Computer Fundamentals

What is a computer?
A computer may be defined as an electronic device which accepts input, process the input and
produces results (output) from the processing and stores data and results for later use.

Information technology (IT) is the use of any computers, storage, networking and other physical
devices, infrastructure and processes to create, process, store, secure and exchange all forms of
electronic data.

Major Types of Computers

The main types of computers are supercomputers, mainframes, desktop systems, mobile devices and
embedded devices.

Supercomputers
A supercomputer is a computer that performs at or near the currently highest operational rate for
computers. Traditionally, supercomputers have been used for scientific and engineering applications
that must handle very large databases or do a great amount of computation (or both).

A supercomputer is the fastest computer in the world that can process a significant amount of data
very quickly.

Mainframe Computers
Like supercomputers, mainframe computers are huge, towering machines with lots of processing
power. Mainframe computers are mostly used by corporations, government agencies, and banks –
organizations that need a way to store large quantities of information. These computers are used
primarily by large organizations for critical applications like bulk data processing for tasks such as
censuses, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and large-scale transaction
processing.

Desktop/PersonalComputers
A desktop computer is a personal computer that fits on or under a desk. They usually
consist of a monitor, keyboard, mouse and either a horizontal or vertical(tower) form
factor. Unlike a laptop, which is portable, a desktop computer is meant to stay at one
location.

Desktop computer is much cheaper than supercomputers and mainframe computers because
they’re meant for everyday uses that are more practical than professional. The range of capabilities
for desktop computers is still vast.

Mobile Computers
These are exactly what they sound like – computers that are super small and mobile. You could
argue that a desktop computer is mobile if you need it to be, but mobile computers usually describe
computers that are meant to be carried around and taken from place to place while being used. If a
desktop computer is a microcomputer, then a laptop is a mobile computer. There are so many
different types of mobile computers though, even beyond laptop-like devices. Below is a list of
devices that could be categorized as mobile computers.
 Laptops: Portable computers designed to be carried from place to place. All of its components
are contained inside a panel that functions also as the keyboard, with an attached screen that
can be folded over. Because of their size and convenience, these are some of the most popular

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 computers for everyday use. However, despite the convenience and ease of use, they aren’t
without problems, as outlined in this guide to laptop problems and possible solutions .
 Netbooks: Much smaller laptops.
 Tablet: A flat, keyboard-less screen (though some of them come with keyboard attachments)
that utilizes touch-screen functionality for navigation and use.
 Handheld game console: Devices like the Game Boy, Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance,
Sega Nomad, PlayStation Portable (PSP), and PlayStation Vita are handheld game consoles.
Just like regular consoles, these are tiny computers that let people play games on the go.
 Calculators: Calculators are computers that carry out computers’ most basic tasks –
calculations! There are many different types of calculators. Basic calculators, graphic
calculators, scientific calculators, programmable calculators, and calculators used for accounting
and other financial purposes.
 Portable media players: Also known as MP3 players. That’s right – your iPod is a mobile
computer too.
 Cellphones and smartphones: The iPhone and the Samsung Galaxy are examples of powerful
smartphones that are also mobile computers.

Embedded Devices
An embedded device is a highly specialized device meant for one or very few specific purposes and
is usually embedded or included within another object or as part of a larger system. Usually, the
device is part of a system that serves a greater purpose, for example, a heart rate monitor embedded
in a wristwatch that can connect to a smart phone to display the heart’s status in real time or an
accelerometer embedded in shoes to monitor speed, distance traveled and calories burned. POS and
ATM machines are also examples of embedded devices or systems.

Embedded devices and systems have extensive applications in commercial, consumer, industrial,
automotive, health-care and many other industries because of their diminutive and inconspicuous
nature. Generally, whatever operating system or firmware an embedded device has can only run one
specific application or purpose in order to do its job, and this is because the device is meant to be
very small, so it must consume very small amounts of power and also has very little computing
power. The hardware for these types of devices is kept small and cheap; for example, instead of a
general-purpose CPU, the device might only have an 8-bit microcontroller or a dedicated processor
called an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or digital signal processor.

