Heilb-
improve their odds of winning a case. And because both run, 2014; Wrightsman & Fulero, 2009). In the future, it is
sides help select jurors, the net effect in most instances is quite likely that psychology will have a growing impact on
probably a more balanced jury. At its worst, jury analysis law and the courts.

Educational Psychology—An Instructive Topic

Survey Question 77.2 How has psychology improved What are the best ways to teach? Is there an optimal
education? teaching style for different age groups, topics, or individuals?
These and related questions lie at the heart of educational
You have just been asked to teach a class of fourth-graders
for a day. What will you do? (Assume that bribery, showing
them movies, and a field trip to an amusement park are out.) Scientific jury selection Using social science principles to choose
If you ever do try teaching, you might be surprised at how members of a jury.
Death-qualified jury A jury composed of people who favor the
challenging it is. Effective teachers must understand learn- death penalty, or at least are indifferent to it.
ing, instruction, classroom dynamics, and testing.

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670 P SychoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 77.2 topics of special interest to become more effective is to use a specific teaching strategy,
educational Psychologists or planned method of instruction. The example that follows
was designed for classroom use, but it applies to many other
Aptitude testing Language learning situations as well (Ormrod, 2014):
Classroom management Learning theory Step 1: Learner preparation. Begin by gaining the learn-
Classroom motivation Moral development er’s attention, focusing interest on the topic at hand.
Classroom organization Student adjustment
Step 2: Stimulus presentation. Present instructional
stimuli (information, examples, and illustrations)
Concept learning Student attitudes deliberately and clearly.
Curriculum development Student needs Step 3: Learner response. Allow time for the learner to
respond to the information presented (by repeating
Disabled students Teacher attitudes
correct responses or asking questions, for example).
Exceptional students Teaching strategies Step 4: Reinforcement. Give positive reinforcement
Gifted students Teaching styles (praise, encouragement) and feedback (“Yes, that’s
right,” “No, this way,” and so on) to strengthen cor-
Individualized instruction Test writing
rect responses.
Intellectual development Transfer of learning Step 5: Evaluation. Test or assess the learner’s progress so
Intelligence testing that both you and the learner can make adjustments
when needed.
Step 6: Spaced review. Periodic review is an impor-
psychology (■ Table 77.2). Specifically, educational psy- tant step in teaching because it helps strengthen
chology seeks to understand how people learn and how responses to key stimuli.
teachers instruct (Snowman & McCown, 2015).
(Many effective teaching strategies apply the basic prin-
Elements of a Teaching Strategy ciples of operant conditioning. See Modules 27, 29, and 30.)
Whether it’s “breaking in” a new coworker, instructing a
friend in a hobby, or helping a child learn to read, the fact Effects of Learning and Teaching Styles Isn’t there
is that we all teach at times. The next time you are asked to more to teaching than following a particular teaching strat-
share your knowledge, how will you do it? One good way to egy? Effective teachers don’t just use a teaching strategy to
present material to their students. They also recognize that
different students may have different learning styles and that
it is possible to use different teaching styles.
There are many different approaches to the topic of
learning styles. One stems from Howard Gardner’s theory
of multiple intelligences (see Module 40). Someone high in
language ability may learn best by hearing or reading, some-
one high in visual intelligence may learn best through pic-
tures, someone high in interpersonal intelligence may learn
best working in groups, and so on (Gardner, 2008; Kornhaber
& Gardner, 2006).
There is also little doubt that teachers can greatly affect
student interest, motivation, and creativity. But what styles
Jim West/Alamy Stock Photo

have what effects? To answer this question, psychologists

have compared several teaching styles. Two of the most ba-
sic are direct instruction and discovery learning.
In direct instruction, factual information is presented
Educational psychologists are interested in enhancing learning and by lecture, demonstration, and rote practice. In discovery
improving teaching. learning, teachers create conditions that encourage students

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 MoDU LE 77 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: th e Psyc h o lo gy o f lAw, e d u cAti o n, An d s Po rts 671

to discover or construct knowledge for themselves (Dean & approach called Universal Design for Instruction (Holbrook,
Kuhn, 2007). As it turns out, both approaches have certain Moore, & Zoss, 2010; Katz, 2013). The basic idea is to design
advantages. Students of direct instruction do slightly better lessons so richly that they will benefit most, if not all, stu-
on achievement tests than students in discovery classrooms dents and their diverse needs and learning styles.
(Klahr & Nigam, 2004). However, students of discovery One principle of Universal Design for Instruction is to
learning do somewhat better on tests of abstract thinking, use a variety of instructional methods, such as a lecture, a
creativity, and problem solving. They also tend to be more podcast of the lecture, a group activity, an Internet discus-
independent, curious, and positive in their attitudes toward sion list, and perhaps student blogs. That way, for example,
school (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2007). At present, it looks as students with hearing or visual impairments can find at least
if a balance of teaching styles goes hand in hand with a bal- one learning approach that they can use. Likewise, adult
anced education. learners who can’t always get to class because of work or
Although we have viewed only a small sample of ed- family responsibilities can get course information in other
ucational theory and research, their value for improving ways. Ultimately, everyone benefits because we all learn bet-
teaching and learning should be apparent (Snowman & ter if we can choose among different ways of gaining knowl-
McCown, 2015). edge. Besides, it’s not a bad idea to work through learning
materials more than once, and in different ways.
Another principle is to make learning materials simple
Universal Design for Instruction and intuitive by removing unnecessary complexity. For in-
Before we leave the topic of education, let’s take a peek at stance, students can be given clear grading standards, accu-
where education is going in the future by starting in the past. rate and complete course outlines, and handbooks to guide
“Education is the key to unlock the golden door of freedom,” them through difficult topics. Again, such materials are not
said George Washington Carver. Born in 1860 as the son just better for special groups of students. They make learn-
of slaves, he invented that universally popular food, peanut ing easier for all of us.
butter. In today’s ever more complicated world, Carver’s Are these principles being applied to learning in colleg-
words ring truer than ever. Yet educators face an increasing- es and universities? In short, yes they are (Glass, Meyer, &
ly diverse mix of students: “regular” students, adult learners, Rose, 2013; Orr & Hammig, 2009; Thoma, Bartholomew, &
students who have disabilities, students who speak English Scott, 2009). Universal instruction has broad appeal—like
as a second language, and students at risk of dropping out peanut butter—but fortunately, it won’t stick to the roof of
(Bowe, 2000). In response, educators have begun to apply an your mind!

Sports Psychology—Psyched!
Survey Question 77.3 Can psychology enhance athletic achievement, such as skill learning, the personality pro-
performance? files of champion athletes, the effects of spectators, and re-
lated topics (■ Table 77.3). In short, sports psychologists
Sports psychology is the study of the behavioral dimen-
seek to understand and improve sports performance and
sions of sports performance (Cox, 2012; Davis, 2016). As
to enhance the benefits of participating in sports (Cox,
almost all serious athletes soon learn, peak performance
2012; Davis, 2016).
requires more than physical training. Mental and emo-
tional “conditioning” also are important. Recognizing
this fact, many teams, both professional and amateur, Educational psychology The field that seeks to understand how
now include psychologists on their staffs. On any given people learn and how teachers instruct.
Teaching strategy A plan for effective teaching.
day, a sports psychologist might teach an athlete how to
Direct instruction The presentation of factual information by lec-
relax, how to ignore distractions, or how to cope with ture, demonstration, and rote practice.
emotions. The sports psychologist also might provide Discovery learning Instruction based on encouraging students to
personal counseling for handling performance-lowering discover or construct knowledge for themselves.
Sports psychology The study of the psychological and behavioral
stresses and conflicts (LeUnes, 2008). Other psycholo- dimensions of sports performance.
gists are interested in studying factors that affect athletic

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672 P SychoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 77.3 topics of special interest to

sports Psychologists

Achievement motivation Hypnosis

Athletic personality Mental practice
Athletic task analysis Motor learning
Coaching styles Peak performance

