1 Numbers

Recall that in school you learnt about different types of numbers. These include:
ˆ the natural numbers which in this course we take to mean the positive
whole numbers 1, 2, 3, ...;
ˆ the integers, which are the all the whole numbers ..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2,
3, ...;

ˆ the rational numbers, which are ratios of integers with non-zero denom-
n
inator. More precisely, numbers of the form m where both n and m are
integers, and m is non-zero integer;
ˆ the real numbers, which√
consist of all numbers on the number line includ-
ing numbers like π and 2.
Note that the parts of these notes which are in green are for enrichment
purposes
√ and will not be directly examined. You probably know from school
that 2 is an irrational number (that is a real number which is not rational).
Let us recall how this can be proved. We will prove by contradiction (If you
don’t know what a proof by contradiction is, please read the relevant part of
the
√ proofs notes before continuing here). Suppose by way of contradiction that
2 = ab where a and b are integers with no proper common factors (i.e. with
2
no proper factors other than 1. It follows that 2 = ab2 and hence a2 = 2b2 .
2
Dit volg dat 2 = ab2 en dus a2 = 2b2 . This means that a2 is divisible by 2
and hence a is divisible by 2 as well. (To see why suppose a is not divisible by
2, then by long division one can find an integer k such that a = 2k + 1. But
then a2 = 4k 2 + 2k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + k) + 1 and hence a2 is not divisible by 2. A
contradiction.) It follows that a = 2c for some integer c and hence a2 = 4c2 .
This means that 4c2 = 2b2 and hence 2c2 = b2 , meaning that b2 and hence b
is divisible by 2. This contradicts the assumption that a and b have no proper
common factors.

Exercise 1.0.1. List the types of number each of the following numbers are:
(a) −1 The answer is an integer, a rational number and a real number. ;
1
(b) 2;
√
(c) 2;
√ √
(d) 1+ 2 To √
answer this question we note that √ if 1 + 2 was a rational number i.e.
1 + 2 = pq then we would have that 2 = pq − 1 = p−q and would be a rational
√ q
number too. Since this is false it follows that 1 + 2 is only a real number.

1
2 Coordinate geometry and lines.
It is clear that a point P in a plane is uniquely determined by numbers a and
b which are the points on the respective axis where lines perpendicular to the
respective axes through the point meet the given axis:
y

b P

x
a

To indicate this we will write P (a, b) or P = (a, b) for the given point, and will
say that P has x-coordinate a and y-coordinate b. Let us denote by R2 the set
of (ordered) pairs of real numbers.

2.0.1 Distance formula

Consider the diagram where P1 and P2 are arbitrary points and P3 is the point
constructed as indicated:
y

P1 (x1 , y1 )

P2 (x2 , y2 ) P3 (x1 , y2 )
x

It follows from Pythagoras’ theorem that the distance between P1 and P2 is

given by p
(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .
Exercise 2.0.1. Find the distance between (1, 2) and (4, 7).

2.1 Lines
Consider the diagrams where P1 = (x1 , y1 ) and P2 = (x2 , y2 ) are arbitrary
points such that x1 6= x2 .

2
 y y

P1 P1
P
Q
P2 Q R P2 R
P
x x

If we choose an arbitrary point P = (x, y) on the line through the points P1

and P2 (for instance as depicted in either diagram). We can then construct
the points Q and R with x-coordinates the same as P and P1 respectively, and
y-coordinates the same as P2 . Using the fact that the triangle with vertices P2 ,
P1 and R is similar to the triangle with vertices P2 , P and Q we see that the
following equation must hold:
y − y1 y2 − y1
= .
x − x1 x2 − x1
This means that the previous equation is an equation of the line through P1
and P2 . We call the number
y2 − y1
x2 − x1
the slope or gradient of the line and often denote it by m . It follows that the
equation of a line passing through a point P1 (x1 , y1 ) with gradient m can be
written as
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
An equation of this form is called the point-slope form of a line.
Exercise 2.1.1. Find an equation of a line passing through (−1, 5) with slope
2.

