Module in Introduction to Animal Science 2020

LESSON 1
OVERVIEW OF ANIMAL SCIENCE

TOPICS
1. Animal Science Terminologies
2. Man, Animal and Ecosystem
3. Animal and their Economic Utility
4. Animal Agriculture and Population Problem
5. Animal Science and Animal Industry
6. Domestication

LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to:
1. define the different animal science terminologies; and
2. explain the significance of animal science as a field in agriculture.

TOPIC 1: ANIMAL SCIENCE TERMINOLOGIES

General Terminologies
• Dam – the female parent
• Sire – The male parent
• Ruminant – cud chewing animals having a compound stomach
• Monogastric – animals having a single/simple stomach (J-bag)
• Estrus –period of sexual receptivity in female animals. It is also known as “heat”
period
• Estrous cycle – the interval between the beginning of the first heat period up to
the beginning of next heat period.
• Copulation - the act of mating
• Artificial Insemination – the act/process of placing semen in to the reproductive
tracts of female animals.
• Fertilization – the union of the sexual gamete (sperm and egg cell) to form a
zygote.
• Conception – the act of fertilization
• Gestation – pregnancy time, from the period of conception to birth.
• Parturition – the act of giving birth or delivery.
• Suckling – the young animals from birth to weaning.
• Weaning – the process of separating the young animals from its dam.
• Weanling – the young animals after separation from its dam.
• Puberty – the period during which the reproductive organs first become
functional. (Ex. the occurrence of first estrus in female animals)
• Fertility – the ability to produce fertilizable ova and to provide proper
environment for and initiating cell division and embryonic development (for

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females); the ability to produce large number of semen capable of fertilization

(for males).
• Maturity – the period or time where female reproductive organs are fully
developed and functional or are now ready for breeding. This usually achieved
after 3-5 heat/estrus succession.
• Fecundity – the ability to give birth to offspring frequently or numerous young at
frequent interval.
• Prolificacy – the ability to produce large number of offspring per parturition.
• Sterility – inability to produce normal young.
• Impotency – failure to copulate.
• Castration –the process of removing sex organ of the male animals.
• Spaying – the process of removal of primary sexy organ of the female animals.
• Proven sire - a sire that has sufficient breeding information to indicate its
transmitting ability.
• Transmitting ability – the ability of the parent animals to pass on either good or
bad traits to its progeny.
• Cryptorchid – a male animal whose testes, one or both failed to descend into
scrotal sacs.
• Unilateral – if one testicle failed to descend
• Bilateral – if both testicles failed to descends.
• Lactation – the period during which the animal produces milk from the time of
delivery of her young until normal milk production heat.
• Selection – the process of selecting desirable animals from the herd.
• Culling – the process of eliminating undesirable or inferior animal/s from the
herd.
• Crossbred – the progeny of two animals different breed
• Inbred – progeny of two animals with the same breed
• Upgrade – progeny of the native breed and a new or foreign breed

Cattle Terminologies
• Cattle – domesticated bovine animals
• Bull - a mature male breeding cattle
• Cow – mature female breeding cattle, one that has given birth. It is usually 2.5-3
years old above.
• Lactating cow – cows with suckling young or producing milk (either for progeny
or commercial consumption)/cows that are in milk production
• Pregnant cow – cow that are already bred or mated, or inseminated.
• Dry cow – the one that stopped in producing milk in after weaning preparation/
Cows that are not producing milk or that has not produced a calf during the
breeding season.
• Calf – a young offspring of cattle of either sex less than one year of age.
• Bull calf – a male calf
• Heifer calf- a female calf
• Heifer – a female cattle that has not yet given birth or produce offspring.
• Heiferette– a large heavy heifer that has already delivered an offspring ones

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• Bulling heifer/Serviceable heifer –a heifer that bred at an age for breeding

usually from 15 mos. to the first service or mating.
• Spayed heifer – a heifer whose ovaries has been removed by the
process/operation called spaying of the female animal.
• Steer – a male cattle whose testes has been removed/castrated before reaching
sexual maturity.
• Stag – a male cattle whose testes has been removed /castrated female after
sexual maturity.
• Stag Bullock –a stag used for doing work or as a draft animals
• Yearling – a cattle of either sex that is between 1-2 years old.
• Short yearling – a yearling between 1 - 1 ½ years old
• Long yearling - a yearling between 1 ½ - 2 years old.
• Freemartin – an imperfectly sexed and infertile heifer born twin with a bull calf
• Stockers – young cattle that is being fed and cared for, in such a way for growth
rather than improvement may be realized
• Polled cattle – naturally or genetically hornless cattle. (ex.: Aberdeen, Angus,
Galloway, and Red Poll)
• Dehorned cattle – horned cattle made hornless by the application of caustic
potash or heat destroying the horn forming cells.
• Calving – the act of delivery or giving birth in cows
• 283 days ±5 days – the average gestation period in cattle (9.4 mos.; 40.4 weeks;
9 mos. & 2 wks.)
• Serving – the act of mating in cattle
• Vealer – a calf suitable for veal usually less than 3 mos. of age and wholly milk
fed
• Veal – the meat of a calf less than 3 mos. of age
• Beef – the meat of the mature cattle
• Booveal – the meat of very young calf, or newly born calf
• Hide – skin of the mature cattle
• Calfskin – the skin of the cattle which produce a softer leather
• Herd – a group of cattle/grouping in cattle
• Flaying –the removal of the skin during slaughtering
• Breeder Stock – animal intended for breeding purposes.

Carabao Terminologies
• Bubalus bubalis – the river type carabao commonly called as “Murrah” with 50
chromosomes. It is characterize by having tightly curled or dropping straight
horn, black to dark gray in color.
• Bubalus carabanensis – the swamp type carabao commonly/locally known
as”Kalabaw”, it has 48 chromosomes. It is characterized by having horn that is
generally curved outward and inward, the color is light gray to gray with the
presence of chevron. Grooves on the upper part of the horn are also noticeable.
• Cara – is a prefix added or connected to the sex, class, and meat of the carabao
to distinguished/designate carabao from cattle and their products. The word is
introduced by Dr. Valente Villegas of UPLB.
• Carabull - a mature male breeding carabao

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• Caracow – a mature female breeding carabao

• Caracalf – a young offspring of either sex less than one year of age.
• Caraheifer – a female carabao that has not yet given birth or produced any
young
• Caraheiferette – a female cattle carabao that has delivered a young ones
• Carasteer – a male carabao castrated while still young or before reaching sexual
maturity
• Carastag – a castrated carabao after reaching sexual maturity.
• Caracalving – the act of giving birth in carabao
• 330 ±5 days – the average gestation in carabao (Philippine carabao -314-317
days (murrah & grades - 295-339 days)
• Serving – the act of mating in carabao
• Carabeef –the meat of a mature carabao
• Caraveal – the meat of a very young carabao (1 day – 3 mos. old)
• Lactating caracows – caracows that are producing milk
• Herd –grouping in carabao
• Milking/Dairy carabao – cows that are use in collection of milk.
• Draft animals – carabao of any sex used for work
• Silent heat – estrus behavior of carabao wherein the animals are physiologically
“in heat” but do not show any visible signs.
• Chevron – the two diagonal stripes on the ventral side of the neck, one near the
brisket and other near the jaw.

Goat Terminologies
• Buck- Mature male breeding goat. It is also known as “Billy Goat”.
• Doe – mature female breeding goat. It is also called as “Nanny Goat”.
• Kid – A young goat of either sex.
• Billy kid – a male kid.
• Nanny kid – a female kid.
• Dry doe – a doe that is not producing milk or as doe that has not produced a kid
during the season.
• Milking Doe – lactating doe or a doe that is in milk.
• Bucking – the act of mating in goat.
• Kidding – the act of giving birth in goat.
• 150± days – the average gestation period in goat.
• Goatling – a weanling female goat until first kidding.
• Wether goat – a male goat castrated before reaching sexual maturity
• Stag goat – a male goat castrated after reaching sexual maturity.
• Chevon – the meat of goat.
• Pelt – undressed skin of goat with its hair.
• Mohair – the hair of a goat.
• Band – grouping in goat.
• Cabrito - the meat of the young goat.

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Sheep Terminologies
• Ram – a mature male breeding sheep.
• Ewe – a mature female breeding sheep.
• Lamb – a young sheep of either sex.
• Ram lamb – a young male sheep/ a male lamb.
• Ewe lamb – a young female sheep/ a female lamb.
• Gimmer – a yearling female sheep between second and third shearing.
• Wether sheep – a male sheep castrated while still young or before reaching
sexual maturity.
• Stag/Segg – a male sheep castrated after reaching sexual maturity.
• Tupping – the act of mating in sheep.
• 148± 5 days – the gestation period in sheep
• Lambing – the act of giving birth in sheep (ewe).
• Shearing - the process of harvesting wool in mature sheep.
• Yean/ean –another term for lambing.
• Shearling – a yearling sheep of either sex more than one year of age.
• Two-shear sheep –a two year old sheep.
• Mutton – the meat of mature sheep.
• Lamb meat – a meat of lamb or a young sheep.
• Wool - the hair of a sheep.
• Shorn wool – the hair or wool which is removed through shearing.
• Nolls – waste wool
• Pulled wool – the hair or wool which is separated from the skin after the skin has
been removed from the sheep carcass or after slaughtering of the sheep.
• Fleece – the skin and hair of the sheep.
• Pelt – wool and fiber together.
• Flock – grouping in sheep

Horse Terminologies
• Stallion – a mature male horse.
• Mare – a mature female horse.
• Studhorse – a mature male horse intended for breeding purposes.
• Broodmare - a mature female horse intended for breeding purposes.
• Foal – a young offspring of either sex less than one year of age.
• Colt – a young male horse from 1-3 years of age.
• Filly – a young female horse from 1 – 3 years old.
• Covering – the act of mating in horse.
• 340 days – the average gestation period in horse.
• Gelding – a male horse castrated before reaching sexual maturity.
• Stag – a male horse castrated after reaching sexual maturity.
• Dry mare - a mare that has not produced any offspring during the breeding
season or a mare that is not producing milk.
• Ridgling – Stallion with only one testis or none in its scrotum (cryptorchid).
• Equitition – horsemanship; the art/act of riding on horseback.
• Horsemeat – the meat of the horse.
• Herd – grouping of horse.

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Swine Terminologies
• Boar – mature male pig used for breeding purposes.
• Sow – mature female pig, one that has been given birth.
• Gilt- a young female pig under one year of age, usually one that has not yet given
birth.
• Piglet – a young pig of either sex.
• Brood sow – a sow with a litter
• Shote- young pigs of either sex, weighing approximately 45-70 kg or 60 kg.
• Barrow- male pig which was castrated while young or before reaching sexual
maturity.
• Stag – a male pig castrated after sexual maturity.
• Weanling- young pigs separated from the sow, about 5 weeks old.
• Suckling- young pigs from birth up to weaning.
• Litter – group of pigs born in one farrowing.
• Litter size – the number of young pigs born in one farrowing.
• Farrowing- the act of giving birth in sows.
• Weanling- young pigs separated from the sow, about 5 weeks old.
• Suckling- young pigs from birth up to weaning.
• Litter – group of pigs born in one farrowing.
• Litter size – the number of young pigs born in one farrowing.
• Farrowing- the act of giving birth in sows.
• Pork – the meat of the swine.
• Drove – grouping of swine.
• Market Hog – a pig that is ready for market or butchering usually weighing from
80 -120 kg or between 7-9 months.

Rabbit Terminologies
• Buck – a male breeding rabbit.
• Doe – a female breeding rabbit.
• Baby rabbit – a very young rabbit of either sex.
• Kindling – the act of giving birth in rabbit.
• 42 days – the average gestation period in rabbit.
• Bunny – a female rabbit that is sexually capable but has not yet produced any
young/offspring.
• Lapan – the meat of castrated rabbit.
• Fur – the soft, fine and thick hairy covering; coat of the rabbit.
• Pelt – The skin and hair of the rabbit.

Chicken Terminologies
• Cock/rooster – a male breeding chicken.
• Hen – a female breeding chicken.
• Chick – a young chicken of either sex until weaning.
• Baby chick – a very young, newly hatch chick usually from 1 – 3 days old.
• Straight run baby chicks – a very young chick not classified as to their sex.
• Sexed baby chick – are very young chicks classified as to their sex.

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• Sexing – the science and the art of selecting/identifying male and female chicks
trough evaluating its cloaca.
• Pullet – a young female chicken at least 10 weeks of age until first lay of an egg.
• Cockerel –a male chicken at least 10 weeks of age until sexual maturity
• Capon – a male rendered sterile by the removal of testicles (caponizing -the act
of removing testicles. Similar/synonymous in castration)
• Caponette – a male chicken rendered sterile through the administration of
certain drugs or hormones like diethylstilbestrol.
• Brooder hen – a hen with chicks.
• Spayed chicken - a female chicken rendered sterile by the removal of the
ovaries.
• Broiler –a meat type chicken commonly grown up to 35 - 42 days and weighing
1.5 – 2 kgs live weight.
• Layer – egg type or dual type 6 months old female that lays egg.
• Molting – a biological process of shedding off of feathers.
• Oviposition- the act of laying an egg.
• Ovulation – the release of the yolk from the ovary into the funnel of the oviduct.
• Caponization –the process of removing the primary sex organs of the male
animals specifically for poultry.
• Incubation – the hatching process of fertile egg whereby favorable
environmental conditions like temperature, humidity, position, candling and
turning of egg are provided.
• Candling – the process of placing the egg before the strong light to get an outline
of the egg content and detect fertile and infertile egg.
• Brooding- the act, or a process of providing heat (artificial or natural) to the
newly hatch chick.
• Culls – old hens that had passed their usefulness for commercial egg production.
• Poultry – a collective term for all domestic birds rendering economic service to
man.
• Fowl – generally is a term applied to all poultry species specifically, applied to
designate mature domestic cocks and hens.
• Clutches – a group of eggs laid for successive days
• Plumage – feather of the fowl.
• Chicken – the most popular poultry species
• Brooder – a place where young chicks are cared for after hatching until they
have grown to the point where they no longer need additional heat.

Duck Terminologies
• Balikbayan – refers to ducks which have done first and second laying year and
being sold as ready to lay.
• Brooding – a period of duckling is provided with heat either by natural or
artificial.
• Broody – trait of ducks characterized by desire to sit on the eggs.
• Candling – the process of placing the egg before the strong light to get an outline
of the egg content and detect fertile and infertile egg.

