AE/AT 213 – ELEMENTARY

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
MODULE 5

Instructor: Engr. John Isaac L. Cruz

 TOPICS
➢DC Generators
Theory of Operation
Construction
Field Excitation
Equivalent Circuit
Generator Voltage and Voltage Regulation
Losses and Efficiency of a DC Machine
➢DC Motors
Construction
Torque
Motor Types
Equivalent Circuit
Speed of Motor
Starting Requirements for Motors
 DC GENERATORS
➢Generators are electrical
components that convert
mechanical energy into electrical
energy by electromagnetic
induction. It supplies the needed
electrical energy for the
operation of most electrical
equipment on aircrafts. The
mechanical energy might be
supplied by a waterfall, steam,
wind, gasoline or diesel engine,
or an electric motor.
 DC GENERATORS
➢There are two types of generators, namely:

1. DC Generator. Also known as dynamo, it is an electrical

generator that create direct current, converts the alternating
current to a direct current, using a commutator; it allows the
current flow in one direction only.

2. AC Generator. Also known as alternators, it is an electrical

generator that convert mechanical energy to electrical energy in
the form of alternating current. In an alternator, the electrical
current periodically reverses its direction.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Theory of operation
After the discovery that electric current
flowing through a conductor creates a
magnetic field around the conductor, there
was considerable scientific speculation
regarding whether or not a magnetic field
could create current flow.

In 1831, English scientist Michael Faraday

demonstrated that this, in fact, could be
accomplished. This discovery is the basis
for the operation of the generator.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Theory of operation

To show how an electric current is created by a

magnetic field, several turns of wire are
wrapped around a cardboard tube, and the
ends of the conductor are connected to a
galvanometer.

A bar magnet is then moved through the tube.

As the magnet's lines of flux are cut by the
turns of wire, the galvanometer deflects from
its zero position.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Theory of operation
However, when the magnet is at
rest inside the tube, the
galvanometer shows a reading of
zero, indicating no current flow.

When the magnet is moved

through the tube in the opposite
direction, the galvanometer
indicates a deflection in the
opposite direction.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Theory of operation
A simple dc generator consists of an armature coil with a single
turn of wire. This armature coil cuts across the magnetic field to
produce voltage. If a complete path is present, current will move
through the circuit in the direction shown in the figure.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Theory of operation
As the armature rotates in a dc
generator, the commutator allows
one brush to remain in contact with
that portion of the loop that moves
downward through the flux lines and
the other brush to remain in contact
with the portion of the loop that
moves upward. This commutator
action produces pulsating dc voltage
that varies from zero to a maximum,
twice in one revolution.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Construction
➢The outer frame of a dc
generator is called as
the yoke/field frame. It
is made up of cast iron
or steel. It provides
mechanical strength to
the whole assembly
and also carries the
magnetic flux produced
by the field winding.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Construction
➢The magnetizing force
inside a generator is
produced by an
electromagnet consisting
of a wire coil called as
field winding/field coil, and
a core called as pole/pole
shoe/field pole.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Construction
➢Field winding/field coil is an
electromagnet that produces the flux
cut by the armature. It is made up of
many turns of wire that are securely
fastened over the iron core of the pole
shoes.
➢Field poles are joined to the yoke with
the help of bolts or welding. Pole
shoes serve two purposes: (a) they
support field coils and; (b) spread out
the flux in air gap uniformly.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Construction
➢The armature assembly consists of
the armature core, armature
coils/armature windings, commutator,
and other associated mechanical
parts.
➢The armature core is considered as the rotor of a
generator, it is mounted on a shaft that rotates in
bearings located in the generator's end frames. It acts as
a conductor when it is rotated in the magnetic. It may be
provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling
purposes. The armature coil/armature winding is a former
wound copper coil which rests in armature slots.
 DC GENERATORS

➢Construction
➢The armature assembly consists of
the armature core, armature
coils/armature windings, commutator,
and other associated mechanical
parts.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Construction
➢The armature core is considered
as the rotor of a generator, it is
mounted on a shaft that rotates in
bearings located in the generator's
end frames. It acts as a conductor
when it is rotated in the magnetic.
It may be provided with air ducts
for the axial air flow for cooling
purposes. The armature
coil/armature winding is a former
wound copper coil which rests in
armature slots.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Construction

➢The armature winding can be

wound by one of the two methods:

➢1. Lap winding.

➢2. Wave winding.

