GEOGRAPHY & HISTORY
4th of Secondary
THE RUSSIAN
REVOLUTION
AND THE
EARLY USSR
The Russian Revolution constitutes, with the French and the Industrial, the most influential
revolutionary trilogy of the contemporary epoch.
Along with the Second World War is the most decisive event of the 20th century.
It served, after the First World War, as a response and alternative to the crisis of capitalism and
liberalism, because, for the first time, the principles and schemes of socialism were put into practice
as the foundation of a State.
It remains a model and example to be followed by some countries and certain political sectors, which
have become increasingly minority since the dissolution of the USSR.
Name:
1
The Russian Revolution and the early USSR
2nd Term.
1. The collapse of Tsarism. Page 3
o Tsarist Russia.
TermTer
o The Revolution of 1905.
o The Revolution of February 1917. The provisional Government.
m TEm
Page 8
2. The October Revolution and the Civil War.
o The Bolshevik Revolution (October 1917).
o The Civil War (1918-1921).
o War Communism.
3. The construction of the USSR. Page 11
o The Creation of the USSR.
o The Communist International.
4. Instauration and consolidation of Stalinism. Page 11
o Stalin prevails in the struggle for power.
o The Stalinist regime: a totalitarian dictatorship.
5. The socioeconomic transformation of Soviet Russia. Page 16
o The New Economic Policy.
o The nationalization of economy.
o The collectivization of agriculture.
o Industrial development policy.
6. Doctor Zhivago: Russian Revolution in the cinema. Page 21
Page 24
7. Useful vocabulary.
2
Throughout the 19th century, Russia remained oblivious to the industrialization process taking place in
Europe and other continents. Social and political immobility kept Russia out of the changes that altered
the structures of much of the Western world. That is why it is considered that the Russia of the tsars at
the beginning of the 20th century was a backward country.
Russia, at the turn of the century, was economically, socially and politically backward. However, from
the international point of view, it played the role of a major military power. It was so only in appearance,
as its army had become outdated.
o Economy based on agriculture, but low productivity. Servitude was abolished, but
the land remained in the hands of the nobility. The bourgeoisie, few in number, tries
to implement some changes.
o Incipient industrialization, dependent on foreign capital. Industrialization, initiated
late and limited to the big cities, always depended on foreign capital and the initiative
of the State.
o The totalitarian State belonging to the Old
Regime remained intact. The power was
held by an absolute and theocratic
monarchy presided over by the Tsar
(Emperor) who belonged to the Romanov
dynasty, supported by four pillars: the
nobility, the clergy, the army and the
bureaucracy, protected by an omnipresent
political police. Although there was a
parliament (the "Duma"), its powers were
at the mercy of the tsar, who enjoyed the
power to convene or dissolve it.
It was a form of autocratic government.
3
The Russians were looking for an outlet to the Pacific Ocean (the port of Vladivostok was only operational
in the summer). Japan had been forced to give up Port Arthur, but that conflicted with Japan’s protectorate
in Korea.
The incompetence of the Russian generals and the slow movement of the troops gave victory to Japan,
which gained great international prestige. Russia lost Port Arthur, as well as its influence in the area of
Korea and Manchuria.
The war only served to further sink the economy and bankrupt the public treasury, leading to widespread
wage cuts and an increase in the cost of living. In the countryside, the mobilization of the army for both
repression and war on the eastern front deprived peasant families of their workers, generating discontent
and famine.
Added to this defeat are the economic
crisis (foreign investors withdraw,
3000 factories close, workers were
unsatisfied with the working
conditions), and the peasants'
discontent (poor harvests, hunger,
disappointment over the agriculture
reform).
January 9 will be remembered in
History as "Bloody Sunday". That
same morning, a peaceful
demonstration of workers' protest
marched through the streets of Saint
Petersburg. It was made up of entire families and sought to deliver to the tsar a request for better jobs. At
the head was a priest and did not respond to any political slogan. In fact, protesters marched carrying
religious icons, crosses and portraits of the tsar, unarmed.
The demonstration was savagely crushed by army troops and Cossacks stationed in front of the Winter
Palace, who did not hesitate to fire at the crowd, then pursued them for hours. The newspapers of the
time set in 2000 the number of victims, counting men, women and children.
The massacre was a turning point for the faith still held by the peasantry in the tsar.
