EXNO :1

DATE:

DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE COMMANDS

AIM: To write SQL queries demonstrating the use of Data Definition Language (DDL)
commands.

PROCEDURE:
Data Definition Commands:

DDL consists of SQL commands used to define and manage the structure of a database. It deals
with the descriptions of the database schema and is used to create, modify, and delete database
objects such as tables, indexes, and views.

Examples of DDL commands:

1. CREATE: Used to create a new database or its objects (such as tables, indexes, functions,
views, stored procedures, and triggers).
2. DROP: Used to delete database objects (such as tables, indexes, or views) from the database
permanently.
3. ALTER: Used to modify the structure of an existing database object (such as adding,
modifying, or dropping columns in a table).
4. TRUNCATE: Used to remove all records from a table, freeing the space allocated for the
data. The table structure remains intact.
5. COMMENT: Used to add comments or descriptions to the data dictionary or schema
objects.
6. RENAME: Used to rename an existing object in the database, such as a table or column.

i) CREATE TABLE

The CREATE TABLE command is used to create a new table in the database.

Rules:
1. Reserved Words: Oracle reserved keywords cannot be used as table names or column
names.
2. Naming Restrictions: Table names can contain underscores, numerals, and letters, but
cannot contain spaces.
3. Maximum Length: The maximum length for a table name is 30 characters.
4. Unique Table Names: Each table in a database must have a unique name.
5. Column Names: Each column in the table must have a unique name.
6. Data Types: Proper data types must be specified for each column, along with the appropriate
size or precision (where applicable).

Syntax for CREATE TABLE:

SQL> CREATE TABLE table_name (

column_name1 data_type [constraints],
column_name2 data_type [constraints],
...);

Explanation: The CREATE TABLE command is used to create a new table in the database with
specified column names, data types, and optional constraints.

Syntax for DESC:

SQL> DESC table_name;

Explanation: The DESC (short for "DESCRIBE") command displays the structure of a table,
including column names, data types, and whether the column can accept NULL values.

Creating a New Table from an Existing Table:

You can create a new table based on the structure and data of an existing table using the
following syntax:

SQL> CREATE TABLE new_table_name AS

SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM existing_table_name
WHERE condition;

Explanation: The CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT command creates a new table by selecting
specific columns from an existing table based on a condition (optional). This can be used to copy
data and structure from the existing table.

Syntax:
SQL>Create table tablename (column_name1 data_ type constraints, column_name2
data_ type constraints …);

2. DROP TABLE

The DROP TABLE command is used to delete a table and all of its data from the database
permanently. Once a table is dropped, it cannot be recovered unless there is a backup.

Syntax:
SQL> DROP TABLE table_name;
3. ALTER COMMAND

The ALTER TABLE command is used to modify the structure of an existing table. It can
perform the following actions:

1. Add a new column.

2. Modify the definition of an existing column.
3. Add or drop integrity constraints (such as PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, etc.).

i) ADD COMMAND

To add a new column to an existing table, use the ADD command.

Syntax:
SQL> ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name data_type(size);

Explanation: The ADD command adds a new column to the table with the specified data type
and size.

ii) MODIFY COMMAND

To modify an existing column’s definition (such as its data type or size), use the MODIFY
command.

Syntax:
SQL> ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name data_type(size);

Explanation: The MODIFY command changes the definition of an existing column, allowing
you to update its data type, size, or other attributes.

4. TRUNCATE TABLE

The TRUNCATE TABLE command removes all rows from a table but retains the table structure
for future use. It is faster than DELETE, and unlike DELETE, it cannot be rolled back.

Syntax:
SQL> TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Explanation: The TRUNCATE command deletes all rows from the table while keeping the
table structure intact. It frees up the space used by the data.
5. COMMENT

Comments can be written in SQL in three formats:

1. Single-Line Comments: Comments that start and end on the same line.
2. Multi-Line Comments: Comments that span multiple lines.
3. Inline Comments: Comments placed within a SQL statement.

Single-Line Comment

A comment that starts with -- and extends to the end of the line.

Syntax:
-- This is a single-line comment
-- Another comment

Multi-Line Comment

A comment that spans multiple lines, starting with /* and ending with */.

Syntax:
/* This is a multi-line comment
spanning multiple lines */

Inline Comment

An extension of the multi-line comment that can be placed within a SQL statement.

Syntax:
SQL> SELECT * FROM /* comment here */ table_name;

6. RENAME

The RENAME command is used to change the name of an existing database object, such as a
table. It allows database users to give more relevant names to tables or other objects.