 DC GENERATORS
➢Construction

➢A commutator is used to convert

the alternating current flowing in
its armature into the direct current
at its terminals. It is located at one
end of the armature and consists
of wedge-shaped segments of
hard-drawn copper with one pair
of segments for each armature
coil.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Construction
➢Brushes ride on the surface of the
commutator and act as the electrical
contact between armature coils and
an external circuit. A flexible
braided-copper conductor, called a
pig-tail, connects each brush to the
external circuit. The brushes are
made of high-grade carbon and held
in place by spring-loaded brush
holders that are insulated from the
frame.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Field Excitation
➢Dc generators take their names from the type of field
excitation used; it can be classified in two main categories:

1. Separately excited. The generator's field coils are energized

or excited from an independent external dc source, such as a
battery.

2. Self-excited. When a generator supplies its own excitation;

field coils are energized from the current produced by the
generator itself.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Field Excitation
➢a. Series-wound. Where the field winding in series with
armature winding.
➢b. Shunt-wound. Where the field winding in parallel with
armature winding.
➢c. Compound-wound. Combination of series and shunt
winding. It is used more extensively than other types of
generators because it can be designed so that it has a wide
variety of characteristics.
➢i. Short-shunt. When the shunt field is in parallel only with the
armature.
➢ii. Long-shunt. When the shunt field is in parallel with both the
armature and series field.
 DC GENERATORS
➢Field Excitation
 DC GENERATORS
➢Equivalent Circuit
Voltage and current relationships of a dc generator equivalent circuit are,
according to Ohm's law:
 DC GENERATORS
➢Equivalent Circuit
 DC GENERATORS
➢Equivalent Circuit
 DC GENERATORS
➢Generator Voltage and Voltage Regulation
 DC GENERATORS

➢Generator Voltage and Voltage Regulation

 DC GENERATORS

➢Generator Voltage and Voltage Regulation

 DC GENERATORS

➢Generator Voltage and Voltage Regulation

 DC GENERATORS

➢Losses and Efficiency of a DC Machine

➢The losses of generators and motors consist of copper losses in
the electric circuits and mechanical losses due to the rotation of
the machine.
 DC MOTORS

➢Although the mechanical construction of dc motors and

generators is very similar, their functions are different. The
function of a generator is to generate a voltage when conductors
are moved through a field, while that of a motor is to develop a
turning effort, or torque, to produce mechanical rotation.
➢As the armature rotates and the conductors move away from
under a pole into the neutral plane, the current is reversed in
them by the action of the commutator. Thus, the conductors
under a given pole carry current in the same direction at all
times.
 DC MOTORS
➢Construction
 DC MOTORS
➢Construction
➢1. Stator. Used to carry the field winding and poles. It is a hollow
cylinder and together with the rotor constitutes the magnetic
circuit or core of the machine.
➢2. Rotor. Used to carry the armature winding. It is cylindrical in
shape. The armature is the load carrying member.
➢3. Armature winding. Used as load carrying member mounted on
the rotor. This winding rotates in the magnetic field set up at the
stationary winding (Field winding). An armature winding is a
continuous winding; that is, it has no beginning or end. It is
composed of a number of coils in series.
 DC MOTORS
➢Construction
➢4. Field Winding. An exciting system which may be an electrical
winding or a permanent magnet and which is located on the
stator.
➢5. Commutator. Rotates with the rotor and serves to rectify the
induced voltage and the current in the armature, both of which
are alternating current. The coils on the armature are terminated
and interconnected through the commutator which comprised of
a number of bars or commutator segments which are insulated
from each other.
➢6. Brushes. Conducting carbon graphite spring loaded to ride on
the commutator and act as interface between the external circuit
and the armature winding.
 DC MOTORS
➢Construction
➢7. Poles. Provided to place field winding. The number of poles is
determined by the voltage and current ratings of the machine.
➢8. Slot/Teeth. A magnetic material used for mechanical support,
protection from abrasion, and further electrical insulation. Also, it
is used to avoid non-conducting slot liners are wedged between
the coils and the slot walls.
➢9. Motor Housing. Provided to supports the iron core, the
brushes and the bearings.
 DC MOTORS
➢Torque

➢Torque is the starting twist or force that produces rotation in a

motor. This rotation is necessary to get motors started. Four
types of torque affect a motor that is connected to load:

➢1. Full-load torque. Necessary to produce its rated horsepower

(hp) at full-load speed.

➢2. Pull-up torque. Required to bring motor up to rated speed.

 DC MOTORS
➢Torque

➢3. Breakdown torque. Maximum torque the motor will develop

with rated voltage applied at rated frequency without an abrupt
drop in speed.

