RESEARCH DATA ANALYSIS AND ETHICS

Introduction
Data analysis embraces a whole range of activities of both the qualitative and quantitative
type. It is usual tendency in behavioral research that much use of quantitative analysis is
made and statistical methods and techniques are employed. The statistical methods and
techniques are employed. The statistical methods and techniques have got a special position
in research because they provide answers to the problems.

Definition
Kaul defines data analysis as, ”Studying the organized material in order to discover inherent
facts. The data are studied from as many angles as possible to explore the new facts.”

Purpose of Data Analysis

The following are the main purposes of data analysis:

(i) Description: It involves a set of activities that are as essential first step in the
development of most fields. A researcher must be able to identify a topic about which much
was not known; he must be able to convince others about its importance and must be able
to collect data.

(ii) Construction of Measurement Scale: The researcher should construct a measurement

scale. All numbers generated by measuring instruments can be placed into one of four
categories:

(a) Nominal: The number serves as nothing more than labels. For example no 1 was not
less than no 2 .Similarly no 2 was neither more than no 1 and nor less than no 3.

(b) Ordinal: Such numbers are used to designate an ordering along some dimensions such
as from less to more, from small to large, from sooner to later.
(c) Interval: The interval provides more précised information than ordinal one. By this type
of measurement the researcher can make exact and meaningful decisions. For example if A,B
and C are of 150 cm, 145cm and 140 cm height, the researcher can say that A is 5 cm taller
than B and B is 5 cm taller than C.

(d) Ratio Scale: It has two unique characteristics. The intervals between points can be
demonstrated to be precisely the same and the scale has a conceptually meaningful zero
point.

(iii) Generating empirical relationships: Another purpose of analysis of data is identification

of regularities and relationships among data. The researcher has no clear idea about the
relationship which will be found from the collected data. If the data were available in details it
will be easier to determine the relationship. The researcher can develop theories if he is able
to recognize pattern and order of data. The pattern may be showing association among
variables, which may be done by calculating correlation among variables or showing order,
precedence or priority. The derivation of empirical laws may be made in the form of simple
equations relating one interval or ratio scaled variable to a few others through graph methods.

(iv) Explanation and prediction: Generally knowledge and research are equated with the
identification of causal relationships and all research activities are directed to it. But in many
fields the research has not been developed to the level where causal explanation is possible or
valid predictions can be made. In such a situation explanation and prediction is construct as
enabling the values of one set of variables to be derived given the values of another.

Functions of data analysis

The following are the main functions of data analysis:
• The researcher should analyze the available data for examining the statement of the
problem.

• The researcher should analyze the available data for examining each hypothesis of the
problem.

• The researcher should study the original records of the data before data analysis.

• The researcher should analyze the data for thinking about the research problem in
 lay man’s term.
• The researcher should analyze the data by attacking it through statistical calculations.

• The researcher should think in terms of significant tables that the available data
permits for the analysis of data.

Types of data in research

Every kind of data has a rare quality of describing things after assigning a specific
value to it. For analysis, you need to organize these values, processed and presented in a
given context, to make it useful. Data can be in different forms; here are the primary
data types.

Qualitative data
When the data presented has words and descriptions, then we call it qualitative data.
Although you can observe this data, it is subjective and harder to analyze data in research,
especially for comparison.

Example: Quality data represents everything describing taste, experience, texture, or an

opinion that is considered quality data. This type of data is usually collected through focus
groups, personal interviews, or using open-ended questions in surveys.

Quantitative data
Any data expressed in numbers of numerical figures are called quantitative data. This
type of data can be distinguished into categories, grouped, measured, calculated, or ranked.
Example: questions such as age, rank, cost, length, weight, scores, etc. everything comes
under this type of data. You can present such data in graphical format, charts, or apply
statistical analysis methods to this data. The (Outcomes Measurement Systems) OMS
questionnaires in surveys are a significant source of collecting numeric data.