Boston Globe/Getty Images

Competition Positive visualization
Control of attention Self-regulation
Coping strategies Skill acquisition
Emotions and performance Social facilitation Testing by psychologists has shown that umpires can call balls
and strikes more accurately if they stand behind the outside corner
Exercise and mental health Stress reduction
of home plate. This position supplies better height and distance
Goal setting Team cooperation information because umpires are able to see pitches pass in front
of the batter (Ford et al., 1999).
Group (team) dynamics Training procedures

out of 60 shots is not unusual in international competition

Sports often provide valuable information on human (prone position).
behavior in general. For example, one study of adoles- What does it take—beyond keen eyes and steady
cents found a link between sports participation and physi- hands—to achieve such accuracy? The answer is sur-
cal self-esteem that in turn was linked with overall self- prising. Sports psychologists have found that top shoot-
esteem (Bowker, 2006). In other research, psychologists ers consistently squeeze the trigger between heartbeats
have learned that such benefits are most likely to occur (➤ Figure 77.1). Apparently, the tiny tremor induced by a
when competition, rejection, criticism, and the “one-win- heartbeat is enough to send the shot astray (Pelton, 1983).
ner mentality” are minimized. When working with chil- Without careful psychological study, it is doubtful that this
dren in sports, it is also important to emphasize fair play, element of marksmanship would have been identified. Now
intrinsic rewards, self-control of emotions, independence, that its importance is known, competitors have begun to
and self-reliance.
Adults, of course, also may benefit from sports through
reduced stress, better self-image, and improved general health
(Khan et al., 2012; Williams, 2010). Runners, for instance, ex-
perience lower levels of tension, anxiety, fatigue, and depres-
sion than are found in the nonrunning population.
Since the advent of sports psychology, our under-
standing of sports and expert performance has developed
by leaps and bounds. An ability to do detailed studies of
Heartbeat
complex skills has been one of the major contributions.
In a task analysis, sports skills are broken into subparts
so that key elements can be identified and taught (Hewit,
Cronin, & Hume, 2012). Such methods are an extension
Shot Shot
of techniques first used for job analyses, as described in
Module 75. ➤ Figure 77.1
For example, it doesn’t take much to be off target in the Accuracy of target shooting as a function of heartbeats. The
target on the left shows what happens when a shooter fires during
Olympic sport of marksmanship. The object here is to hit
the heart’s contraction. Higher scores, as shown by the three
a bull’s-eye the size of a dime at the end of a 165-foot-long shots on the right, are more likely when shots are taken between
shooting range. Nevertheless, an average of 50 bull’s-eyes heartbeats. (Adapted from Pelton, 1983.)

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 MoDU LE 77 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: th e Psyc h o lo gy o f lAw, e d u cAti o n, An d s Po rts 673

use various techniques—from relaxation training to bio- 5. When possible, it is better to practice natural units rather
feedback— to steady and control their heartbeats. In the than breaking the task into artificial parts. When learn-
future, the best shooters may be those who set their sights ing to type, it is better to start with real words rather
on mastering their hearts. than nonsense syllables.

Motor Skills Sports psychologists are very interested The last point leads to one more suggestion. Research
in how we learn motor skills (Hodges & Williams, 2012). has shown that mental practice, or merely imagining a
A motor skill is a series of actions molded into a smooth skilled performance, can aid learning (Short, Ross-Stewart,
and efficient performance. Typing, walking, pole-vaulting, & Monsma, 2006). This technique seems to help by refining
shooting baskets, playing golf, driving a car, writing, and motor programs. Of course, mental practice is not superior
skiing are all motor skills. to actual practice. Give mental practice a try. You may be
A basketball player may never make exactly the same surprised at how effective it can be (Caliari, 2008; Smith &
shot twice in a game. This makes it almost impossible to Wakefield, 2016).
practice every shot that might occur. How, then, do ath-
letes become skillful? Typically, athletic performances
The Whole human: Peak Performance
involve learning motor programs. A motor program is a One of the most interesting topics in sports psychology is
mental plan or model of what a skilled movement should the phenomenon of peak performance. During peak perfor-
be like. Motor programs allow an athlete—or a per- mance, physical, mental, and emotional states are harmo-
son simply walking across a room—to perform complex nious and optimal (Bourne & Healy, 2014). Many athletes
movements that fit changing conditions. If, for example, report episodes during which they felt almost as if they were
you have learned a “bike-riding” motor program, you can in a trance. The experience also has been called flow because
easily ride bicycles of different sizes and types on a large the athlete becomes one with his or her performance and
variety of surfaces. flows with it. At such times, athletes experience intense con-
Throughout life, you will face the challenge of learn- centration, detachment, a lack of fatigue and pain, a sub-
ing new motor skills. How can psychology make your jective slowing of time, and feelings of unusual power and
learning more effective? Studies of sports skills sug- control (Dietrich & Stoll, 2010; Hartley, 2012). It is at just
gest that you should keep the following points in mind such times that “personal bests” tend to occur.
for optimal skill learning (Karagheorgis & Terry, 2011; A curious aspect of flow is that it cannot be forced to
Williams, 2010): happen. In fact, if a person stops to think about it, the flow
state goes away. Psychologists are now seeking to identify
1. Begin by observing and imitating a skilled model. conditions that facilitate peak performance and the unusual
Modeling provides a good mental picture of the skill. mental state that usually accompanies it (Harmison, 2011).
At this point, try simply to grasp a visual image of the Even though flow may be an elusive state, there is much
skilled movement. that athletes can do mentally to improve performance (Wil-
2. Learn verbal rules to back up motor learning. Such liams, 2010). A starting point is to make sure that their
rules are usually most helpful in the early phases of skill arousal level is appropriate for the task at hand. For a sprinter
learning. When first learning cross-country skiing, for at a track meet, that may mean elevating arousal to a very
example, it is helpful to say, “left arm, right foot, right high level. For example, the sprinter could try to become an-
arm, left foot.” Later, as a skill becomes more automated, gry by picturing a rival cheating. For a golfer or a gymnast,
internal speech may actually get in the way. lowering arousal may be crucial, in order to avoid “choking”
3. Practice should be as lifelike as possible, so artificial
cues and responses do not become a part of the skill. A
competitive diver should practice on the board, not on Task analysis Breaking complex skills into their subparts.
a trampoline. If you want to learn to ski, try to practice Motor skill A series of actions molded into a smooth and efficient
performance.
on snow, not straw. Motor program A mental plan or model that guides skilled
4. Get feedback from a mirror, videotape, coach, or movement.
observer. Whenever possible, get someone experienced Mental practice Imagining a skilled performance to aid learning.
Peak performance A performance during which physical, mental,
in the skill to direct attention to correct responses when and emotional states are harmonious and optimal.
they occur.

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674 P SychoLo Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

during a big event. One way of controlling arousal is to go 2012). Finally, top athletes tend to use more self-regulation
through a fixed routine before each game or event. Athletes strategies, in which they evaluate their performance and
also learn to use imagery and relaxation techniques to adjust make adjustments to keep it at optimum levels (Edwards &
their degree of arousal (LeUnes, 2008). (Many of the mental Polman, 2012; Puente & Anshel, 2010).
strategies developed by sports psychologists are an exten- At present, sports psychology is a young field and still
sion of stress inoculation techniques. See Module 59.) much more an art than a science. Nevertheless, interest in
Imaging techniques can be used to focus attention on the the field is rapidly expanding.
athlete’s task and to mentally rehearse it beforehand (Gould
et al., 2014). For example, golf great Jack Nicklaus “watches a
movie” in his head before each shot. During events, athletes A Look Ahead
learn to use cognitive-behavioral strategies to guide their ef- Although we have sampled several major areas of applied
forts in a supportive, positive way (Johnson et al., 2004). For psychology, by no means are they the only applied special-
instance, instead of berating herself for being behind in a ties. Others that immediately come to mind are community
match, a soccer player could use the time between points to psychology, military psychology, and human factor psychol-
savor a good shot or put an error out of her mind. In general, ogy. The upcoming “Skills in Action” module revisits the
athletes benefit from avoiding negative, self-critical thoughts world of I/O psychology to ask, “What steps can be taken to
that distract them and undermine their confidence (Cox, prepare for postgraduate training or a job search?”