Syntax:
SQL> RENAME old_table_name TO new_table_name;

Explanation: The RENAME command changes the name of a table or other database object.
Program:
SQL> connect
Enter user-name: system
Enter password: admin
Connected.
SQL> CREATE TABLE emp (id NUMBER(10), name VARCHAR(10));
Table created.

SQL> desc emp;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
ID NUMBER(10)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)

SQL> alter table emp add(dept varchar(10));

Table altered.

SQL> desc emp;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
ID NUMBER(10)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
DEPT VARCHAR2(10)

SQL> alter table emp modify dept varchar(20);

Table altered.

SQL> desc emp;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
ID NUMBER(10)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
DEPT VARCHAR2(20)

SQL> alter table emp drop column dept;

Table altered.

SQL> desc emp;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
ID NUMBER(10)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)

SQL> alter table emp rename to emp1;

Table altered.
SQL> desc emp1;
Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
ID NUMBER(10)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)

SQL> desc emp2;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
ID NUMBER(10)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
DEPT VARCHAR2(10)
SQL> drop table emp2;

Table dropped.

SQL> select * from emp2;

select * from emp2
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00942: table or view does not exist
SQL> select * from emp1;

ID NAME DEPT
---------- ---------- ----------
1 aaa cse
2 aaa cse
3 aaa ece
4 aaa cse
5 aaa cse

SQL> truncate table emp1;

Table truncated.
SQL> select * from emp1;

no rows selected

SQL> desc emp1;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
ID NUMBER(10)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
DEPT VARCHAR2(10)
SQL> drop table emp1;
Table dropped.

SQL> select * from emp1;

select * from emp1
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00942: table or view does not exist

SQL> desc emp1;

ERROR:
ORA-04043: object emp1 does not exist

Result:
Thus, the SQL Data Definition Language (DDL) commands have been successfully
executed to create, modify, and manage the database objects.
EX.NO:2

DATE:

DATA MANIPULATION COMMANDS FOR INSERTING, DELETING, UPDATING

AND RETRIEVING TABLES

AIM:

To create a database and perform operations using Data Manipulation Commands (DML) for
inserting, deleting, updating, and retrieving data, along with using Transaction Control
statements.

DESCRIPTION:

DML statements access and manipulate data in existing tables. DML commands are the
most frequently used SQL commands and is used to query and manipulate the existing
database objects. Some of the commands are Insert, Select, Update, Delete.

Examples of DML:

1) Insert Command: This is used to add one or more rows to a table. The values are
separated by commas and the data types char and date are enclosed in apostrophes. The
values must be entered in the same order as they are defined.

SQL>INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3) VALUES (value1,

value2, value3);

2) Select Commands: It is used to retrieve information from the table. It is generally

referred to as querying the table. We can either display all columns in a table or only
specify column from the table.

SQL>SELECT * FROM table_name; -- to retrieve all columns

SQL>SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name; -- to retrieve specific columns

3) Update Command: It is used to alter the column values in a table. A single

column may be updated or more than one column could be updated.

SQL> UPDATE table_name

SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2
WHERE condition;

4) Delete command: After inserting row in a table we can also delete them if required.
The delete command consists of a from clause followed by an optional where clause.

SQL>DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

INSERTING VALUES INTO TABLE

Create table:

SQL> CREATE TABLE persons (

pid NUMBER(5),
firstname VARCHAR2(15),
lastname VARCHAR2(15),
address VARCHAR2(25),
city VARCHAR2(10)
);

INSERT COMMAND

Insert command is used to insert values into table.

Insert a single record into table.

Syntax: SQL> INSERT INTO <table name> VALUES (value list);

Example: SQL> INSERT INTO persons (pid, firstname, lastname, address, city)
VALUES (1, 'Nelson', 'Raj', 'No25, Annai Street', 'Chennai');
1 row created.

Insert more than a record into persons table using a single insert command.

Example: SQL> INSERT INTO persons VALUES(&pid, '&firstname', '&lastname', '&address',

'&city');
Skipping the fields while inserting:

Example: SQL> INSERT INTO persons(pid, firstname) VALUES(500, 'prabhu');

SELECT COMMAND

It is used to retrieve information from the table. It is generally referred to as querying the
table. We can either display all columns in a table or only specify column from the table.
Syntax: SQL> Select * from tablename; // This query selects all rows from the table.

Example: SQL>Select * from persons;

THE RETRIEVAL OF SPECIFIC COLUMNS FROM A TABLE:

It retrieves the specified columns from the table

Syntax: SQL> SELECT column_name1, ..., column_nameN FROM table_name;

Example: SQL> SELECT pid, firstname FROM persons;

Elimination of duplicates from the select clause:

It prevents retrieving the duplicated values. Distinct keyword is to be used.