Categorical data
It is data presented in groups. However, an item included in the categorical data cannot
belong to more than one group. Example: A person responding to a survey by telling his living
style, marital status, smoking habit, or drinking habit comes under the categorical data. A chi-
square test is a standard method used to analyze this data

Data analysis in Qualitative Research

Data analysis and qualitative data research work a little differently from the numerical
data as the quality data is made up of words, descriptions, images, objects, and sometimes
symbols. Getting insight from such complicated information is a complicated process. Hence it
is typically used for exploratory research and data analysis.

Finding patterns in the qualitative data

Although there are several ways to find patterns in the textual information, a word-
based method is the most relied and widely used global technique for research and data
analysis. Notably, the data analysis process in qualitative research is manual. Here the
researchers usually read the available data and find repetitive or commonly used words.

For example, while studying data collected from African countries to understand the most
pressing issues people face, researchers might find “food” and “hunger” are the most
commonly used words and will highlight them for further analysis.

The keyword context is another widely used word-based technique. In this method, the
researcher tries to understand the concept by analyzing the context in which the participants
use a particular keyword.

For example, researchers conducting research and data analysis for studying the concept

of ‘diabetes’ amongst respondents might analyze the context of when and how the respondent
has used or referred to the word ‘diabetes.’

Variable Partitioning is another technique used to split variables so that researchers can find
more coherent descriptions and explanations from the enormous data.

Methods used for data analysis in Qualitative Research

There are several techniques to analyze the data in qualitative research, but here are some
commonly used methods,

Content Analysis
It is widely accepted and the most frequently employed technique for data analysis in
research methodology. It can be used to analyze the documented information from text,
images, and sometimes from the physical items. It depends on the research questions to
predict when and where to use this method.

Narrative Analysis
This method is used to analyze content gathered from various sources such as personal
interviews, field observation, and surveys. The majority of times, stories, or opinions shared
by people are focused on finding answers to the research questions.

Discourse Analysis
Similar to narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyze the interactions
with people. Nevertheless, this particular method considers the social context under which or
within which the communication between the researcher and respondent takes place. In
addition to that, discourse analysis also focuses on the lifestyle and day-to-day environment
while deriving any conclusion.

Grounded Theory
When you want to explain why a particular phenomenon happened, then using
grounded theory for analyzing quality data is the best resort. Grounded theory is applied to
study data about the host of similar cases occurring in different settings. When researchers
are using this method, they might alter explanations or produce new ones until they arrive at
some conclusion

Data Analysis in Quantitative Research

Preparing data for analysis
The first stage in research and data analysis is to make it for the analysis so that the
nominal data can be converted into something meaningful. Data preparation consists of the
below phases.

Phase I: Data Validation

Data validation is done to understand if the collected data sample is per the pre-set
standards, or it is a biased data sample again divided into four different stages
• Fraud: To ensure an actual human being records each response to the
survey or the questionnaire

• Screening: To make sure each participant or respondent is selected or chosen in

compliance with the research criteria

• Procedure: To ensure ethical standards were maintained while collecting the data
sample

• Completeness: To ensure that the respondent has answered all the questions in an
online survey.

Else, the interviewer had asked all the questions devised in the questionnaire.

Phase II: Data Editing

More often, an extensive research data sample comes loaded with errors. Respondents
sometimes fill in some fields incorrectly or sometimes skip them accidentally. Data editing is a
process wherein the researchers have to confirm that the provided data is free of such errors.
They need to conduct necessary checks and outlier checks to edit the raw edit and make it
ready for analysis.

Phase III: Data Coding

Out of all three, this is the most critical phase of data preparation associated with
grouping and assigning values to the survey responses. If a survey is completed with a 1000
sample size, the researcher will create an age bracket to distinguish the respondents based on
their age. Thus, it becomes easier to analyze small data buckets rather than deal with the
massive data pile.