The peasants and workers, in response, organized themselves into assemblies called soviets. The army
also rebels.
Finally, the tsar makes some concessions, contained in the "Imperial Manifesto". The manifesto grants a
great deal of civil rights, the legalization of political parties, universal suffrage and the establishment of
the Duma as a central legislative body.
In addition, the Government promulgated a Constitution, setting the limits of this new political order.
After demanding deeper liberalization and serving as a platform for agitators, the first Duma was
dissolved by the tsar in July 1906.
4
The incorporation of Russia into the First
World War caused great discomfort among the
population, due to the high cost and the
human losses it caused.
Strikes and demonstrations took place and
were severely repressed.
On February 23, under the slogan "Bread and
Peace," the revolution began, followed by a
general strike. The troops refused to repress
the demonstrators, joining them.
A provisional government is created, led by
Kerensky. Tsar Nicholas abdicates.
The Provisional Government has little power.
The Soviets (workers, peasants and soldier
associations) form armed militias (Red Guard)
and soon they begin to add themselves to the
Bolshevik proposals: distribution of land,
recognition of national minorities,
improvement of workers' living conditions...
Bolsheviks vs Mensheviks
Radical, Marxist/socialist and supported
by the workers. Step-by-step revolution, starting with a
Led by Vladimir Lenin. bourgeois revolution and maintaining
They advocate a workers' revolution and capitalism.
the imposition of a communist system Formation of a mass party.
(dictatorship of the proletariat). They also Moderate positions within the
supported the abandonment of war and the revolutionary sector.
distribution of land among peasants.
5
Activities
1. Causes of the 1905 Revolution.
2. Why is Russia’s participation in the First World War key to the unleashing of the February
1917 revolution?
Workers' Demands on the Tsar / Bloody Sunday. January 10, 1905.
Oh, Tsar Any of us who speak out in favour of the working class can be sent to prison or exile. Having
good feelings is considered a crime, the same as fraternizing with a wretch, an abandoned, a fallen. (...)
You have been sent to lead the people to happiness. But peace is taken from us by Your officials, who reserve
nothing but pain and humiliation.! We are more than 300,000 human beings, but we are only human in
appearance, since in reality we have no human right. We are forbidden to speak, think, meet to discuss our
needs and take measures to improve our situation.
Russia is too vast and its needs too manifold for it to be led by a government composed solely of bureaucrats.
It is absolutely necessary that the people participate in it, for only he knows their needs. Do not refuse to
help Your people. It grants without delay to the representatives of all classes of the country the order to
meet in Assembly. Let the capitalists and the workers be represented. Let the officials, clerics, doctors and
professors also elect their delegates. Let everyone be free to choose whom they please. To this end, it allows
for the election of a Constituent Assembly under the regime of universal suffrage. (...)"
6
Activities
1. In what terms do the demonstrators address the tsar? Do they demand or beg?
2. What are their demands?
3. What arguments do they use?
4. What institution do they propose to involve the people in the government?
7
The Kerensky government loses support: they demand an end to the war, the peasants want to distribute
the land, the workers to improve their conditions, the soldiers do not accept orders from their superiors.
The soviets gain power.
Lenin returns from exile and proclaims the April Theses.
o Withdrawal from the war
o Allocation of land
o Control of factories by workers' committees
o Power for the soviets
o Authority for Nationalities
Kornilov, a conservative general, tries to restore order, but his
coup d'état fails.
In October the soviets defeated the government and succeeded
in seizing power, helped by worsening living conditions and
administrative chaos.
On 24 October the soviets, in Bolshevik hands, took control of Saint Petersburg and stormed the Winter
Palace, the former residence of the Tsar and seat of the provisional government.
The revolutionary government negotiates the peace of Brest-Litovsk to remove Russia from the IGM.
The expropriation is decreed without compensation of the factories, mines and large properties, which
come under the control of the workers and peasants.
The self-determination of the nationalities is decreed.
The Constitutional Assembly is dissolved and democracy is destroyed.
8
Although the Revolution had triumphed in the capital, in large areas of the
country it still had detractors: the Russian Orthodox Church, landowners,
bourgeois, nobles, army commanders...
Civil war breaks out between the supporters of the counter-revolution
(White Army) and the Bolsheviks (Red Army). The Whites have foreign
support, from powers that fear the spread of the revolution (UK, Japan,
France, USA).