Embedded computers in some home and kitchen appliances are able to communicate with each
other; for example, some modern refrigerators can notify the user that there are no more eggs
through the display in the microwave that the user is currently interacting with. This system has to be
especially designed with these functionalities in mind, so embedded devices and computers that are
part of the system have to do specific tasks.

These are now also gaining much use in the automotive industry for smart cars, which have
computerized engine and climate controls. The avionics in modern airplanes and fighter planes are
also embedded systems.

Examples of Embedded Systems

 Cars
 Cash registers
 Consoles like the PlayStation, Wii, and Xbox
 DVD and Blu-ray players
 Home appliances like fridges, microwaves, and washing machines
 Manufacturing robots
 Medical equipment
 Printers, Copiers, and Fax machines
 Security cameras
 Smoke detectors
 Televisions
 Ventilating systems

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The Components of a Computer

Secondary Storage

The main components of a computer system are hardware, software and users. Hardware is the
physical parts of a computer that you can see and touch. These hardware components are also
called peripherals. Peripheral devices are any external devices or components connected to the
system unit such as a mouse, keyboard, monitor etc.

There are four general categories of hardware: input devices, output devices, central processing unit
(CPU) and secondarystorage.

Input device is any hardware components that allow a user to enter data and instructions into a
computer. Six commonly used input devices are:
Keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, digital camera and web camera

Output device is any hardware component that allows the user to see or hear information from the
computer.
The commonly used output devices are:
Printer, a monitor and speakers

Storage device is any hardware component which allows the user to transfer data/information from
the computer’s memory to storage medium or retrieve data/information from storage medium into the
computer’s memory.Secondary store is any hardware component which stores data and information
for future use.

The commonly used storage devices are:

CD/DVD, flash disk, magnetictape and hard disk.

Central processing unit (CPU), also called a processor, is the electronic device that interprets and
carries out the basic instructions that operate the computer.

Information Processing Output Storage (IPOS) Cycle

Input Process Output Storage

A computer has four basic functions: input, process data, produce output and storage this is
called the IPOS cycle.

Input – The process or entering data to be processed or the data that is being entered into the
system. Process – The changing of data into information. Output – The result obtained after
processing. Storage Holding data temporarily or permanent.

Central Processing Unit

Central processing unit (CPU), also called a processor, is the electronic device that interprets and
carries out the basic instructions that operate the computer. The CPU is the brains of
the computer where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most

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important element of a computer system. The fundamental components of the CPU are control unit
(CU) and the arithmetic-logic unit (ALU).

The control unit coordinates the activities taking place in the CPU; it fetches data from the main
memory, decodes them and passes them to the ALU to be processed. The arithmetic-logic unit
deals with all arithmetic and logic operation to be carried out; it manipulates the data received from
the control unit. Examples are addition, subtraction and comparison such as greater than and less
than etc.

Storage

A computer uses two types of storage, a main/primary store which consists of ROM and RAM and
secondary/backing stores which can be internal (a hard disk) or external (eg floppy disk or CD,
etc.).

Primary storage, also known as main storage or memory, is the area in a computer in which data is
stored for quick access by the computer's processor. The terms random access memory (RAM)
and memory are often as synonyms for primary or main storage. Primary storage device holds data
to be accessed by the computer.

ROM and RAM

Main store, or computer memory, is divided into ROM or Read Only Memory and RAM or Random
Access Memory.

ROM
The ROM is a permanent storage device that contains data that cannot be changed.
Usually it is a set of instructions that tells the computer what to do when it starts up.
The contents of Read Only Memory cannot be changed by a program or user.
ROM retains its memory content even after the computer is turned off (non-volatile). For example,
ROM is programmed by the manufacturer, the user can read the contents of ROM but not write new
contents to it. There are different types of ROM (PROM and EPROM). Programmable Read Only
Memory is a type of ROM however this memory is left blank to be programmed by the user, however
once programmed by the user it becomes permanent. Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory is a type of ROM which is left blank by to be programmed by the user, once programmed by
the user it becomes permanent, however there is a way in which its content can be erased and
reprogrammed by the user.