Methods used for data analysis in quantitative research

After the data is prepared for analysis, researchers are open to using different research
and data analysis methods to derive meaningful insights. For sure, statistical techniques are
the most favored to analyze numerical data. The method is again classified into two groups.
First, ‘Descriptive Statistics’ used to describe data. Second, ‘Inferential statistics’ that helps in
comparing the data.

Descriptive statistics
This method is used to describe the basic features of versatile types of data in research.
It presents the data in such a meaningful way that pattern in the data starts making sense.
Nevertheless, the descriptive analysis does not go beyond making conclusions. The
conclusions are again based on the hypothesis researchers have formulated so far. Here are a
few major types of descriptive analysis methods.

Measures of Frequency
• Count, Percent, Frequency
• It is used to denote home often a particular event occurs.
• Researchers use it when they want to showcase how often a response is given.

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean, Median, Mode

• The method is widely used to demonstrate distribution by various points.
• Researchers use this method when they want to showcase the most commonly
or averagely indicated response.

Measures of Dispersion or Variation

• Range, Variance, Standard deviation
• Here the field equals high/low points.
• Variance standard deviation = difference between the observed score and mean
• It is used to identify the spread of scores by stating intervals.

• Researchers use this method to showcase data spread out. It helps them identify the
depth until which the data is spread out that it directly affects the mean.

Measures of Position

• Percentile ranks, Quartile ranks

• It relies on standardized scores helping researchers to identify the relationship between

different scores.

• It is often used when researchers want to compare scores with the average count.

For quantitative market research use of descriptive analysis often give absolute numbers,
but the analysis is never sufficient to demonstrate the rationale behind those numbers.
Nevertheless, it is necessary to think of the best method for research and data analysis suiting
your survey questionnaire and what story researchers want to tell. For example, the mean is
the best way to demonstrate the students’ average scores in schools. It is better to rely on the
descriptive statistics when the researchers intend to keep the research or outcome limited to
the provided sample without generalizing it. For example, when you want to compare average
voting done in two different cities, differential statistics are enough.

Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’ since it is commonly used to

analyze a single variable.

Inferential statistics
Inferential statistics are used to make predictions about a larger population after
research and data analysis of the representing population’s collected sample. For example,
you can ask some odd 100 audiences at a movie theater if they like the movie they are
watching. Researchers then use inferential statistics on the collected sample to reason that
about 80-90% of people like the movie.

Here are two significant areas of inferential statistics.

• Estimating parameters: It takes statistics from the sample research data and
demonstrates something about the population parameter.

• Hypothesis test: It’s about sampling research data to answer the survey research
questions. For example, researchers might be interested to understand if the new
shade of lipstick recently launched is good or not, or if the multivitamin capsules help
children to perform better at games.

These are sophisticated analysis methods used to showcase the relationship between
different variables instead of describing a single variable. It is often used when researchers
want something beyond absolute numbers to understand the relationship between variables.

Here are some of the commonly used methods for data analysis in research.
• Correlation: When researchers are not conducting experimental research wherein the
researchers are interested to understand the relationship between two or more
variables, they opt for correlational research methods.

• Cross-tabulation: Also called contingency tables, cross-tabulation is used to analyze

the relationship between multiple variables. Suppose provided data has age and
gender categories presented in rows and columns. A two-dimensional cross-
tabulation helps for seamless data analysis and research by showing the number of
males and females in each age category.

• Regression analysis: For understanding the strong relationship between two

variables, researchers do not look beyond the primary and commonly used
regression analysis method, which is also a type of predictive analysis used. In this
method, you have an essential factor called the dependent variable. You also have
multiple independent variables in regression analysis. You undertake efforts to find
out the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable. The values of
both independent and dependent variables are assumed as being ascertained in an
error-free random manner.

• Frequency tables: The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree to which two
or more vary or differ in an experiment. A considerable degree of variation means
research findings were significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance
analysis are similar.