MODULE

77 Summary
77.1 What does psychology reveal about juries particularly interested in teaching strategies, learning
and court verdicts? styles, and teaching styles, such as direct instruction
77.1.1 The psychology of law includes studies of courtroom and discovery learning.
behavior and other topics that pertain to the legal 77.3 can psychology enhance athletic
system. Psychologists also serve various consulting performance?
and counseling roles in legal, law enforcement, and
77.3.1 Sports psychologists seek to enhance sports perfor-
criminal justice settings.
mance and the benefits of sports participation. A task
77.1.2 Studies of mock juries show that jury decisions are
analysis of sports skills is a major tool for improving
often far from objective.
coaching and performance.
77.1.3 Scientific jury selection is used in attempts to choose
77.3.2 A motor skill is a nonverbal response chain as-
jurors who have particular characteristics. In some
sembled into a smooth performance. Motor skills
instances, this may result in juries that have a particu-
are guided by internal mental models called motor
lar bias or that do not represent the community as a
programs.
whole.
77.3.3 Motor skills are refined through direct practice,
77.1.4 A bias toward convicting defendants is characteristic
but mental practice also can contribute to
of many death-qualified juries.
improvement.
77.2 how has psychology improved education? 77.3.4 During moments of peak performance, physical,
77.2.1 Educational psychologists improve the quality of mental, and emotional states are optimal.
learning and teaching. 77.3.5 Top performers in sports often use a variety of self-
77.2.2 Educational psychologists seek to understand regulation strategies to focus their attention and
how people learn and teachers instruct. They are maintain optimal levels of arousal.

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 MoDU LE 77 AP P li e d Psyc h o lo gy: th e Psyc h o lo gy o f lAw, e d u cAti o n, An d s Po rts 675

Applied Psychology: Psychology of Law, Education,

Knowledge Builder
and Sports

Recite Reflect
1. Despite their many limitations, one thing that jurors Think critically
are good at is setting aside inadmissible evidence. 7. When an athlete follows a set routine before an event,
T or F? what source of stress has she or he eliminated?
2. Which of the following is not commonly used by psy-
chologists to aid jury selection? Self-Reflect
a. mock testimony What advice would you give a person who is about to serve on
b. information networks a jury if she or he wants to render an impartial decision?
c. community surveys You are going to tutor a young child in arithmetic. How
d. demographic data could you use a teaching strategy to improve your effective-
3. Compared to direct instruction, discovery learning pro- ness? Would you use direct instruction or discovery learning?
duces better scores on achievement tests. T or F? How could you apply the concepts of task analysis, mental
4. Universal Design for Instruction aims to cre- practice, and peak performance to a sport in which you are
ate educational materials that are useful to interested?
_______________________ students.
5. Learning verbal rules to back up motor learning is usu- AN SW E R S
ally most helpful in the early stages of acquiring a skill. excessively aroused when the time comes to perform.
T or F? helps athletes maintain a sense of order and control so that they are not
6. The flow experience is closely linked with instances of duced when a person feels in control of a situation. Following a routine
1. F 2. b 3. F 4. all 5. T 6. peak 7. As discussed in Module 56, stress is re-
______________________ performance.

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MODULE

78 Applied Psychology Skills in Action

Career Preparation

Next Steps
If you’ve been reading this textbook as a first-year student,
chances are that the end of your degree still seems a long
way off, and worrying about securing a job is probably the
last thing on your mind. The reality, though, is that it’s never
too early to start preparing for the steps that will follow
graduation. Whether you think you will pursue additional
education or look for work, it’s often the case that your de-
gree is only one of the things that will be of interest to the
people evaluating your application. Many employers are in-
terested in hiring people with relevant experience, even for
entry-level jobs: They want to know that you have the skills
that are needed to be successful, as well as a good under-
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standing of the facts and theories that have been presented

in your textbooks. The same is often true for postgradu-
ate programs, where skills such as communication, critical
thinking, and the ability to work with others are essential.
As a result, it’s important to start thinking in advance about
building your skill set so that you will be in a strong position yourself from others. What’s the best way to do this? Read on
to be competitive with your applications, and to distinguish and we’ll give you a roadmap to direct those next steps. . . .

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
78.1 What steps can be taken to prepare for postgraduate
training or a job search?

Where Are You Going—More School or Work?

Survey Question 78.1 What steps can be taken to pre- can be time consuming, we can’t emphasize enough the im-
pare for postgraduate training or a job search? portance of starting early.
There are a number of things that you can do while you’re
at college that will assist you in making an informed deci- Investigate Potential Career Paths Now
sion about a career path that you’ll find rewarding. Below At this stage of your search, you should definitely make use
we provide a number of suggestions for getting you started. of on-campus resources such as a career services office, but
Because the process of building the skills that you’ll need the Internet can also be a rich source of information about
676
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 MODU LE 78 Ap p li e d psyc h o lo gy s k i lls i n Acti o n: cAr e e r p r e pAr Ati o n 677

potential jobs. Some of the following sites are useful, though Find Out About Necessary Skills
not all of them are exclusively for psychology majors:
We’ve discussed several career-related skills in the Skills in
◗ careersinpsychology.org Action modules of this book. One helpful way of organizing
◗ apa.org/action/careers these skills in your mind is to think about them in terms of
◗ onetonline.org Five Cs:
◗ insidecareerinfo.com ◗ Communication obviously includes your oral and writ-
As you review information about potential careers, ten skills (see Module 22). But don’t forget that nonver-
some questions that you should be asking yourself include: bal communication is also important. People who are
skilled at nonverbal communication are very aware of
◗ What does a typical day look like? What are the main their own body language and tone of voice, and how
tasks that would occupy your time? Ask yourself those things may be interpreted by the people around
whether the job looks like it will be a good fit for you in them. They are also sensitive to the nonverbal cues of
terms of your interests, values, and personality. others, “reading” signals that might indicate someone is
◗ What qualifications are needed for this job? Where can upset, bored, confused, or enthusiastic. In this respect,
these be obtained, how long will it take, and how much nonverbal communication is closely linked to emotional
is it likely to cost? Are internships available? intelligence (see Module 64).
◗ What is the demand like for this particular career—will ◗ Critical thinking skills are wide ranging, and include rec-
there be many jobs available when you finish your edu- ognizing problems, evaluating the value and reliability
cation? And is the demand greater in some areas of the of information (information literacy), and developing
country than others? or assessing potential solutions (see Module 6). Critical
◗ What kind of compensation can you expect? Are there thinking also includes the ability to think about issues
working conditions (e.g., weekend work, extensive from multiple points of view, as well as your metacogni-
travel) that you should be aware of? It’s important to get tive skills. You may recall from Module 26 that meta-
a clear sense of whether this job will provide you with cognition refers to your ability to monitor your own
the kind of lifestyle that you’d like to have. knowledge and performance, and to recognize when
you might need additional information, or when you
You can learn a great deal about particular jobs by
might need to change your strategy to accomplish a goal.
searching career-relevant websites, but another way to
gather information is to engage in informational interviews. ◗ Collaboration skills are those that relate to your ability
Informational interviews are very different from a typical to work with others. They include broad skills such as
employment interview because their sole purpose is not to teamwork and leadership skills (see Modules 54 and 74),
land you a job but rather to allow you to gather job-related but as we mentioned in those modules, strong teamwork
information from someone who is currently employed in and leadership abilities depend on a host of other skills,
a field that’s of interest to you (Fiske, 2015). Typically, you such as integrity, communication, and the ability to
would make contact with this person via email and set up work with diverse others (see Modules 16, 22, and 49).
a time to speak to them for a maximum of 20-30 minutes ◗ Creativity is an important skill set in many jobs, even
(either in person, on the phone, or via Skype). those that are not closely connected to the arts. Because
While it’s not a formal interview for a job, you should creativity is so closely linked to innovation and problem
nevertheless carry yourself in a very professional way dur- solving (see Module 41), it is highly valued by employers
ing an informational interview: Email correspondence in many different fields.
should have a formal, businesslike tone and be free of ◗ Character is a broad category of skills that include a
errors. Write out and rehearse your questions about the number of personal characteristics that are important
job ahead of time, and dress professionally. Use your time for both your personal and professional life. We have
efficiently, and do not go over the agreed-upon amount discussed a number of them in the Skills in Action mod-
of time. And don’t forget that afterward, it’s always a ules, including self-regulation and self-management,
good idea to follow up with a note of thanks (Hettich & the ability to work with diverse others, and ethics and
Landrum, 2014). integrity.