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• Infertile egg – egg set in the incubator/brooder and found to contain no

developing embryo after candling.
• Sexual maturity – time when primary and secondary sexual organs of the birds
are fully matured. The surest sign of the sexual maturity of the bird is laying an
egg.
• Drake – an adult male duck used for breeding.
• Duck hen - a female duck used in breeding.
• Duckling –a young duck of any sex in the downy stage of plumage.
• Greenduck – a duck raised until 10 weeks of age and sold for meat purpose.
• Pullet duck – a female duck less than 6 months old.
• Balut – a partially incubated egg which is boiled and sold for human
consumption.
• Penoy – an incubated egg which is infertile, removed from an incubator through
candling, boiled and sold for human consumption.

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

LIVESTOCK
Carabao
- River type Bubalus bubalis
- Swamp type Bubalus carabanensis
Cattle
- Zebu Bos indicus
- Temperate Bos taurus
Goat Capra hircus
Sheep Ovis aries
Horse Equus caballus
Swine
- Native/wild Sus scrofa
- Domesticated Sus domesticus
Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus
POULTRY
Chicken
- Native Gallus gallus
- Domesticated Gallus domesticus
Ducks
- Mallard Anas platyrhynchos
- Peking (itik) Anas platyrhynchos
- Muscovy(pato) Cairina moschata
Turkey Meleagris gallopavo
Quail Coturnix coturnix
Pigeon Columba livia
Geese Cygnopsis cygnoides
Swan Olor columbianus
Ostrich Struthio australis
Peafowl Pavo cristatus
Pheasant Phasianus colchicus
Guinea fowl Numida meleagris

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TOPIC 2: MAN, ANIMAL AND ECOSYSTEM

M
an’s role in relation to plants and animals is beautifully defined in Genesis 1:
28-29 of the Holy Bible when God said to Adam and Eve:
“Be fertile and multiply, fill the earth and subdue it. Have dominion
over the fish of the sea, the birds of the air and over all living things that move on earth.”
God also said… I give you every seed-bearing plant over the earth and tree that has
seed-bearing fruit on it to be your food; and all the animals of the land, all the birds of
the air and all living creatures that crawl on the ground, I give you all the green plants
for food”.

In the beginning, man did not have to cultivate the land herd animals for his
food. Fruit on the trees, eggs in the nests were plentiful waiting only to be gathered.
Animals on the range and fish in the water waiting to be caught. But in the course of his
existence, man felt that natures bounty was not enough to satisfy him. He decided that
somehow he had to have animals, for his food. But even as he worked hard on the land,
famine came. People went hungry and many perished. As part of the ecological milieu,
man and animals had much to do with it.
In an ecosystem the continued growth of plants and animals depends on
maintenance of the balance between the food producers (plants) and the food
consumers (animals and man). Figure 1 hows the components of an ecological system
and their interrelationships.
Plants, through their photosynthetic activity convert energy of the sun into
carbohydrates. They also fix nitrogen from atmosphere and, together with the other
elements of the air, water and soil, convert them into proteins. Plants are therefore
producers of energy and protein foods. Animals, on the other hand, directly or indirectly
consume plants for their energy, growth and reproduction. As consumers, some animals
feed only on plants (herbivores), some feed on other animals only (carnivores) and
some feed on both plants and animals (omnivores). Man is omnivorous.
While animals return part of the nutrients that they consume back to the soil
and eventually to the plants, the amount is much less than what they withdrawn from
the plants. Much of the energy taken in by animals from the plants are dissipated to the
atmosphere during respiration. Thus, a given land area, the growth of animal population
could introduce on imbalance in the ecosystem in a way that could deplete the
vegetation.

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In a system where animals are produced in a pastoral system and where the
regrowth of vegetation is left entirely to nature, the land could be easily over grazed to
the extent that while animals continue to reproduce and increase in number, vegetation
is not given the opportunity to recover its normal growth. Indeed, in many parts of the
world what used to be areas of lush vegetation have become deserts. Aside from
plants, animals are also sources of food energy for man.

TOPIC 3: ANIMAL AND THEIR ECONOMIC UTILITY

N otwithstanding the relative inefficiency of animals in the production of

food, they are important components of the food production system.
For example, animals have the following distinctive attributes that
enhance the ability of an agricultural system to produce food for man:
 Animals fed on and convert plants and other materials which have otherwise
gone into waste, into rich human food; and
 Animal products have chemical composition that closely resembles man’s dietary
requirement and therefore more digestible and nutritious.

Animal Species Economic Utility

Horse Traction, transport, amusement
Cattle Meat, milk, hide, traction and transport
Buffalo Meat, milk, traction and transport
Sheep Meat, milk, wool
Goat Meat and milk
Swine Meat

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Rabbit Meat and skin

Chicken Meat, eggs, amusement
Duck Meat and eggs
Goose Meat and eggs
Turkey Meat and eggs
Pigeon Meat and amusement
Quail Meat and eggs
Guinea fowl Meat

TOPIC 4: ANIMAL AGRICULTURE & POPULATION PROBLEM

Thomas Malthus

Malthusian Theory - Population increases geometrically

while production increases arithmetically – world famine
and diseases.

With the ever increasing human population and the attendant contraction of
load for agricultural production, the challenge is to produce more animal food products
is becoming more and more severe. In recent years, the rate of increase of Filipinos is
already overtaking the growth in livestock population in the Philippines.
Adoption and application of modern science and technology in the production
system is the main reason in the increase in production in developed countries. In the
Philippines ruminant production can be increased/double if:
a. Crop residues, farm and industrial by-products will be fully utilized;
b. Development of production system that will be fully efficiently utilize these
resources; and
c. Improvements of socio-political condition in the country side are necessary
to attain this goal.

Thomas Malthus Assumption

1. Malthus foresaw the development of new agricultural technologies but he did not
realize to what degree new technologies would increase production.
2. Malthus assumed that humans have no control over their reproductive behavior. He
did not foresee that population growth would slow down because of effective
contraception, the changing roles of women in the society and individual people’s
reproductive decisions.
3. He did not recognize that famine is usually related not to a lack of food, but to the
unequal distribution of food.

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TOPIC 5: ANIMAL SCIENCE AND ANIMAL INDUSTRY

L ike all other productive sectors of the economy, the continued viability
and progress of the animal industry depends on how it is able to respond
successfully well to the changing conditions of the biological, physical &
socio economic and political environments. Advances in animal science keep the
industry responsive to these environmental changes. The development of more efficient
and productive breeds and varieties of animals through breeding, produce cheaper and
more nutritious feed materials for animal feed, produce new drugs and feed additives,
develop new systems of housing and management, develop cheaper and economical
processing of animal products that economically improves the health and performance
of animals.
Livestock industry at present principally produces carabao, cattle, hogs, and
chicken. The other livestock and poultry species such as goats, ducks are also raised in
practically all parts of the Philippines but do not contribute significantly to the protein
supply of the country. Hogs provide 60 percent of the total domestic meat production,
chicken 15 percent and cattle & carabaos 20 percent. The country is relatively self-
sufficient in chickens, eggs, and pork but imports beef at an average of 4, 500 tons
annually.
Hog and chicken production systems which depend heavily on commercially
mixed feeds are more intensive and commercially oriented. They are mostly located
close to urban centers. Cattle, carabaos and goats subsist mainly on grasses and
roughages and are raised mainly by small holder farmers in the rural areas.
In animal science, the challenge to all of us is to be able to meet our need for
food and other essential products from animals in a most economical and efficient
system of production without endangering the environment.

Animal Science
• deals with domesticated animals that are raised/produces for food,
companionship, gaming and recreation, and other purposes.
• it refers to different fundamental disciplines that deal with animal life.
• it is an art, a science and economics of raising domesticated animals for human
consumption and other economic purposes.
• refers to the total store of knowledge relative to the breeding, feeding, care and
management of animals and the marketing and processing of animals and their
products as gained through practical experience and research methods

Animal Husbandry
 refers to breeding, feeding, care and management of animals for the purpose of
making profit in a scientific and economic manner.

Goals of Animal Industry

To improve production within the inevitable confines set by the requirements of
sound, sustainable animal husbandry:
 Development of animal disease control program
 Reproduction
 Genetic innovation/improvement
 Nutritional efficiency
 Product quality
 Conducive environment

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Concerns of Animal Husbandry

 Role of livestock in the total bio-economic system
 Contribution of animals to soil fertility and structure
 Effects of grazing on growth, tilling and survival of plants-forage & pasture
 Use of crops by-products and residues as animal feed or bedding
 Industrial by-products returned to farm ecosystem as animal feeds, organic
fertilizers, fuel, etc.
 Recycling animal products
 Animal-soil-crop integration
 Use of animal as source of power
 Elimination of pests, predators, weeds and diseases

Important Factors in Animal Management

1. Motivation of the persons involved (desire/willingness)
2. Level of knowledge and skills
3. Housing – site, materials, etc.
4. Climate – macro & micro
5. Genetics
6. Health care
7. Product Technology
8. General management
Constraints to Improve Animal Production in Developing Countries
Ecological Factors
 Topography of the land
 Soil fertility
 Rainfall
 Temperature
 Relative humidity
 Plant growing season

Biological Factors
 Feed supply
 Water supply
 Animal diseases
 Pest
 Genotype

Socio-economic Factors
 Supply and Demand /Input-output ratio
 Prices
 Religion
 Culture
 Tradition
 Politics

Effects of High Temperature in Animals

1. Rise in Rectal temperature
2. Decline in feed intake
3. Increase in water intake

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4. Decrease in milk production

5. Changes in milk composition
6. Increase respiration – reduction of growth and loss of BW – decrease FCE
7. Occurrence of reproductive abnormalities – (spermatogenesis, fertility etc.)
Effects of High Humidity
1. Depresses evaporative heat loses
2. Reduces feed intake
3. Decline in production

Effects of Solar Radiation

1. Causes skin problems and irritation (sunburns, skin cancer, photosensitive
disorders)
2. Increases heat loads
3. Other effects:
c.1. light color coats – less affected
c.2. Standing animals – less solar effect
c.3. Buffalos – more affected due to more heat absorption
c.3. Cattle – less affected due to loose skin

Indirect Effects
1. Vegetation (quantity and quality)
2. Growth and proliferation of parasites and diseases
Environmental Influences on Animal Production
- Feed supply
- Light
- Rainfall and humidity
- Temperature
- Wind velocity others
Animal Industry Problems and Concerns
1. Continuous increase in feed cost
2. Lack of potential animals
3. Occurrence of new, highly pathogenic and deadly diseases
4. Potentials decrease in demand in animal products – due to increasing poverty
5. Global warming and other negative impact on the environment
6. Full implementation of trade liberalization

Prospects of the Philippine Livestock and Poultry Industry

1. Genetics and biotechnology
2. Development of small and medium based animal enterprises
3. Government interventions to improve agriculture productivity and sustainability
4. Improvement of facilities and making channels for efficient flow of products
from production sites to consumers
5. Utilization of alternative feedstuff to offset feed cost
6. Development of other agri-based enterprises to support livestock and poultry
production.

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TOPIC 6: DOMESTICATION

• Domestication is the process of adapting wild plants and animals for human use.
Domestic species are raised for food, work, clothing, medicine, and many other
uses.
• Domestication is the process of conversion of wild animals to domestic use.

Domestication paved the way for humans to:

• contain animals with the right temperament
• have a steady food supply
• use animals for companionship, religious purposes and draft work
• animals receive care, protection and food supply
• selective breeding took place as humans did not allow reproduction of animals
with undesirable traits

Early Domestication
• more than simply taming
• kept for a distinct purpose
• breeding is controlled
• survival is dependent on humans
• develop traits that are not found in the wild

HISTORY OF DOMESTICATION

PRE REQUISITES OF DOMESTICATION

• Animal should be able to adapt to the type of feed that humans will offer.
• Animals must be able to survive and reproduce in the relatively closed quarters
of captivity.
• Animals need to be naturally calm.
• Animals need to be willing to recognize humans as their superior, which means
they must have a flexible social hierarchy.

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LESSON 2
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF ANIMALS

TOPICS
1. Introduction
2. Nervous System
3. Endocrine System
4. Cardiovascular System
5. Respiratory System
6. Skeletal System
7. Muscular System
8. Digestive System
9. Excretory System
10. Reproductive System
11. Integumentary System
12. Receptive System
13. Body Temperature Regulation

LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to:
1. describe the basic concepts and principles of animal physiology;
2. determine how the animal body works; and
3. explain the significance of studying anatomy and physiology.

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION

ANIMAL
• Any of the multi-cellular organisms belonging to the kingdom Animalia.
• a living organism that feeds on organic matter, typically having specialized sense
organs and nervous system and able to respond rapidly to stimuli.

ANATOMY
It is the study of the structure of a body and the relation of its parts. It answers
the question “What things look like and where they are located?”.

PHYSIOLOGY
It is a science that deals with the function of living matter. It is the science of the
normal functions and phenomena of living things. It answers the question “How things
work and what they do?”.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANATOMY
• Microscopic anatomy - study of the tissues and cells that can be seen only with
the aid of the microscope.
• Macroscopic /gross anatomy - study of the form and relations (relative
positions) of the structures of the body that can be seen with the unaided eyes.

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• Regional anatomy - individual region approach

• Systematic anatomy - the study of anatomy will be chiefly by systems; it is the
most ideal approach

Main Body Systems and Nomenclature for Systematic Anatomy

SYSTEM NAME OF STUDY CHIEF STRUCTURE
Skeletal System Osteology Bones
Articular System Arthrology Joints
Muscular System Myology Muscles
Digestive System Splanchnology Stomach and intestines
Respiratory System Splanchnology Lungs and air ways
Urinary System Splanchnology Kidneys and urinary bladder
Reproductive System Splanchnology Ovaries and testes
Endocrine System Endocrinology Ductless glands
Nervous System Neurology Brain, spinal cord and nerves
Cardiovascular (Circulatory) Cardiology Heart and blood vessels
Integumentary System Dermatology Skin, hair, nails, hooves
Sensory Esthesiology Eye, ear

Descriptive Terms Useful in the Study of Anatomy

• Cranial is a directional term meaning toward the head.
Ex.: The shoulder is cranial to the hip; it is closer to the head than is the hip.
• Caudal means toward the tail.
Ex.: The rump is caudal to the loin.
• Rostral and caudal are directional terms used in reference to features of the
head to mean toward the nose (rostral) or toward the tail (caudal).
• Median Plane is an imaginary plane passing through the body so as to divide the
body into equal right and left halves.
Ex.: A beef carcass is split into two halves on the median plane.
• Sagittal Plane is any plane parallel to the median plane. The median plane is
sometimes called the midsagittal plane.
• Transverse Plane is at right angles to the median plane and divides the body into
cranial and caudal segments.
• Horizontal plane is at right angles to both the median plane and transverse
planes. The horizontal plane divides the body into dorsal (upper) and ventral
(lower) segments.
Ex.: If a cow walks into a lake until the water comes above the chest, the surface
of the water is in a horizontal plane in relation to the cow.
• Medial is an adjective meaning close to or toward the median plane.
Ex.: The heart is medial to the lungs; it is closer to the median plane than are the
lungs. The chestnut is on the medial aspect (inside) of a horse’s limb; it is on the
side closest to the median plane.
• Lateral is the antonym of medial; it means away from the median plane.
Ex.: The ribs are lateral to the lungs, that is, farther from the median
• Dorsal means toward or beyond the backbone or vertebral column.
Ex.: The kidneys are dorsal to the intestines; they are closer to the vertebral
column.