Syntax: SQL> SELECT DISTINCT col1, col2 FROM table_name;

Example: SQL> SELECT DISTINCT lastname FROM persons;

SELECT COMMAND WITH WHERE CLAUSE:

To select specific rows from a table we include ‘where’ clause in the select command. It
can appear only after the ‘from’ clause.

Syntax: SQL> SELECT column_name1, column_name2, ..., column_nameN FROM

table_name WHERE condition;

Example: SQL> SELECT firstname, lastname FROM persons WHERE pid > 2;

Select command with order by clause:

Syntax: SQL> SELECT column_name1, column_name2, ..., column_namen FROM table_name

WHERE condition ORDER BY column_name;
Example: SQL>Select firstname, lastname from persons order by pid;

Select command to create a table:

Syntax: SQL> CREATE TABLE tablename AS SELECT * FROM existing_tablename;

Example: SQL> CREATE TABLE persons1 AS SELECT * FROM persons;

Table created

SELECT COMMAND TO INSERT RECORDS:

Syntax: SQL> INSERT INTO persons1 (SELECT * FROM persons);

Example: SQL> INSERT INTO persons1 (SELECT pid, firstname, lastname FROM persons
WHERE city = 'Chennai');

PID FIRSTNAME LASTNAME ADDRESS CITY PHONENO

---------- -------------------- ----------------------- -------------------- ----------- ------------------
001 nelson raj no25,annai street Chennai
100 niranjan kumar 10/25 krishna street Mumbai 999999999
102 arjun kumar 30 sundaram street coimbatore
300 gugan chand 5/10 mettu street Coimbatore
500 prabhu

SELECT COMMAND USING IN KEYWORD:

Syntax: SQL> SELECT column_name1, column_name2, ..., column_n FROM table_name

WHERE column_name IN (value1, value2, ...);

Example: SQL> SELECT * FROM persons WHERE pid IN (100, 500);

(OR)
SQL> SELECT * FROM persons WHERE (pid = 100 OR pid = 500);

PID FIRSTNAME LASTNAME ADDRESS CITY PHONENO

---------- -------------------- ----------------------- -------------------- ----------- ------------------
100 niranjan kumar 10/25 krishna street Mumbai 999999999
500 prabhu
SELECT COMMAND USING BETWEEN KEYWORD:

Syntax: SQL> SELECT column_name1, column_name2, ..., column_n FROM table_name

WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

Example: SQL>Select * from persons where pid between 100 and 500;

PID FIRSTNAME LASTNAME ADDRESS CITY PHONENO

---------- -------------------- ----------------------- -------------------- ----------- ------------------
100 niranjan kumar 10/25 krishna street Mumbai 999999999
500 prabhu

SELECT COMMAND USING PATTERN:

Syntax: SQL> SELECT column_name1, column_name2, ..., column_n FROM table_name

WHERE column_name LIKE 'pattern';

Example: SQL>Select * from persons where firstname like ‘nir_n%’;

PID FIRSTNAME LASTNAME ADDRESS CITY PHONENO

---------- -------------------- ----------------------- -------------------- ----------- ------------------
100 niranjan kumar 10/25 krishna street Mumbai 999999999

RENAMING THE FIELDNAME AT THE TIME OF DISPLAY USING SELECT

STATEMENT:

Syntax: SQL> SELECT old_column_name AS new_column_name FROM table_name WHERE

condition;

Example: SQL> SELECT pid AS personid FROM persons;

SELECT COMMAND TO RETRIEVE NULL VALUES:

Syntax: SQL> SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE column_name IS NULL;

Example: SQL> SELECT * FROM persons WHERE lastname IS NULL;

PID FIRSTNAME LASTNAME ADDRESS CITY PHONENO

---------- -------------------- ----------------------- -------------------- ----------- ------------------
500 prabhu
UPDATE COMMAND:

Syntax: SQL> UPDATE table_name SET column_name = value [, column_name = value]...

[ WHERE condition ];

Example: SQL> UPDATE persons SET pid = 5 WHERE firstname = 'prabhu';

Table updated.

DELETE COMMAND

Syntax: SQL> DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Example: SQL> DELETE FROM persons WHERE pid = 500;

1 row deleted.

RESULT:

Thus, the database has been created, and the data has been inserted, deleted, modified, updated,
and altered. Records have also been viewed based on specific conditions.