RAM
Random Access Memory is a fast temporary type of memory in which programs and
data are stored whilst the computer is switched on or in use (volatile). For example,
when you load a word processing program it is loaded into RAM. The operating system
is loaded from the hard disk and stored in RAM whilst the machine is being used.The
contents of the computer's screen is also held in RAM. If the computer loses power,
data stored in RAM is lost. The user can load or write contents to RAM as well as read
its contents.

Cache memory
Cache memory is a small-sized type of volatile computer memory that provides high-speed data
access to a processor and stores frequently used computer programs, applications and data. It is the
fastest memory in a computer, and is typically integrated onto the motherboard and directly
embedded in the processor or main random access memory (RAM).

Buffer
Also called buffer memory, is a portion of a computer's memory that is set aside as a temporary
holding place for data that is being sent to or received from an external device, such as a hard disk
drive (HDD), keyboard or printer.

Internal Secondary store

The main internal store is the computer's hard disk.

Hard disk
These are disks which spin at very high speeds (around 7,200 revolutions per minute - rpm) within a
sealed unit inside the computer. Hard disks can usually store very large amounts of data - 250
gigabytes is common in desktop computers. The data stored here will stay where it is until deleted,
but needs to be loaded into main store RAM before it can be used.
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Your hard disk is where you store:
 the operating system
 software applications or programs
 the majority of your data files

External Seondary stores

Optical disks
There are several different types of optical disk, although they all look pretty much the same.These
include CD, DVD and Blu-Ray

CD-ROM
CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk - Read Only Memory. They are optical disks that use the same
technology as musical compact disks. They store up to 700 Mb of data and a laser beam
is used to read the data off the disk.
Data is written onto the CD-ROM disk before it is sold and cannot be changed by the user.
As CD-ROMs can store large amounts of data, they can be used for multimedia
applications such as encyclopaedias, and can store pictures, sounds and video clips.

CD-R and CD-RW

CD-Rs are blank optical disks onto which you can write data with a piece of hardware called a CD
writer. They have a similar capacity to CD-ROMs and can be set up as multi-session disks and so
you can write to them many times. Eventually of course, you will run out of disk space as you never
go over the same area twice.
CD-RWs are blank optical disks which can be written and re-written to.

DVD
DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disk. There are several formats on the market, the more expensive
ones being recordable like CDs. They are the same size as CDs, but hold much more data - a single
sided, single layer disc can hold up to 4.7 gigabytes with a dual layer disc holding 8.4 gigabytes. Now
DVDs are commonly used for video recordings, so you will often see them measured in minutes e.g.
4.7Gb = 120 minutes.
DVD drives are often found on computers as combined DVD and CD-RW drives, so the computer can
read and show DVD films, as well as read and write CDs.
Advantages:
1. they can hold a lot more data than CDs
2. they can hold more multimedia material than CDs

BluRay
A Blu-ray disk is a high-capacity optical disk medium developed for recording, rewriting and playing
back high definition video. It can store large amounts of data and was designed to supersede the
DVD.
Blu-ray technology gets its name from the blue-violet laser that is used to read Blu-ray disks.
Compared to a DVD’s red laser, a blue laser permits more information to be stored at a greater
density. For example, while a DVD can store 15 GB per layer, a Blu-ray disk can store 25 GB per
layer, and dual-layer disks can hold up to 50 GB.

External hard drives

These can store very large amounts of data - up to a terabyte - and can be plugged in to your
computer via a USB or Fire wire port to provide extra
storage.

Flashdrive/Memory sticks
A memory stick is a small 'pen top' sized device that holds a large amount of
memory - from 512Mb to 1Gb upwards depending on the price paid. This is inserted
into the USB port - it is then seen by the computer as a removable disk.

Memory card
A memory card is a type of storage device that is used for storing media and data files. It provides a
permanent and non-volatile medium to store data and files from the attached device. Memory cards
are commonly used in small, portable devices, such as cameras and phones.
A memory card is also known as a flash card.

