ANALYSIS

In this experiment, students attempted to verify the voltage gain amplifier by

duplicating the design of the voltage-divider bias amplifier circuit using Tinkercad
Software. We observed the simulation and computed the following given values
that the signal amplification factor is 40, transforming a 10 mV AC input signal to
400mV AC output signal with the 3.45% percentage error compared to the
computed result. The students answered the following key questions of the
experiment. By increasing the amplitude or the mV input signal, it causes signal
clipping transforming the output into square waves. Removing C1 transformed
the output into a faint horizontal line turning into positive DC voltage. Removing
C2 causes the output signal offset to positive voltages.
 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, Students were able to verify the concept of voltage gain in a

transistor amplifier circuit by calculating the theoretical value and comparing it to
the simulated results. The lab also explored the design of a bias circuit using
resistors, which established a stable operating point for the transistor. By
observing the output signal on the oscilloscope with different capacitor
configurations, students gained insights into how capacitors filter the signal and
influence the circuit's operating frequency. Overall, the experiment effectively
demonstrated the principles of amplifier circuits and the impact of component
selection on the resulting output signal.
 ANALYSIS

The laboratory experiment simulations provided valuable insights into the

operation of different thyristors: SCRs, GTOs, and TRIACs. SCRs function as
switches controlled by the gate terminal, exhibiting a latching behavior where
they remain on even if the gate trigger is removed, as long as current flows
through the anode. Increasing the gate trigger signal's amplitude does not affect
the on state, and turning off the SCR requires interrupting the anode current.
GTOs are similar to SCRs but require a negative voltage pulse to the gate for turn-
off, unlike the positive pulse needed for SCRs. The TRIAC acts as a variable resistor
controlled by the potentiometer; as the potentiometer setting increases, the lamp
brightness increases due to more current flow. While simulations provided a
foundational understanding, a definitive analysis of the TRIAC's output waveforms
requires actual oscilloscope measurements in a physical circuit. The expected
waveforms at 100% brightness would closely resemble the AC supply voltage,
indicating minimal voltage drop across the conducting TRIAC, while at low
brightness, the waveform would be a distorted AC voltage with a portion of each
cycle clipped off, resulting in a lower average voltage and dimmer lamp.
 CONCLUSION

This laboratory experiment successfully explored the behavior of SCRs, GTOs, and
TRIACs using simulations. The analysis revealed key characteristics of each
thyristor. SCRs act as switches with a latching behavior, meaning they stay on
even after the initial gate trigger as long as current flows. Turning them off
requires interrupting the anode current, and the gate trigger signal's strength
doesn't affect their on state. GTOs function similarly to SCRs but require a
negative voltage pulse to the gate for turn-off, unlike SCRs which need a positive
pulse. Finally, the TRIAC acts like a variable resistor controlled by a potentiometer.
Higher potentiometer settings lead to increased lamp brightness due to more
current flow.
 ANALYSIS

This experiment investigated two methods for controlling a DC motor: relays and
H-bridge circuits (L293D IC). While relays offer a simple and inexpensive solution
for basic directional control (clockwise/counter-clockwise) by activating specific
relays with switches, they lack speed control. Lower voltages can also cause the
motor to struggle when changing direction due to insufficient torque or the relay's
switching behavior. H-bridge circuits, on the other hand, provide more advanced
control over both direction and speed. Direction control is achieved by applying
logic level signals to the L293D's input pins, and the motor speed increases with a
higher voltage supply because it has more electrical power available. Overall,
understanding these key differences between relays and H-bridge circuits,
especially how the motor's starting torque and relay switching characteristics can
affect directional control at lower voltages, is crucial for various DC motor
applications.
 CONCLUSION

This experiment successfully demonstrated speed and direction control of a DC

motor by relays, an H-bridge circuit, and an L293D Motor Driver IC. Both the
methods for direct current voltage control prove successful in managing speed by
varying the voltage from 0 to 12 V. Relay method vs H-bridge circuit with L293D IC
The relay method allowed the rudimentary direction control through changes in
the arrangement of the relay and a switch. In contrast, the H-bridge circuit with
the L293D IC allowed for precise and flexible direction control by selective use of
voltage application at pin1 and pin2. The H bridge circuit is, hence, more versatile
and has the upper hand in sophisticated applications and automated systems than
the less complex relay method.
 ANALYSIS

