What is a network topology?

A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and connections
in a network. Nodes usually include devices such as switches, routers and software
with switch and router features. Network topologies are often represented as a graph.

Network topologies describe the arrangement of networks and the relative location of
traffic flows. Administrators can use network topology diagrams to determine the best
placements for each node and the optimal path for traffic flow. With a well-defined
and planned-out network topology, an organization can more easily locate faults and
fix issues, improving its data transfer efficiency.

Network geometry can be defined as the physical topology and the logical topology.
Network topology diagrams are shown with devices depicted as network nodes and
the connections between them as lines. The type of network topology differs
depending on how the network needs to be arranged.

Why is network topology important?

Network topology plays a major role in how a network functions. Namely, the
topology has a direct effect on network functionality. Choosing the right topology can
help increase performance, as a properly chosen and maintained network topology
increases energy efficiency and data transfer rates.

A well-defined network topology makes it easier for network admins to locate faults,
troubleshoot issues and to allocate network resources. Diagrams are an important
reference point in helping to diagnose network issues, as they can represent physical
and logical layouts.

What are the types of network topologies?

Network topologies are categorized as either a physical network topology or logical
network topology. The physical topology of a network is the physical layout of nodes
and connections. Connections include the lines in diagrams that connect nodes, such
as Ethernet or Digital Subscriber Line wires, fiber optics and microwaves. Logical
network topologies define how a network is set up, including which nodes connect
and how, as well as the pattern of data transfers.

This image shows different layouts of network topologies.

There are several types of topologies. For example, physical topologies include the
following:

 Bus network. In the bus network topology, every node is connected in

series along a single cable. This arrangement is found today primarily in
cable broadband distribution networks.

 Star network. In the star network topology, a central device connects to all
other nodes through a central hub. Switched local area networks based on
Ethernet switches and most wired home and office networks have a physical
star topology.
  Ring network. In the ring network topology, the nodes are connected in a
closed-loop configuration. Some rings pass data in one direction only, while
others are capable of transmission in both directions. These bidirectional
ring networks are more resilient than bus networks since traffic can reach a
node by moving in either direction. Metro networks based on Synchronous
Optical Network technology are the primary example of ring networks.

 Mesh network. The mesh network topology links nodes with connections
so that multiple paths between at least some points of the network are
available. A network is considered to be fully meshed if all nodes are
directly connected to all other nodes and partially meshed if only some
nodes have multiple connections to others. Meshing multiple paths
increases resiliency but also increases cost. However, more space is needed
for dedicated links.

 Tree network. The tree network topology consists of one root node, and all
other nodes are connected in a hierarchy. The topology itself is connected in
a star configuration. Many larger Ethernet switch networks, including data
center networks, are configured as trees.

 Hybrid network. The hybrid network topology is any combination of two

or more topologies. Hybrid topologies typically provide exceptional
flexibility, as they can accommodate a number of setups. For example,
different departments in the same organization may opt for personalized
network topologies that are more adaptable to their network needs.

A logical topology for a network refers to the relationship between nodes and logical
connections -- defining how data should transfer.

A logical connection differs from a physical path when information can take
an invisible hop at intermediate points. In optical networks, optical add-drop
multiplexers create logical optical paths because the ADM hop is not visible to the
endpoint nodes. Networks based on virtual circuits or tunnels have a physical
topology based on the real connection medium -- fiber, for example -- and a logical
topology based on the circuits and tunnels.

Sometimes, the logical topology refers to the topology as the user sees it. Internet
Protocol (IP) and Ethernet networks are two common examples. They are fully
meshed at the connection level since any user can connect with any other user. This is
true unless some means of blocking unwanted connections, like a firewall, is
introduced. Full connectivity is a property of the network protocols used -- IP and
Ethernet -- not of the network topology itself.

As an example, logical bus and logical ring topologies can be used to define data
transmission flows. A logical bus topology features nodes that broadcast data to the
entire network. Other nodes on the network check to see if the data is meant for them.
Logical ring topology only allows one node to transfer data at a time.

How do you diagram a network topology?

Diagrams of the network topology should be made before constructing a network.
This way, network admins know what components constitute the network and how
they interact.

This process should start with a list of all the devices in the network. This could, for
example, include routers, firewalls and servers. The type of network topology should
then be chosen. Once the list of devices is put together and a topology has been
chosen, the diagram can be sketched out. Devices should be placed in areas that would
best make sense, considering data flows. Next, lines are drawn from network devices.
These lines are the connections the network nodes make. Stray away from having too
many lines cross over each other and strive to make the diagram clear and easy to
read. Scalability and future modifications should also be kept in mind when creating
the diagram.

After a sketch showing a rough general input is constructed, diagram software can be
used to help map everything out. The software used may include a network diagram
template to follow. The network nodes should be named, and lines can be color-coded
to further help make the diagram more understandable and clear.

What are examples of network topology tools and software?

There are many network topology tools available, including those that can be
categorized as configuration and management tools, network performance software
and network mapping software.

For instance, network configuration software helps configure networks, while also
automating repetitive tasks. These tools are often used to configure complicated
network topologies and can auto detect network nodes and highlight apparent
vulnerabilities.

Network performance monitoring and troubleshooting tools keep track of and alert
users to network-related performance issues and outages. Some of these tools may
keep track of performance using a visual display of the network topology. After
setting baseline performance settings, users can track, locate and troubleshoot issues.

Network topology mapping software aids in creating network topology diagrams.