Magnetic tape
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Magnetic tapes or cartridges are principally used for backup of important files from the hard disk drive
and the long term storage and archiving of data.
Advantages
They are small, robust, and portable and provide low cost storage per Gigabyte. They are often used
to back up important documents and files from the hard disk.
Disadvantages
They are very slow to find data or files and provide serial access which means that all the data on the
tape before the part you need must be read before you can access the required data.

Terms associated with storage device

Track is a concentric circle on the disk where data is stored. On a disk there are 80 tracks on each
surface top and bottom.
Sector is a pie shape or wedge part of a track. Data is recorded along a track within the sector.
Each track sector is identified with a unique address so that every recording location can be
identified.
Cylinderis similar track on a platter of disk. A cylinder is comprised of the set of tracks described by
all the heads (on separate platters) at a single seek position. Onlyharddiskhascylinder.

Unit of Storage
Capacity is the number of bytes (character) a storage medium can hold. A bit is the smallest unit of
data the computer can recognize which consists of either of the digit zero or one. The more bits a
processor can use, the faster it can compute and the more memory it can access easily. Eight bits
grouped together in a unit comprises a byte. Each byte represents a single character, such as a
number, letter, punctuation mark or other symbol.

Storage Term Abbreviatio Number of Bytes

n
Kilobyte KB 1024 or approximately 1 thousand
Megabyte MB 1024 X 1024 or approximately 1 million
Gigabyte GB 1024 X 1024 X 1024 or approximately 1 billion
Terabyte TB Approximately 1 trillion
Petabyte PB Approximately 1 quadrillion

Cloud Storage
Cloud computing is a general term for the delivery of hosted services over the internet.
Cloud computing enables companies to consume a compute resource, such as a virtual machine
(VM), storage or an application, as a utility -- just like electricity -- rather than having to build and
maintain computing infrastructures in house.

Cloud Storage refers to any program owned by a third party that allows you to upload your data
using the Internet.
Accessibility - All you need is an Internet connection to access your data
The files stored on cloud servers can be accessed from anywhere using internet connection.
If there is no internet connection, there will be no access to the data.
Sharing of file to others is possible from anywhere using cloud storage model compare to
traditional storage model.
Capacity – Thereis unlimited availableofstoragecapacityforusers ondemand.
If you want to store a lot of information, youjust have to pay for additionalstorage
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 Cost - There will be a lot of savings as user can utilize the storage service based on demand of
data size which varies dynamically. Moreover there will be huge savings in electricity bills as
remote storage do not require any electric power locally.
Free versions are available for storing small amounts of data
Data Security - As data is stored remotely on servers, there will be concern on data security. This
makes businesses feel uneasy as multiple organizations' data are stored at the same place.
Third-party storage is vulnerable to theft and hardware failure. Your data must be encrypted to
keep it private.

Local Storage includes physical hardware such as external hard drives, flash drives, and CDs. As its
name suggests, local storage is kept nearby.
Accessibility -Easy to usedataasaccesstimeisfaster.
Dataisaccessibleregardlessoftheavailabilityofinternetconnection.
Your data isn't accessible unless you have the hardware with you
Capacity – Thestoragecapacityislimitedtotheamountacquired.
Cost -External hard drives or CDs can fail or breakorcan be stolenandwillhavetoberepurchased.
Initiallysomeamountofstorageisavailable, howeveritmaybeexpensivetoacquireadditionalstorage.
Data Security -The data is under your control
Traditional system is more secured compare to the cloud storage model as in cloud data is stored
on third party servers.

Input Devices

An input device is any hardware component that allows the user to enter data, programs, commands
and user responses into a computer. Examples of input devices are as follows:

Device Description
Keyboard This is the most commonly used input device, it has keys
that are pressed to type text and other characters into the
computer.

Braille Keyboard - the keys are marked with raised dots

as an aid for the blind.
Point of sale terminals (POS) Point of sale terminal are used to read bar codes which
are usually printed on commercial products. They are
also used for reading printed information by passing a
wand across a special tag attached to an item or by
entering relevant data via a keyboard. When an item is
scanned, the terminal displays the scanned data and then
prints an itemized sales receipt to show the total amount
of the purchase including taxes. Places where you will
find a POS are supermarket, stores and so on.
Automated Teller Machines (ATM) ATMs accept user input in the form of transaction
requests. The request could be for withdrawal, deposit or
bill payment. The request is sent to a main computer for
processing and the result communicated to the user.
ATMs are also now being used to add credit to your cell
phones.