• Analysis of variance: The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree to which
two or more vary or differ in an experiment. A considerable degree of variation means
research findings were significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance
analysis are similar.

Considerations in research data analysis

• Researchers must have the necessary skills to analyze the data, Getting trained to
demonstrate a high standard of research practice. Ideally, researchers must possess
more than a basic understanding of the rationale of selecting one statistical method
over the other to obtain better data insights.

• Usually, research and data analytics methods differ by scientific discipline;

therefore, getting statistical advice at the beginning of analysis helps design a
survey questionnaire, select data collection methods, and choose samples.

• The primary aim of data research and analysis is to derive ultimate insights that are
unbiased. Any mistake in or keeping a biased mind to collect data, selecting an analysis
method, or choosing audience sample to draw a biased inference.
• Irrelevant to the sophistication used in research data and analysis is enough to rectify
the poorly defined objective outcome measurements. It does not matter if the design is
at fault or intentions are not clear, but lack of clarity might mislead readers, so avoid
the practice.
 • The motive behind data analysis in research is to present accurate and reliable data.
As far as possible, avoid statistical errors, and find a way to deal with everyday
challenges like outliers, missing data, data altering, data mining, or developing
graphical representation.

Interpretation of Data

According to F.L. Whitney, interpretation means an adequate exposition of the true

meaning of the material presented in terms of the purposes of the study being reported and of
the chapter and section topic involved.

Purposes:
The following are the main purposes of interpretation of data or results;
(i) To throw light on the real significance of the material in the context.
(ii) To understand implications of the data.
(iii) To provide hints of conclusions and recommendations of the researcher.
(iv) To show the values of greatest worth that has resulted from the research.
(v) To refer important generalization.

Factors:
The researcher should keep the following factors in consideration in interpretation of
data;
(i) Not to ignore those factors which are unstudied: In social / behavioral researches there
are many factors which have their impact upon the findings of the research but no researcher
is in the position to study all the factors. Naturally he does not take into account in
interpretation of the results those factors which have not been studied. It has its effect upon
the search of truth. Thus the researcher should take into consideration such factors in his
interpretation. For example if a comparison has been made between the traditional method of
teaching and any modern method of teaching in respect of effectiveness of teaching, the
interpretation that successful attainment is the result of method of teaching only is complete
denial of the role of general mental ability, high achievement motivation and better study
habits etc.

(ii) Not to ignore those factors which have not been selected for study: In social /
behavioral researches, the subjects are generally so large that the researcher collects the data
from a selected group only. The researcher should remember that some factors which have not
been included in selective group are equally important in their impact upon findings. For
example if the researcher collects data from a particular school in a particular area and then
he concludes about all the schools/colleges.

(iii) Not to over –interpret the expected results: The researcher should remember that even
if he finds the findings of the research as per his expectations he should not interpret more
than what can be interpreted on the basis of data available. The researcher should be
cautious that he reports all such factors which might be responsible for the findings.

(iv) Not to exercise defense mechanism in interpreting the results: The researcher should
remember that it is not necessary that the hypotheses should always be confirmed. It is
possible that the researcher may exercise defense mechanism if the results of the study are
not found as per expectations of the research. In such a situation he should not try to find
faults in tools or samples for the results against his expectations. If any researcher tries to do
so, his interpretation will not be considered fair.

PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH ETHICS

There are a number of ethical principles that should be taken into account when
performing undergraduate and master's level dissertation research.

At the core, these ethical principles stress the need to (a) do good (known as
beneficence) and (b) do no harm (known as non-malfeasance). In practice, these ethical
principles mean that as a researcher, you need to: (a) obtain informed consent from
potential research participants; (b) minimize the risk of harm to participants; (0) protect
their anonymity and confidentiality; (d) avoid using deceptive practices; and (e) give
participants the right to withdraw from your research. This article discusses these five
ethical principles and their practical implications when carrying out dissertation research.
 When you look at these five basic ethical principles, it may appear obvious that your
dissertation should include these. However, there are many instances where it is not
possible or desirable to obtain informed consent from research participants. Similarly, there
may be instances where you seek permission from participants not to protect their
anonymity. More often than not, such choices should reflect the research strategy that you
adopt to guide your dissertation.