Examples of mapping tools and features are the following:

 Datadog live network mapping

 Edraw

 Lucidchart

 ManageEngine OpManager network mapping

 Microsoft Visio

 NetTerrain Logical

 SolarWinds Network Topology Mapper

 Spiceworks network mapping

Transmission modes
o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is
known as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and
transmission media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode
is also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

o Simplex mode
o Half-duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode

Simplex mode

o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in

one direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the
data but cannot send the data.
 o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require
the two-way exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field
as in sales that do not require any corresponding reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the
listeners but never allows them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard
can only accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to
display the data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized during transmission.

Advantage of Simplex mode:

o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the
communication channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between

devices.

Half-Duplex mode

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can

transmit and receive the data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one
direction at a time.
 o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any
error occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one
party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and
first party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted sound
which cannot be understood.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also
can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the
transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has
to wait, this causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.

Full-duplex mode

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in
both the directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving
in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite
direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
 o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network.
When two people are communicating with each other by a telephone line,
both can talk and listen at the same time.

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of
the communication channel is divided into two parts.

Differences b/w Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-

duplex mode
Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex mode Full-duplex mode
comparison

Direction of In simplex mode, the In half-duplex In full-duplex mode, the

communicatio communication is mode, the communication is
n unidirectional. communication is bidirectional.
bidirectional, but
one at a time.

Send/Receive A device can only Both the devices Both the devices can send
send the data but can send and and receive the data
cannot receive it or it receive the data, simultaneously.
can only receive the but one at a time.
data but cannot send
it.

Performance The performance of The performance of The Full-duplex mode has

half-duplex mode is full-duplex mode is better performance among
better than the better than the simplex and half-duplex
simplex mode. half-duplex mode. mode as it doubles the
utilization of the capacity of
the communication
channel.
 Example Examples of Simplex Example of half- Example of the Full-duplex
mode are radio, duplex is Walkie- mode is a telephone
keyboard, and Talkies. network.
monitor.

Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design
of the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data.
Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are
allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked
together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10
computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources,
but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.
Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized

system . Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in
different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

Client/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called
clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central
computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the
network are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
 o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files,
directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if
client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to
the server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to
initiate its communication with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can

back up the data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall
performance of the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the
shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large

memory.
 o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to
the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

Computer Network Components

Computer network components are the major parts which are needed
to install the software. Some important network components
are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem. Depending on the type
of network that we need to install, some network components can also be
removed. For example, the wireless network does not require a cable.

Following are the major components required to install a network:

NIC
o NIC stands for network interface card.
o NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another
computer onto a network
o It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
o The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip
which is assigned by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC
address is stored in the PROM (Programmable read-only memory).

There are two types of NIC:

1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC
Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and
connectors are used with wired NIC to transfer data.

Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the
connection over the wireless network. For example, laptop computer
contains the wireless NIC.

Hub
A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among
multiple devices. When computer requests for some information from a
network, it first sends the request to the Hub through cable. Hub will
broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices will check
whether the request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be
dropped.

The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the
amount of communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is
replaced by more advanced computer network components such as
Switches, Routers.

Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer
network. A Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch
contains the updated table that decides where the data is transmitted or not.
Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the physical
address present in the incoming message. A Switch does not broadcast the
message to the entire network like the Hub. It determines the device to
whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch
provides a direct connection between the source and destination. It
increases the speed of the network.

Router
o A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet
connection. It is used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to
another network.
o A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
 o A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing
table.
o It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of
the packet.

Advantages Of Router:

o Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse

the entire cable, but the only specified device which has been addressed can
read the data.
o Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down,
but no other networks are affected that are served by the router.
o Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network.
Suppose there are 24 workstations in a network generates a same amount of
traffic. This increases the traffic load on the network. Router splits the single
network into two networks of 12 workstations each, reduces the traffic load
by half.
o Network range

Modem
o A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the
internet over the existing telephone line.
o A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on
the PCI slot found on the motherboard.
o It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an
analog signal over the telephone lines.
Based on the differences in speed and transmission rate, a modem can be
classified in the following categories:

o Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem

o Cellular Modem
o Cable modem

Cables and Connectors

Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.

There are three types of cables used in transmission:

o Twisted pair cable

o Coaxial cable
o Fibre-optic cable

OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application
in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks.
Each layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related
issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer
is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact
with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above
another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The
data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and
software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is
closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for
placing the information on the physical medium.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of
seven layers are given below:
 1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1) Physical layer
 o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,
half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.

2) Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
 o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that
resides on a local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer
of the receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the
header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link
Control layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to
the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It
is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both
the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting
 station such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the
receiving station, with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which
is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any
error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the
retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link at a given time.

3) Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices

on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination
based on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
 o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).

4) Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
 o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-
point connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over
the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol
divides the data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment
travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in
different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol
reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not
send any acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender
does not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a
protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs
simultaneously due to this reason, the transmission of data from source to
the destination not only from one computer to another computer but also
from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header
that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address.
The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one
computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is
to transmit the message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the
message from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple
segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that
uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the
 destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their
sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-
oriented service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats
each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes
to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the
packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single
route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error
control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender
transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without any
error.

5) Session Layer

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication
between two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting
the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission
of data, then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This
process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

6) Presentation Layer

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of

the information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the
form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use
 different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data
from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another form
and sends the resulting message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it
reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

7) Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes

to access network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer
allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files
from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding
and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources
and is used to provide that global information about various objects.