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Mouse The mouse is a pointing device. You use it to move a graphical pointer
on the screen. The mouse can be used to issue commands, draw, and
perform other types of input tasks. It controls the position of a pointer
on the screen. Used for making selections,

A touchpad is a touch-sensitive pad that provides the same

functionality as a mouse.To use a touchpad, you glide your finger
across its surface.Touchpad provide a set of buttons that function like
mouse buttons.

Joy stick Joystick works in similar way to a mouse but usually used for playing
action games. It is used for controlling movement of images on screen,
mostly used in playing computer games.

Touch screen Touch-screen systems accept input directly through the monitor.
Touch screens use sensors to detect the touch of a finger. They are
useful where environmental conditions prohibit the use of a keyboard
or mouse. Touch-screen systems are useful for selecting options from
menus. They are useful for ATM, information centre like railways,
departmental stores etc. A touch screen is both input and output
device.
Magnetic stripe reader A magnetic stripe reader, also called a magstripe reader, is a
hardware device that reads the information encoded in the magnetic
stripe located on the back of a plastic badge.

Barcode reader Bar code readers can read bar codes—patterns of printed bars to
identify the product.The reader emits light, which reflects off the bar
code.A light sensitive detector identifies the bar code image by
recognizing special bars at both ends of the image.They tell the reader
whether the barcode has been read right side up or upside down.
Then it converts the individual bar patterns into corresponding code.
Then the reader feeds the data into the computer.Flatbed bar code
readers are commonly found in library, supermarkets. Courier services
often use handheld readers.

A bar code is an identification code that consists of a set of vertical

lines and spaces of different width. The bar code represents data that
identifies the manufacturer and the item.
Optical Character The primary purpose of OCR is to eliminate the need to re-encode a
Reader document that has already been printed. OCR takes an image of a
printed document, attempts to recognize all the characters on a page,
then string the characters together into an editable document that can
then be edited in a word processor and mostly resembles the original
document. Although not 100% accurate, it significantly reduces the
effort needed to recreate the document
Magnetic Ink Character MICR (magnetic ink character recognition) is a technology used to
Reader verify the legitimacy or originality of paper documents, especially
checks. Special ink, which is sensitive to magnetic fields, is used in the
printing of certain characters on the original documents. Information
can be encoded in the magnetic characters.

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 The use of MICR can enhance security and minimize the losses
caused by some types of crime. If a document has been forged - for
example, a counterfeit check produced using a color photocopying
machine, the magnetic-ink line will either not respond to magnetic
fields, or will produce an incorrect code when scanned using a device
designed to recover the information in the magnetic characters. Even
a legitimate check can be rejected if the MICR reader indicates that
the owner of the account has a history of writing bad checks.

Optical Mark Reader Optical mark recognition (also called optical mark reading andOMR) is
the process of capturing human-marked data from document forms
such as surveys and tests. They are used to read questionnaires,
multiple choice examination papers in the form of lines or shaded
areas.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR) - similar to a bar code reader but uses
infra-red light to scan pencil marks on prepared forms such as
multiple-choice examination answer sheets or lottery tickets. Detects
marks made in certain places on specially printed forms.
Microphone Microphones can accept auditory input. A microphone requires a
sound card in the PC.A sound card is a special device which translate
analog sound signal from the microphone into digital codes the
computer can store and process .This process is called digitizing.
Vice-versa can also be done by sound card.By this we can record our
voice and store it as file in computer. We can use it in presentations,
web pages or email it to others.With speech recognition software
(voice recognition), you can use your microphone to dictate text,
navigate programs, and choose commands.
Sound capture Sound recording and reproduction is an electrical,
mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation
of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental
music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound
recording technology are analog recording and
digitalrecording.

