ROBOTICS

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLOS)

Course learning outcomes are the big ideas, skills, competencies, students should
be able to clear, put into action, or utilize (theoretically or pragmatically) after their
course experience.
After Completing the Course, each student will be able to:
Sr. CLO Domain Texano PLO
No. my
Level
1. Illustrate position, orientation and configurations of Cognitive 2 1
different robot manipulators.
2. Solve forward and inverse kinematic scenarios of robotic Cognitive 3 2
manipulators using homogeneous transformations.
3. Analyze and discover solutions to the problems related to Cognitive 4 3
robot dynamics, path planning and trajectory generation.

PLO-1: Engineering Knowledge: C2: Understanding / Comprehension:

PLO-2:. Problem Analysis: C3: Applying/ Applications:
PLO-3:. Design / Development of Solutions: C4: Analyzing / Analysis: 2

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 CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS

The following is the classification of robots according to the Japanese Industrial Robot
Association (JIRA):

Class 1: Manual Handling Device: a device with multiple degrees of freedom,

actuated by an operator.
Class 2: Fixed Sequence Robot: a device that performs the successive stages of a task
according to a predetermined, unchanging method, which is hard to modify
Class 3: Variable Sequence Robot: same as in class 2, but easy to modify
Class 4: Playback Robot: a human operator performs the task manually by leading the
robot, which records the motions for later playback; the robot repeats the same
motions according to the recorded information
Class 5: Numerical Control Robot: the operator supplies the robot with a movement
program rather than teaching it the task manually.
Class 6: Intelligent Robot: a robot with the means to understand its environment and
the ability to successfully complete a task despite changes in the surrounding
conditions under which it is to be performed
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CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS

The Robotics Institute of America (RIA) only considers classes 3–6 of the above as
robots.

The Association Francaise de Robotique (AFR) has the following classification:

Type A: handling devices with manual control to telerobotic. Telerobotic is the area of
robotics concerned with the control of semi-autonomous robots from a distance.
Type B: automatic handling devices with predetermined cycles
Type C: programmable, servo-controlled robots with continuous or point-to-point
trajectories
Type D: same as C but with capability to acquire information from its environment

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 ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS

• Robotics and automation can, in many situations, increase productivity, safety,

efficiency, quality, and consistency of products.
• Robots can work in hazardous environments such as radiation, darkness, hot and
cold, ocean bottoms, space, and so on without the need for life support, comfort, or
concern for safety.
• Robots need no environmental comfort like lighting, air conditioning, ventilation, and
noise protection.
• Robots work continuously without tiring or fatigue or boredom. They do not get mad,
do not have hangovers, and need no medical insurance or vacation.
• Robots have repeatable precision at all times unless something happens to them or
unless they wear out.
• Robots can be much more accurate than humans. Typical linear accuracies are a few
ten-thousandths of an inch. New wafer-handling robots have micro-inch accuracies.
• Robots and their accessories and sensors can have capabilities beyond those of
humans.
• Robots can process multiple tasks simultaneously. Humans can only process one
active stimulus.
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DISADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS

• Robots replace human workers, causing economic hardship, worker dissatisfaction

and resentment, and the need for retraining the replaced workforce.
• Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, unless the situation is predicted
and the response is included in the system. Safety measures are needed to ensure that
they do not injure operators and other machines that are working with them. This
includes:
♣ Inappropriate or wrong responses ♣ Lack of decision-making power
♣ Loss of power ♣ Damage to the robot and other devices
♣ Injuries to humans
• Robots, although superior in certain senses, have limited capabilities in:
♣ Cognition, creativity, decision-making, and understanding
♣ Degrees of freedom and dexterity
♣ Sensors and vision systems ♣ Real-time response
• Robots are costly due to:
♣ Initial cost of equipment and installation
♣ Need for peripherals ♣ Need for training ♣ Need for programming
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 ROBOT COMPONENTS

A robot, as a system.

ROBOT COMPONENTS

A robot, as a system, consists of the following elements, which are integrated together to
form a whole:

1- Manipulator or the rover: This is the main body of the robot which consists of the
links, the joints, and other structural elements of the robot. Without other elements, the
manipulator alone is not a robot.