Broadly speaking, your dissertation research should not only aim to do good (i.e.,
beneficence), but also avoid doing any harm (i.e., no malfeasance). Whilst ethical
requirements in research can vary across countries, these are the basic principles of research
ethics. This is important not only for ethical reasons, but also practical ones, since a failure
to meet basic principles may lead to your research being (a) criticized, potentially leading to a
lower mark, and/or (b) rejected by your supervisor or Ethics Committee, costing you
valuable time. In the sections that follow, we discuss the five of the main practical ethical
principles that stem from these basic principles. Each of these basic principles of research
ethics is discussed in turn:

PRINCIPLE ONE: Minimizing the risk of harm

PRINCIPLE TWO: Obtaining informed consent
PRINCIPLE THREE: Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
PRINCIPLE FOUR: Avoiding deceptive practices
PRINCIPLE FIVE: Providing the right to withdraw

PRINCIPLE ONE:

Minimizing the risk of harm

Dissertation research should not harm participants. Where there is the possibility that
participants could be harmed or put in a position of discomfort, there must be strong
justifications for this. Such scenarios will also require (3) additional planning to illustrate
how participant harm (or discomfort) will be reduced,
(b) informed consent, and (c) detailed debriefing.

There are a number of types of harm that participants can be subjected to.
These include: Physical harm to participants. Psychological distress and
discomfort. Social disadvantage. Harm to participants? Financial status.
An invasion of participants? Privacy and anonymity.

Typically, it is not harm that we need to think about since a researcher does not
intentionally go out to cause harm. Rather, it is the risk of harm that you should try to
minimize. In order to minimizing the risk of harm you should think about

Typically, it is not harm that we need to think about since a researcher does not
intentionally go out to cause harm. Rather, it is the risk of harm that you should try to
minimize. In order to minimizing the risk of harm you should think about

• Obtaining informed consent from participants.

• Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of participants.

• Avoiding deceptive practices when designing your research.

• Providing participants with the right to withdraw from your research at any time.

We discuss each of these ethical principles in the sections that follow, explaining (a) what
they mean and (b) instances where they should (and should not) be followed.

PRINCIPLE TWO

Obtaining informed consent

One of the foundations of research ethics is the idea of informed consent. Simply put,
informed consent means that participants should understand that (a) they are taking part in
research and (b) what the research requires of them. Such information may include the
purpose of the research, the methods being used, the possible outcomes of the research, as
well as associated demands, discomforts, inconveniences and risks that the participants
may face. Whilst is it not possible to know exactly what information a potential participant
would (or would not) want to know, you should aim not to leave out any material
information; that is, information that you feel would influence whether consent would (or
would not) be granted.

Another component of informed consent is the principle that participants should be

volunteers, taking part without having been coerced and deceived. Where informed consent
cannot be obtained from participants, you must explain why this is the case. You should also
be aware that there are instances informed consent is not necessarily needed or needs to be
relaxed. These include certain educational, organizational and naturalistic research settings
obtained from participants, you must explain why this is the case. You should also be aware
that there are instances informed consent is not necessarily needed or needs to be relaxed.
These include certain educational, organizational and naturalistic research settings. We
discuss these in more detail under the section: Avoiding deceptive practices.