This laboratory session provided a comprehensive introduction to both circuit

simulation and analysis principles. One section focused on Tinkercad, where
students built a circuit and measured voltages across resistors . This exercise
aimed to familiarize them with the software and applying Ohm's Law to calculate
voltage in simulations, reinforcing foundational circuit analysis. In another section
utilizing NI Multisim, students explored functionalities of bridge rectifiers and
voltage regulators. Procedure 5 likely involved simulating a voltage regulator
circuit to understand how it maintains a steady DC output voltage. Procedure 7
focused on analyzing a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with a capacitor. By
observing the oscilloscope waveform, students could see how the capacitor
significantly smooths out the rectified DC voltage. This practical exercise
demonstrates the capacitor's filtering effect, crucial for many electronic
applications requiring a stable DC power supply. Overall, this laboratory activity
offered valuable experience in using simulation software to explore practical
circuits and understand their functionalities.
 CONCLUSION

Students used TinkerCAD and Multisim for modeling several circuits during this
lab task. Students use TinkerCAD to connect the circuit and measure the voltage
across each resistor in the first circuit. The different waveforms are displayed for
the second circuit, which is the Full-wave Bridge Type Rectifier – Power Supply
circuit. A bridge rectifier and a capacitor are required in the circuit to produce a
steady DC supply. To sum up, this exercise helps the students get better at
simulating more complex scenarios. Knowing this makes it easier to use
TinkerCAD and NI Multisim.
 ANALYSIS

Students effectively introduced to the Arduino microcontroller by being expertly

guided through the operation of the Arduino Uno and the creation of basic
programs. By connecting the Arduino to a computer, students can delve into
programming using the Arduino IDE, and subsequently upload their creations to
control LEDs and a seven-segment display. The presence of clear objectives and
step-by-step instructions establishes a strong foundational understanding.
Nevertheless, the inclusion of code analysis and troubleshooting tips would serve
to deepen comprehension further. Moreover, inspiring students to customize
their programs, such as inventing unique LED patterns, can instigate a journey of
profound exploration. Through the integration of these enhancements, this lab
has the potential to evolve into a richer, more comprehensive, and highly
engaging educational experience for students who are eager to expand their
knowledge of Arduino microcontrollers.
 CONCLUSION

The group created a program using Arduino Uno Microprocessor to create a LED
circuit and seven segment display. First, the LED circuit where the multiple LED
are connected in a row. The group created a program to turn on each LED from
left to right which each LED turns on for 0.5 seconds and turns off in 0.5 seconds
before moving to the next. Once the sequence reaches the rightmost LED, it
should restart from the leftmost LED, creating a continuous left-to-right lighting
effect. Second, the seven segment display. This circuit requires to show the
numbers 0 to 9 with the interval of 1 second. The group develop a program to
display each number. These two experiments show program-dependent circuits
that emphasize critical programming and circuit design abilities. These
investigations provide foundations for advanced electrical applications.
 ANALYSIS

This laboratory experiment introduces programming with conditional statements

using an Arduino Uno microcontroller. Students build circuits that connect an LED
and pushbutton, or a seven-segment display, to the Arduino. The first program
demonstrates a basic conditional statement by turning on the LED when the
button is pressed and turning it off when released. The second program tackles a
more complex scenario, likely involving multiple conditional statements. Here,
students create a program that converts binary data entered through the circuit
(potentially using additional components) into its hexadecimal equivalent,
displaying the result on the seven-segment display. This exercise provides hands-
on experience in controlling electronic circuits based on input signals using
Arduino programming and conditional statements.
 CONCLUSION

In summary, the lab exercises gave students a practical introduction to Arduino

programming and circuit design by showing them how to connect circuits and
create programs for particular objectives. As part of the first work, basic
conditional statements and digital input/output control were reinforced by
writing a program to control an LED with a push button. A software was needed to
convert binary data to its hexadecimal equivalent and display it on a seven-
segment display in the second challenge, which became more complicated. These
projects improved students' practical knowledge of micro-controller|
programming and electronic circuit design by teaching them how to use Arduino
to process and display input signals.
 ANALYSIS

This laboratory experiment explored how to use three sensors with an Arduino
Uno to interact with the environment. A potentiometer acts as a voltage divider,
allowing the Arduino to measure angular rotation by reading the voltage change
on its center pin as the knob is rotated. Photoresistors, whose resistance changes
with light intensity, can be used to sense light. As the light level increases, the
voltage reading on the Arduino's analog input goes up, likely triggering a brighter
LED response. Conversely, lower light levels lead to a dimmer LED. Finally,
thermistors, which are temperature-dependent resistors, can be used to sense
temperature. When heated, the thermistor's resistance decreases, resulting in a
higher voltage reading and potentially a brighter LED. As the thermistor cools, the
opposite occurs.
 CONCLUSION

This laboratory experiment effectively explored using an Arduino Uno with three
sensors: a potentiometer (measures angular rotation via voltage change), a
photoresistor (senses light intensity by adjusting LED brightness based on voltage
readings), and a thermistor (acts as a temperature sensor with LED brightness
reflecting voltage changes caused by temperature fluctuations). Understanding
these sensor principles and the Arduino's digital conversion of voltage allows us to
create interactive projects that respond to their environment.