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• Ventral means away from the vertebral column or toward the mid abdominal
wall.
Ex.: The udder is the most ventral part of the body of a cow, the part of the body
farthest from the vertebral column.
• Deep and internal indicate proximity to the center of an anatomical structure.
Ex.: The humerus (arm bone) is deep in relation to all other structures in the arm.
• Superficial and external refer to proximity to the surface of the body.
Ex.: Hair is superficial to all other structures of the body.
• Proximal means relatively close to a given part, usually the vertebral column,
body, or center of gravity. Proximal is generally used in reference to an extremity
or limb.
Ex.: The carpus or knee is proximal to the foot.
• Distal means farther from the vertebral column, and like proximal, it is generally
used in reference to portions of an extremity.
Ex.: The hoof is distal to the carpus or knee.

Term Definition
Left The animal’s left
Right The animal’s right
Cranial Toward the head
Rostral Toward the tip of the nose (head only)
Caudal Toward the tail
Dorsal Toward the back
Ventral Toward the belly
Medial Toward the median plane
Lateral Away from the medium plane
Deep (internal) Toward the center (while body or part)
Superficial (external) Toward the surface (whole body or part)
Proximal Toward the body (extremity)
Distal Away from the body (extremity)

Homeostasis
 A key word in the study of modern physiology.
 Maintenance of static or constant conditions in the environment.
 Maintenance of a dynamic equilibrium of internal environment of the body.
– Body temperature
– Acid-base balance

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– Fluid balance
– Hormonal, nutrient, oxygen levels
• Homeostatic regulation
– Auto regulation (intrinsic regulation): Cell, tissue, organ or system adjust
automatically in response to some environmental change, e.g. local
oxygen level;
– Extrinsic regulation: Nervous and endocrine systems adjust the activities
of many systems simultaneously, e.g. excise.

TOPIC 2: NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is the most highly organized system of the body. It is
concerned with the reception of stimuli, transmission of impulses, interpretation of
sensations, and the integration of sensations that arise from both internal and external
environment.
It controls the rapid activities of the body such as muscular contraction,
secretions of some glands, heart beat/rate, respiration rate, gastrointestinal motility
and rapid reflex actions.

BASIC UNIT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Brain - central coordinating and controlling organ of the nervous system
• Spinal cord - long cord of nerve tissue running through the spine or backbone
that transmits impulses to and from the brain and controls some reflex actions
• Nerves - bundle of axons in the peripheral nervous system
• Nerve cells or neurons - specialize in the impulse conduction or the relay
messages from effectors’ organs to the nervous system and vice versa.

DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

A. Central nervous system (CNS) acts as the command center of the body. It interprets
incoming sensory information, then sends out instructions on how the body should
react. The CNS consists of two major parts: the brain and the spinal cord.
The brain is enclosed in the cranial part of the skull and have six main sections
namely the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, midbrain, pons and medulla
oblongata.
The spinal cord is the direct continuation of the brain into the vertebral canal. It
is the link between the brain and the nerves in the rest of the body.

BRAIN
2 TYPES OF MATTER
• Grey matter – receives and stores impulses (cell bodies of neurons and
neuroglia)
• White matter – carries impulses to and from the grey matter (axons)

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

A. Cerebrum
Cerebrum is the largest section of the brain. It is divided into two major
hemispheres which are the right and the left hemisphere. It is also further divided into
four lobes namely the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital.

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Cerebrum is divided into four lobes.

1. Frontal – reasoning and thought.
2. Parietal – integrates sensory information.
3. Temporal – responsible for processing
auditory information from the ears.
4. Occipital – responsible for processing visual
information from the eyes.

B. Cerebellum
Cerebellum is located in the back of the head below the cerebrum and above the
first cervical of the neck. It is responsible for muscle coordination, balance, posture and
muscle tone.
C. Diencephalon
Diencephalon is found between cerebrum and the midbrain. It contains two
structure, the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus directs sensory impulses to
the cerebrum. The hypothalamus controls and regulates temperature, appetite, water
balance, sleep and blood vessel constriction and dilation. The hypothalamus also plays a
role in the emotions such as anger, fear, pleasure, pain and affection.
D. Pons
Pons is located below the midbrain and in the brain stem. It is responsible in
certain reflex actions such as chewing, tasting and saliva production.
E. Midbrain
Midbrain is located below the cerebrum at the top of the brain stem. It is
responsible for eye and auditory reflexes.
F. Medulla oblongata
Medulla oblongata is lowest part of the brain stem and it connects with the
spinal cord. It is responsible in regulating heart and blood vessel function, digestion,
respiration, swallowing, coughing, sneezing and blood pressure. It is also known as
“Center for Respiration”.

SPINAL CORD
Spinal cord is the link between the brain and the
nerves in the rest of the body. It is divided into four regions namely
the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and the afferent & efferent spinal
nerves. The afferent spinal nerves are responsible for carrying
information from the body to the brain while efferent spinal nerves
carry information from the brain to the body.

NEURONS
• basic unit in the nervous system
• specialized conductor cell that receives and transmits electrochemical nerve
impulses

• Cell body – control center

• Dendrites – carry nerve impulses
into the cell body
• Axons – carry impulses away from
the cell body
• Myelin sheath / Schwann cells –
cover axons and dendrites

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CLASSIFICATION OF NEURON
No. of extensions from the soma
• multipolar – 1 axon and several dendrites (brain and spinal cord)
• bipolar – 1 axon and 1 dendrite (retina, inner ear and olfactory area)
• unipolar – one process (divides with one part acting as an axon and the other
one as a dendrite (spinal cord)

Classification of Neurons (according to the direction of impulse conduction)

• Afferent (Sensory) Neuron – transmits nerve impulses from effector organs to
the spinal cord or brain.
• Efferent (Motor) Neuron – transmits nerve impulses away from the brain or
spinal cord or towards muscles or glands.
• Interneuron (Relay Neuron)– conducts impulses from an afferent neuron within
the Central Nervous System (CNS)

Sensory Neuron Relay Neuron Motor Neuron

B. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the part of the nervous system which consist of
cranial nerves and spinal nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord to different
areas in the rest of the body which carry messages to and from the central nervous
system.

PNS can be divided into two systems:

1. Somatic Nervous System
• Responsible in carrying motor and sensory information.
• It is made up of nerves that connect to skin, sensory organs, and skeletal
muscles.
• Responsible nearly for all muscle movements
• Processes sensory information from external stimuli (hearing, touch, sight)
2. Autonomic Nervous System
• Innervates glands and visceral musculature.
• Control activities in the body that are involuntary or automatic. These include
the actions of the heart, glands, and digestive organs and associated parts.

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SUBDIVISION OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Parasympathetic Nervous System
• regulates involuntary activities that keep the body running smoothly under
normal condition
• works to promote maintenance of the body at rest
2. Sympathetic Nervous System
• controls involuntary activities that help the body respond to stressful situations
• aid in the control of the body’s internal organ
• work to mobilize the body resources for action under stress

Sensory Modalities
• This consists of the various sense organs of the body.
• This includes the senses of smell, vision, hearing, rotational and linear
acceleration, taste, and cutaneous senses with receptors in the skin to monitor
touch – pressure cold, warmth and pain.
• The sensation evoked by impulses generated by a specific receptor is interpreted
by a specific part of the brain which it ultimately activates.

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TOPIC 3: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• group of specialized organs and body tissues that produce, store, and secrete
chemical substances known as hormone. It enables animals to adjust to the
changes in its environment.
Functions
1. regulating the body's growth and development,
2. controlling the function of various tissues,
3. supporting pregnancy and other reproductive functions,
4. metabolism (catabolism and anabolism)

Endocrinology
Endocrinology is s branch of physiology dealing with the coordination of various
body tissues by chemical mediators (hormones) produced by restricted area of the body
(endocrine gland) and transported through circulatory system to the target organ or
tissue.

HORMONES
Hormone a substance or chemical mediator produced by the endocrine glands
and carried by the blood to some distant part of the body where it exerts its effect.
Hormones may be classified as simple proteins, glycoprotein and steroids.

• Glycoproteins – a polypeptide chain, longer than 100 amino acids, attached to a

carbohydrate.
Ex. Follicle-stimulating Hormone
• Steroids – lipids derived from cholesterol.
Ex. Corticosteroids

Common Characteristics and Functions:

1. Hormones appear to regulate rather than initiate reactions;
2. Hormones are effective in biocatalytic amounts;
3. Hormones are not secreted in uniform rates
4. Hormones are inactivated rapidly either at the site where it exerts its effect or at
some other glands or organs; and
5. Hormones are transported through the circulatory system or blood stream.

Components of the Endocrine Systems

The primary glands that make up the human

endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary,
thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal body, and
reproductive glands—the ovary and testis.

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The pancreas, an organ often associated with the digestive system, is also
considered part of the endocrine system.

The Pituitary Gland

A. Anterior Lobe or the Adenohypophysis

1. Growth Hormone (GH)

2. Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH
3. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
4. Prolactin (PRL)
5. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
6. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

B. Intermediate Lobe or Pars Intermedia

1. Melanin Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

C. Posterior Lobe or Neurohypophysis

1. Oxytocin
2. Vasopressin or ADH

Prolactin Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone Oxytocin

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Thyroid Gland
• Located at the neck area below the Larynx, the two lobes connected by a bridge
of tissue called Isthmus.
• Secretes hormone thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyroxine (T3)
Function:
1. Stimulates O2 consumption of most of the cells
2. Helps regulate lipid and carbohydrate metabolism
3. Necessary for normal growth and maturation
4. Increase the basal metabolic rate of an individual
Disorders:
1. Thyrotoxicosis – over activity of the gland, caused by TSI
2. Hypothyrodism – lack of the T4 secretion, due to lack of Iodine (TSH continue to
stimulate resulting to enlargement of the gland)

Pancreas
Located at the duodenal loop. It is both an exocrine and endocrine gland. Acinar
cells secrete pancreatic juices containing digestive enzymes, the endocrine function is
limited to the islet of Langerhans.
• Alpha cells secrete glucagons which is responsible for increasing blood sugar
level.
• Beta cell secrete insulin which is responsible for lowering blood glucose level.
• Hypoglycemia – excess of insulin
• Diabetes mellitus – lack of insulin
• Somatostatin - inhibitor of GH

The pancreas is made up of glandular tissue and a system of ducts. The main
duct is the pancreatic duct which runs the length of the pancreas. It drains the
pancreatic fluid from the gland and carries it to the duodenum. The main duct is
about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter and has many small side branches. The
pancreatic duct merges with the bile duct to form the ampulla of Vater (a widening
of the duct just before it enters the duodenum.)

 Location: duodenal lope of small intestine

 Nature: it serves as endocrine and exocrine gland.

Functions:
(As endocrine) It regulates/maintains proper blood
sugar levels in animal body which is crucial to the
functioning of key organs including the brain, liver, and
kidneys.

(As exocrine) secretes/produce enzymes important to

digestion. When food enters the stomach, these
pancreatic juices are released into a system of ducts
that culminate in the main pancreatic duct. This helps in
the digestion and assimilation of carbohydrates, protein and fats together with
other digestive juices.

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Gonads
• Male gonads: produce the hormone testosterone for the development of male
characteristics.
• Female gonads: produce estrogen to enhance female receptivity during estrus,
development of accessory sex glands. Produces progesterone to maintain
pregnancy. Produces relaxin for the relaxation of the cervix during parturition.

Testosterone or Androgen - the male sex hormone, responsible for manifestation of

secondary sex characters in males.

Estrogen – the female sex hormone, responsible for manifestation of secondary sex
characters in females.

Progesterone – maintains pregnancy.

Relaxin – relaxes the pubic ligaments, soften and enlarge the opening to the cervix
during parturition.

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ADRENAL GLAND
• Generally located at the anterior part of the kidney.
• Divided into adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.

A. Adrenal Medulla
Epinephrine = Adrenalin
Norepinephrine = Noradrenalin

B. Adrenal Cortex
Aldosterone = reabsorb Na from kidney tubules.
The secretion is stimulated by extra cellular fluid volume (ECF)
Glucocorticoid = stimulate glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

The Parathyroid Gland

Two distinct type of cells:
1. Chief cells = secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
2. Oxyphil cells = less abundant cells with large amount of mitochondria

 Hyperparathyroidism = hypersecretion of PTH, resulting to hypercalcemia,

hypophosphatemia, hypercalciura and hyperphosphaturia.
 Calcitonin or Thyrocalcitonin = the hormone that lowers calcium level in the
blood.

HORMONES

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TOPIC 4: CARDIOVACULAR SYSTEM

Circulatory System, or cardiovascular system, is the combined function of the

heart, blood, and blood vessels to transport oxygen and nutrients to organs and tissues
throughout the body and carry away waste products.

Functions of the Circulatory System:

 Distribute nutrients
 Transport and exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Remove waste materials
 Distribute secretions of endocrine glands
 Prevent excessive bleeding
 Prevent infection
 Regulate body temperature

The circulatory system is comprised of heart, blood and blood vessels which work
together to supply the body tissues with nourishment and collect waste materials.

HEART
• The heart is a funnel-shaped, hollow, muscular organ located at the chest
(thoracic) cavity responsible for pumping blood to all parts of the body.
• It is enclosed in a fibrous sac, the pericardium. The walls of the heart are
composed primarily of cardiac muscle the myocardium.
• The heart is divided into four chambers: the right atrium, the right ventricle, the
left atrium, and the left ventricle.

HEART SOUND
Two sounds are normally heard though a stethoscope during each cardiac cycle:
a low slightly “lub” sound (first sound), caused by the closure of the mitral and tricuspid
valves, and a shorter high pitch “dub” sound (second sound), caused by the closure of
the aortic and pulmonary valves just after the end of ventricular systole.