PRINCIPLE THREE

Protecting anonymity and confidentiality

Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of research participants is another

practical component of research ethics. After all, participants will typicaIIy only be willing to
volunteer information, especially information of a private or sensitive nature, if the researcher
agrees to hold such information in confidence. Whilst it is possible that research participants
may be hurt in some way if the data collection methods used are somehow insensitive, there
is perhaps a greater danger that harm can be caused once data has been collected. This
occurs when data is not treated confidentially, whether in terms of the storage of data, its
analysis, or during the publication process (i.e., when submitting your dissertation to be
marked). However, this does not mean that all data collected from research participants
needs to be kept confidential or anonymous. It may be possible to disclose the identity and
views of individuals at various stages of the research process (from data collection through to
publication of your dissertation). Nonetheless, permissions should be sought before such
confidential information is disclosed.

An alternative is to remove identifiers (e.g., vernacular terms, names, geographical

cues, etc.) or provide proxies when writing up. However, such a stripping of identifiable
information may not always be possible to anticipate at the outset of your dissertation when
thinking about issues of research ethics.
This is not only a consideration An alternative is to remove identifiers (e.g., vernacular
terms, names, geographical cues, etc.) or provide proxies when writing up. However, such a
stripping of identifiable information may not always be possible to anticipate at the outset of
your dissertation when thinking about issues of research ethics. This is not only a
consideration for dissertations following a qualitative research design, but also a
quantitative research design.

For example:

Imagine that your dissertation used a quantitative research design and a survey as your
main research method. In the process of analyzing your data, it is possible that when
examining relationships between variables (i.e., questions in your survey), a person's identity
and responses could be inferred. For instance, imagine that you were comparing responses
amongst employees within an organization based on specific age groups. There may only be a
small group (or just one employee) within a particular age group (e.g., over 70 years old),
which could enable others to identify the responses of this individual (or small group of
employees).

Therefore, you need to consider ways of overcoming such problems, such as: (a)
aggregating data in tables and (b) setting rules that ensure a minimum number of units are
present before data/information can be presented.

A further alternative is to seek permission for access to data and analysis to be

restricted to the published material, perhaps only allowing it to be viewed by those
individuals marking your work. If the work is later published, adjustments would then need
to be made to protect the confidentiality of participants.
 There are also a wide range of potential legal protections that may affect what research
you can and cannot perform, how you must treated the data of research participants, and so
forth. In other words, you don`t simply have a duty to protect the data you collect from
participants; you may also have (in some cases) a legal responsibility to do so. Since this
varies from country-to-country, you should ask your dissertation supervisor or Ethics
Committee for advice (or a legal professional).

PRINCIPLE FOUR

Avoiding deceptive practices

At first sight, deceptive practices fly in the face of informed consent. After all, how can
participants know (a) that they are taking part in research and (b) what the research requires
of them if they are being deceived? This is part of what makes the use of deceptive practices
controversial. For this reason, in most circumstances, dissertation research should avoid any
kinds of deceptive practices. However, this is not always the case.

Deception is sometimes a necessary component of covert research, which can be

justified in some cases. Covert research reflects research where (a) the identity of the
observer and/or (b) the purpose of the research is not known to participants. Cases where
you may choose to engage in covert research may include instances where:

It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are
doing. Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the particular
phenomenon that is being studied.

Let's take each of these in turn:

It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are doing
It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are doing By
feasibility, we are not talking about the cost of doing research. Instead, we mean that it is not
practically possible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are doing.
This is most likely to be the case where research involves observation, rather than direct
contact with participants, especially in a public or online setting. There are a number of
obvious instances where this may be the case:

Observing what users are doing in an Internet chat room.

Observing individuals going about their business (e.g., shopping, going to work, etc.).

Clearly, in these cases, where individuals are coming and going, it may simply be
impossible to let everyone known what you are doing. You may not be intentionally trying to
engage in deceptive practices, but clearly participants are not giving you their informed
consent.

Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the particular
phenomenon that is being studied

Note some of the following scenarios where research may be considered justifiable.