Exercise 2.1.2. Find an equation of the line passing through (−1, 5) and (2, 11)
.
Supposing a non-vertical line has y-intercept (0, b) and gradient m , then
using the point-slope equation we find

y − b = m(x − 0)

which can be rewritten as

y = mx + b

3
which is called the slope-intercept form of a straight line. In general (including
vertical lines) a line has equation

Ax + Bx + C = 0

where A 6= 0 or B 6= 0.

Exercise 2.1.3. (a) Sketch the graph of the line 4x − 3y = 12;

(b) Shade the region where the inequality x + 3y > 2 holds.

Two lines with gradients m1 and m2 respectively, turn out to be parallel

if m1 = m2 , and are perpendicular if m1 m2 = −1 , or equivalently,
−1
m1 = m 2
, provided m1 6= 0 and m2 6= 0.

Exercise 2.1.4. Find the line passing through (2, 3) which is

(a) parallel to
(b) perpendicular to
the line 3x + 5y + 10 = 0.

3 Inequalities
3.1 Rules for inequalities
For real numbers a, b, c and d:
1. Exactly one of the following is true: a < b, a = b, b < a;
2. If a < b and b < c, then a < c;

3. If a < b, then a + c < b + c;

4. If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc;
5. If a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d;
6. If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc;
1
7. If 0 < a < b, then a > 1b .

Exercise 3.1.1. Assuming only the rules 1, 2, 3, 4 . Show that for real numbers
a, b, c, d in R
(a) Rule 5 holds;

4
(b) If a < 0, then 0 < −a;
(c) Rule 6 holds;
(d) 0 < 1 (assuming 0 6= 1);
(e) If 0 < a, then 0 < a1 ;
1
(f ) If 0 < a < b, then b < a1 .

Exercise 3.1.2. Solve the inequality

(a) 1+x < 7x+5 We have:

1 + x < 7x + 5
⇔(1 + x) + (−5 − x) < (7x + 5) + (−5 − x) using Rule 1
⇔ − 4 < 6x
   
1 1
⇔−4 > 6x using Rule 4
6 6
−2
⇔ <x
3

(b) 1 − x > 2x + 1.
Recall that a ≤ b is equivalent to the statement a < b or a = b. Using the
rules for inequalities involving < we obtain:

3.2 Rules for inequalities (≤)

For real numbers a, b, c and d:
1. If a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c;
2. If a ≤ b, then a + c ≤ b + c
3. If a ≤ b and c ≤ d, then a + c ≤ b + d;
4. If a ≤ b and c ≥ 0, then ac ≤ bc;
5. If a ≤ b and c ≤ 0, then ac ≥ bc;
1
6. If 0 < a ≤ b, then a ≥ 1b .
Exercise 3.2.1. Solve the inequality
(a) 2 ≤ 4x − 5 ≤ 11;
(b) x2 − 7x + 12 ≤ 0 ;
(c) x3 − x2 > 6x.

5
4 Absolute value
Informally we think of |a| as the distance from 0 to a (or equivalent from a to
0) on the number line. From this we would expect that |a| ≥ 0 for all a ∈ R ,
why? Formally we define

a if a ≥ 0
|a| =
−a if a < 0.

which means that |a| is defined to be a when a ≥ 0 and is defined to be −a

when a < 0.
Exercise 4.0.1. Find
(a) |1|;

(b) | − 2| Since −2 < 0 it follows by definition | − 2| = −(−2) = 2;

(c) |3|;
(d) | − π|.
Exercise 4.0.2. Express |3x − 4| without using absolute value symbols .
According to the definition we have

a if a ≥ 0
|a| =
−a if a < 0

and so setting a = 3x − 4 we find that


(3x − 4) if (3x − 4) ≥ 0
|3x − 4| =
−(3x − 4) if (3x − 4) < 0.
(3x − 4) if x ≥ 34

=
−(3x − 4) if x < 34 .