Document Scanner a document scanner is a device, which converts a document or

text from its paper form into digital data. The current trend in
document scanners is considered a big step toward effective
document management. Document scanners reduce time and
labor to transform the information from printed materials to digital
data stores, for example, to the hard disks of a personal computer
or to storage in the cloud. In addition, using a document scanner, it
is possible to recover, retrieve and preserve old or valuable
documents.
Digital Camera Digital camera allows you to take pictures and store the photograph
image digitally, instead of on traditional film; these photos can then
be transferred to the computer system. Digital Camera – for the
input of photographs into the computer

Web cam Web cam also called cam, is a small digital camera, which is
normally positioned on or beside the computer’s monitor in order to
capture images which can transmitted across a network.

Graphics Tablet Graphics Tablet - a flat pad which you can write or draw on with a
pressure sensitive stylus (like a pen). Movement across the pad is
mirrored by drawing on the monitor screen. Used for art work and
computer aided design.

Light pen A light pen is a light-sensitive computer input device, basically a

stylus, that is used to select text, draw pictures and interact with
user interface elements on a computer screen or monitor. The light
pen works well with CRT monitors because of the way such
monitors scan the screen, which is one pixel at a time, giving the
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 computer a way to keep track of the expected scanning time by the
electron beam and infer the pen's position based on the latest
timestamp of the scanning.

Sensor Sensors are used to measure physical quantities such as

temperature, light, pressure, sound, and humidity and transfer
signal to the CPU for action.

Chip Reader Chip reader is used to transfer data from a chip to the CPU for
processing.

Biometric systems A biometric system is a technological system that uses information

about a person (or other biological organism) to identify that
person. Unique identifiers include fingerprints, hand geometry,
earlobe geometry, retina and iris patterns, voice waves, DNA, and
signatures.
Remote control A remote control (RC) is a small, usually hand-held, electronic
device for controlling another device, such as a television, radio or
audio/video recording device. Remote controls commonly operates
via infrared signals but sometimes by radio frequency signals. The
remote control may control a variety of functions such as volume,
channel, track number and other functions. Modern remote control
devices often have more controlling functions than are found on the
device itself, which may have only a few primary essential controls.
Voice response unit A voice response system (VRS) is a computer interface which
responds to voice commands, instead of responding to inputs from
a mouse or a keystroke.

It is a type of speech synthesis where sentences are organized by

concatenating pre-recorded words saved in a database. Contrary
to a text-to-speech (TTS) system, a voice response system
functions using limited vocabulary in scenarios where the
sentences or phrases formed adhere to a strict predetermined
sequence

OUTPUT DEVICE
Output device is any hardware component that can convey information to a user from the computer.
Commonly used output devices include monitors, printers, plotters, speakers, headsets,
data/multimedia projectors, and multifunction devices.

Monitors:
The computer monitor (also know as a VDU or Visual Display Unit) is the most common
computer output device. A monitor is the screen on which words, numbers, and graphics
can be seen. For desktop computers, cathode ray tube monitors (CRT) are gradually
being replaced by flat-screen monitors such as the Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) also
known as Thin Film Transistor (TFT) displays used with laptop computers because they
use less power, lighter in weight and take up less space. Information on a display device is called
soft copy, soft copy is an output that exists electronically and displays for a temporary period. Pixel
is a single point in an electronic image. A liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor contains liquid crystals

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instead of pixel. The quality of the picture on a monitor depends on the resolution it is capable of
displaying.

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Printers:
A printer is an electromechanical device which converts the text and graphical documents from
electronic form to the physical form. Printers produce printed information on a physical medium such
as paper or transparency film which is called 'hard copy'. Hard copy is printed information and is a
permanent copy. Different printers are suited to different purposes and have a range of purchase and
running costs. Printed information, called hard copy, exists physically and is a permanent form of
output than that presented on a display device (soft copy). A hard copy, also is called a printout, can
be portrait orientation or landscape orientation. Printers are grouped as either impact or non-impact.