The tsar and his family are killed to prevent the White Army from rescuing
them. In the early hours of July 17, 1918, the Russian imperial family was
shot dead in the Ipatiev house, where they had lived isolated from the
outside for three months, humiliated by the guards and confident in a
rescue that did not arrive. Yurovsky, the leader of their guardians, read to the royal prisoners a statement:
"The General
Directorate of the Regional Soviet, satisfying the will of the revolution, has decreed that the former Tsar
Nicholas Romanov, guilty of countless bloody crimes against the people, should be shot".
The Bolsheviks win the war, in part thanks to Trotsky’s leadership in the Red Army, the lack of
coordination of the anti-Bolsheviks front and the popular support to the Revolution.
To win the war and to speed up the implementation of socialism a series of measures are taken:
o Part of the industry is nationalized, the free market is abolished and
harvests are requisitioned. Production plummets. The government
planned and controlled production according to their needs.
o Dictatorship of the proletariat. The decisions are taken by the Party,
whoever dissents is repressed.
o The railroads were transferred to military control.
o Maximum discipline and obedience were demanded of the workers
(prohibition of strike).
o Rationing and controlled distribution of food and goods.
There are strikes and riots against these decisions, the most important
one was the insurrection of the Kronstadt sailors (10,000 dead).
The consequences were dreadful: drop in agricultural production due
to the peasants' opposition to the requisitions, Industrial chaos as a result of worker self-management in
the factories, emergence of a black market, shortage... Millions of people die from violence, hunger and
cold.
9
Activities
“The situation was such that in Petrograd any
Duma minister had no power to do anything,
since he had to fight against the Social
Democratic Party, represented by the workers'
committee. My abdication is demanded. (...) In
essence what they say is that to save Russia and
keep the army calm on the front lines, that step
must be taken. I have accepted. (…) At 1:00 in
the morning on the 16th, I left Pskov 1. What kind of role did the Tsar play at the early stages
heartbroken because of everything that of the Revolution?
happened. Around me there is only betrayal,
cowardice and deceit."
Nicholas II. Fragment of his intimate diary, after his
abdication.
2. How do you evaluate his attitude here?
10
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was founded in 1922.
The Constitution of the USSR gives autonomy to states and internal matters (education, judiciary,
languages...) while reserving to the Union foreign policy and economic planning.
The supreme legislative organ resided in the Supreme Soviet (formed by the delegates of the soviets of
the republics). It was elected by universal and indirect suffrage. The Supreme Soviet elected the
Presidium, whose president was the head of state of the USSR. It also elected the Council of People’s
Commissars, a kind of council of ministers.
The entire political organization was controlled by the highly hierarchical Communist Party, whose main
organ was the Central Committee, led by the Secretary General (in 1922 he was elected as such Stalin).
The mission of the Party was to implant the dictatorship of the proletariat as a preliminary step to the
consolidation of socialism and finally of communism.
The police, KGB and the army controlled the regime and repressed those who dissented.
State control by the CPSU turned the USSR into a totalitarian state.
In 1924 the USSR normalized its relations with the outside world and many countries recognized it.
One of the main objectives of Lenin was to spread the revolution outside of the URSS. In order to spread
the global proletarian revolution, the Bolsheviks created the Third International (also known as
Komintern or the Communist International) which had its headquarters in Moscow.
Most communist parties which joined the Komintern were
socialist parties that already existed. Thus, socialism was
divided into two main tendencies: Social Democracy and
communism. The communist parties followed the mode of
organization of the CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet
Union): this model was very centralized and not too
democratic. Any kind of critique was taken as dissidence.
Komintern was a tool in favour of soviet communism extension model. Communist parties in several
countries were, in fact, subject to the CPSU guidelines.
11
Activities
1. Describe how the Soviet Union was organized. Is it a centralized or federal state?
2. What organ really had the power?
3. Did the people participate in this power structure?
4. Can we consider the Soviet Union a democratic system? Reason your answer.
5. What was the Communist International and why was it created?
12
With Lenin’s death in 1924 a new period of internal conflict for power within CPSU arised. The party was
now led by figures such as Stalin, Trotski or Kamenev, but they had different points of view about key
concepts for international politics and economics. Stalin prevailed amongst the others since he had been
appointed as the general secretary of CPSU in 1922.