The heart wall is made up of three layers:

• Epicardium – outer layer of heart wall,
which is also the inner layer of epicardial sac
• Endocardium – inner layer that consists of
endothelial cells, which line the heart, covers the
heart valves, and lines the blood vessels.
• Myocardium – middle layer composed of
cardiac muscle.

BLOOD
It is composed of specialized cells, the oxygen- bearing red blood cells, disease
fighting white blood cells and blood clotting platelets, all of which are carried through
blood vessels in a liquid called plasma. Plasma is yellowish and consists of water, salts,
proteins, vitamins, minerals, hormones, dissolved gases, and fats. Serum is a plasma
without fibrinogen which is essential in blood clotting.

• Blood is the fluid carried by the arteries and veins.

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• It is somewhat sticky and viscous, having about five times the viscosity of water
and a specific gravity about 1/20 greater than water (1.06) and an average pH of
about 7.4.
• In color, it ranges from the bright red of oxygenated blood to the dark red of un
oxygenated blood.
• It is slightly alkaline in reaction and has a distinctive odor and a salty taste, and
makes up from 6 to 10% of the total body weight.
• Blood is composed of two parts: the cellular elements and fluid elements.

CELLULAR ELEMENTS

A. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) – it is non nucleated

biconcave disc-shaped cell specialized in the transportation of
oxygen. RBC is composed of water and hemoglobin, an iron
containing pigment which is principal oxygen transport
medium.

Abnormalities:
Anemia – is an abnormality in which red blood cells are reduced in number and or
hemoglobin content.
Polycythemia – it is an abnormality in which excessive number of RBC are found in the
circulating blood.

B. White Blood Cells (Leucocytes) – these are nucleated cells

that are capable of independent movement. WBC is divided
into two groups:
1. Granulocytes – are leucocytes that contains granular
material within their cytoplasm.
2. Agranulocytes – are leucocytes that contain very little
granular material in their cytoplasm.

1. Granulocytes – are leucocytes that contains granular material within their

cytoplasm.
 Neutrophils – the first line of defense against the infection and constitute the
greatest number of all the WBC.
 Eosinophils – red staining granules in the cytoplasm and increases in number
during allergic reactions.
 Basophils – it contains blue staining granules and involved in most cell
formation.

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2. Agranulocytes – are leucocytes that contain very little granular material in their
cytoplasm.
 Monocytes – the largest WBC and involved in phagocytosis.
 Lymphocytes – have relatively large nucleus and surrounded by a few cytoplasm.
It produces antibodies, neutralizes or fixes toxins, and aids in fat resorption from
the intestine.

Abnormalities
Leucopenia – decrease in the number of white blood cells.
Leucocytosis – increase in the number of white blood cells.

C. Platelets (Thrombocytes) – these are the smallest of the formed elements and are
responsible for blood clotting.

Abnormalities
Thrombus – a clot that remained fixed in the lumen of the blood vessel.
Embolus – a clot that floats freely in the bloodstream.

Fluid Elements
A. Plasma – this is the straw – colored fluid portion of an uncoagulated blood. It is
made up of 92% water and 8% other substances.
B. Serum – the fluid that remains after blood has clotted.

The total circulatory system is divided into two main parts:

The Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the heart to all the
tissues in the body except the lungs and returns deoxygenated blood carrying waste
products, such as carbon dioxide, back to the heart.

The Pulmonary circulation carries this spent blood from the heart to the lungs.
In the lungs, the blood releases its carbon dioxide and absorbs oxygen. The oxygenated
blood then returns to the heart before transferring to the systemic circulation.

The systemic circulation includes the following special systems of blood circulation:
1. Coronary circulation = heart
2. Hepatic Circulation = liver
3. Cerebral Circulation = brain
4. Renal Circulation = kidney
5. Splanchnic Circulation = digestive tract

BLOOD VESSELS
Three types of blood vessels form a
complex network of tubes throughout the body.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart, and
veins carry it toward the heart. Capillaries are the
tiny links between the arteries and the veins
where oxygen and nutrients diffuse to body tissues.

A group of cells called the sinoatrial node (SA node) control the beat of the heart
by sending out electrical signals to make the heart pump.

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Blood Coagulation
The essential process in coagulation is the conversion of the soluble plasma
protein, fibrinogen, into the insoluble protein, fibrin, and a reaction is catalyzed by the
enzyme thrombin. The thrombin is formed from its inactive circulating precursor,
prothrombin, in the presence of calcium ions by the action of activated thromboplastin.
Prothrombin is synthesized in the liver, and vitamin K is essential in the hepatic
synthesis of prothrombin. This is precisely why vitamin K is essential in blood clotting
mechanism.
Activated thromboplastin is made available at the site of the injury in the
presence of Ca++ by reaction involving platelets and some clotting factors; the
schematic mechanism in blood clotting is shown below:

Heart Beat
Pulse is the wave dilation of an artery originating from the aorta as the blood
flows into it from the heart. Heart beat is usually measured by determining the pulse
rate. Pulse determines the rate, rhythm, and amplitude of the heart and can be taken
using our ears and fingers or stethoscope or electrocardiogram (ECG).

Pulse Rate of Some Farm Animals

The following are the sites for taking the pulse rate in the animals:
• Horse – submandibular artery (face)
• Cattle – facial artery (face) and coccygeal artery (tail)
• Pig – femoral artery (thigh) and coccygeal artery (tail)
• Goat and sheep – femoral artery
• Dog and cat – femoral artery

Terms Associated with Pulse Rate

• Bradycardia – marked slowing of the heart rate.
• Tachycardia – increased pulse rate
• Arrythmia – no heart beat

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The circulatory system and the lymphatic are related to the body fluid
compartments. The animal body is made up of 60- 70 % water. This is distributed as
intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). The ICF is about 40-50% of the body
weight and the ECF is about 20% of the body weight.
In animals with closed vascular system, the ECF is divided into 2 components:
The Interstitial fluid which consists of the cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid and the

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lymph; and the blood plasma. The interstitial fluid is about 15% of the body weight and
the blood plasma is about 5% of the body weight.
The lymphatic system is part of the immune system and acts as a secondary
(accessory) circulatory system. The lymphatic system begins in the tissue spaces
between the capillaries (minute blood vessels that lie between the terminal arteries and
the beginning of the veins) of the blood vascular system. Intercalated in the course of
the lymph vessels are smooth, ovoid, pinkish bodies called lymph nodes, which are
aggregations of lymphocyte – containing tissue.
Lymph nodes act as filters and phagocytic structures, removing foreign matter
from the lymph stream before passing it on through other lymph vessels toward the
heart. It is also a source of antibodies of the body and they also produce lymphocytes.

FUNCTIONS
1. It returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream from the extracellular spaces.
2. It filters out and phagocytize bacteria and other foreign material.
3. It helps maintain homeostasis and tissue health.
4. It produces antibody and lymphocytes.
5. It absorbs and transport fat from the intestine to the bloodstream.

LYMPOID ORGANS
Lymphoid organs refer to diverse tissues as the spleen, thymus, tonsil, and
Peyer’s patches.
1. Spleen – it is the largest lymphoid organ of the lymphatic system.
a. Acts as a blood reservoir
b. Acts as lymphatic organ
c. Acts as blood forming organ in young animals.
d. Acts as graveyard for old red blood cells
e. Site for antibody production.
2. Thymus – it is a lympho – epithelial organ that serves as source of lymphocytes.
3. Tonsil and Peyer’s patches – these organs primarily act as regional lymph nodes.
• Lymph nodes filter foreign substances, such as bacteria and cancer cells, from
the lymph before it is re-entered into the blood system through the larger veins.
• Lymph nodes, which are scattered among the lymph vessels, act as the body’s
first defense against infection.

Lymph nodes produce the following cells:

• Lymphocytes – a type of white blood cell,
• Monocytes – a leukocyte that protects against blood-borne pathogens, and
• Plasma cells – produce antibodies.

Inter-relationship Between the Circulatory System and the Lymphatic System

All body tissues are supplied with blood capillaries as well as lymph capillaries.
The blood capillaries absorb substances produced by the cells and other nutrients, and
metabolites present in the intestinal fluid which require the circulatory system for their
distributions to other parts of the body. However, there are substances which cannot
readily enter the walls of the blood capillaries because of the size of their molecules,
such as protein molecules of certain hormones and enzymes. These protein molecules

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can still join the circulatory system by way of the lymphatic system. Since the lymph
capillaries have more permeable walls than the blood capillaries, all metabolites of big
molecular size which cannot be absorbed by the blood capillaries will be absorbed by
the lymph capillaries. Eventually, the lymph fluid will enter the circulatory system
through the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct.

TOPIC 5: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS
1. intake of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide
2. helps regulate the balance of acid and base in tissues, a process crucial for the normal
functioning of cells
3. protects the body against disease-causing organisms and toxic substances inhaled
with air
4. houses the cells that detect smell
Respiration is the process by which gases exchange between a living cell and its
environment is affected. Respiration involves more than the act of breathing. The
circulatory system could not carry oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the cells
unless the respiratory system performed its function of making oxygen available to the
blood relieving it of carbon dioxide. It also enables speech production.
RESPIRATORY APPARATUS
1. Nasal cavity
• it includes the following structures: external nares and nasal hairs, nasal septum,
turbinates, sinuses, olfactory region, and the nasal mucous membrane.
• Passage of air
• Line with epithelial cells with microscopic cilia
• The role is to filter the air to remove potentially disease causing organism
2. Pharynx – it is a funnel shaped musculomembranous organ, which is common
passageway for food and air.
3. Larynx – this organ connects the pharynx and the trachea. It supports the epiglottis,
which regulates the passage of air and prevents the aspiration of food or other foreign
bodies. It also serves as the voice box.
4. Trachea – it is a non –collapsible tube formed by a series of adjacent cartilage rings. It
filters the air animals breathe and branches into the bronchi. It is known as “wind pipe”.
5. Bronchi – two air tubes that branch off of the trachea and carry air directly into the
lungs
6. Lungs – The lungs are a pair of spongy, air-filled organs located on either side of the
chest (thorax). It is the main organ of the respiratory system. Oxygen is taken into the
body and carbon dioxide is breathed out. The lungs are enveloped in a membrane called
the pleura.
7. Pleurae – these are serous membrane which covers the inner wall of the thorax and
the thoracic structures.
8. Diaphragm – it is a musculomembranous partition that completely separates the
thoracic from the abdominal cavity. It is the main muscle for breathing.
9. Thoracic cavity – it surrounds the heart and its structures, the lungs and part of
trachea and esophagus, mediastinal structures, and the great vessels entering and
leaving the heart.

PHASES OF RESPIRATION
1. External Respiration – this phase includes the movement of air into and out of the
lungs (breathing), the passage of oxygen from the lungs to blood, and the passage of

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carbon dioxide from blood to the lungs, the means by which oxygen is carried to the
cells and the means by which carbon dioxide is carried form the cells back to the lungs.
Breathing is the act of bringing air and blood into intimate relationship within the
lungs and consists of two phases: inspiration and expiration. Inspiration is taking in
oxygen while expiration is giving off carbon dioxide.
2. Internal Respiration – it is concerned with the utilization of oxygen and production of
carbon dioxide by the cells and is often referred to as cellular respiration.
TYPES OF BREATHING/RESPIRATION
1. Costal (Thoracic) – it involves considerable movement of the ribs.
2. Abdominal (Diaphragmatic) – diaphragm contraction produces visible movement
of the abdomen.
3. Eupnea – normal quiet breathing.
4. Dyspnea – difficult breathing.
5. Apnea – absence or cessation of respiration
6. Hyperpnea – increase in depth or rate of breathing or both.
7. Polypnea – rapid shallow breathing.

RESPIRATORY CENTER
1. Medullary Center
• Capable of initiating and maintaining sequences of the respiratory cycle.
• This contains the minimal number of neurons necessary for the basic
coordinated sequence of inspiration, expiration
• Divided into Inspiratory Center and Expiratory Center
2. Pneumotaxic Center
• Located in the upper pons above the medullary center.
• Stimulation of this center accelerate respiration, especially expiration.
• Sends inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory area
• Involved in fine tuning of respiration rate
3. Apneustic Center
• Located in the lower pons between the pneumotaxic center and the medullary
center
• Sends stimulatory impulses to the inspiratory area / prolongs inhalation (long
deep breaths)
• Overridden by pneumotaxic control from the apneustic area to end inspiration

AIR VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES

The following terminology characterizes conventional descriptions of air volume:
• Tidal Volume (TV) – the volume of air inspired or expired during normal
respiration. It increases during excitement and activity.
• Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) – the amount of air that can be inspired above
and beyond that which is inspired during quiet inspiration.
• Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) – the maximal amount of air that can be
expired following a normal quiet expiration.
• Residual Volumes (RV) – the amount of air remaining in the lung after a maximal
expiratory effort.

The four conventional descriptions of the lung capacity are as follows

• Total Lung Capacity (TLC) – the amount of air contained in the lung at the end of
maximal inspiration
TLC = IRV + TV + ERV + RV

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• Vital Capacity (VC) – the maximal amount of air that can be expired after a
maximal inspiration
VC = IRC + TV + ERV
• Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) – the amount of air remaining in the lungs
after a normal expiration.
FRC = ERV + RV
• Inspiratory Capacity (IC) – the maximal amount of air that can be inspired after a
normal expiration.
IC = IRV + TV

TOPIC 6: SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system is the framework of the body. It is specialized in providing
protection to the vital organs, giving rigidity and form to the body, acting as levers,
serving as storage of minerals, and providing site for blood formation. It is chiefly
comprised of the bones, cartilages, teeth and joints being the osteon as the basic
structural and functional unit. The name of its study is called osteology.

FUNCTIONS
1. It provides protection of vital organs
2. It gives rigidity and form of the body
3. It acts as levers
4. Storage of minerals
5. It provides site for blood formation

 Bones: Hard tissue, mostly calcium, provides support and makes red blood cells
 Cartilage: Hard tissue that prevents bones from grinding against each other.
 Ligaments: Strong, white bands of tissue that connect two bones together at a
joint
 Tendon: Connects muscle to bone.