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 ROBOT COMPONENTS

2- End effector: This part is connected to the last joint

(hand) of a manipulator that generally handles objects, makes
connections to other machines, or performs the required
tasks.
Robot manufacturers generally do not design or sell end
effectors. In most cases, all they supply is a simple gripper.
Generally, the hand of a robot has provisions for connecting
specialty end effectors specifically designed for a purpose.
This is the job of a company’s engineers or outside
consultants to design and install the end effector on the robot,
and to make it work for the given situation.
A welding torch, a paint spray gun, a glue laying device, or a
parts handler are but a few possibilities.
In most cases, the action of the end effector is either
controlled by the robot’s controller, or the controller
communicates with the end effector’s controlling device
(such as a PLC). 9

ROBOT COMPONENTS

3- Actuators: Actuators are the ‘‘muscles’’ of the manipulators. The controller

sends signals to the actuators, which, in turn, move the robot joints and links.

Common types are servomotors, stepper motors, pneumatic actuators, and

hydraulic actuators.

Other novel actuators are used in specific situations. Actuators are under the
control of the controller.

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 ROBOT COMPONENTS

4- Sensors: Sensors are used to collect information about the internal state of the
robot or to communicate with the outside environment.

As in humans, the robot controller needs to know the location of each link of the
robot in order to know the robot’s configuration.

When you wake up in the morning, even without opening your eyes, or when it is
completely dark, you still know where your arms and legs are.

This is because feedback sensors in your central nervous system embedded in

muscle tendons send information to the brain.

The brain uses this information to determine the length of your muscles and,
consequently, the state of your arms, legs, and so on.

The same is true for robots.

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ROBOT COMPONENTS

5- Controller: The controller is rather similar to your cerebellum/brain; although it

does not have the power of the brain, it still controls your motions.
The controller receives its data from the computer (the brain of the system),
controls the motions of the actuators, and coordinates the motions with the sensory
feedback information.
Example: In order for the robot to pick up a part from a bin, it is necessary that its
first joint be at 35°. If the joint is not already at this magnitude, the controller will
send a signal to the actuator, a current/voltage to an electric motor, air to a
pneumatic cylinder, or a signal to a hydraulic servo valve causing it to move.
It will then measure the change in the joint angle through the feedback sensor
attached to the joint (a potentiometer, an encoder, etc.).

When the joint reaches the desired value, the signal is stopped.

In more sophisticated robots, the velocity and the force exerted by the robot are
also controlled by the controller.
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 ROBOT COMPONENTS

6- Processor: The processor is the brain of the robot.

It calculates the motions of the robot’s joints, determines how much and how fast
each joint must move to achieve the desired location and speeds, and oversees the
coordinated actions of the controller and the sensors.
The processor is generally a computer, which works like all other computers, but is
dedicated to this purpose.
It requires an operating system, programs, peripheral equipment like a monitor, and
has the same limitations and capabilities.
In some systems, the controller and the processor are integrated together into one
unit.
In others, they are separate units, and in some, although the controller is provided
by the manufacturer, the processor is not; they expect the user to provide his or her
processor.

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ROBOT COMPONENTS

7- Software: Three groups of software programs are used in a robot.

The First group is the operating system that operates the processor.

The second group is the robotic software that calculates the necessary motions of
each joint based on the kinematic equations of the robot. This information is sent to
the controller.
This software may be at many different levels, from machine language to
sophisticated languages used by modern robots.

The third group is the collection of application-oriented routines and programs

developed to use the robot or its peripherals for specific tasks such as assembly,
machine loading, material handling, and vision routines.

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 COORDINATE SYSTEM

A coordinate system is a method for identifying the location

of a point/object.
Most coordinate systems use two numbers to identify the
location of a point.
Each of these numbers indicates the distance between the
point and some fixed reference point, called the origin.
The coordinate system determines the way we describe the
motion in each reference frame.
A Cartesian system (x,y,z) is the most popular coordinate
system used in robotics, but cylindrical(r,θ,z), spherical
(ρ,θ,φ) and other systems may be used as well.

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DEGREES OF FREEDOM

DOF is the number of independent motions that

are allowed to the body. OR The number of inputs
to control/solve a system is known as Degrees of
freedom.

The address of an object or a point in space is

given by coordinated (x, y, z).

How many Degrees of freedom is required to

achieve location (x, y, z)?

If we consider a three dimensional device that has

3 degrees of freedom within the workspace of the
device, we should be able to locate the device in
any desired Location.

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 DEGREES OF FREEDOM

There are infinite possible ways to orientate the object about the selected point.

How many Degrees of freedom is required to achieve Orientation?

Similarly, if you consider a three dimensional device that has 3 degrees of

freedom within the workspace of the device, you should be able to orientate the
device in any desired orientation.