Contrary to those who believed that there was a need in
expanding the revolution in order for it to be successful,
Stalin defended the idea of “socialism in one single
country”. This meant that it was primordial to strengthen
the Soviet Union development of socialism, rather than
expecting a global revolution which seemed unlikely.
From his position as a general secretary, Stalin made sure
to erase any opposition or rivalry. In 1927 Trotski,
Kamenev and others were expelled from the party. Trotski,
who was his main competition, was banished from the
Soviet Union and later murdered. In 1929, Stalin had
erased almost any sign of competition and had absolute
control over the communist party, which led him to build
a totalitarian dictatorship regime.
Stalin established a personal dictatorship which was characterized by:
o The cult of personality: Through propaganda, the image of Stalin was washed, and he was represented
as the “great benefactor” or “father” of the people. Any positive reference to his enemies was erased
and the truth was often hidden.
o The reinforcement of the Communist Party: If someone wanted to participate in the political sphere
through the soviets, they had to belong to the CPSU because it imposed the candidacies. This way, the
soviets were no longer free and popular assemblies.
o The political repression: This system was the way to keep any opposition voices quiet. Repression
took place both within the party and in society. The tool used to impose this repression was the new
political police (NKVD), but a great part of society also collaborated with this repression, which
created a sense of suspicion.
13
The most intense purges took place between 1933 and 1939.
Hundreds of thousands of people were executed or sent to
concentration camps called gulags. Most gulags were in Siberia;
people there lived in in subhuman conditions and were forced to
work. Some prisoners were criminals, but others were politicians or
priests who did not believe in the system. Many people perished.
Activities
“Since the Battle of Stalingrad, the Soviet press 1. Read the text. What image did the media project
had shown Stalin as a great leader and father of the about Stalin? Do you think it was objective? Who
do you think was behind that kind of propaganda?
nation. Every time they mentioned it, they did it
with one «our dear father», «our dear guide and
teacher», «our dear and dear Stalin» and «the best
leader of all times and of all peoples». There were
no limits to the praise in which he called himself
«personality cult».
On July 29, 1952, the Pravda newspaper, in a
chronicle on the celebration of Aviation Day at the
Moscow airport, said: 2. What were the public appearances of Stalin for?
«Two o'clock in the afternoon. Comrade I.V. Stalin
goes up to the grandstand of the government,
acclaimed by the shouting of the crowd for a while.
The Soviet people celebrate the appearance of the
wise leader, the great educator, the inspired
strategist. » [...]
Stalin kept most of his high chiefs in relevant
positions. [...] While maintaining these chiefs,
Stalin observed and watched them, and so did all 3. Did Stalin trust his collaborators? Why?
those who occupied relevant places. The cancer of
distrust had become a monstrous tumor during the
postwar years. He trusted no one at all.
The slightest spark could trigger their suspicions
and bring misfortune and even death to the
unfortunate.”
14
Listening
ONE OF THE LAST REMAINING SURVIVORS OF THE GULAG
1. Where is Kolyma? Who was sent there and why?
2. What kind of conditions had the prisoners at Kolyma?
3. Why did the Soviets build camps like this one? Can you think of other political system that acted
like this?
15
The New Economic Policy (1921-1928) was motivated by the disastrous economic situation caused by the
civil war.
It was conceived as a temporary response to crisis and it consisted in a partial return to the market
economy. Farmers could harvest and sell with freedom, private property of small or medium industrial
companies was allowed, free domestic trade was authorised, and the monetary economy was re-
established.
These measures favoured the growth of economic activity. The NEP stimulated the resurgence of the
bourgeoisie, with the enrichment of some wealthy peasants (known as kulaks). This provoked strong
tensions and generated a major debate within the party.
16
In 1928 Stalin abandoned his support for the NEP and promoted the idea that
the state should strengthen its role in planning and controlling the economy.
For this purpose, the Gosplan, a state body created in 1921, was used. Thus,
the government designed five-year plans, which set out the economic goals
to be achieved in five years and the resources to be used to get there.
The goal of the five-year plans was to rid the Soviet Union of economic
backwardness, achieve industrial development, and make the country self-
sufficient from an agricultural and military point of view.
All economic activities (industry, agriculture, trade ...) came under state
control and private property disappeared.