Types of Printers

Dot-matrix: Creates characters by striking pins against an ink ribbon. Each pin makes a dot, and
combinations of dots form characters and illustrations.It uses an array of metal pins known as print
head to strike an inked printer ribbon and produce dots on the paper. These combinations of dots
form the desired shape on the paper.

Inkjet printers are most popular printers for home and small scale offices as they have a reasonable
cost and a good qualityof printing as well. A typical inkjet printer can print with a resolution of more
than 300 dpi and some good quality inkjet printers are able to produce full colored hard copies at 600
dpi.

Thermal Printer –These printers are generally used in businesses or stores. They work in either of
these ways – Traditionally, it used a special type of heat sensitive paper. Heat is generated which
reacts with the heat sensitive paper and the pigments transfer the image to the sheet with the help of
thermal print head. In newer machines, ribbon printer cartridges with a waxy material are stored.
Heating melts the waxy substance and gets the print on to the paper. These are generally not very
expensive and are quiet easy to use.Thermal printers are widely used in calculators, ATMs and cash
registers.

Laser printers are the most popular printers that are mainly used for large scale qualitative printing.
They are among the most popularly used fastest printers available in the market. A laser printer uses
a slight different approach for printing. It does not use ink like inkjet printers, instead it uses a very
fine powder known as ‘Toner’.Laser printers produce very high quality text and graphics.

Plotters – These large scale printers are known for their efficiency for reproducing line drawings.
These are mainly used in the engineering drawings or architectural blueprints. However, it can also
be kept in a separate category form printer, still mostly it is defined as a type of printer. The one main
point of difference is that it draws line by using a pen. These various combinations of lines are
different from closely spaced dots produces by some printers.

3D Printers
3D printers work by depositing layers of material on top of each other to create a physical object. This
type of process is also sometimes called additive manufacturing. Currently, companies are investing
in a lot of research and development around 3D printing, and the technology is changing rapidly. 3D
printing is expected to grow in popularity as the technology improves and costs for 3D printers
decline. 3D printers design three-dimensional prototypes and create the end product by directly
building them using computer aided design (CAD) or software-created 3D design diagrams, figures
and patterns.

Laser printers are more commonly found in office settings, while inkjet can be used in office
and home settings. Dot Matrix is only found in certain applications.

Speakers
A speaker gives you sound output from your computer to an audence. Some speakers
are built into the computer and some are separate.Suitable uses - They can output
music as well as the spoken word and are useful for blind users where text or figures
can be spoken by the computer. A speaker and computer-synthesized voice can be
used by automated systems to read information such as telephone numbers or
traffic updates.

Earphones refer to the device which is worn in ear to have audio output, usually
they come with microphone attached but not necessarily. They are the same what
you get with your mobile. A typical one would look like

Headphones
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Headphones give sound output from the computer. They are similar to speakers, except they are
worn on the ears so only one person can hear the output at a time. They basically
have pair of earpiece attached to a headband. They give you better sound
thanearphone and probably you will choose them for rich music
experience.

Data/multimedia projector
Data/multimedia projector is a device that takes the image from a computer and
projects it onto a large screen so an audience of people can see the image clearly.

Multifunction device (MFD

Multifunction device (MFD) is a single piece of equipment that looks like a copy
machine, but provides the functionality of a printer, scanner, copy machine and
perhaps a fax machine.

Microfilm
Microfilm is a special type of photographic film which can store images at greatly reduced sizes
(about 1/50th of the original size). ... Computers can output information directly to microfilm for long-
term storage. This is known as Computer Output on Microfilm (COM).

Traditionally companies that needed to store a lot of documents would photograph the documents
and store the images on microfilm. The original documents would then be destroyed and the
microfilm photographs of the documents would be kept instead. The microfilm photographs were
much smaller than the original documents so they could be stored more efficiently and cheaply.

Images stored on microfilm can be viewed using a special reader that magnifies the images and
projects them onto a screen. Suitable readers are fairly cheap to buy.

Microfilm is rarely used today. Documents which need to be stored are usually scanned and saved
electronically on high capacity storage media. Documents stored electronically can be indexed and
searched more efficiently than documents stored photographically on microfilm

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