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DEGREES OF FREEDOM

How many total Degrees of freedom is required to achieve location and

Orientation?
This means that six pieces of information are needed to fully specify the location
and orientation of a rigid body.
There need to be 6 degrees of freedom available to fully place the object in space
and orientate it as desired.
For this reason, robots need to have 6 degrees of freedom to freely place and
orientate objects within their workspace.

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 ORIENTATION (ROLL, PITCH, YAW)

1- Rotation around the front-to-back axis is called ROLL (Rolling). (a circular

(clockwise or anticlockwise) movement of the body as it moves forward)
2- Rotation around the side-to-side axis is called PITCH (Pitching). (nose up or tail
up.)
3- Rotation around the vertical axis is called YAW (Yawing). (nose moves from side
to side.)

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ORIENTATION (ROLL, PITCH, YAW)

1- Rotation around the front-to-back axis is called ROLL (Rolling). (a circular

(clockwise or anticlockwise) movement of the body as it moves forward)
2- Rotation around the side-to-side axis is called PITCH (Pitching). (nose up or tail
up.)
3- Rotation around the vertical axis is called YAW (Yawing). (nose moves from side
to side.)

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 ROBOT JOINTS

Robots may have different types of joints, such as linear,

rotary, sliding, or spherical.
Spherical joints are common in many systems but they
possess multiple degrees of freedom, and therefore, are
difficult to control. Consequently, they are not common in
robotics except in research.
Most robots have either a linear (prismatic) joint or a rotary
(revolute) joint.
Prismatic joints are linear; there is no rotation involved.
They are either hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders or linear
electric actuators. These joints are used in gantry, cylindrical,
or spherical robot variations.
Revolute joints are rotary, and although hydraulic and
pneumatic rotary joints are common, most rotary joints are
electrically driven, either by stepper motors or, more
commonly, by servomotors.
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ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS

Prismatic joints are denoted by P, revolute joints are denoted by R, and spherical
joints are denoted by S. Robot configurations are specified by a succession of P, R,
or S designations.

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 ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS

Prismatic joints are denoted by P, revolute joints are denoted by R, and spherical
joints are denoted by S.
Robot configurations are specified by a succession of P, R, or S designations.
For example, a robot with three prismatic and three revolute joints is specified by
3P3R.
Cartesian/rectangular/gantry (3P): These robots are made of three linear joints
that position the end effector, which are usually followed by additional revolute
joints that orientate the end effector.
Cylindrical (PRP): Cylindrical coordinate robots have two prismatic joints and
one revolute joint for positioning the part, plus revolute joints for orientating the
part.
Spherical (P2R): Spherical coordinate robots follow a spherical coordinate system,
which has one prismatic and two revolute joints for positioning the part, plus
additional revolute joints for orientation.
Articulated/anthropomorphic (3R): An articulated robot’s joints are all revolute,
similar to a human’s arm. They are the most common configuration for industrial
robots. 23

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ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS

Each joint can be Prismatic(P) or Revolute(R), and the

axes of two adjacent joints can be parallel (||),
orthogonal (├), or perpendicular (⊥).

Note: Motion (Linear or rotary) always occurs on the Z

axis.

1- Parallel (||): The Z axis should be parallel to the Z

axis of the other frame.

2- Perpendicular (⊥): The axis should be perpendicular

to Z axis of the other/next frame, but not touch each Vector-A and Vector-B: PARALLEL (||)
other. Vector-A and Vector-C: PERPENDICULAR (⊥)
Vector-B and Vector-C: ORTHOGONAL (├)
3- Orthogonal (├): The Z axis should be perpendicular
to the Z axis of the other/next frame and intersect at a
point or touch at a point. 24

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 ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS

There are mathematically 72 different industrial manipulator configurations.

Each joint can be Prismatic(P) or Revolute(R), and the axes of two adjacent joints can be parallel (||), orthogonal
(├), or perpendicular (⊥).

Out of the 72 possible manipulators, the important ones are:

1. R || R || P (SCARA),
2. R├ R || R (articulated),
3. R├ R├ P (spherical ),
4. R || P├ P (cylindrical), and
5. P├ P├ P (Cartesian).

Note: Motion (Linear or rotary) always occurs on the Z axis.

1- Parallel (||): The Z axis should be parallel to the Z axis of the other frame.
2- Perpendicular (⊥): The Z axis should be perpendicular to the Z axis of the other/next frame.
3- Orthogonal (├): The Z axis should be perpendicular to the Z axis of the other/next frame and intersect at a
point. 25

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ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS

Out of the 72 possible manipulators, the important ones

are:
1. R || R || P (SCARA),
2. R├ R || R (articulated),
3. R├ R├ P (spherical ),
4. R || P├ P (cylindrical), and
5. P├ P├ P (Cartesian).