Exercise 4.0.3. Sketch the graph of absolute value function, i.e. the function
f : R → R defined by f (x) = |x|.

4.1 Properties of absolute values

For all a, b ∈ R and n ∈ Z:
√
0. a2 = |a|;
1. |ab| = |a||b|;
a |a|
2. b = |b| when b 6= 0;

3. |an | = |a|n ;

6
 4. If a > 0 then |x| = a if and only if x = a or x = −a;
5. |x| < a if and only if −a < x < a;
6. |x| > a if and only if x > a or x < −a;
7. |x| ≤ a if and only if −a ≤ x ≤ a;

8. |x| ≥ a if and only if x ≥ a or x ≤ −a;

Exercise 4.1.1. Solve
(a) |2x − 7| = 4;

(b) |x − 7| < 2;
(c) |5x − 3| ≥ 2;
(d) |x − 4| < |x − 7|;
(e) |x2 − 2x − 3| < 1;

(f ) |x − 1| < |x − 2| + |x − 3|.

4.2 Properties of absolute values continued

9. |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.

This inequality is called the triangle identity (and holds in a more general con-
text from which its name is derived). Here are two different proofs:

(i) We have

−|a| ≤ a ≤ |a|
−|b| ≤ b ≤ |b|

and hence adding these two identities we get

− |a| + −|b| ≤ a + b ≤ |a| + |b|

⇔ − (|a| + |b|) ≤ a + b ≤ |a| + |b|
⇔|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|

where the last equivalent statement follows from Properties 4.1.4 and 4.1.5
.
(ii) Since
|a + b|2 = (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
and
(|a| + |b|)2 = |a|2 + 2|a||b| + |b|2 = a2 + 2|ab| + b2

7
 it follows that

(|a| + |b|)2 − |a + b|2 = 2|ab| − 2ab = 2(|ab| − ab)

and hence since |ab| ≥ ab we have that

(|a| + |b| − |a + b|)(|a| + |b| + |a + b|) = (|a| + |b|)2 − |a + b|2 ≥ 0.

Therefore since (|a| + |b| + |a + b|) > 0 – unless a = b = 0 ( in which case

the identity is trivially true) – it follows that

|a| + |b| − |a + b| ≥ 0

and hence that

|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.

Exercise 4.2.1. Given that

|x − 9| < 0.1 and |y − 6| < 0.2.

Use the triangle inequality to show that

(a) |(x + y) − 15| < 0.3;

(b) |(x + y) − 16| < 1.3.

Exercise 4.2.2. Using the triangle inequality show that if |x − 5| < 0.1 then
|x2 − 4x − 5| < 0.61.

5 Angles
In school you learned about angles and measured them in degrees. In this course
we will use a different unit for angles called radians (which we will write as rad).
The relationship between radians and degrees is given by the equation

180◦ = πrad.
π
It follows that an angle θ in degrees corresponds to θ 180 rad in radians while an
180◦
angle φ in radians corresponds to φ πrad in degrees. Note that when we write an
angle in radians we usually leave out the unit. The following table shows the
conversion of some common angles

Degrees 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦

π π π π 3π
Radians 6 4 3 2 π 2 2π

8
6 Trig functions
In school you were taught the definition of (at least some of the) trig functions.
Given a triangle

Hypotenuse
Opposite

θ
Adjacent
the six trig functions were defined by
Opposite
sin(θ) =
Hypotenuse
Adjacent
cos(θ) =
Hypotenuse
Opposite
tan(θ) =
Adjacent
Hypotenuse
sec(θ) =
Adjacent
Hypotenuse
csc(θ) =
Opposite
Adjacent
cot(θ) =
Opposite
where it is supposed that Adjacent, Opposite and Hypotenuse represent the
lengths of those sides of the triangle. We would like to extend these definitions
to any angle θ not only acute angles. We note that each positive real number r
and each angle θ determines a point as shown in the diagram
x