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678 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u les fo r Active leAr n i n g

Assess your Current Skill Set Document Key Learning Experiences

and your Characteristics Because you’ll do many interesting things during the course
Once you have established what skills you are likely to need- of your degree, it’s important that you begin to record your
ed for your chosen career path, it’s a good idea to do an as- key learning experiences, and how each one has developed
sessment of your own skills and consider where the gaps are your skills and contributed to your personal growth. You
in relation to what’s needed. Many tools are available online can keep track of them in a career-related journal, or you
and through most campus career services centers. Remem- can document your experiences and skills more formally in
ber that if you rate yourself as being high on a particular a portfolio.
skill, you should be able to back up your evaluation with While portfolios used to resemble a large scrapbook
experiences you’ve had that have allowed you to develop with printed examples of people’s accomplishments and
them (Cook, 2013). Students are often inclined to think work, they are now increasingly created in a digital format.
about their work-related experiences when they think about These newer e-portfolios can showcase examples of your
skill development, but don’t forget that course-based assign- work as well as relevant photos, videos, and links to websites
ments and activities can also be valuable. For example, giv- (Light, Chen, & Ittelson, 2012). One of the most common
ing presentations or writing papers that have been favorably e-portfolio platforms is LinkedIn, a professional networking
evaluated by your instructors could be used as evidence of website that is increasingly used by employers to recruit new
your communication abilities. talent. Users create profiles and build professional connec-
Aside from your skills, you should also consider eval- tions by following the online activities of other users and
uating aspects of your character that are likely to have an companies. Pathbrite (pathbrite.com) is another excellent
influence on your satisfaction with a particular career path tool for creating an e-portfolio that can be sent to prospec-
(Bolles, 2016). Your values and personality traits are impor- tive employers along with your resume.
tant here, as are the kinds of people whose company you
enjoy. The surroundings in which you feel happiest are also Examine your Digital Footprint
important to consider. For example, are you most comfort- Aside from providing you with an additional tool to market
able working in an organized, structured environment? yourself to prospective employers, e-portfolios also have an-
How do you feel about a high degree of supervision? What other benefit: They can help you to begin the process of cre-
about noise level? Flexible hours? ating a professional digital footprint. The term digital foot-
Many students underestimate the importance of these print refers to all of the information that is available about
elements of the working environment, focusing instead on you on the Internet. Do you know what you would find if you
issues such as salary and vacation time. However, working typed your name and some basic information about yourself
with people that you do not like or under conditions that (e.g., your college and the city where you live) into a search
you find challenging will almost certainly make you very engine? For many students, such a search would primarily
unhappy over the long term. When considering potential reveal their participation in social media sites such as Face-
career paths, then, always think carefully about how well the book, Twitter, Snapchat, and Instagram. Now ask yourself
job will fit with what you know about yourself, and the life- whether you’d be happy for potential employers to find that
style that you hope to have. information when they carried out this type of online search.
One firm reported that in a study of 275 human re-
Work to Develop Necessary Skills sources professionals, more than 75% indicated that they
If there are skills that you feel you will eventually need, but actively research potential candidates online. Perhaps more
on which you consider yourself to be weak, ask yourself what relevant is the fact that of those who carried out Internet-
experiences you could engage in that would help you to build based searches, approximately 70% decided not to hire
these skills. Consider the possibilities presented by relevant someone based on what they found on the web (Cross-Tab,
community work and volunteer experiences, as well as op- 2010). The moral of the story? Take care to manage your
portunities that may be connected to course credit (e.g., ser- digital footprint, and if you are concerned about any of the
vice learning courses and study abroad programs). Getting hits that are revealed in a Google search about you, then
involved in extracurricular activities such as sports teams, remove those pages and work toward replacing them with
campus clubs, and student government may also provide a web-based content that’s more in keeping with what you’d
solid foundation for the development of a variety of skills. like an employer to see.

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 MODU LE 78 Ap p li e d psyc h o lo gy s k i lls i n Acti o n: cAr e e r p r e pAr Ati o n 679

We realize that the prospect of moving into the world Portfolio A collection of printed examples of a person’s accomplish-
of work is likely to be a bit intimidating for many students. ments and work.
However, if you start early and take a bit of time during your e-Portfolio A digital, rather than hardcopy, portfolio.
degree to do some job-based research and planning, you’ll
put yourself in a strong position to secure an interesting and
satisfying career after you graduate. Good Luck!

MODULE

78 Summary
78.1 What steps can be taken to prepare for post- to make yourself competitive, consider what types of
graduate training or a job search? experiences would help you to do so.
78.1.1 Begin the process of researching careers early in your 78.1.3 Begin to build a portfolio or e-portfolio.
degree, making use of resources such as your campus 78.1.4 Manage your digital footprint carefully. Remove any
career services office, career-related sites on the Inter- web-based material about you that you would not
net, and informational interviewing. want a potential employer to find, and work to create
78.1.2 Determine the skills that are necessary for jobs that digital content that is professional (e.g., LinkedIn
interest you and assess yourself on these skills. If you profile, e-portfolio).
believe that you need to develop any of them further

Knowledge Builder Applied Psychology Skills in Action: Career Preparation

Recite through coursework. What are some activities that you

can engage in during your college years that might help
1. It’s helpful to begin thinking about a potential career
you to develop your leadership abilities?
early, since developing the necessary skills may take time.
T or F? Self-Reflect
2. Informational interviews are often used to secure a job in
What skills do you think you are most likely to need in the
a field of interest to you. T or F?
career you’re planning to pursue? What kinds of personality
3. Which of the following is NOT one of the skills included
characteristics are likely to be relevant if you want to work in
in the Five Cs?
that field?
a. communication
b. creativity
c. cheerfulness AN SW E R S
leadership skills, see Module 54.)
d. critical thinking ing for an organization such as Big Brothers/Big Sisters). (For more on
e. character of this kind (e.g., working at a kid’s camp or coaching a team; work-
4. It is important to manage your digital footprint carefully how you might get involved in an organization that promotes activities
because employers are increasingly likely to search for that is relevant to your career goals involves mentoring, then consider

you online to gather information about you. T or F?

role in a club or student government). Finally, if the type of leadership
can also be helpful in developing these skills (e.g., taking on a leadership

Reflect
fundraiser for a community-based organization). On-campus activities
volunteer or service-learning experiences (e.g., helping to organize a
Think Critically 1. T 2. F 3. c 4. T 5. Leadership skills can often be developed through

5. Leadership is a skill that skill that employers often value,

but that is difficult to develop in a college classroom or

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MODULE

79 Appendix
Behavioral Statistics

Why Did It Have to be Numbers?

Jones decided to major in psychology after he began to seriously
study martial arts, back home in Indiana. He was quite surprised by
how much his martial arts workouts improved his ability to concen-
trate on everything, including his schoolwork. But his psychology
studies almost came to a premature end when he found out he need-
ed to take a statistics course to graduate. “Numbers,” he muttered.
“Why did it have to be numbers?”
Thankfully, Jones’s curiosity about martial arts, concentration,
and attention deficit disorder in young boys, in particular, and hu-
man behavior in general, was stronger than his apprehension about
statistics. By the time he got to his third year and began to design
research projects and collect data, he understood that the results
of psychological studies are often expressed as numbers, which
psychologists must summarize and interpret before they have any
meaning.
What follows is an overview of how statistics are used in
psychology.