1- Parallel (||): The Z axis should be parallel to the Z axis

of the other frame.

2- Perpendicular (⊥): The Z axis should be perpendicular

to the Z axis of the other/next frame.

3- Orthogonal (├): The Z axis should be perpendicular to

the Z axis of the other/next frame and intersect at a point.
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 ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS

Out of the 72 possible manipulators, the important ones

are:
1. R || R || P (SCARA),
2. R├ R || R (articulated),
3. R├ R├ P (spherical ),
4. R || P├ P (cylindrical), and
5. P├ P├ P (Cartesian).

1- Parallel (||): The Z axis should be parallel to the Z axis

of the other frame.

2- Perpendicular (⊥): The Z axis should be perpendicular

to the Z axis of the other/next frame.

3- Orthogonal (├): The Z axis should be perpendicular to

the Z axis of the other/next frame and intersect at a point.
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ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS

Out of the 72 possible manipulators, the important ones

are:
1. R || R || P (SCARA),
2. R├ R || R (articulated),
3. R├ R├ P (spherical ),
4. R || P├ P (cylindrical), and
5. P├ P├ P (Cartesian).

1- Parallel (||): The Z axis should be parallel to the Z axis

of the other frame.

2- Perpendicular (⊥): The Z axis should be perpendicular

to the Z axis of the other/next frame.

3- Orthogonal (├): The Z axis should be perpendicular to

the Z axis of the other/next frame and intersect at a point.
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 EXERCISE: FIND THE CONFIGURATIONS, DON’T
CONSIDER END-EFFECTOR/GRIPER

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ROBOT REFERENCE FRAMES

Robots may be moved relative to different coordinate frames.

In each type of coordinate frame, the motions will be different.
In robotics, we assign one or more coordinate frames to each link of the robot and
each object of the robot’s environment.

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 ROBOT REFERENCE FRAMES

Robots may be moved relative to different coordinate frames.

In each type of coordinate frame, the motions will be different.
In robotics, we assign one or more coordinate frames to each link of the robot and
each object of the robot’s environment.

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ROBOT REFERENCE FRAMES

Robots may be moved relative to different coordinate

frames.
In each type of coordinate frame, the motions will be
different.
Robot motions are usually accomplished in the following
three coordinate frames:
1- Word Reference Frame (Fixed frame)
2- Joint Reference Frame
3- Tool Reference Frame
In robotics, we assign
one or more coordinate
frames to each link of
the robot and each
object of the robot’s
environment.

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 ROBOT REFERENCE FRAMES

World Reference (Global or Fixed) Frame:

This is a universal coordinate frame, as defined by

the x-, y-, and z-axes.

A fixed frame is a motionless and attached to the

ground.

The motion of a robot takes place in a fixed frame

called the global reference frame.

The World reference frame is used to define the

motions of the robot relative to other objects, define
other parts and machines with which the robot
communicates, and define motion trajectories.

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ROBOT REFERENCE FRAMES

Joint Reference (Local or Moving) Frame:

This is used to specify movements of individual

joints of the robot.
A moving frame moves with a assigned link.
In this case, each joint is accessed and moved
individually; therefore, only one joint moves at a
time.
Every moving link has an attached reference frame
that sticks to the link and accepts every motion of the
link.
The moving reference frame is called the local
reference frame.
Depending on the type of joint used (prismatic,
revolute, or spherical), the motion of the robot hand
will be different.
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 ROBOT REFERENCE FRAMES

Tool Reference Frame:

This specifies movements of the robot’s hand (gripper) relative to a frame
attached to the hand, and consequently, all motions are relative to this local (n,o,a)
frame coordinates.

Unlike the universal World frame, the local Tool frame moves with the robot.

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RIGHT-HANDED COORDINATE SYSTEM

1- Three Finger method

Using the right hand rule to compute the direction of the z axis.

Step-1: Hold your right hand in such a way that your fingers point in the direction
of x-axis and when you curl your fingers they curl towards the y-axis

Step-2: As you curl your fingers from the x-axis towards y-axis, stick your thumb
in the air. This will be direction of z-axis.