Joints
 Hard tissue, mostly calcium, provides Location of where two or more bones
meet.
 Bones are joined together at joints. In most instances bones can articulate at the
joints.
 Classified by the way they move.
 Joints serve as hinges for the skeletal system.
There are 4 types of joints such as:
 Hinge
Ex. Knee
 Ball and Socket
Ex. Hip

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 Gliding
Ex. Vertebrae
 Fixed (Cartilaginous)
Ex. Skull

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ACCORDING TO GROSS APPEARANCE

1.Long bones – it consists of a relatively cylindrical shaft and two extremities called
epiphyses. There is metaphysis between each epiphysis and the diphysis. Their functions
are to act as levers and aid support, locomotion, and prehension.
Examples: Thoracic Limb - humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, phalanges
Pelvic limb - femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, phalanges
2. Short bones – it is somewhat cuboid in shape or approximately equal in all
dimensions. There is no single marrow cavity but the interior is composed of spongy
bone filled with marrow spaces. The exterior is formed by a thin layer of compact bone.
It acts as absorbing concussion.
Examples: carpus and tarsus
3. Flat bones – are relatively thin and expanded in two dimensions They consist of two
plates of compact bone, the lamina externa and lamina interna, separated by spongy
material called diploe. It functions as protection of vital organs and in muscle
attachment.
Examples: frontal base of the skull, scapula and pelvic bone
4. Sesamoid bones – resembles a sesame seed and is developed along the course of
tendons to reduce friction, increase leverage or change the direction of pull.
Example: patella (largest sesamoid bone in the body)
5. Pneumatic bones – they contain air spaces or sinuses that communicate with the
exterior.
Examples: long bones of bird, frontal bones and maxillary bones of the skull
6. Irregular bones – are unpaired bones located on the median plane they include the
vertebrae and some of the unpaired bones of the skull. It serves for protection, support
and muscle attachment.
Examples: vertebrae

The skeletal system is divided into three parts:

1. Axial skeleton – composed of the skull, the vertebral column, the ribs, and the
sternum.
2. Appendicular skeleton – consists of bones of the limbs.
3. Visceral skeleton – consists of bones developed in soft tissue of certain organs or
parts such as os cordis (bone of the heart) in ox and os penis in the dog.

SKULL
• The part of the skeleton within the head is the skull.
• It protects the brain, supports many of the sense organs, and forms passages for
entry to the digestive and respiratory systems.
• The skull consists of the cranial part (braincase), which surrounds the brain, and
the facial part.
• The term cranium is sometimes used to denote the entire skull, but more
commonly refers only to the braincase, not the facial bones.

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• The caudal and dorsal walls of the cranium are formed by the occipital, parietal,
interparietal, and frontal bones. In domestic animals that possess them, the
horns have at their core bony projections that arise from the frontal bones.
These projections are the corneal processes.
• Laterally and ventrally, the walls are formed by the temporal bones, which
contain the middle and inner ears, and the sphenoid bone, which supports the
brain and pituitary gland.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebral column is composed of median unpaired irregular bones called
vertebrae. The vertebral column, or backbone, is divided into 5 anatomical regions
including the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebrae.

• Cervical vertebrae (C) - neck region

• Thoracic or dorsal (T) - chest region
• Lumbar (L) - loin region
• Sacral (S) - in region of pelvis- fused vertebrae
• Fused Lumbar and Sacral (LS)- in fowl
• Caudal or Coccygeal (Cd) - located in tail
Vertebral formula: for a given species consist of the letter symbol for each region
followed by the number of vertebrae in that region in the given species. The following
shows the vertebral formula of common farm animals.
• Cow: C7 T13 L6 S5 cd18-20
• Sheep: C7 T13 L6-7 S4 cd16-18
• Pig: C7 T14-15 L6-7 S4 cd20-23
• Horse: C7 T18 L6 S5 cd15-20
• Chicken: C14 T7 LS14 cd6

The cervical vertebrae have well-developed articular processes to accommodate the

large range of motion of the neck. It allows movement of the head. All domestic
mammals have seven cervical vertebrae.

• The atlas is the first cervical vertebrae that forms a hinge joint with the occipital
bone of the skull and allows the head to move up and down.
• The axis is the second cervical vertebra that forms a pivotal joint with the atlas
and allows the head to turn from side to side.

Thoracic vertebrae are characterized by well-developed spinous processes and

articular facets for the ribs. The thoracic vertebrae are in the chest area and are the
attachment sites of the ribs.

Lumbar vertebrae The large, flat projections of the lumbar vertebrae, that extend to
either side of the midline, are the long bones seen in a T-bone cut.

The sacral vertebrae are in the pelvic region and are usually fused to form a single
wedge-shaped bone, sacrum, to which the pelvic limb is attached.

Caudal vertebrae form the bony basis for the tail. Depending on the length of the
tail, the number varies considerably from species to species and even within the same

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species. Size of the vertebrae decreases rapidly in a caudal direction, until the last few
caudal vertebrae are merely small rods of bone.

STERNUM
• Sternum forms the floor of the bony thoracic wall and gives attachment to the
costal cartilages of the sternal (true) ribs as well as forming a place of origin for
the pectoral muscles.
• The cranial extremity of the sternum is the manubrium; the middle portion is the
body; and the caudal extremity is the xiphoid process.

• The sternum consists of segments called sternebrae which tend to fuse together
as age advances. The number of sternebrae varies with species as follows: pig -6,
sheep -6, cow -7, goat-7, horse-8 and dog-6.

RIBS
• Ribs – thin, flat, curved bones that protect the heart, lungs, stomach, spleen, and
kidneys.
• Ribs also assist in respiration by lifting up and allowing the lungs to expand
during inhalation and by moving down and squeezing air out during exhalation.
• The ribs form the lateral walls of the bony thorax. Usually, the number of pairs of
ribs is the same as the number of thoracic vertebrae. Rarely, an extra rib or pair
of ribs lies either cranial or caudal to the thoracic vertebrae.
• A typical rib consists of a shaft, a sternal extremity ventrally, and a vertebral
extremity dorsally.
• The number of sternal ribs corresponds to the number of sternebrae in the
animal. The ribs caudal to the sternal ribs are called asternal (false) ribs because
they are not directly connected to the sternum.

ANATOMY OF THE PECTORAL LIMBS

• The front legs of four-legged animals (quadrupeds) are the pectoral limbs.
• The bones included in the pectoral limb are the scapula, humerus, radius and
ulna, carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges.
• The pectoral limbs are connected to the axial skeleton (body) by muscles and
connective tissues.
• The joints formed by the scapula and humerus are ball-and-socket joints, but
function as hinge joints.
• The remaining joints in the pectoral limb also function as hinge joints.
• Scapula (shoulder blade) – a triangular-shaped flat bone that attaches to the
humerus.
• Humerus (arm) – a long bone that extends toward the front of the animal,
forming the point of the shoulder. It has a shaft and two extremities.
• Radius – the larger, well-developed bone in the forearm, located on the inside of
the foreleg. The radius connects to the humerus forming the elbow joint.
• Ulna – the smaller of the two bones in the forearm.
• Carpus (knee) – a complex region of small, cube-shaped bones (sliding joints)
that function together as a hinge joint.

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ANATOMY OF THE PELVIC LIMBS

• The hind legs of quadrupeds (four-legged animals) are the pelvic limbs.
• The pelvic limbs are connected to the axial skeleton by the pelvic girdle.
• The femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges are the bones that
form the hind leg.
• Pelvic girdle – three bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis) that are fused together to
form an irregular bone called the os coxae or pelvis.
• The pelvis is connected to the sacrum at the sacroiliac joint.
• Ilium bones – front, dorsal bones in the pelvis; in cattle, the front points of the
ilium bones are called the hook bones.
• Ischium bones – rear, dorsal bones in the pelvis; in cattle, the rear points of the
ischium bones are called the pin bones.
• Pubis – ventral bones in the pelvis that form the floor of the pelvic girdle.
• Femur – a long bone that extends from the hip joint to the stifle joint and is the
site of several hip and thigh muscle attachments.
• Patella (kneecap in humans) – the largest sesamoid bone in quadrupeds.
• Tibia – the larger, thicker of the two long bones in the hind leg, the tibia is
located on the inside of the hind leg and extends from the stifle joint to the hock
joint.
• Fibula – the thinner bone in the hind leg, the fibula extends from the upper end
of the tibia to lengths that vary depending on the species.
• Tarsus (hock) – two rows of tarsal bones in the hind leg that correspond to the
ankle in humans and are similar to the carpus in the front leg.
• Fibular tarsal – bone that forms the point of the hock and serves as a lever for
muscles that extend the hock.
• Metatarsus (rear cannon bone) – bones that are similar to the metacarpals of
the foreleg, but are slightly longer.
• Phalanges – bones that make up the digits of the hind leg, which are similar to
those in the front leg.

Visceral Skeleton
a. Os rostri – snout of pig
b. Os cordis – heart of cattle and sheep
c. Os penis – penis of dog
d. Entoglossal bone – tongue of poultry
Bone composition
Cellular components
Osteocytes – the bone cells.
Osteoblast – the bone-forming cells.
Osteoclast – the bone-destroying cells.

Mineral components
Mineral matter of the bone is composed of about 80% calcium phosphate and
20% calcium carbonate and magnesium phosphate. It is approximated that 1 ml of bone
contains 10, 000 mg of calcium, as compared with 6 mg/100 ml for most tissues and
about 10 mg/100 ml of blood.

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Terms Associated with Bone Physiology

Ossification – is the formation of true bone by deposition of calcium salts in a matrix of
osteoid tissue.
Calcification – refers to the deposition of calcium salts in any tissue.

TOPIC 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

T
he muscular system is the most prominent and extensive anatomical
feature of the body. It is composed of different muscle responsible for
animal movements/locomotion. These responses include such diverse
activities as walking; breathing; ingestion, transport and elimination of food; blood
circulation; and most activities associated with reproduction.
It is chiefly comprised of muscles with the muscle fiber or myofibril as its basic
structural and functional unit. The name of its study is called myology. Muscles are the
contractile tissues that are responsible for performing various voluntary and involuntary
functions. It can be regarded as motors of the body.

FUNCTIONS OF MUSCLE
1. Pumping of blood around the body
2. Movement of extremities
3. Respiration
4. Movement of nutrient material along the gastrointestinal tract
5. Transport of urine to the urinary bladder from the kidneys and emptying of the
bladder.
MUSCLE TERMINOLOGIES
• Action – the movement at the joint when the muscle(s) contract.
• Origin - proximal attachment least moveable end and closest to the midline of
the body
• Insertion - distal attachment most moveable end and furthest from the midline
of the body
• Antagonistic – oppose or resist the action of another muscle.
• Synergistic – work together to produce a common effect
• Flexor – decreases the angle at a joint
• Extensor – increases the angle at a joint
• Abductor – moves a bone away from the midline
• Adductor – moves a bone closer to the midline
• Levator – produces an outward movement.
• Depressor – produces a downward movement.
• Sphincter – decreases the size of an opening.
• Tensor – makes a body part more rigid
• Rotator – moves a bone around its longitudinal axis.

MAJOR GROUPS OF MUSCLE

1. Striated Muscle (Skeletal or Striped)
This muscle is composed of long, unbranched, and multinucleated fibers. This
muscle makes us move around and it is responsible for most of our behavior. It is mostly
found attached to the bones at each end via tendons. It makes up 40% of body weight.

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It is responsible for locomotion, facial expressions, posture, respiratory movements and

other types of body movement.
Examples: muscles of limbs and trunks
2. Smooth Muscle (Unstriped or Visceral)
This muscle is smooth in structure and does not possess the cross striations
characteristics of skeletal and cardiac muscles. It is not under the control of the will but
controlled by the autonomic nervous system. It may either be generally inactive and
then respond to neural stimulation or hormones or may be rhythmic. It is found in the
muscular layer of the stomach and intestines; in the urogenital system, walls of the
blood vessels, and smooth muscle fibers around the alveoli and alveolar duct of the
lungs.
3. Cardiac Muscle (Striated, Involuntary; Heart)
It is found in the heart. It possesses the cross striations of striped muscle but the
nuclei are located centrally rather than on the periphery of the muscle bundles. It acts
like rhythmic smooth muscle, modulated by neural activity and hormones.

PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE
• Excitability: capacity of muscle to respond to a
stimulus
• Contractility: ability of a muscle to shorten and
generate pulling force
• Extensibility: muscle can be stretched back to
its original length
• Elasticity: ability of muscle to recoil to original
resting length after stretched

Common Muscles Found in Livestock Animals

• Masseter – the superficial muscle of the cheek that aids in chewing and biting
movements.
• Trapezius – the superficial, triangular muscle of the shoulder that helps move
front appendages.
• Latissimus dorsi – a long muscle that connects the humerus bone of the forearm
to the back of the animal.

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• Abdominal obliques – large muscles that run along the sides of the animal and
help support the internal organs of digestion and reproduction.
• Gluteals – the large muscles in the upper hind quarter region of the animal that
aid in rear leg.
• Biceps femoris – the large muscle found in the rear leg of an animal.
• Biceps brachii – the muscle responsible for the flexing of the front legs (elbow
joint) of an animal.
• Triceps brachii – the muscle responsible for the extension of the front legs
(elbow joint) of an animal movement.
• Pectorals – large muscles that run across the chest of the animal and are
responsible for the primary movement of front legs.
• Serratus ventralis – muscles that connect the forelimbs (front legs) to the trunk
of the animal.

TOPIC 8: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system consists of a musculo-membranous tube extending from the

mouth to the anus. Its functions are ingestion, grinding, digestion and absorption of
food, and elimination of solid wastes. The digestive system reduces the nutrients in the
food to compounds that are simple enough to be absorbed and used for energy and
building other compounds for metabolic use. Its chief structures include the stomach
and intestines. Its name of study is called splanchnology.

PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Mouth - the beginning of the digestive system and includes the lips, tongue,
teeth and salivary glands. It is responsible for the breakdown of food materials
and serves as a prehensile (grasping) mechanism and as a defensive and
offensive weapon.
Prehensile Organs of Farm Animals
• Snout or tongue and incisors – pig
• Tongue and upper lip – cattle
• Pointed muzzle/lip – goat and sheep
• Movable upper lip or upper and incisors – horse
• Incisors - rabbits
• Hard beak – poultry

2. Pharynx – it is a funnel – shaped musculomembranous organ which is a common

passage for and air.
3. Esophagus – it is a musculomembranous tube extending from the pharynx to the
stomach.
4. Stomach – it is a hollow, pear shaped, muscular digestive organ which is the site
for feed storage, grinding and mixing of feed, absorption, enzymatic action, and
microbial fermentation. There are two types of stomach: simple stomach and
compound stomach.
a. Simple Stomach - it is located just behind the left side of the diaphragm. It is
divided into cardia (entrance) fundus (body) and pylorus (termination). It produces the
hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen for partial digestion of food.