~SURVEY QUESTIONS~
79.1 What are descriptive statistics? 79.4 How are correlations used in psychology?
79.2 How are statistics used to identify an average score? 79.5 What are inferential statistics?
79.3 How are statistics used to measure how much scores
differ from one another?

Descriptive Statistics—Psychology by the Numbers

Survey Question 79.1 What are descriptive statistics?
behavior without depending on statistics. Psychologists de-
Statistics bring greater clarity and precision to psychologi- pend on two major types of statistics. Descriptive statistics
cal thought and research (Gravetter & Wallnau, 2017). In summarize or “boil down” data collected from research
fact, it is difficult to make scientific arguments about human participants so the results become more meaningful and

680
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 MODU LE 79 Ap p e n d i x: B e hAvi o r Al StAti Sti cS 681

easier to communicate to others. In comparison, inferential Table 79.2 Frequency distribution

statistics are used for extending experimental conclusions of concentration Scores
from samples to larger populations. Psychologists must of-
ten base decisions on limited data. Such decisions are much Class Interval Number of Persons in Class
easier to make with the help of inferential statistics. 0–19 10
Let’s begin with a look at three basic types of descriptive
statistics: graphical statistics, measures of central tendency, 20–39 20
and measures of variability. 40–59 40
60–79 20
Graphical Statistics
Graphical statistics present numbers pictorially, so they 80–99 10
are easier to visualize. At one point, Jones got a chance to
study differences in concentration in a group of young interval; the height of each bar is determined by the number
boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). of scores in each class (➤ Figure 79.1). An alternative way
■ Table 79.1 shows the scores he obtained when he gave a test of graphing scores is the more familiar frequency polygon
of concentration to 100 boys with ADHD after they engaged (➤ Figure 79.2). Here, points are placed at the center of each
in a martial arts exercise. With such disorganized data, it is class interval to indicate the number of scores. Then the dots
hard to form an overall picture of the differences in concen- are connected by straight lines.
tration. But by using a frequency distribution, large amounts
of information can be neatly organized and summarized. A Histogram
frequency distribution is made by breaking down the en-
tire range of possible scores into classes of equal size. Next, 50
the number of scores falling into each class is recorded. In
■ Table 79.2, Jones’s raw data from Table 79.1 have been 40
condensed into a frequency distribution. Notice how much
Frequency

clearer the pattern of scores for the entire group becomes. 30

Frequency distributions are often shown graphically

20
to make them more “visual.” A histogram, or graph of a
frequency distribution, is made by labeling class intervals
10
on the abscissa (x-axis, or horizontal line) and frequen-
cies (the number of scores in each class) on the ordinate
0–19 20–39 40–59 60–79 80–99
(y-axis, or vertical line). Next, bars are drawn for each class Class intervals

➤ Figure 79.1
Table 79.1 raw concentration Scores
Frequency histogram. A frequency histogram of the concentration
scores contained in Table 79.2.
55 86 52 17 61 57 84 51 16 64
22 56 25 38 35 24 54 26 37 38
Descriptive statistics Mathematical techniques used to describe and
52 42 59 26 21 55 40 59 25 57 summarize numeric data.
Inferential statistics Mathematical method for extending experi-
91 27 38 53 19 93 25 39 52 56 mental conclusions from samples to larger populations.
Graphical statistics Techniques for presenting numbers pictorially,
66 14 18 63 59 68 12 19 62 45 often by plotting them on a graph.
47 98 88 72 50 49 96 89 71 66 Frequency distribution A table that divides an entire range of
scores into a series of classes and then records the number of
50 44 71 57 90 53 41 72 56 93 scores that fall into each class.
Histogram A graph of a frequency distribution in which the num-
57 38 55 49 87 59 36 56 48 70 ber of scores falling in each class is represented by vertical bars.
Frequency polygon A graph of a frequency distribution in which
33 69 50 50 60 35 67 51 50 52 the number of scores falling in each class is represented by points
11 73 46 16 67 13 71 47 25 77 on a line.

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682 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

➤ Figure 79.2 Frequency polygon

Frequency polygon. A frequency polygon of the concentration scores

contained in Table 79.2. 50

40

Frequency
30

20

10

0–19 20–39 40–59 60–79 80–99

Class intervals

Measures of Central Tendency

Survey Question 79.2 How are statistics used to identify of people that happened to include a billionaire, such as
an average score? Oprah Winfrey.) In such cases, the middle score in a group
Notice in Table 79.2 that more of Jones’s concentration of scores—called the median—is used instead.
scores fall in the range 40–59 than elsewhere. How can we The Median The median is found by arranging scores
show this fact? A measure of central tendency is simply a from highest to lowest and then selecting the score that falls
number describing a “typical score” around which other in the middle. In other words, half the values in a group of
scores fall. A familiar measure of central tendency is the scores fall below the median and half fall above it. Consider,
mean, or “average.” But as we shall see in a moment, other for example, the following weights obtained from a small
types of averages can be used. To illustrate each, we need an class of college students: 105, 111, 123, 126, 148, 151, 154,
example: ■ Table 79.3 shows the raw data for one of Jones’s 162, 182. The median for the group is 148, the middle score.
studies, in which two groups of boys were given a test of Of course, if there is an even number of scores, there will
concentration. One group was given an hour of the martial be no middle score. This problem is handled by averaging
arts exercise that Jones predicted should improve concentra- the two scores that “share” the middle spot. This procedure
tion. The second group watched television for an hour. Is yields a single number to serve as the median. (See the bot-
there a difference in concentration scores between the two tom panel of Table 79.3.)
groups? It’s difficult to tell without computing an average.
The Mode A final measure of central tendency is the
The Mean As one type of “average,” the mean is calculated mode, which is simply the most frequently occurring score
by adding all the scores for each group and then dividing in a group of scores. If you were to take the time to count the
by the total number of scores. Notice in Table 79.3 that the scores in Table 79.3, you would find that the mode of Group
means reveal a difference between the two groups. l is 65 and the mode of Group 2 is 60. Although the mode is
The mean is sensitive to extremely high or low scores in usually easy to obtain, it can be an unreliable measure, es-
a distribution. For this reason, it is not always the best mea- pecially in a small group of scores. The mode’s advantage is
sure of central tendency. (Imagine how distorted it would that it gives the score actually obtained by the greatest num-
be to calculate average yearly incomes from a small sample ber of people.

Measures of Variability
Survey Question 79.3 How are statistics used to measure
one drug consistently lowers anxiety by moderate amounts,
how much scores differ from one another?
whereas the second sometimes lowers it by large amounts,
Let’s say that a researcher discovers two drugs that lower sometimes has no effect, or may even increase anxiety in
anxiety in agitated patients. However, let’s also assume that some patients. Overall, there is no difference in the average
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 MODU LE 79 Ap p e n d i x: B e hAvi o r Al StAti Sti cS 683

Table 79.3 raw Scores on a concentration a distribution. Usually, we would also want to know if scores
test After Boys engaged in Martial Arts are grouped closely together or scattered widely.
exercise or Watching television Measures of variability provide a single number that
tells how “spread out” scores are. When the scores are
Group 1 Group 2 widely spread, this number gets larger. When they are close
Participant Martial Arts Television together, it gets smaller. If you look again at the example in
1 65 54 Table 79.3, you will notice that the scores within each group
2 67 60 vary widely. How can we show this fact?