The first five-year plan established the collectivization of land. The owners gave up their lands, which
became part of the community. The kulaks, rich peasants, resisted there and before handing over the lands
burned the harvest. Repression and violence against the kulaks resulted in hundreds of thousands of
deaths and the disappearance as a social group of the wealthy peasantry. Production never grew at the
rate predicted by the five-year plans and the population suffered very hard times of scarcity and famine,
causing millions of deaths.
Agrarian collectivization was organized in kolkhozes (collectively owned farms that operated in a co-
operative regime) and sovkhozes (state farms with wage labour). In both cases, the use of machinery and
the application of advanced agricultural techniques were promoted. Agriculture, however, was for many
years the weak sector of the Soviet economy.
17
Priority was given to heavy industry and energy production. Coal, oil, and electricity doubled
production and productivity was encouraged by various methods, such as working on rest days. The
results were spectacular and turned the USSR into an industrial power. But economic imbalances also
arose because the manufacture of capital goods (machinery and armaments) was excessively boosted
and consumer goods (clothing, footwear, and household utensils) were left out, which had a negative
impact on the standard of living of the population.
18
Activities
1. Observe the graphic and explain. All in all, do you think the NEP had positive effects for the economy?
2. Which is the main sector, according to the data shown?
3. Which has the biggest growth?
19
4. Compare the newspapers showing the effects of collectivization with the Soviet propaganda posters.
20
Final activity: Doctor Zhivago
Viewing guide: highlights of the film and quiz.
− 8.00-9.00: Equal treatment: commander, engineer and worker are "comrades". Women and men work equally
in the dam. A mention is made of the "plan". What are they referring to?
− 21.00 1913. Pasha, a young social democratic idealist who distributes leaflets. Political repression and freedom
of expression. "They don’t know, but they want it (the revolution)".
− 29.45 What kind of people attend the demonstration and what is their attitude? What do they shout? Cossacks
charge against the people. In this scene one can compare attitudes to the revolution of different social class: the
people, the upper bourgeoisie and the nobility and power (represented by the Cossack cavalry). What are those
attitudes? Compare them.
- 41.16 Discuss on Pasha’s changed political attitude and the socio-economic situation to which he refers.
− 69.45 The troops march, blessed by a pope. Where? Why? Comment on the banners they carry and the type
of people who show their support. The war breaks out. He points out the differences between the soldiers who
went and those who return, and the attitude of the deserting soldiers towards the officers. Why? Is there a class
difference between them?
− 80.25 - 81.15 The Bolsheviks distribute newspapers among the troops announcing the outbreak of the
February Revolution. Comment on the general attitude to this news.
21
- 83.19- 83.45 This fragment reflects the political instability of the moment.
− 89.45-91.50 Thanks to the signing of the peace agreement, Zhivago returns home. Which was that treaty?
What changes have occurred in Yuri Zhivago’s house since his absence?
- 95.07- 100 Observe and comment the beginnings of the Soviet regime: suppression and distribution of private
property, imposition of the party mentality.
- 109.45-101-55 Desolation caused by the civil war. Who caused it and why?
- 127.00-128.30 Distribution of private property.
- 130.00-131.30 What are the Russian troops doing in Manchuria? Assassination of the Tsar. What is the reaction
to the news?
- 141.00-142.00 Communist indoctrination in schools. Discuss it.
- 146.00-146.33 The enemies of the new regime. Link them with the Bolshevik ideology.
- 150.20 - 150.48 Political vs military control. Comment it.
− 162.35-165.00 Political repression. Compare this situation to the scene at the beginning where Pasha is
reprimanded by the forces of the Tsar for distributing revolutionary leaflets and reflects on the evolution of
freedom of expression that we see in the film.
22
178-180 Purge in the Party. Relate this situation to another similar purge you have worked in class.
23
Autocracy
Backwardness
Banished
Bankrupt
Banners
Black market
Bolshevik
Bureocracy
Collectivization
Cossack
Dam
Five-year plan
Headquarters
Intelligentsia
Kolkhoz
Kronstadt
Kulaks
Leaflets
Menshevik
Mir
Nomenklatura
Orthodox church
Orthodox Pope
Peasant
Provisional
government
Purge
Siberia
Soviets
Sovjós
Sovkhozes
Stakhanovism
Trotskyism
Tsar
USSR
Wage labor
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27
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