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 RIGHT HAND RULE-2
2- Curling method
Another right hand rule to determine the direction of positive rotation is:
If you know the Point the fingers Curl you right Your thumb will
direction of these of your right hand fingers towards point in the
axes. in the direction of the direction of direction of this
this axis. this axis. axis
Y and Z Y Z X
X and Y X Y Z
X and Z Z X Y

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RIGHT HAND RULE-2

3- Palm Pushing method

1- Put palm face towards you.
2- Point your thumb towards x-axis
3- Point your other fingers towards y-axis
4- Your palm is showing the direction of z- axis

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 RIGHT HAND RULE vs LEFT HAND RULE

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ROBOT CHARACTERISTICS

1- Payload
Payload is the weight a robot can carry and still remain within its other
specifications.
Example, a robot’s maximum load capacity may be much larger than its specified
payload, but at these levels, it may become less accurate, may not follow its
intended trajectory accurately, or may have excessive deflections.
The payload of robots compared to their own weight is usually very small.

2- Reach
Reach is the maximum distance a robot can reach within its work envelope.
Reach is a function of the robot’s joints and lengths and its configuration.
This is an important specification for industrial robots and must be considered
before a robot is selected and installed.

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 ROBOT CHARACTERISTICS

3- Precision (validity):
Precision is defined as how accurately a specified point can be reached.
This is a function of the resolution of the actuators as well as the robot’s feedback
devices.
Most industrial robots can have precision in the range of 0.001 inches or better.

4- Repeatability (variability):
Repeatability is how accurately the same position can be reached if the motion is
repeated many times.
Suppose a robot is driven to the same point 100 times. Since many factors may
affect the accuracy of the position, the robot may not reach the same point every
time but will be within a certain radius from the desired point.
The radius of a circle formed by the repeated motions is called repeatability.

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ROBOT WORKSPACE

Depending on their configuration and the size of their links and wrist joints, robots
can reach a collection of points around them that constitute a workspace.
The shape of the workspace for each robot is uniquely related to its design.
The workspace may be found mathematically by writing equations that define the
robot’s links and joints and that include their limitations such as ranges of motions
for each joint.

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 ROBOT WORKSPACE

Dexterous workspace: Reachable workspace:

The volume of space that the robot end- If L1≠L2, the reachable workspace
effector can reach with all orientations. becomes a ring of outer radius L1+L2 and
Consider the workspace of the two-link inner radius |L1 -L2 |. There is no dexterous
workspace. Inside the reachable workspace
manipulator in the figure, If L1=L2, then
there are two possible orientations of the
the reachable workspace consists of a end-effector. On the boundaries of the
disc of radius 2L1. The dexterous workspace there is only one possible
workspace consists of only a single orientation.
point, the origin. .

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ROBOT APPLICATIONS

Machine loading
Pick and place operations
Welding
Painting
Inspection
Sampling
Assembly tasks
Manufacturing tasks
Medical applications
Assisting disabled individuals
Hazardous environments
Underwater, space and inaccessible locations

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 EXERCISE

Draw the approximate workspace for the following robot. Assume the dimensions
of the base and other parts of the structure of the robot are as shown.

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METHOD OF CONTROL

The links are assumed to be perfectly rigid. They are connected by revolute or
prismatic joints considered as being ideal (no mechanical clearance, no elasticity).

1. The simplest type of robot in this class is the point-to-point robot. A point-
to-point robot can be taught a discrete set of points but there is no control of
the path of the end effector in between taught points. Such robots are usually
taught a series of points with a teach pendant. The points are then stored and
played back. Point-to-point robots are limited in their range of applications.

2. The continuous path robots, on the other hand, the entire path of the end
effector can be controlled. For example, the robot end effector can be taught
to follow a straight line between two points or even to follow a contour such
as a welding seam. In addition, the velocity and/or acceleration of the end
effector can often be controlled. These are the most advanced robots and
require the most sophisticated computer controllers and software
development.
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 EXERCISE

1. WHAT IS THE CLOSE CHAIN MECHANISM?

2. WHAT IS OPEN CHAIN MECHANISM?

3. HOW MANY DEGREES OF FREEDOM WILL BE THERE, IF THE

MECHANISM HAS 4 LINKS?

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BOOKS

1- Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control, Applications

By Saeed Benjamin Niku
Latest edition

2- Introduction to Robotics Mechanics and Control

By John J. Craig
3rd Edition

3- Theory of Applied Robotics

Kinematics, Dynamics and Control,
By Reza N. Jazar
2nd edition

4- Robotics, Vision and Control,

Fundamental Algorithms in Matlab
By Peter Corke
2nd Edition
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 BOOKS

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