3 73 63 The Range The simplest way would be to use the range,

which is the difference between the highest and lowest
4 65 33
scores. In Group 1 of our experiment, the highest score is
5 58 56 73, and the lowest is 55; thus, the range is 18 (73 2 55 5 18).
6 55 60 In Group 2, the highest score is 63, and the lowest is 31; this
makes the range 32. Scores in Group 2 are more spread out
7 70 60
(are more variable) than those in Group 1.
8 69 31
The Standard Deviation A better measure of variability
9 60 62
is the standard deviation (SD)—an index of how much a
10 68 61 typical score differs from the mean of a group of scores. To
Sum 650 540 obtain the SD, we find the deviation (or difference) of each
score from the mean and then square it (multiply it by it-
Mean 65 54
self). These squared deviations are then added and averaged
Median 66 60 (the total is divided by the number of deviations). Taking
oX Sum of all scores, X the square root of this average yields the SD (■ Table 79.4).
Mean 5 or Notice again that the variability for Group 1 (5.4) is less than
N number of scores
that for Group 2 (where the SD is 11.3).
Mean
65 1 67 1 73 1 65 1 58 1 55 1 70 1 69 1 60 1 68
Group 1 5
10 Standard Scores
650 A particular advantage of the SD is that it can be used to
5 5 65
10 “standardize” scores in a way that gives them greater mean-
Mean ing. For example, Jones and his twin sister Jackie both took
54 1 60 1 63 1 33 1 56 1 60 1 60 1 31 1 62 1 61
Group 2 5 psychology midterms, but in different classes. Jones earned
10
a score of 118, and Jackie scored 110. Who did better? It is
540
5 5 54 impossible to tell for sure without knowing what the average
10
Median 5 the middle score or the mean of the two middle scores*
Central tendency The tendency for a majority of scores to fall in the
Median midrange of possible values.
Mean A measure of central tendency calculated by adding a group
Group 1 5 55 58 60 65 65 67 68 69 70 73
of scores and then dividing by the total number of scores.
65 1 67 Median A measure of central tendency found by arranging scores
5 5 66
2 from the highest to the lowest and selecting the score that falls in
the middle—that is, half the values in a group of scores fall above
Median
the median and half fall below it.
Group 2 5 31 33 54 56 60 60 60 61 62 63 Mode A measure of central tendency found by identifying the most
60 1 60 frequently occurring score in a group of scores.
5 5 60
2 Variability The tendency for a group of scores to differ in value.
Measures of variability indicate the degree to which a group of
* Indicates middle score(s). scores differs from one another.
Range The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a
(mean) amount of anxiety reduction. Even so, an important group of scores.
Standard deviation An index of how much a typical score differs
difference exists between the two drugs. As this example from the mean of a group of scores.
shows, it is not enough to simply know the average score in
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684 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Table 79.4 computation of the Sd Table 79.5 computation of a z-score

Group 1 Mean 5 65 X2X score 2 mean
Z5 5 or
Deviation SD standard deviation
Score Mean Deviation (d) Squared (d2) 110 2 100 110
Jackie: Z 5 5 5 11.0
65 2 65 5 0 0 10 10

67 2 65 5 2 4 118 2 100 118

Jones: Z 5 5 5 11.0
18 18
73 2 65 5 8 64
65 2 65 5 0 0
58 2 65 5 27 49 To convert an original score to a z-score, we subtract the
55 2 65 5 210 100 mean from the score. The resulting number is then divided
by the SD for that group of scores. To illustrate, Jackie had a
70 2 65 5 5 25
score of 110 in a class with a mean of 100 and an SD of 10.
69 2 65 5 4 16 Therefore, her z-score is 11.0 (■ Table 79.5). Jones’s score
60 2 65 5 25 25
of 118 came from a class having a mean of 100 and an SD
of 18; thus, his z-score is also 11.0 (see Table 79.5). Origi-
68 2 65 5 3 9 nally, it looked as if Jones did better on his midterm than
292 Jackie. But we now see that, relatively speaking, their scores

Î Î
were equivalent. Compared with other students, each was
sum of d2 292
SD 5 5 5 Ï29.2 5 5.4 an equal distance above average.
n 10

Group 2 Mean 5 54 The Normal Curve

Deviation When chance events are recorded, we find that some out-
Score Mean Deviation (d) Squared (d2) comes have a high probability and occur very often, oth-
54 2 54 5 0 0 ers have a lower probability and occur infrequently, and
60 2 54 5 6 36 still others have little probability and occur rarely. As a
result, the distribution (or tally) of chance events typi-
63 2 54 5 9 81 cally resembles a normal curve (➤ Figure 79.3). A nor-
33 2 54 5 221 441 mal curve is bell-shaped, with a large number of scores in
the middle, tapering to very few extremely high and low
56 2 54 5 2 4
scores. Most psychological traits or events are determined
60 2 54 5 6 36 by the action of a large number of factors. Therefore, like
60 2 54 5 6 36 chance events, measures of psychological variables tend to
roughly match a normal curve. For example, direct mea-
31 2 54 5 223 529
surement has shown such characteristics as height, mem-
62 2 54 5 8 64 ory span, and intelligence to be distributed approximately
61 2 54 5 7 49 along a normal curve. In other words, many people have
average height, memory ability, and intelligence. Howev-
1276
er, as we move above or below average, fewer and fewer
SD 5 Î sum of d2
n
5 Î 1276
10
5 Ï127.6 5 11.3
people are found.
It is fortunate that so many psychological variables tend
to form a normal curve because much is known about the
score was on each test, and whether Jones and Jackie scored curve. One valuable property concerns the relationship be-
at the top, middle, or bottom of their classes. We would like tween the SD and the normal curve. Specifically, the SD
to have one number that gives all this information. A num- measures offset proportions of the curve above and below
ber that does this is the z-score. the mean. For example, in Figure 79.3, notice that roughly

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 MODU LE 79 Ap p e n d i x: B e hAvi o r Al StAti Sti cS 685

➤ Figure 79.3
The normal curve. The normal curve is an
idealized mathematical model. However, many
measurements in psychology closely approximate
a normal curve. The scales shown here show the
relationship of SDs, z-scores, and other measures
Standard to the curve.
deviations
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4

Cumulative
0.1% 2.3% 15.9% 50.0% 84.1% 97.7% 99.9%
percentages
Percentile
equivalents 1 5 10 30 50 70 90 95 99

z-scores
–4.0 –3.0 –2.0 –1.0 0 +1.0 +2.0 +3.0 +4.0

College
board
scores 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

IQ
scores 40 55 70 85 100 115 130 145 160

Table 79.6 computation of a z -score 68 percent of all cases (84.1 – 15.9 5 68.2) fall between one
SD above and below the mean (6 1 SD); 95 percent of all
Percentage of Percentage of cases fall between 6 2 SD; and 99 percent of the cases can
Area to the Left of Area to the Right be found within 6 3 SD from the mean. This is generally
z-Score This Value of This Value
true whether we’re talking about IQ scores, memory scores,
23.0 SD 00.1 99.9 heights, or whatever.
■ Table 79.6 gives a more complete account of the rela-
22.5 SD 00.6 99.4
tionship between z-scores and the percentage of cases found
22.0 SD 02.3 97.7
in a particular area of the normal curve. Notice, for example,
21.5 SD 06.7 93.3 that 93.3 percent of all cases fall below a z-score of 11.5. A
21.0 SD 15.9 84.1 z-score of 1.5 on a test (no matter what the original, or “raw,”
score was) would be a good performance because roughly
20.5 SD 30.9 69.1 93 percent of all scores fall below this mark. Relationships
0.0 SD 50.0 50.0 between the SD (or z-scores) and the normal curve do not
change. This makes it possible to compare various tests or
10.5 SD 69.1 30.9
groups of scores if they come from distributions that are ap-
11.0 SD 84.1 15.9 proximately normal.
11.5 SD 93.3 06.7
z-score A number that tells how many standard deviations above or
12.0 SD 97.7 02.3 below the mean a score is.
Normal curve A bell-shaped distribution, with a large number of
12.5 SD 99.4 00.6
scores in the middle, tapering to very few extremely high and
13.0 SD 99.9 00.1 low scores.

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686 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Correlation—Rating Relationships
Survey Question 79.4 How are correlations used in (a) (b)
psychology?