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b. Compound Stomach
1. Reticulum (Honeycomb) – is the most anterior and smallest section of the
compound stomach. It receives heavy matter in food and acts as a liquid reservoir to
soften these materials. It aids in regurgitation of feed back to the mouth.
Regurgitation – the process of movement of ingesta back up to the esophagus to
the mouth or additional mechanical breakdown.
2. Rumen (Paunch) – is the largest of the compound stomach. It serves as a
fermentation vat, organ of maceration, site of bacterial digestion and organ of
absorption.
3. Omasum (Many plies) – is spherical organ filled with muscular laminae. Laminae
is studded with a short, blunt papillae that grind roughage before it enters the
abomasum.
4. Abomasum (True Stomach) – it secretes gastric enzyme and hydrochloric acid. It
is also known as the maw, rennet-bag, or reed tripe. It is the fourth and final
compartment stomach in ruminants. It secretes rennet, which is used in cheese creation
5. Small intestine – it is a tube connecting the stomach to the cecum and large intestine.
It is suspended from the dorsal part of the abdominal cavity by a fold of peritoneum
called the great mesentery. This is responsible for the digestion and absorption of food.
It is about 60 feet in length and 2.5 gallons capacity in swine and 70 feet in length and
12 gallons capacity in horse.
There are three segments of the small intestine:
a. Duodenum – it is a fixed part of the small intestine and loosely attached to the
stomach. An active site of digestion that receives secretions from pancreas, liver
and intestinal walls. It is about 5% of the total length of the small intestine.
b. Jejunum – it is about 90% of the total length of the small intestine. It is middle
section that is involved in nutrient absorption.
c. Ileum – it is the last part of the small intestine responsible for nutrient
absorption.
6. Large intestine – it extends from the termination of the ileum to the anus. This is the
organ for digestion of fiber for simple stomach animals and site of water absorption. It is
about 16 feet long and 2 gallons capacity in swine and 12 feet long and 18.5 gallons
capacity in horse.
• Cecum – Cul-de-sac situated between the ileum and the great colon. It is
somewhat comma shaped and lies to the right of the median plane. It is
relatively large in the horse, contains many bacteria which produced enzymes
that digest fiber.
• Colon- part of the intestine which involves in the reabsorption of water.
• Rectum- terminal part of the intestine and it is the organ of fecal storage.
• Anus - the terminal part of the alimentary tract.

ACCESSORY GLANDS
1. Pancreas – it is a gland found in the first loop of the duodenum. It produces
sodium bicarbonate and digestive system.
2. Liver – it is the largest gland in the body. Functions of the liver are:
a. Storage and formation of glycogen (animal starch)
b. Secretion of bile
c. Detoxification of poisons
d. Breakdown of uric acid

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e. Formation of urea
f. Desaturation of fatty acids.
3. Gall bladder – it is a storage place for bile. It is absent in horse, deer, elk, moose,
elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, camel, tapir and rat.
4. Salivary glands - Produce both watery and mucous fluid in the mouth.

AVIAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Beak – contains rigid tongue and less salivary gland, hence low production of
saliva so feed is swallowed dry, and no teeth. Adopted for rapid picking up of small
particles of feeds. The saliva contains salivary amylase for initial digestion of
carbohydrates.
2. Esophagus – muscular tube that connects that stomach to the prehensile organ of
the avian species.
3. Crop - enlarged area that serves as ingesta holding and moistening reservoir,
allow breakdown reaction of salivary amylase and fermentation.
4. Proventriculus – The true stomach of poultry where gastric juice, HCl and pepsin,
production takes place. It is about 2 inches in mature chicken.
5. Gizzard/Ventriculus – it is a thick muscular walled area acting to physically reduce
particle size ingesta. Gizzard lining normally contains grit (small stone or hard particles)
which aid in grinding ingested seeds and grains. It is about 2 inches in mature chicken.
5. Small Intestine - enzymatic digestion and absorption happens here. Functions of
the small intestine: digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats; absorption of the
end products of digestion. It is about 55 inches in mature chicken.
6. Ceca and Large Intestine – the avian digestive system contains 2 blind pouches
(ceca) as compared to mammals (cecum). The ceca and the large intestine are site for
water resorption. Fiber digestion and water soluble vitamins synthesis occurs because of
the bacterial fermentation.
7. Cloaca/Vent/Anus – eliminates waste products.

TOPIC 9: URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system consists of organs (kidneys), with the nephron as its basic
structural and functional unit, that filter plasma and plasma constituents from the
blood, and then selectively reabsorb water and useful constituents back from the
filtrate, ultimately excreting excesses and plasma waste products in the form of urine.
Micturition is the term for expulsion of urine from the urinary bladder. Its name of study
is called splanchnology.

The principal function of the urinary system is the excretion and removal of
waste products from the blood. It consists of two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder and
urethra. Other functions are:
• blood volume control and blood pressure maintenance
• system that produces, stores, and eliminates urine
• eliminates waste products from the body (urea and uric acid)
• regulation of electrolyte balance
• acid-base homeostasis regulation

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1. Kidneys - are purplish brown organ found in pair below ribs and at the middle of the
back. Most domestic animals have somewhat bean shaped kidneys and located in the
dorsal anterior portion of the abdominal cavity on both sides of the median plane and
slightly posterior to the liver. This is the primary organ for urine formation.

Major Functions of the Kidney are:

• Blood pressure control
• Chemical Balance
• Filtration of blood
• Secrete hormones such as erythropoietin, AHD (anti diuretic hormone) –
neurohypophysial hormone.

Structure of the Kidney

Renal hilus. Depression/concave medial border of the kidney where blood vessels and
nerves enter and ureter and lymphatic vessels leave.
Renal pelvis. Expanded origin of the ureter within the kidney, which receives urine from
the collecting tubules of the kidney.
Renal sinus. The cavity within the kidney that contains the pelvis.
Medulla. Portion of the kidney immediately surrounding the renal pelvis which appear
striated because of the radially arranged collecting tubules. Also contains some loop of
Henle.
Cortex. Located between the medulla and thin connective-tissue capsule. It has granular
appearance due to large number of glomeruli. It also contains the proximal and distal
convoluted tubules in close association with glomeruli and many loops of Henle.

2. Ureters – it is a muscular tube that conveys urine from the pelvis of the kidney to the
bladder.

3. Urinary bladder – it is a muscular sac that holds urine or balloon like structure which
stores and releases urine. It sends alert to the brain when it is filled to urinate

Functions of Bladder
1. Nerves in bladder tell you when to urinate
2. Excels urine out from the body through urethra

Diseases of Bladder
• Bladder Cancer
• Bladder Infection – painful urination
• Urinary incontinence – loss of bladder control
• Interstitial cystitis – inflammation and irritation in bladder walls

4. Urethra – it is a relatively long usually curved common passageway for urine and
semen in male and a short relatively straight and solely urinary function in the female.

Diseases in Urethra
• Urethral Stricture – narrowing of the urethra
• Urethritis/Urethral Infection – inflammation
• Urethral Prolapse

Components of Nephron:
• Glomerulus – mechanically filters blood.
• Bowman’s Capsule – mechanically filters blood.
• Proximal Convoluted Tubule – reabsorbs 75% of the water, salts, glucose and
amino acids.

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• Loop of Henle – maintains the concentration gradient

• Distal Convoluted Tubule – tubular secretion of H+ ions, potassium, and certain
drugs.

Function of Nephron
• Glomerular filtration of water and solutes from the blood.
• Tubular reabsorption of water and conserved molecules back into the blood.

• Tubular secretion of ions and other waste products from surrounding capillaries
into the distal tubule.

URINE FORMATION
Primarily the kidneys produce urine. The amount of renal excretion depends
upon the flow of blood through the kidneys. The formation of urine begins as the blood
enters the glomerular tufts enclosed within Bowman’s capsule. Each kidney contains a
large number of these units that are the vascular portion of the nephrons. The nephron
continues as the tubular portion, which performs the selective reabsorption and
secretory functions necessary to form urine.
Bowman’s capsule is designed for the outward filtration from the plasma of
water and substances dissolved in water. The energy for this filtration is derived from
blood pressure. The high pressure in the glomerular capillaries tends to force water out
of the plasma. This force is countered somewhat by pressures within the nephron that
tend to prevent filtration.

TOPIC 10: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Reproduction pertains to perpetuation of animal species and made possible by

the different organs both in the male and female reproductive systems being the ovaries
as the primary reproductive organs in females and the testes in male. The name of its
study is called splanchnology.
The process of reproduction begins with copulation, which is the mating of a
male and female of the species. Sperm cells from the male are deposited in the female
reproductive tract and try to unite with an egg cell. When fertilization (a sperm cell and
egg cell unite) occurs, an embryo begins to develop. The embryo attaches to the wall of
the uterus where it is protected, receives nourishment, and develops. When the new
offspring reaches the end of the gestation period, it is delivered from the female
reproductive tract in a process called parturition.

There are two forms of reproduction: asexual and sexual reproduction.

• Asexual reproduction does not require the sex organs to facilitate the
perpetuation of the species.
• Sexual reproduction needs male and female sex organs involved in the process
of reproduction.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Functions of the Female Reproductive System
• Produce egg cells (ova)
• Serve as receptacle for the penis during copulation
• House and nourish the fetus until parturition

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PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Ovaries – these are the primary sex organs of the female attached by the broad
ligament (mesovarium) to the dorsal wall of the sub lumbar region of the body cavity.
The ovaries have two main functions:
a. Production of egg cells or ova
b. Production of female sex hormones: estrogen and progesterone
2. Oviduct or fallopian tube –paired tubes extending from the ovaries to the uterus. It
serves as passageway of eggs from ovary to uterus. It is the site of fertilization and the
beginning of embryonic development after fertilization.
3. Uterus – it consists of uterine horns and uterine body. Horn of uterus is the organ
which serves as the site of implantation for the fertilized egg. It is the site of embryonic
growth and site of placental & fetal development. The body of uterus unites the two
horns of the uterus and connects them to the cervix. Expulsion of the fetus during
parturition by contractions also happened in the uterus. The uterus varies in shape
between livestock species from long uterine horns of the sow to relatively short uterine
horns in the mare.
4. Cervix - a thick-walled mass of connective tissue with a small tube-like opening that
joins the uterus to the vagina. It is considered as the neck of the uterus. Its opening, os
uteri closes when the animal gets pregnant to protect the uterine contents. Cervix acts
as sperm receptacle in certain animals. It also facilitates transport of viable sperm
through the cervical mucus to the uterus. It also contains glands that secrete a waxy-like
substance that seals off the uterus during pregnancy and between heat periods to
protect against infection, disease, or foreign matter.
5. Vagina – it is the primary organ of copulation. It serves as the sperm depository area
in many species. It serves as the birth canal during parturition. It also serves as a
passageway for expelling liquid wastes, as the urethra joins the bladder to the vagina
prior to the opening at the vulva.
6. Vulva – is the external portion of the female reproductive tract. It is the common
passage for products of reproduction and urine. It serves to protect internal system
from infection and initially receive the penis at copulation. The vulva is comparable to
the cloaca of the birds.
7. Clitoris – it is a small rudimentary organ homologous to the glans penis of the male
which serve as sensory erectile organ just inside the vulva.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Functions of the Male Reproductive System
• Production, storage, and deposition of sperm cells
• Production of male sex hormones
• Serve as passageway for expelling urine from the urinary bladder

PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Testes – these are paired, oval shaped organs which s considered as primary organ of
the male. It produces sperm cell and produce testosterone (male sex hormones). In birds,
the two testes are located within the body cavity. In livestock, testes are located outside
the body cavity within the scrotum.
Testosterone - the male sex hormone that is responsible for the development of
secondary male characteristics and sex behavior (libido).
2. Scrotum – is a cutaneous sac that serves as the external covering of the testes. It
protects the testes from direct mechanical injuries and provides an environment which
is cooler (6-9°C) than the body temperature required for normal sperm production.
3. Seminiferous tubules – found inside the testes responsible for the production of
sperm and maturation.

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4. Epididymis – it is a coiled tube that lies upon the surface of the testicle and composed
of three parts: head, body and tail. It functions as storage, concentrate, site of sperm
maturation, and transportation of spermatozoa.
5. Vas deferens – it is found at the end of the tail of epididymis which is straightened to
form the ampulla. Vas deferens carries sperm from epididymis to the urethra. Ampulla
joins with the urethra.
*Ampullae – an enlargement of the deferent duct that opens into the urethra and may
serve as a temporary storage depot for sperm.
6. Urethra – a passageway for both semen and urine that extends from the ampullae
and bladder to the end of the penis. It carries urine from the bladder. Has a loop called
sigmoid flexure (bull, boar, ram, buck).
7. Penis – the organ of copulation in males. It is the passageway for semen and urine. It
deposits semen in the female reproductive tract.
• The penis of the stallion is vascular, which means that it depends on the
engorgement of blood within certain tissues for erections to occur and it forms
no sigmoid flexure when relaxed.
• The penises of the bull, ram, and boar are fibroelastic, which means that they are
primarily composed of connective tissue and depend little on blood for
erections.
8. Seminal vesicles – it is a paired, hollow, and pear shaped in stallion, lobulated in bull,
ram and boars, absent in dogs. It secretes seminal fluid (ascorbic acid, citric acid, acid
soluble phosphorus, seminal fructose, and ergothionene) that nourishes the sperm and
provides protection and transportation medium for sperm upon ejaculation.
9. Prostate gland – it produces alkaline secretion which gives characteristic odor of
semen. It secretes thick, milky fluid that mixes with seminal fluid to provide nutrition
and substance to the semen such as antagluttin minerals.
10. Cowper’s gland or Bulbo- urethral gland – it is a small paired glands located on
either side of the pelvic urethra. It is found in all domestic animals except in dog. It
secretes fluid that cleanses and neutralizes the urine residue that can kill sperm cells in
the urethra.
11. Sigmoid flexure – has a s-shaped curve structure that allows for penis retraction.
Stallions and humans do not have sigmoid flexure.
12. Retractor Penis Muscle – muscle that contracts to retract the penis and form the
sigmoid flexure and relaxes to extend the penis upon sexual excitement.
13. Sheath – external portion of the male reproductive tract that serves to protect the
penis from injury and infection.

AVIAN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Ovary – this organ forms the ovum (yolk). When fully formed ovulation will occur
(stimulated by luteinizing hormone). The yolk moves into the duct system of the female
reproductive system. Ovary produces the female sex hormone, estrogen, and the
hormone androgen.
2. Oviduct – this organ is composed of the following:
a. Infundibulum or funnel – the first section of the oviduct that picks up ovum or
yolk from the ovary. Fertilization occur in the infundibulum.
b. Magnum – it secretes albumen, a high protein and viscous (thick white)
secreted from magnum glands deposited around the yolk.
c. Isthmus – the developing egg moves through the isthmus, where thin
membrane will be secreted to surround and contain the albumen (shell membrane)
3. Uterus – organ known as the shell gland. In this portion, protein, calcium and other
materials including pigments are secreted to form the shell. Egg shell is comprised of
largely calcium carbonate but the very thin outer layer called the cuticle is largely
protein.