(x, y)

r
θ

9
We now define the six trig functions as follows
y x
sin(θ) = cos(θ) =
r r
y r
tan(θ) = sec(θ) =
x x
r x
csc(θ) = cot(θ) = .
y y

7 Trig identities
These trig identities follow directly from the definition of the trig functions

7.1 Basic identities

1
1. csc(θ) = ;
sin(θ)
1
2. sec(θ) = ;
cos(θ)
1
3. cot(θ) = ;
tan(θ)
sin(θ)
4. tan(θ) = ;
cos(θ)
cos(θ)
5. cot(θ) = .
sin(θ)

Using the definition of sin(θ) and cos(θ) we find that

y2 x2
sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 2
+ 2
r r
x2 + y 2
=
r2
r2
= 2
r
= 1.

from which we obtain the following trig identities:

7.2 Pythagorean identities

1. sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1;

2. tan2 (θ) + 1 = sec2 (θ);

3. 1 + cot2 (θ) = csc2 (θ).

10
Exercise 7.2.1. Show that:
(a) Identity 7.2.2 follows from Identity 7.2.1 and some of the basic identities;
(b) Identity 7.2.3 follows from Identity 7.2.1 and some of the basic identities;
Exercise 7.2.2. Show using the definitions of the various trig functions that:

(a) 7.2.2 holds;

(b) 7.2.3 holds.
Recall that given an angle θ and a radius r we are able to obtain a point
P (x, y) as depicted below

P (x, y)

θ
O −θ

Q(x, −y)

It is easy to see that the point Q obtained from −θ and r will be the point
obtained by reflecting P (x, y) in the x-axis and hence will have coordinates
Q(x, −y). Using the definitions of sin(θ) and cos(θ) we obtain:

7.3 Even and odd identities

1. sin(−θ) = − sin(θ);
2. cos(−θ) = cos(θ).

Since π represents one full rotation around a circle we have:

7.4 Periodic identities

1. sin(θ + 2π) = sin(θ);
2. cos(θ + 2π) = cos(θ).

We also have the following formulas the proof of which is left as an exercise:

11
7.5 Addition and subtraction formulas
1. sin(θ + φ) = sin(θ) cos(φ) + sin(φ) cos(θ);
2. sin(θ − φ) = sin(θ) cos(φ) − sin(φ) cos(θ);

3. cos(θ + φ) = cos(θ) cos(φ) − sin(φ) sin(θ);

4. cos(θ − φ) = cos(θ) cos(φ) + sin(φ) sin(θ);
tan(θ) + tan(φ)
5. tan(θ + φ) = ;
1 − tan(θ) tan(φ)
tan(θ) − tan(φ)
6. tan(θ − φ) = ;
1 + tan(θ) tan(φ)

Exercise 7.5.1.

(a) Prove the rule of cosines. Show that in a triangle

B

a c

θ
C b A

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(θ)
[Hint: In order to do so construct a line segment perpendicular to CA from
B to CA. Then use Pythagoras theorem on each right angled sub-triangle.]

(b) Prove the subtraction formula

cos(α − β) = cos(α) cos(β) − sin(α) sin(β)

using the figure

12
 A(cos(α), sin(α))

B(cos(β), sin(β))

α β
O

Using the rule of cosines we have that

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(α − β)
= 1 + 1 − 2 cos(α − β)
= 2 − 2 cos(α − β).

While using the distance formula we find that

c2 = (sin(α) − sin(β))2 + (cos(α) − cos(β))2

= (sin2 (α) − 2 sin(α) sin(β) + sin2 (β)) + (cos2 (α) − 2 cos(α) cos(β) + cos2 (β))
= ((sin2 (α) + cos2 (α)) + (sin2 (β) + cos2 (β))) − 2 sin(α) sin(β) − 2 cos(α) cos(β)
= (1 + 1) − 2(sin(α) sin(β) + cos(α) cos(β))
= 2 − 2(sin(α) sin(β) + cos(α) cos(β)).