As we noted in Module 5, many of the statements that psy-

Y Y
chologists make about behavior do not result from using
experimental methods. Rather, they come from keen ob-
servations and measures of existing phenomena. A psy- r = +1.00 r = 0.91
chologist might note, for example, that the higher a cou- X X
ple’s socioeconomic and educational status, the smaller the
number of children they are likely to have. Or that grades (c) (d)
in high school are related to how well a person is likely
to do in college. Or even, as Jones found, that boys with
ADHD who engage in martial arts exercise are also better Y Y
able to concentrate. In these instances, we are dealing with
a correlation—the fact that two variables are varying to-
gether in some orderly fashion. r = 0.56 r = 0.00
X X
Relationships
(e) (f )
Psychologists are very interested in detecting relation-
ships between events: Are children from single-parent
families more likely to misbehave at school? Is wealth re-
Y Y
lated to happiness? Is there a relationship between child-
hood exposure to the Internet and IQ at age 20? Is the
chance of having a heart attack related to having a hostile r = –0.66 r = –1.00
personality? All of these questions are about correlation X X
(Howell, 2014).
➤ Figure 79.4
The simplest way of visualizing a correlation is to con-
Scatter diagrams. Scatter diagrams showing various degrees of
struct a scatter diagram. In a scatter diagram, two measures relationship for a positive, zero, and negative correlation.
(grades in high school and grades in college, for instance)
are obtained. One measure is indicated by the x-axis and the
second by the y-axis. The scatter diagram plots the inter- ◗ Negative relationship: Graphs e and f both show a
section (crossing) of each pair of measurements as a single negative correlation. Notice that as values of one mea-
point. Many such measurement pairs give pictures like those sure increase, those of the second become smaller. An
shown in ➤ Figure 79.4. example might be the relationship between amount of
Figure 79.4 also shows scatter diagrams of three basic alcohol consumed and scores on a test of coordination:
kinds of relationships between variables (or measures): Higher alcohol levels are correlated with lower coordi-
nation scores.
◗ Positive relationship: Graphs a, b, and c show positive
relationships of varying strength. As you can see, in a
positive correlation, increases in the X measure (or score) The Correlation Coefficient
are matched by increases on the Y measure (or score). An The strength of a correlation can also be expressed as a coef-
example would be finding that higher IQ scores (X) are ficient of correlation. This coefficient is simply a number
associated with higher college grades (Y). falling somewhere between 11.00 and 21.00. If the number
◗ Zero correlation: A zero correlation suggests that no is zero or close to zero, it indicates a weak or nonexistent
relationship exists between two measures (see graph d). relationship. If the number is 11.00, a perfect positive cor-
This might be the result of comparing participants’ hat relation exists; if the number is 21.00, a perfect negative
sizes (X) to their college grades (Y). correlation has been discovered. The most commonly used

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 MODU LE 79 Ap p e n d i x: B e hAvi o r Al StAti Sti cS 687

Table 79.7 iQ and grade point Average for computing pearson r

Grade Point X Score Y Score

Student No. IQ (X) Average (Y) Squared (X2) Squared (Y2) X Times Y (XY)

1 110 1.0 12,100 1.00 110.0

2 112 1.6 12,544 2.56 179.2
3 118 1.2 13,924 1.44 141.6
4 119 2.1 14,161 4.41 249.9
5 122 2.6 14,884 6.76 317.2
6 125 1.8 15,625 3.24 225.0
7 127 2.6 16,124 6.76 330.2
8 130 2.0 16,900 4.00 260.0
9 132 3.2 17,424 10.24 422.4
10 134 2.6 17,956 6.76 348.4
11 136 3.0 18,496 9.00 408.0
12 138 3.6 19,044 12.96 496.8
Total 1503 27.3 189,187 69.13 3488.7
(oX)(oY)
oXY 2
N

Î3
r5

43 4
(oX)2 (oY)2
oX2 2 oY2 2
N N
1503(27.3)
3488.7 2
12

Î3
5

4369.132 4
(1503)2 (27.3)2
189,187 2
2 12

69.375
5 5 0.856 5 0.86
81.088

correlation coefficient is called the Pearson r. Calculation of Correlation The existence of a consistent, systematic relationship
between two events, measures, or variables.
the Pearson r is relatively simple, as shown in ■ Table 79.7. Scatter diagram A graph that plots the intersection of paired mea-
(The numbers shown are hypothetical.) sures—that is, the points at which paired X and Y measures cross.
As stated in Module 5, correlations in psychology are Positive correlation A mathematical relationship in which increases
rarely perfect. Most fall somewhere between 0 and 61. The in one measure are matched by increases in the other (or de-
creases correspond with decreases).
closer the correlation coefficient is to 11.00 or 21.00, the Zero correlation The absence of a (linear) mathematical relation-
stronger the relationship. An interesting example of some ship between two measures.
typical correlations is provided by a study that compared Negative correlation A mathematical relationship in which in-
creases in one measure are matched by decreases in the other.
the IQs of adopted children with the IQs of their biologi-
Coefficient of correlation A statistical index ranging from 21.00 to
cal mothers. At age 4, the children’s IQs correlated at .28 11.00 that indicates the direction and degree of correlation.
with their biological mothers’ IQs. By age 7, the correlation Perfect positive correlation A mathematical relationship in which
was .35. And by age 13, it had grown to .38. Over time, the the correlation between two measures is 11.00.
Perfect negative correlation A mathematical relationship in which
IQs of adopted children become more similar to the IQs of the correlation between two measures is 21.00.
their biological mothers.

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688 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Correlations often provide highly useful information. person’s X score, you can tell exactly what the Y score is. An
For instance, it is valuable to know that there is a correlation example that comes close to this state of affairs is the high
between cigarette smoking and lung cancer rates. Another correlation (.86) between the IQs of identical twins. In any
example is the fact that higher consumption of alcohol dur- group of identical twins, 74 percent of the variation in the
ing pregnancy is correlated with lower birth weight and a Y twins’ IQs is accounted for by knowing the IQs of their
higher rate of birth defects. There is a correlation between siblings (the X twins).
the number of recent life stresses experienced and the likeli- Squaring correlations to obtain the percent of variance
hood of emotional disturbance. Many more examples could accounted for is a useful tool for interpreting the correlations
be cited, but the point is, correlations help us identify rela- encountered in the media and the psychological literature. For
tionships that are worth knowing. example, sweeping pronouncements about relationships are
occasionally made on the basis of correlations in the .25 to .30
Prediction But why is that? Correlations are particularly
range, even though the values mean that only 6 to 9 percent
valuable for making predictions. If we know that two mea-
of the variance is accounted for by the observed correlation.
sures are correlated and we know a person’s score on one
Such correlations may document relationships worth noting,
measure, we can predict his or her score on the other. For
but they are rarely something to get excited about.
example, most colleges have formulas that use multiple cor-
relations to decide which applicants have the best chances Correlation and Causation It is important to reiter-
for success. Usually, the formula includes such predictors ate that finding a correlation between two measures does
as high school grade point average (GPA), teacher ratings, not automatically demonstrate causation, that one variable
extracurricular activities, and scores on the SAT Reasoning is causing the other. When a correlation exists, the best we
Test or some similar test. Although no single predictor is can say is that two variables are related. Of course, this does
perfectly correlated with success in college, the various pre- not mean that it is impossible for two correlated variables to
dictors together correlate highly and provide a useful tech- have a cause-and-effect relationship. Rather, it means that
nique for screening applicants. we cannot conclude, solely on the basis of correlation, that
There is an interesting “trick” that you can do with cor- a causal link exists. To gain greater confidence that a cause-
relations that you may find useful. It works like this: If you and-effect relationship exists, an experiment must be per-
square the correlation coefficient (multiply r by itself), you formed (as discussed in Module 4).
will get the percent of variance, or amount of variation in Often, two correlated measures are related as a result of
scores, accounted for by the correlation. For example, the cor- the influence of a third variable. For example, we might ob-
relation between IQ scores and college grade point average is serve that the more hours students devote to studying, the bet-
.5. Multiplying .5 times .5 gives .25, or 25 percent. This means ter their grades. Although it is tempting to conclude that more
that 25 percent of the variation in college grades is accounted studying produces (causes) better grades, it is possible (indeed,
for by knowing IQ scores. In other words, with a correlation it is probable) that grades and the amount of study time are
of .5, college grades are “squeezed” into an oval, like the one both related to the student’s amount of motivation or interest.
shown in graph C Figure 79.4. IQ scores take away some of The difference between cause-and-effect data and data
the possible variation in corresponding grade point averages. that reveal a relationship of unknown origin is one that
If no correlation existed between IQ and grades, grades would should not be forgotten. Because we rarely run experiments
be completely free to vary, as shown in graph D Figure 79.4. in daily life, the information on which we act is largely cor-
Along the same line, a correlation of 11.00 or 21.00 relational. This should make us more humble and more ten-
means that 100 percent of the variation in the Y measure tative in the confidence with which we make pronounce-
is accounted for by knowing the X measure: If you know a ments about human behavior.