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4. Vagina – this organ inverts to expel the egg from uterus. In the vagina, a thin protein
coating called bloom is applied to the shell to keep harmful bacteria or dust from
entering the shell pores. Stimulated by oxytoxin, causes vigorous contraction of the
uterus moves the egg through the vagina and cloaca depositing the egg externally of the
bird through the process of oviposition.

In poultry, the functions of estrogen include:

• stimulating the growth of the oviduct,
• increasing the size of the cloaca during egg laying,
• modifying feather shape and pigmentation of the female, and
• increasing the level of fat, phosphorus, and calcium in the blood.

AVIAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male poultry anatomy consists of two testes (each with an epididymis and
vas deferens) that lead to papillae and a rudimentary copulatory organ.
Unlike other livestock species, the testes of poultry are located within the
abdominal cavity along the backbone.
• The epididymis function as sperm storage and is relatively small in relation to
the testes.
• The vas deferens extend from the epididymis to the cloaca and are located on
each side of the vertebral column. The vas deferens function in transportation of
sperm and as sperm reservoirs.
• Cloaca – the lower end of the avian digestive tract that provides a passageway
for products of the urinary, digestive, and reproductive tracts.
• Papillae – located at the end of the vas deferens and on the floor of the cloaca,
the papillae emit semen into the cloaca of the female.
• Phallus – a rudimentary copulatory organ that becomes engorged with lymph
during mating, which allows semen to be deposited onto the female’s everted
cloacus; the phallus is more developed in ducks and geese.

Androgen – the male sex hormone produced by the testes.

Functions of androgen include:
• Directing sexual activity and the production of sperm,
• Controlling secondary sexual characteristics of the male, and
• Influencing social rank or “peck order.”

PUBERTY
• The male and female reproductive tract starts to function at age of puberty.
Puberty indicates that the organism has reached sexual maturity –capable of
producing their offspring.
• The age of puberty varies between breeds of animals among female animals of
the same breed. The first manifestation to indicate that the female has reached
the age of puberty is when it starts to show signs of estrus.
• At puberty, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted from the anterior
pituitary gland causes growth and development of the graafian follicle (GF) in the
ovary. The developing follicle secretes estrogen which causes estrus in female.
Estrogen stimulates the production of luteinizing hormone (LH).
• At the peak of estrogen production, LH production increases which coincides
with the production of inhibin from the ovary which inhibits production of FSH.
Luteinizing hormone is the hormone that causes ovulation of matured follicle at

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the ovarian surface. It also initiates the formation of a yellow body filled with
lutein cells called corpus luteum (CL) at the site of ovulation.
• The CL secretes progesterone (as long as the CL is secreting progesterone, estrus
is inhibited). Progesterone is responsible for preparation of the endometrium of
the uterus for implantation of the fertilized egg and maintains normal pregnancy
until birth. If there is no pregnancy, CL will regress to form corpus albicans, while
the uterus secretes prostaglandin F2 alpha which could destroy the CL.

Animals may be classified based on the occurrence of estrus cycle:

• MONOESTRUS – animal that comes in heat only once a year (deer, dog & fox).
• SEASONALLY POLYESTRUS – if it comes in heat at certain seasons only (sheep,
cat).
• POLYESTRUS – if animal comes in heat all throughout the year (swine, cattle &
carabao).

PHASES OF ESTROUS CYCLE

• PROESTRUS – it is characterized by follicle growth and thickened uterine mucosa
which become thickened by blood.
• ESTRUS – it is under the influence of estrogen wherein the female accepts the
male for mating (standing heat). Ovulation takes place during this phase.
* Silent heaters can be detected by breeding male through the smell of
pheromones, a hormone like substance secreted by the female.
• METESTRUS – characterized by the formation of the CL develop in the ruptured
follicle and the uterine mucosa are prepared to receive fertilized egg. If
fertilization occurs, metestrus is followed by the period of pregnancy
(conception). If not, diestrus will follow.
• DIESTRUS – it is when corpus luteum ceases to function, the uterus goes into a
period of quiescence (resting stage) in order that a new cycle can begin.

Related terms:
• ANESTRUS – it is absence of estrus in an animal.
• NYMPHOMANIA – animals with estrogen-primed ovary and always in heat (may
be due to cystic ovary).

SPONTANEOUS OVULATORS
- are those that ovulate spontaneously during or around estrus such as cattle,
carabao, goat, sheep, swine, etc.
INDUCED OVULATORS
- are those animals that do not ovulate unless there is copulation such as rabbit.
HEAT DETECTION
Heat detection is an important livestock management tool to know when an
animal is sexually receptive to determine the right time to breed. The surest indication
of a dam is in heat is her acceptance of the sire.

Missed heat results in:

• Increased parturition intervals, decreased numbers of offspring produced per
year or lifespan of the female.

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• Longer dry periods and consequently decreased milk production per year or
lifespan of a dairy cow
BEHAVIORAL SIGNS OF ESTRUS
• Restlessness and nervousness
• Isolation from the rest of the herd or flock
• Tail elevated, ears are perked (cattle and horses)
• Increased interaction with the other members of the herd or flock
• Mounting of other members of the herd or flock
• Frequent urination

PHYSICAL SIGNS OF ESTRUS

• Thick, clear and stringy mucus from the vulva
• Reddened and swollen vulva
• Roughened dirty hair coat from being mounted
• Reduced milk production (this is normally monitored in dairy cattle)

The mucus discharge is watery at first and towards the end of estrus becomes sticky.
The vaginal lining of in heat animal is pinkish and is pale when not in heat. However, the
best sign of heat is when the animals stands still when mounted by male animals of the
same species.

When to Breed or Inseminate

• In cattle and carabaos, ovulation takes place about 15 -18 hours from the end of
estrus. The best time to inseminate a female animal is toward the end of its
estrus. Since the duration of estrus is variable and no one can tell exactly when
the animal started its heat, it is then recommended that once the animal is
observed to be in heat, then inseminate it immediately.
• The duration of estrus in carabao lasts from 5 to 36 hours or an average of 18
hours (less than a day).
• In swine the duration of estrus is about 2-3 days. The best time to breed or
inseminate the sow is on the second and third day of estrus.
• In mares estrus duration is about 6-7 days. Mating or insemination is
recommended on the fourth and fifth day of estrus.
• If the animal is observed to be in heat in the morning, inseminate immediately,
and if it is still in heat in the afternoon inseminate again. Likewise, if it is
observed to exhibit heat in the afternoon, inseminate immediately, and if it is
still in heat the following morning, give the second insemination.

The best time to breed or inseminate in relation to the observed estrus varies,
depending upon:
1. Survival time of the egg post – ovulation
2. Survival time of sperm within the female reproductive tract
3. When ovulation takes place

FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

• Fertilization is the union of the haploid sperm and the haploid ovum to form a
diploid individual; the actual beginning of pregnancy.

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• Insemination can be natural or artificial. In natural insemination copulation takes

place. Copulation deposits several hundred million sperm in the vagina.
• They swim through the cervix and uterus to the fallopian tubes moved along by
whip like movements of their tails and contractions of the uterus.
• During this journey the sperm undergo their final phase of maturation so they
are ready to fertilize the ovum by the time they reach it in the upper fallopian
tube.
• If the sperm were deposited at the proper time in relation to ovulation, the
sperm and egg should unite and fertilization occur.
• High mortality means only a small proportion of those deposited actually reach
the ovum.
• The sperm attach to the outer zona pellucida and enzymes secreted from a gland
in the head of the sperm dissolve this membrane so it can enter.
• Once the sperm has entered, changes in the zona pellucida prevent further
sperm from penetrating.
• The sperm loses its tail and the two nuclei fuse to form a zygote with the full set
of paired chromosomes restored.
• As the fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube it starts to divide by mitosis.
First two cells are formed and then four, eight sixteen, etc. until there is a solid
ball of cells which is called morula.
• As division continues a hallow ball of cells develops which is called blastocyst
• Implantation involves the blastocyst attaching to, and in some species
completely sinking into the wall of the uterus.
• Pregnancy occurs. At first, the embryo floats freely in the uterus obtaining its
nourishment from fluids secreted by the uterine wall.
• As the embryo increases in size, the placenta, umbilical cord and fetal
membranes (often known collectively as the placenta) develop to provide it with
nutrients and remove waste products.
• The embryo will then attach to the wall of the uterus (20 days in cattle; varies
with species) and begin taking a recognizable form, at which time it becomes a
fetus.
• The placenta is the organ that attaches the fetus to the wall of the uterus. In it
the blood of the fetus and mother flow close to each other but never mix. The
closeness of the maternal and fetal blood systems allows diffusion between
them.
• The embryo is encompassed by a fluid filled membrane called the amnion, which
protects the embryo from mechanical disturbances.
• The amnion is surrounded by the chorion, which functions as a protective coat
and point of nutrient exchange.
• The chorion attaches to the uterus. In ruminants (cow and ewe), the chorion
develops cotyledons (raised button-like nodules) that attach at certain places on
the uterus called caruncles.
• In the mare and sow the placental attachment is made over most of the surface
area of the chorion.
• The fetus receives nourishment from its mother through these attachment sites.

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• The placenta is the term given to the membranes (chorion and uterine mucosa)
that surround the embryo and attach to the uterus.

STAGES OF PREGNANCY
• NIDATION or IMPLANTATION – trophoblastic cells of the blastocyst attach
themselves between the epithelial cells of the uterus.
• EMBRYONIC PERIOD – it extends from the time of attachment of the fertilized
egg to the wall of the uterus until the form of new individual is laid down. During
this period three extra embryonic membranes are developed.
• FETAL PERIOD – from the end of embryonic period to the time of birth.

EXTRA EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES

• CHORION – the outer layer which is in contact with the maternal tissues.
Completely surrounds the embryo, amnion and allantoic cavity.
• ALLANTOIS – it fuses with chorion to form the allantoic cavity or fetal placenta
that serve as urinary receptacle for the embryo and also collects some solid
waste.
• AMNION – the innermost membrane which surrounds the embryo. It encloses
the embryo in a double layered sac that forms the water bag. This is filled with a
clear watery fluid in which the embryo is suspended. The water bag provides a
protective cushion against external shocks and pressure. At parturition, the
amnion acts as wedge to dilate the cervix.

PARTURITION
• a physiological process by which the pregnant uterus delivers the fetus and
placenta from the maternal organism.
• the act of giving birth in animals

Signs of Approaching Parturition

• Vulva softens and becomes swollen
• Obvious enlargement of the mammary gland and may secrete a milky substance
a few days before birth occurs
• Teats becomes swollen
• Presence of milk is a strong indication of approaching parturition
• Cervix become dilated
• Mucus stringing from the vulva
- this is an indicative of cervical dilation and expulsion of the mucus plug which
sealed off the uterus to protect it from invasion of microorganisms throughout
pregnancy
• Change in the body temperature of dam
- the sow’s body temperature rises about 1° C 12-15 hours prior to parturition; in
other animal species the body temperature drops.
• Rupture of the amniotic sac
- this results in expulsion of amniotic fluid. Laymen will refer to this as the
“water”
• Isolation from the rest of the flock or herd
• Nesting behavior

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- the animal seeks a secluded place where they build a nest in which to give birth
• Off feed
- most animals will stop eating the day of parturition. Horses are exception to
this and many will continue to nibble food even during parturition.
• Distress and discomfort
- this can be evidenced by restlessness, circling, pawing, biting or kicking at the
flank, crying, bawling and groaning
• Sweating
- horses in particular may sweat across the shoulders and flanks

Stages of Parturition
• First stage/preparatory – characterized by dilatation of the cervix and
contraction of the uterine muscle that gradually force the water bags against the
uterine side of the cervix. With uterine contractions which are painful causing
restlessness and abdominal discomfort, fetus progresses to the cervix. Lasts 2-6
hours in cow/ewe, 1-4 hours in mare, and 2-12 hours in sow/bitch.
• Second stage/expulsion of fetus – complete dilatation of the cervix and actual
delivery of fetus. Fetus enclosed in amnion is propelled through the birth canal
and appears at the vulva, amnion ruptures. The umbilical cord breaks as the dam
moves.
• Third stage/expulsion of placenta – delivery of the placenta, which normally
follows the fetus almost immediately. Rhythmic contractions continue after birth
and cause the expulsion of the placenta.

LACTATION
Lactation is the production of milk by the mammary gland in mammals like
cattle, sheep swine, horse, goats, buffaloes and rabbits. Young mammals at first feed
solely on milk from their mothers.
The hormones estrogen and progesterone stimulate the mammary gland to
develop and prolactin promotes the secretion of milk. Oxytocin from the pituitary gland
releases the milk when the baby suckles. The first milk is called colostrum. It is rich in
nutrients and contains protective antibodies from the mother.

TOPIC 11: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Integument is the protective covering of the body and is continuous at the

natural openings with the mucous surfaces of the digestive, respiratory and urogenital
tract. It is compose of organs necessary for the protection of animal sensitive organs
and helps them to survive under specific condition. It consists of skin hair, hooves and
claws, horn, feather and other epidermal derivatives.

Functions of Integuments
• As a protective envelope
• As secretory and excretory mechanisms
• As a sense organ
• Temperature regulating device
• As a respiratory structure

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Skin is the largest organ of the body. It is tough, resilient, and highly elastic. The skin
consists of two layers: a superficial covering, the epidermis, and a deeper layer, the
dermis. This general arrangement of two layers of the skin is found throughout the
body, including areas of modified epidermal structures such as hairs, horns, hooves,
chestnuts and ergots.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN

• Protects the sensitive tissues from physical injury
• Prevents the penetration of liquids
• Stops the passage of poisonous gases into the body like carbon monoxide
although hydrocyanic acid and hydrogen sulfide go through
• Protects the body from the effect of light by the pigment melanin
• Regulates body temperature
• An organ of excretion
• Has ergosterol that forms vitamin D
• An organ of touch, heat and pain
• Prevents delicate tissues from drying

LAYERS OF SKIN
• EPIDERMIS – avascular superficial layer, which is subdivided into the stratum
corneum → a hard, dead, cornifies external layer of the skin, and the deeper
stratum germinativum → live, moist and contains pigment.

Stratum corneum

Stratum germinativum

• CORIUM – the deep skin layer and consists of superficial felt work of white and
elastic fibers.

ADNEXA OF THE SKIN

HAIR
• Hair is a defining characteristic of mammals. All common domestic mammals
except the pig have abundant hair.
• It covers almost the entire surface of the body of domestic animals. It is made
up of pure protein.