Scenario A
You are conducting a piece of research looking at prejudice. Whilst participants are
given a questionnaire to complete that measures their prejudice, it is not obvious from the
questions that this is the case. Furthermore, participants are not told that the research is
about prejudice because it is felt that this could alter their responses. After all, few people
would be happy if other people thought they were prejudice. As a result, if participants knew
that this is the purpose of the study, they may well provide responses that they think will
make them appear less prejudice.

Scenario B
You are interested in understanding the organizational culture in a single firm. You feel
that observation would be an appropriate research method in such a naturalistic setting.
However, you feel that if employees knew that you were monitoring them, they may behave in
a different way. Therefore, you may have received permission to go undercover or provide a
story to explain why you are there, which is not the truth.
While such covert research and deceptive practices, especially where used intentionally, can be
viewed as controversial, it can be argued that they have a place in research.

PRINCIPLE FIVE

Providing the right to withdraw

With the exception of those instances of covert observation where is not feasible to let
everyone that is being observed know what you are doing, research participants should always
have the right to withdraw from the research process. Furthermore, participants should have
the right to withdraw at any stage in the research process. When a participant chooses to
withdraw from the research process, they should not be pressured or coerced in any way to try
and stop them from withdrawing.

RESEARCH ETHICS CASE ANALYSIS

Study the following situations and ponder on the dilemma as well as the possible measures to
take.

1. A study was being carried out with a community sample of adults. As part of the Informed
consent process, the researchers had an Information sheet and a consent form, with tick boxes,
where potential participants were asked to sign before the research proceeded.

On one occasion, the researcher went through the Information sheet with a potential
participant, who confirmed that he would like to proceed with the research. The researcher
then asked the participant to Sign the consent form. At this point, the participant revealed that
he could not read, and sand that he really wanted to take part in the research, but did not
want to sign a form that he could not read. He asked if he could be interviewed without signing
the form.

2. An inexperienced researcher was carrying out a study that involved doing developmental
tests with children in schools. By prior arrangement, she would visit the family home, and
would seek consent to arrange to visit the child at school.

On one occasion, the researcher visited a family for whom English was an additional language.
Both parents and their children were at home, and their English was limited, but the researcher
judged they had understood, and consented. They signed consent for the school visit, and made
the researcher very welcome even insisting that she stayed for lunch.

A week or so later. As arranged, the researcher visited the school to see the child. Upon arrival,
the head teacher explained that the child's older sister had said her parents were very worried
about the visit they didn't know who the researcher was, and that a neighbor (who spoke the
family's language) had read the information leaflet and told the parents that the researcher was
probably a social worker. It was clear that they hadn‘t understood when they consented to the
school visit.

3. Participants are entitled to have copies of their own data such as an interview note or a
recording and it is good practice to offer this as part of the process of seeking consent. However,
what is the researcher's responsibility if the participant wishes to share their data?

In one recent study, an adult interviewee requested a copy of her interview recording. She
wanted to share it with other family members, because she felt it would help them understand
her perspective on some recent difficult events. The researcher was concerned that the interview
could upset those family members but what could he do?

4. A study involved video observation of group dynamics during student discussions over the
course of tutorials in one academic year. All students who participated in the discussions had
signed consent forms, agreeing to be videoed. Subsequently, one student dropped out of the
course and decided that he also wanted to withdraw from the study. He asked for his data to
be destroyed. The researcher was very reluctant to do this, as destroying the video recordings
would mean that she lost data on all the other students who had been involved in those
discussions.

5. In a recent study, a question arose about the use of pseudonyms. All the participants were
asked to suggest a pseudonym for themselves that the researchers could use in writing up.
There were three results: (a) people gave the researchers a fake name, which was used, (b) they
didn't give one, whereupon one was allocated to them, and (0) they said they would like their
real name to be used; In the case of (c), the researchers wanted to respect people’s request to
be identified, but they were concerned that the interviews had addressed sensitive data, and
that identifying participants might also jeopardize the anonymity of other people that the
participants had named as important to them, who were also interviewed for the study.