Inferential Statistics—Significant Numbers

Survey Question 79.5 What are inferential statistics?
week, you find that the boys committed more aggres-
You would like to know whether boys are more aggres- sive acts than the girls. Could this difference just be a
sive than girls. You observe a group of 5-year-old boys meaningless fluctuation in aggression? Or does it show
and girls on a playground. After collecting data for a conclusively that boys are more aggressive than girls?
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 MODU LE 79 Ap p e n d i x: B e hAvi o r Al StAti Sti cS 689

Inferential statistics were created to answer such questions Significant Differences

(Heiman, 2014).
In Jones’s drug experiment, he found that the average con-
Let’s say that a researcher studies the effects of a new
centration score was higher for the group given the drug
therapy on a small group of depressed individuals. Is she
than it was for the one that didn’t take the drug (the placebo
or he interested only in these particular individuals? Usu-
group). Certainly this result is interesting, but could it have
ally not, because except in rare instances, psychologists
occurred by chance? If two groups were repeatedly tested
seek to discover general laws of behavior that apply widely
(with neither receiving any drug), their average concentra-
to humans and animals (Babbie, 2016). Undoubtedly, the
tion scores would sometimes differ. How much must two
researcher would like to know whether the therapy holds
means differ before we can consider the difference “real”
any promise for all depressed people. As stated earlier, in-
(not due to chance)?
ferential statistics are techniques that allow us to make
Tests of statistical significance provide an estimate
inferences—that is, they allow us to generalize from the be-
of how often experimental results could have occurred by
havior of small groups of participants to that of the larger
chance alone. The results of a significance test are stated as a
groups they represent.
probability. This probability gives the odds that the observed
Samples and Populations difference was due to chance. In psychology, any experimen-
tal result that could have occurred by chance five times (or
In any scientific study, we would want to observe the en-
less) out of 100 (in other words, a probability of .05 or less) is
tire set, or population, of participants, objects, or events of
considered significant. In our concentration experiment, the
interest. However, this is usually impossible or impractical.
probability is .025 (p 5 .025) that the group means would
Observing all terrorists, all cancer patients, or all mothers-
differ as much as they do by chance alone. This allows us to
in-law could be both impractical (because all are large pop-
conclude with reasonable certainty that the drug actually did
ulations) and impossible (because people change political
improve concentration scores.
views, may be unaware of having cancer, and change their
status as relatives). In such cases, a sample (a smaller cross Percent of variance A portion of the total amount of variation in a
section of a population) is selected, and observations of group of scores.
the sample are used to draw conclusions about the entire Causation The act of causing some effect.
population. Population An entire group of animals, people, or objects belonging
to a particular category (for example, all college students or all
For any sample to be meaningful, it must be married women).
representative—that is, the sample group must truly reflect Sample A smaller subpart of a population.
the membership and characteristics of the larger popula- Representative sample A small, randomly selected part of a larger
population that accurately reflects characteristics of the whole
tion. In Jones’s study of a concentration drug, it would be es-
population.
sential for the sample of 20 people to be representative of the Random selection Choosing a sample so that each member of the
general population. A very important aspect of representa- population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
tive samples is that their members are chosen by random Statistical significance The degree to which an event (such as the
results of an experiment) is unlikely to have occurred by chance
selection. In other words, each member of the population alone.
must have an equal chance of being included in the sample.

MODULE

79 Summary
79.1 What are descriptive statistics? 79.2 how are statistics used to identify an aver-
79.1.1 Descriptive statistics organize and summarize
age score?
numbers. 79.2.1 Measures of central tendency define the “typical
79.1.2 Summarizing numbers visually, by using various score” in a group of scores.
types of graphs such as histograms and frequency 79.2.2 The mean is found by adding all the scores in a
polygons, makes it easier to see trends and patterns group and then dividing by the total number of
in the results of psychological investigations. scores.
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690 P SyChOLO Gy M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

79.2.3 The median is found by arranging a group of scores 79.4.2 The relationship between two variables or measures
from the highest to the lowest and selecting the can be positive or negative. Correlation coefficients
middle score. tell how strongly two groups of scores are related.
79.2.4 The mode is the score that occurs most frequently in 79.4.3 Knowing a person’s score on one measure allows us
a group of scores. to predict his or her score on the second measure.
79.4.4 Correlation alone does not demonstrate cause-and-
79.3 how are statistics used to measure how
much scores differ from one another? effect links between variables or measures.

79.3.1 Measures of variability provide a number that shows 79.5 What are inferential statistics?
how much scores vary. 79.5.1 Inferential statistics are used to make decisions, to
79.3.2 The range is the difference between the highest score generalize from samples, and to draw conclusions
and the lowest score in a group of scores. from data.
79.3.4 The standard deviation (SD) shows how much, on av- 79.5.2 Most studies in psychology are based on samples.
erage, all the scores in a group differ from the mean. Findings from representative samples are assumed to
79.3.5 To express an original score as a standard score (or also apply to entire populations.
z-score), you must subtract the mean from the score 79.5.3 In psychology experiments, differences in the aver-
and then divide the result by the SD. Standard scores age performance of groups could occur purely by
(z-scores) tell, in SD units, how far above or below chance. Tests of statistical significance tell us if the
the mean a score is. This allows meaningful compari- observed differences between groups are common or
sons between scores from different groups. rare. If a difference is large enough to be improbable,
79.3.6 Scores that form a normal curve are easy to interpret it suggests that the results did not occur by chance
because the properties of the normal curve are well alone.
known.

79.4 how are correlations used in psychology?

79.4.1 Pairs of scores that vary together in an orderly fash-
ion are said to be correlated.

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 MODU LE 79 Ap p e n d i x: B e hAvi o r Al StAti Sti cS 691

Knowledge Builder Behavioral Statistics

Recite you conclude that sleeping with your clothes on causes

headaches?
1. Three measures of central tendency are the mean, the
median, and the ___________________. Self-Reflect
2. As a measure of variability, the standard deviation is
How would you feel about receiving your scores on classroom
defined as the difference between the highest and lowest
tests in the form of z-scores?
scores. T or F?
Do you think the distribution of scores in Jones’s study
3. A z-score of 21 tells us that a score fell one standard
of concentration in boys with ADHD would form a normal
deviation below the mean in a group of scores. T or F?
curve? Why or why not?
4. A scatter diagram can be used to plot and visualize a(n)
See if you can identify at least one positive relationship
___________________________________ between two
and one negative relationship involving human behavior that
groups of scores.
you have observed. How strong do you think the correlation
5. It is important to remember that correlation does not
would be in each case? What correlation coefficient would you
demonstrate ________________________________.
expect to see?
6. In inferential statistics, observations of a
If you were trying to test whether a drug causes birth
__________________________ are used to make
defects, what level of statistical significance would you use?
inferences and draw conclusions about an entire _______
If you were doing a psychology experiment, with what level
________________________.
would you be comfortable?
7. A representative sample can be obtained
by selecting members of the sample at
_________________________. AN SW E R S
8. If the results of an experiment could have occurred by anyone?).
chance alone fewer than 25 times out of 100, the result is with the clothes on at night and the headaches (too much alcohol,

considered statistically significant. T or F?

ity. It is more likely that a third factor is causing both the sleeping
7. random 8. F 9. No. To reiterate, correlation does not prove causal-

Reflect
1. mode 2. F 3. T 4. correlation 5. causation 6. sample, population

Think Critically
9. Suppose that it was found that sleeping with your clothes
on correlates with waking up with a headache. Could

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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