➢4. Locked-rotor torque. Developed when full power is applied

when rotor is stationary; the starting torque or twist that gets the
rotor running. Locked rotor torque is by far the most common
type of torque considered by electric installers when wiring
electric motors.
 DC MOTORS
➢Torque
DC MOTORS

➢Motor Types
Shunt Motor.
Series Motor.
Compound Motor.
 DC MOTORS
➢Equivalent Circuit
 DC MOTORS
➢Equivalent Circuit
 DC MOTORS
➢Equivalent Circuit
 DC MOTORS
➢Equivalent Circuit
 DC MOTORS
➢Equivalent Circuit
 DC MOTORS
➢Equivalent Circuit
 DC MOTORS
➢Speed of Motor

➢Speed is designated by the number of revolutions of the shaft

with respect to time and is expressed in units of revolutions per
minute (rpm). A reduction of the field flux of a motor causes the
motor speed to increase. Conversely, an increase in the field flux
causes the motor speed to decrease. Because the speed of a
motor varies with field excitation, a convenient means for
controlling the speed is to vary the field flux by adjusting the
resistance in the field circuit.
 DC MOTORS
➢Speed of Motor
 DC MOTORS
➢Speed of Motor
 DC MOTORS
➢Speed of Motor
 DC MOTORS
➢Speed of Motor
 DC MOTORS
➢Starting Requirements for Motors
➢There are two starting requirements for motors:

➢1. Both motor and supply lines are protected from flow of
excessive current during the starting period by placing external
resistance in series with the armature circuit.

➢2. Motor-starting torque should be made as large as possible to

bring the motor up to full speed in minimum time.
 DC MOTORS
➢Starting Requirements for Motors
 DC MOTORS
➢Starting Requirements for Motors
 DC MOTORS
➢Starting Requirements for Motors
 DC MOTORS
➢Starting Requirements for Motors
 AE/AT 213 – ELEMENTARY
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
MODULE 6

Instructor: Engr. John Isaac L. Cruz

 TOPICS
➢AC Generators
Construction
Frequency
Voltage Regulation
Paralleling Generators
Losses and Efficiency
➢AC Motors
Construction
Single-Phase Motors
Polyphase Motors
Speed and Slip
Rotor Frequency
Torque
 AC GENERATORS
➢AC Generators
Alternating-current generators are also
called alternators. Almost all electric
power for homes and industry is
supplied by alternators in power plants.
A simple alternator consists of
➢ (1) a strong, constant magnetic field;
➢ (2) conductors that rotate across the
magnetic field; and
➢ (3) some means of making a continuous
connection to the conductors as they
are rotating.
 AC GENERATORS
➢Two types of alternators
1. DC Alternators. It has the same function as DC generators. They
produce alternating current that is then converted to direct current
before it enters an aircraft's electrical system. However, the difference
is that, in an alternator the magnetic poles rotate and induce voltage
into a fixed, or stationary winding. DC alternators produce relatively
small amounts of current and, therefore, are typically found on light
aircraft.
➢ 2. AC Alternators. Capable of producing a great deal of power and,
therefore, typically found on larger aircraft and military aircraft.
Furthermore, since alternating current can be carried through smaller
conductors, AC alternators allow appreciable weight savings.
 AC GENERATORS
➢Another way of classifying an alternator is by its
stator and rotor. There are two classifications of
alternators, namely:
1. Revolving-armature type alternator. It is similar in construction to the
DC generator, in that the armature rotates within a stationary magnetic
field. This type of setup is typically found only in alternators with a low
power rating and generally is not used.

➢ 2. Revolving-field type alternator. It has a stationary armature winding

(stator) and a rotating-field winding (rotor). The advantage of this
configuration is that the armature is connected directly to the load
without sliding contacts in the load circuit.
AC GENERATORS
➢Construction
1. Single-phase alternator.
2. Two-phase alternator.
3. Three-phase alternator.
 AC GENERATORS
1. Single-phase alternator. In a single-phase alternator, the stator is
made up of several windings connected in series to form a single circuit.
 AC GENERATORS
1. Two-phase alternator. Two-phase alternators have two or more single-
phase windings spaced symmetrically around the stator, so that the AC
voltage induced in one is 90° out of phase with the voltage induced in the
other. These windings are electrically separate from each other so that
when one winding is cutting the maximum number of flux-lines, the other
is cutting no flux lines.
 AC GENERATORS
1. Two-phase alternator. Two-phase alternators have two or more single-
phase windings spaced symmetrically around the stator, so that the AC
voltage induced in one is 90° out of phase with the voltage induced in the
other. These windings are electrically separate from each other so that
when one winding is cutting the maximum number of flux-lines, the other
is cutting no flux lines.
 AC GENERATORS
1. Three-phase alternator. Also called as polyphase alternator, it has
three single-phase windings spaced so that the voltage induced in each
winding is 120° out of phase with the voltage in the other two windings.
 AC GENERATORS
➢Frequency
 AC GENERATORS
➢Frequency