Equating these two equations for c2 we obtain the above formula.

(c) Show how Formula 5 can be obtained from Formulas 1 and 3 .

13
 We have
sin(θ + φ)
tan(θ + φ) =
cos(θ + φ)
sin(θ) cos(φ) + sin(φ) cos(θ)
=
cos(θ) cos(φ) − sin(θ) sin(φ)
sin(θ) cos(φ)+sin(φ) cos(θ)
cos(θ) cos(φ)
= cos(θ) cos(φ)−sin(θ) sin(φ)
cos(θ) cos(φ)
sin(θ) cos(φ) sin(φ) cos(θ)
cos(θ) cos(φ) + cos(θ) cos(φ)
= cos(θ) cos(φ) sin(θ) sin(φ)
cos(θ) cos(φ) − cos(θ) cos(φ)
sin(θ) sin(φ)
cos(θ) + cos(φ)
= sin(θ) sin(φ)
1 − cos(θ) cos(φ)
tan(θ) + tan(φ)
= .
1 − tan(θ) tan(φ)

(d) Show how Formula 6 can be obtained from Formulas 2 and 4 .

7.6 Double-angle formulas

1. sin(2θ) = 2 sin(θ) cos(θ);
2. cos(2θ) = cos2 (θ) − sin2 (θ);
3. cos(2θ) = 2 cos2 (θ) − 1;
4. cos(2θ) = 1 − 2 sin2 (θ).

Exercise 7.6.1. Find all values of x in the interval [0, 2π] such that
(a) sin(x) = sin(2x)
We have:

sin(x) = sin(2x)
⇔ sin(x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x)
⇔ sin(x) − 2 sin(x) cos(x) = 0
⇔ sin(x)(1 − 2 cos(x)) = 0
⇔ sin(x) = 0 or 1 − 2 cos(x) = 0
1
⇔ sin(x) = 0 or cos(x) =
2
n π πo
⇔x ∈ 0, π, 2π, , 2π −
3 3

14
(b) sin(x) = cos(2x)
We have:

sin(x) = cos(2x)
⇔ sin(x) = 1 − 2 sin2 (x)
⇔2 sin2 (x) + sin(x) − 1 = 0
⇔(2 sin(x) − 1)(sin(x) + 1) = 0
1
⇔ sin(x) = or sin(x) = −1
2  
nπ πo 3π
⇔x ∈ ,π − or x ∈
6 6 2
 
π π 3π
⇔x ∈ ,π − ,
6 6 2

(c) sin(2x) = cos(2x).

Using the two last identities (from the previous list) and solving for cos2 (θ) and
sin2 (θ) in each we obtain

7.7 Half-angle formulas

1 + cos(2θ)
1. cos2 (θ) = ;
2
1 − cos(2θ)
2. sin2 (θ) = .
2

7.8 Product formulas

1
1. sin(θ) cos(φ) = 2 [sin(θ + φ) + sin(θ − φ)];
1
2. cos(θ) cos(φ) = 2 [cos(θ + φ) + cos(θ − φ)];
1
3. sin(θ) sin(φ) = 2 [cos(θ − φ) − cos(θ + φ)].

15
8 Graphs of trig functions
The graph of y = sin(x):
y
1

0.5

x
−2π − 3π −π π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2

−0.5

−1

sin(x)
The graph of y = cos(x):
y
1

0.5

x
−2π − 3π −π π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2

−0.5

−1

cos(x)
The graph of y = tan(x):

16
 y

10

x
−2π − 3π −π π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2

−5

−10

tan(x)
The graph of y = cot(x):
y

10

x
−2π − 3π −π π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2

−5

−10

cot(x)
The graph of y = csc(x):

17
 y

10

x
−2π − 3π −π π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2

−5

−10

sec(x)
The graph of y = csc(x):
y

10

x
−2π − 3π −π π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2

−5

−10

csc(x)

18