MAIN TYPES OF HAIR

• Guard hairs - form the smooth outer coat
• Wool hairs - also called the undercoat, which are fine and often curly

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• Tactile hairs - long stiff hairs with specialized innervation that renders them
effective as organs of touch.

HAIR
special hairs include:
tactile hairs → around nose and lips, and eyelashes.
vibrissae → in the nostril.
tragic → in ears.

GLANDS
A. SEBACEOUS GLANDS
• Sebaceous glands are classified as holocrine glands because their oily secretory
product, sebum, is produced by disintegration of epithelial cells within the
glands.
• Sebaceous glands that open directly onto the skin surface include those in the
ear canal, around the anus, and in the penis, prepuce, and vulva, along with the
tarsal glands of the eyelid.

Cells of these gland undergo continual degeneration and disintegration to form

sebum → oily and semi- liquid.
cerumen → a kind of sebum in the ear, discourages insect and prevents passage of
foreign bodies into the ear.
dandruff → sebum, scales of skin, protein, inorganic matter, coloring matter and
dirt.
 Sheep have several cutaneous pouches that are lined with sebaceous glands.
These are the
• Infraorbital pouches - found at the medial canthus of the eye and larger in rams
than in ewes
• Interdigital pouches on the midline above the hoofs of all four feet
• Inguinal pouches near the base of the udder or scrotum.

 Goats have sebaceous horn glands caudal to the base of the horn (or where the
horn would be in polled animals); secretion in these glands is increased during
breeding season and is especially pungent in bucks.
 In pigs, sebaceous carpal glands are present on the mediopalmar aspect of the
carpus in both boars and sows.

B. SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS OR SWEAT GLANDS

• Found over entire bodies of farm animals, including the horse, cow, sheep, pig
and dog.
• The horse is the only farm animal that sweats readily.
• Tubular glands occur on the planum nasolabiale of cow, planum nasale of sheep,
and planum nasale of pig (all hairless areas of the nose), where they moisten
these surfaces but play little role in cooling. Many modified epithelial structures,
including hoofs and horns, lack sweat glands.
• Spiral tubes that pass through the cuticle and true skin.
• Secrete watery fluid containing various salts and waste products of metabolism.

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• Serve as organ of excretion and temperature regulation.

Function of Sweat Glands

• to eliminate waste products in the form of sweat.
• to cool the body through the evaporation of water.

MODIFIED EPIDERMIS
• HOOF or CLAW
Hoof is the horny covering the distal end of the digit. Hoofs have an outer
avascular epidermal layer and an inner vascularized dermis; the dermis of hoofs
and horns is more commonly called corium.
• HORNS
Epidermal derivatives bound together into a solid mass keratin. It is supported
for a variable distance by the horn core or process cornus which is a bony
outgrowth of the frontal bones of the skull.
• CHESTNUT
A horny mass found on the medial aspect of the forearm about halfway between
the carpus and the elbow.
The front chestnuts are proximal to the carpus, and the hind chestnuts are
slightly distal to the hocks. The chestnuts are thought to be vestigial metacarpal
and metatarsal footpads.

• ERGOTS
Small projections of cornified epithelium in the center of the palmar (plantar)
part of the fetlock of the horse. The tuft of hair at the fetlock hides the ergot in
most instances.
• WOOL
Almost pure protein but is enveloped with scales which give its ‘felting’
characteristics.
• COWLICK
Hairs on the body of the animal converge to form hair streams and vortices. They
serve as identification marks for large animals.

Coat Color in Horses

• Horses are not described according to ordinary color but by certain technical
terms. For example, a red color is bay and a golden color is chestnut.
• Black color is disadvantageous for a draft animal because the black pigment of
the hair absorbs more solar radiation making the animal feel discomfort due to
heat.
• The white hairs repel the sun’s rays and those that penetrate through are
retained by the dark pigment of the skin.
• Pure white, dappled-gray, and iron gray are high-class colors (horses).

COAT COLOR IN HORSES

• Black. Consists of uniformly black hairs.
• Bay. Reddish coat with black mane and tail.

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• Chestnut. Varies from golden to red, with mane and tail of about the same
color, but never black.
• Ysabella. Includes palomino; varies from golden to red coat, mane and tail are
flaxen or silver.
• Dun. Diluted bay or chestnut with black mane and tail and a dark stripe on dorsal
mid-line.
• Gray. Equal mixture of white and black hairs. Born black, and the proportion of
white hairs to dark hairs increases with age.
• Roan. Mixture of white hairs and some other color, e.g., Blue roan (white + black
and some other color), Strawberry roan (white +chestnut hairs).
• Pinto (Paint). Irregular white areas alternated with colored areas.
• Piebald – colored areas are black;
• Skewbald – colored areas are any color except black.

TOPIC 12: RECEPTIVE SYSTEM

S
ensations generally are the result of afferent impulses from stimuli that
eventually reach a conscious level in the cerebral cortex. The
receptive/sensory system are chiefly comprised of the eye, ear, tongue,
and nerve endings. The name of its study is called esthesiology.
Sensations are classified as:
1. Organic sensations
2. Special sensations
3. Other sensations

Sensations are classified as:

1. Organic sensations – include hunger, thirst, the sensation of bladder fullness,
and sexual sensations; and
2. Special sensations - include smell, sight, taste, hearing, and equilibrium;
3. Other sensations – include touch, pressure, cold, heat, pain, proprioception, and
visceral sensation

SPECIAL SENSATIONS
Tongue: Organ of Taste
Taste buds, the end organ for the sense of taste, consists of fusiform gustatory
cells intermingled with sustentacular (supporting) cells arranged in somewhat barrel-
shaped group. Nerve fibers terminate around the gustatory cells. Taste appears to be an
important factor in the ability of an animal to select food containing elements or factors
in which the animal is deficient.

Four specific taste modalities in man:

Bitter - at the base of the tongue
Sour – in the lateral sides of the tongue.
Sweet – in the tip of the tongue.
Salty – in the tip of the tongue.

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• Livestock readily distinguished among four flavors – bitter, sweet, sour, and salty
– among intensities of these flavors, and among flavor combinations.
• Cattle can discriminate between a 4% and a 5.5% sugar solution and between a
0.05% and 0.09% salt solution. Feeding cows silages (sour taste) will decrease
taste sensitivity to other sour feeds and increase sensitivity to sweets, similar to
the effect with humans.
• Poultry are believed to have a relatively poor sense of taste and rely more on
sight. Coloring poultry feed can significantly increase feed intake, whereas feed
flavor and odor have more influence on feed intake of cattle, horses or swine.

Nostril: Organ of Smell

• Nerve impulses from the olfactory receptor travel to the olfactory bulb of the
brain and along the two olfactory tracts, which channels the impulses to
interpretative center or cells deeper within the brain.
• The sense of smell is so much more developed in livestock than in humans that it
is difficult for humans to even imagine the environmental information livestock
receive by smell. All livestock have an accessory olfactory organ called the
vomero-nasal organ (VNO) located between the mouth and nasal cavities.
• The VNO enables the animals to make ultrafine discriminations among odors
humans cannot even detect. When a bull or ram performs flehmen (smelling the
urine of a female to determine if she is in estrus), he is inspiring molecules of
odor into the VNO for identification.

Ear: Organ of Hearing and Balance

The three main parts of the ear include:
• External ear – extends from the exterior as far as the tympanic membrane. It
consists of auricula or pinna, the funnel-shaped outer part of the ear composed
of skin and elastic tissue, which tunnels sound waves into the ear canal.
• Middle ear – extends from the tympanic membrane into the air-filled excavation
within the petrous temporal bone. The tympanic membrane functions as a
vibratory structure and converts sound waves to mechanical action. It contains
the three auditory ossicles, from without inward, the malleus (hammer), incus
(anvil), and stapes (stirrup). These bones serve to transmit and amplify the
vibration of the tympanic membrane.
• Inner ear – is also excavated in the petrous temporal bone but is filled with fluid.
It is also called labyrinth because of its complex shape. This is the essential
portion for the organ of hearing and balance. It contains the semi-circular
canals, which contains organs and nerve endings concerned with balance and
equilibrium, and cochlea, the location of the hearing organs.
• Livestock and poultry have a sense of hearing believed to be within the
frequency range of humans, whereas bats and dogs can perceive sound of much
higher frequency than can humans.
• Those species with relatively large ears that can be directed independently can
easily detect and locate the source of sounds.
• They may also listen simultaneously to sounds from opposite directions.

Eyes: Organ of Sight

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• The receptive systems of livestock and poultry are similar to those of humans,
but the capabilities of the systems differ markedly.
• An example is the difference in the size of visual field and other items related to
vision (sense of sight). Eyes placed on the side of the head in animals provide an
almost 360-degree field of vision.
• Slotted or rectangular pupils provide a wider visual field than is provided by
pupils of predators.
• Bees can perceive light in the UV range (well under 390 nm) and therefore
discriminate among flower markings and designs that are invisible to the human
eye.
• Many investigators believe sheep, goat and horses cannot see red, white swine
and poultry are presumed to see all colors.

Tactile: Sense of Touch

• The tactile sense (touch) is well developed in farm animals.
• Cattle and horses can easily detect an insect on their skin and can selectively
shake skin areas to dislodge most insects.
• Touch is important in farm animal communication.
• In general, touch gives reassurance and helps establish and maintain social
bonds, as is true in humans.

TOPIC 13: BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

V
ertebrate animal may be classified into two groups based on their ability
to regulate their body temperature with respect to the environment:
• Homeotherms or warm-blooded – animals whose body
temperature is largely independent of that of the environment.
• Poikilotherm or cold-blooded – animals whose body temperature varies directly
with that of the environment.

Hibernation is a protective mechanism against profound cooling. This was observed

in mammoth, ground hog, hamster and hedgehog.

Homeotherms attain body temperature constancy by:

1. Chemical regulation
• Altering the metabolic rate by adjusting the production of certain hormones such
as thyroxine and/or epinephrine.
• Shivering and changing muscle tension – the animal performs no external work
while shivering because its position does not change, but the energy developed
in the transfer of chemical-substrate energy to mechanical work of muscular
contraction is liberated as heat within the muscles.
2. Physical devices and activities
• Sweating with evaporation of water from the skin.
• Changing the rate of breathing to alter vaporization from the lungs.
• Altering the volume of blood flowing to the body surface by vasodilation or
vasoconstriction.

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• Changing the amount of internal or external thermal insulation such as

subcutaneous fat, feathers, fur, hair or clothing.
• Changing the “free” body surface area by lying down and huddling when it is cold
or by standing in a stretch position when it is hot.
• Locating more favorable environment such as sunshine, shade, dry or wet areas,
shelter from winds, etc.

H
HEAT PRODUCTION
eat is produced in the metabolic or chemical processes taking place in the
protoplasm of the animal body. Most of the heat is produced in the skeletal
muscles and in the glands.
1. Muscle produce 70% of the body heat.
2. Liver is a gland where most heat is generated.
3. Highest temperature found in the hepatic vein.
4. Rectal temperature is the fair index of internal temperature of animals.

Sudden lowering of temperature causes the body to shiver, thereby producing heat.
The influx of hormones adrenaline and thyroxin in the body system causes heat
production.
Also, the body gain heat:
1. When hot food or hot water is swallowed
2. By conduction, when the animal lies on the ground
3. By radiation, when heat is gained from the sun’s rays

PROCESS OF HEAT DISSIPATION

1. Conduction – involves direct contact of the animal with a part of its environment.
Thermal energy is transferred from one molecule to a neighboring molecule.
2. Convection – heat is transferred to or from the animal by the movement of heated air
“particles”; it is the process by which actual mass motion of heated gas (or liquid)
transfers heat from one place to another.
3. Radiation – involves the transfer of heat by means of electromagnetic waves
travelling at the speed of 186,000 miles per second; there is no material medium or
physical contact between the animal and the segment of its environment with which the
animal is reacting in the transmission of heat.
4. Vaporization – though not strictly a homeothermic reaction, is the most important
process by which the animal loses heat to maintain a constant body temperature.

ZONE OF THERMONEUTRALITY / THERMONEUTRAL ZONE

It is also known as the comfort zone. Zone of thermoneutrality is a rage of
environmental temperature within which the animal does not have to adjust to the
environment.

CRITICAL TEMPERATURE
Critical temperature is the temperature of the environment at which the heat –
retaining mechanism of the body are no longer able to maintain constant body

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temperature and heat production being increased to meet the requirements of the
body.
1. Hair, wool, fur, feather, and thick layer of subcutaneous fat lower the critical
temperature
2. Critical temperature is lower in non –fasting than in fasting animals. Cattle and
sheep have the lowest critical temperature but they are able to withstand cold
conditions.

The body temperature is the resulting balance of heat production and heat
dissipation. Temperature is influenced by age, sex, season, time of the day, exercise,
feeding, drinking, and digestion.

Related Terms:
Hypothermia – is the reduction of deep body temperature below the normal.
Fever – is a rise in deep body temperature that develops during pathological conditions.

Normal Body (Rectal) Temperature of Domestic Animals

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE TO HEAT

• Circulatory Adjustment
Cutaneous vasolidation causes a rise in the skin temperature which steepens the
thermal exchange gradient for environmental temperature below skin temperature.
• Panting
it is the rapid breathing (polypnea) with open mouth.
• Evaporative Heat Loss or Sweating
There are two kinds of sweat glands which performs sweating:
 Eccrine gland – supplied by cholinergic fiber present in sympathetic nerves.
 Apocrine gland – developed from hair follicles.
• Reduction of Heat Loss
These are behavioral responses and increased for insulation. This includes curled
up position of animals and piloerection (increases fur growth and subcutaneous fat
deposition).
• Circulatory adjustment
Vasoconstriction, mediated by vasoconstrictor nerves, occurs in the skin and
superficial tissue of homeotherms that are exposed to cold.

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HEAT STRESS
Some of the common factors that can lead to stress in livestock production include
transportation, noise, fasting, water deprivation, hotness, coldness, etc.

INDICATORS OF HEAT STRESS

• Increase water intake
• Increased rectal temperature and respiratory rate
• Changes in hematological parameters
• Increase blood pH
• Reduced feed intake and growth performance
• Increased mortality and morbidity
• Reduced egg size, production and shell quality in layers
• Reduced fertility and egg hatchability in breeders

Effects of Heat Stress

1. Change in ruminant's grazing behavior
a. Stays under shade during the day time
b. Longer period in night grazing
2. Lower growth rates
a. Reduced feed intake resulting in decreased nutrient intake
b. Shorter grazing period during the day
c. Depressed appetite

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UPLBCA- Asian Institute of Developmental Studies Inc. AGGIE Board Reviewer

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