= 50 Hz
 AC GENERATORS
➢Voltage Regulation
 AC GENERATORS
➢Paralleling Generators
➢ Most power plants have several ac
generators operating in parallel in
order to increase the power available.
Before two generators may be
paralleled, their terminal voltages
must be equal, their voltages must be
in phase, and their frequencies must
be equal. When these conditions are
met, the two generators are operating
in synchronism. The operation of
getting the generators into
synchronism is called synchronizing.
 AC GENERATORS

➢Losses and Efficiency

➢ Losses of an ac generator are similar to those of a dc generator and
include armature copper loss, field-excitation copper loss, and
mechanical losses.
➢ Efficiency is the ratio of the useful power output to the total power input:
 AC GENERATORS

➢Losses and Efficiency

 AC MOTORS
➢Construction:

➢ The basic parts for ac motors can be described as follows:

 AC MOTORS
➢Construction
➢ 1.) Enclosure. The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two
end brackets (or bearing housings). A motor's enclosure not only
holds the motor components together, it also protects the internal
components from moisture and containment.

a.) Open Enclosure b.) Totally Enclosed Enclosure

 AC MOTORS
➢Construction
➢ 1.) Enclosure. The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two
end brackets (or bearing housings). A motor's enclosure not only
holds the motor components together, it also protects the internal
components from moisture and containment.
 AC MOTORS
➢Construction
➢ 2. Stator. The motor stator consists of two main parts: stator core and
stator windings. The stator core is made up of many thin metal sheets,
called laminations. Laminations are used to reduce energy losses that
would result if a solid core were used. They are stacked together
forming a hollow cylinder. Coils of insulated wire are inserted into slots
of the stator core. When the assembled motor is in operation, the stator
windings are connected directly to the power source. Each grouping of
coils, together with the steel core it surrounds, becomes an
electromagnet when current is applied.
 AC MOTORS
➢Construction
➢ 3. Rotor. The rotor is the rotating part of the motor electromagnetic
circuit. Magnetic field from the stator induces an opposing magnetic
field onto the rotor causing the rotor to “push” away from the stator field.
In some designs, the rotor can act to serve as the motor's armature,
across which the input voltage is supplied.
 AC MOTORS
➢Construction
➢ 4. Bearings. Motor bearings are mounted on the shaft and support the
rotor to turn. Not all bearings are suitable for every application. The
choice of a motor bearing arrangement is based on the following
qualities: load carrying capacity in the axial and radial direction, over
speed and duration, rotating speed, and bearing life.
 AC MOTORS
➢Construction
➢ 5. Conduit Box. Conduit box is a metal box on motor which protects one
or more terminals or terminal boards. It may include a cover and such
accessories as mounting hardware, brackets, locks, and conduit fittings.
 AC MOTORS
➢Construction
➢ 5. Conduit Box. Conduit box is a metal box on motor which protects one
or more terminals or terminal boards. It may include a cover and such
accessories as mounting hardware, brackets, locks, and conduit fittings.
 AC MOTORS
➢Single Phase Motors
➢ Single-phase motors are so called because their field windings are
connected directly to a single-phase source. Single-phase motors are
classified as commutator, induction, or synchronous motors according
to the method used to start them, as follows:
➢ 1. Commutator Motor
➢ 2. Induction Motor
➢ 3. Synchronous Motor.

➢Polyphase Motors
➢ 1. Induction Motors
➢ 2. Synchronous Motors
 AC MOTORS
➢Speed and Slip
➢ The speed of the rotating magnetic field is called the synchronous
speed of the motor.

➢ It is noted that the same relation exists between the frequency, number
of poles, and synchronous speed of a motor as exists between the
frequency, number of poles, and speed of rotation of an ac generator.
 AC MOTORS
➢Speed and Slip
➢ An induction motor cannot run at synchronous speed since then the
rotor would be standing still with respect to the rotating field and no emf
would be induced in the rotor. The rotor speed must be slightly less
than synchronous speed in order that current be induced in the rotor to
permit rotor rotation. The difference between rotor speed and
synchronous speed is called slip and is expressed as a percent of
synchronous speed.
 AC MOTORS
➢Speed and Slip
 AC MOTORS
➢Rotor Frequency
➢ For any value of slip, the rotor frequency is equal to the stator
frequency times the percent slip:
 AC MOTORS
➢Rotor Frequency
➢ For any value of slip, the rotor frequency is equal to the stator
frequency times the percent slip:
 AC MOTORS
➢Torque
➢ The torque of an induction motor depends on the strength of the
interacting rotor and stator fields and the phase relations between them.
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